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 H4^
 
 A MANUAL 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 PARTICULARLY WITH REGARD TO 
 
 THE CONSTITUTIONS, THE COMMERCE, 
 AND THE COLONIES, 
 
 OF THE STATES OF ANTIQUITY. 
 BY A. H. L. HEEREN, 
 
 KNIUHT OP THE NORTH STAB AND GUELPHIC ORDER; AULIC COUNSELLOR 
 
 AND PROFESSOR Ol' HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GOETTINGEN ; 
 
 AND MEMBEK OF SEVERAL OTHER LEAHNED SOCIKTIES. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN. 
 SIXTH EDITION. 
 
 I^iitli a IBiniirapliiral ^kM] nf t|iF Sliithnr. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 MDCCCLIV.
 
 JOH\ CHILDS AND SON, BUNGAV.
 
 TRANSLATORS PREFACE 
 
 TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 It is to the patient industry of the historians of Germany 
 that we are indebted for the first production of Manuals 
 of history, and for those synchronistic tables which have 
 so much facilitated the systematic study of ancient history ; 
 and among the various and profound treatises of this class, 
 which enrich» and adorn their literature, the works of 
 Heeren are distinguished by their extended range of in- 
 quiry, as well as by the minute accuracy of their details. 
 
 The Avork before us embodies the result of his laborious 
 researches during the long period in which he has been 
 engaged as public lecturer and professor of history in the 
 university of Goettingen ; and if it be any recommendation 
 of a work to know that its writer has had ample time, 
 ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate his mate- 
 rials, it may be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that 
 the author of the present work possessed all these advan- 
 tages in an eminent degree. He has spent the greater 
 portion of his life in lecturing upon the subjects of which 
 it treats, and has in every case gone for his information 
 immediately to the fountain head. It forms, too, an im- 
 portant feature of his work, that a list of the original 
 sources, whence his own knowledge has been drawn, is 
 placed at the head of each section ; another is added of the 
 principal writers who have touched upon or illustrated the 
 particular portion of history under notice ; both being 
 generally accompanied with a few words of judicious criti- 
 cism, in which the value of the writer's authority is esti- 
 
 A 2
 
 IV TRANSLATOR'S PREFACP:. 
 
 mated, and his sources, circumstances, and prejudices, 
 briefly, but fairly set forth. Besides this advantage, the 
 w^ork possesses the merit of combining the convenience of 
 the Manuals with the synchronistic method of instruction ; 
 as the geography, chronology, and biography of the coun- 
 tries and states of the ancient world are brought at once 
 under the eye of the reader ; and so lucid is the arrange- 
 ment, that the darkest and most entangled portions of 
 history are seen in a clear and perspicuous light. Pro- 
 fessor Heeren seems, moreover, to possess, in a more 
 eminent degi'ee than any other writer, the power of forcing, 
 by a very few words, the attention of the reader upon the 
 most important facts of history ; and of conjuring up in 
 his thoughts a train of reflections calculated at once to 
 instruct and enlarge the mind. His work is not only ad- 
 mirably adapted to become a text-book in the study of 
 history, but will be found equally serviceable as a book of 
 reference — it will guide the student in his untried and 
 intricate course, and enable the more advanced scholar to 
 methodize his collected stores. Perhaps in no work has 
 so much important information been condensed into so 
 small a compass. 
 
 The estimation in Avhich this Manual is held on the 
 continent, may be gathered from the fact of its having 
 passed through six large editions in German, and tAvo in 
 French, and from its having been translated into almost 
 every language of Europe. 
 
 The rapidity with Avhich the first edition, as well as the 
 other writings of Professor Heeren, have sold in this coun- 
 try, is a proof that they only required to be known here 
 in order to be appreciated. The favour with which these 
 translations have been received, both by the venerable 
 author himself and by the British public, has been a 
 source of the highest gi-atification to the publisher. The 
 encouragement, so kindly bestowed, has urged him to new 
 exertions, the fruits of which, he trusts, will be observable 
 in the present volume. The manual has not only been 
 revised and corrected throughout, but has also been dili-
 
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. V 
 
 gently compared with the German, and has received such 
 ameliorations as the original text or the English style 
 seemed to demand. When it is added to this, that a very 
 numerous body of corrections and improvements have 
 been sent to the publisher by Professor Heeren himself, 
 who has patiently examined the translation expressly for 
 this edition, he trusts that the public will be satisfied that 
 it is as faithful a copy of the original Avork as the nature 
 of things will allow. 
 
 In the preface to the last edition of this Manual the 
 publisher announced his intention, should it be favourably 
 received, of following it up by the publication of another 
 elaborate work of the same author, viz., A Manual of the 
 History of the States of Modern Europe and their Colonies, 
 as forming one political System. This work will now 
 very shortly appear. As an apology for the delay which 
 has taken place, he begs to call to their notice another 
 equally important work by the same aiithor, which he has 
 published in the mean time ; the Historical Researches 
 into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Cartha- 
 ginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general intro- 
 duction ; the remainder of this w'ork, containing the His- 
 torical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade 
 of the Ancient Asiatic Nations — the Persians, Phoenicians, 
 Babylonians, Scythians, and Hindoos, will appear in a 
 few weeks. 
 
 To add to the usefulness of the w ork, an analysis of the 
 contents, with dates, has been given in the margin. 
 The t prefixed to some of the books denote that they are 
 written in German. 
 
 Oxford, March, 1833.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 TO THE FIRST GERMAN EDITION. 
 
 In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient History 
 already published, I feel myself bound to give an account 
 of the plan on which the present has been executed. 
 
 It was at first designed to be used in my public lectures, 
 and fi'om them it has grown up to what it now is. In 
 them I did not consider it necessary to state all we know, 
 or think we know, of ancient history. Many facts highly 
 interesting to the learned historian are not adapted for 
 public lectures. It Avas therefore my great object to make 
 choice of such incidents as ought to be known by my pu- 
 pils in order to the eflfectual prosecution of their historical 
 studies. Consequently I have not extended my labours so 
 far as to give an historical account of every nation, but 
 have limited myself to those most remarkable for theii* 
 general civilization and political eminence. 
 
 The subjects to which I have particularly directed my 
 attention are, the formation of states, the changes in their 
 constitution, the routes by which commerce was carried 
 on, the share which the different nations respectively took 
 in its pursuit, and, as immediately connected with that de- 
 partment, their extension severally by means of colonies. 
 
 The favourable reception which my larger work, exe- 
 cuted after a different plan, has met with, w^ould lead me 
 to hope for a like indulgence in this new attempt, even if 
 the spirit of the age did not so loudly call upon every his- 
 torian to direct his chief attention to these subjects. And 
 for this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere detail
 
 PREFACE. Vll 
 
 of isolated facts, but have made it my study to follow the 
 course of events, linking them into one connected chain ; 
 so as to represent them in a condensed form by continu- 
 ally and carefully forcing together the main circumstances 
 which contributed to the development of the whole. 
 
 Without this, history in general would be but a lifeless 
 study, more especially that of republics, Avliich were so 
 numerous in ancient times, and which, from their consti- 
 tution being made up of political parties, every where pre- 
 sent the most difficult problems for the historian's solution. 
 Of all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement of 
 the Greek history I have found most troublesome, on ac- 
 count of the number of little states into which it is sub- 
 divided. Historians, indeed, lighten this labour by con- 
 fining themselves merely to Athens and Sparta ; but by so 
 doing they give us a very imperfect knowledge of the sub- 
 ject. I have endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by 
 throwing the account of the smaller states and their colo- 
 nies into the second period ; by which means I have been 
 able in the third and mos-t important portion, the interest 
 of which depends entirely upon the principal states, to 
 carry on my history, as a whole without interruption. But 
 in case others, who wish to make this Manual the ground- 
 work of their lectures, should dislike this arrangement, 
 they may very easily attach these notices to the intro- 
 ductory geographical survey; a plan I very often adopt in my 
 own lectures. Upon the arrangement of the other parts, 
 I am not aware of the necessity of making any observa- 
 tions. The sources from which I have drawn my materials 
 are specified in every section. Particular references do 
 not come within my plan ; and if I have refeiTed several 
 times in the first two sections to my larger work, it is only 
 on particu.lar points, explanations of whicl#may be sought 
 for in vain elsewhere. 
 
 Some knowledge of ancient geography and the use of 
 maps,' if it has not been previously acquired by the student, 
 should, I am convinced, always be connected with lectures 
 ' I have made use of D'Anville.
 
 VJll PREFACE. 
 
 on ancient history. That this need not extend to detailed 
 explanations of ancient geography, but that it should be 
 restricted to what is merely useful in the study of history, 
 I have observed in the body of my work. The geogiaphi- 
 cal chapters which are interspersed having been written 
 with this intent, will, I hope, be judged of accordingly. 
 I have taken care to arrange them so as to include the 
 whole of the ancient world; it depends, therefore, only 
 upon the teacher to form a more or less extensive course 
 upon them. 
 
 With regard to chronology, I have followed throughout 
 the same uniform plan of computing time, viz., to and 
 from the birth of Christ. By preferring this method, so 
 convenient and certain, to the inconvenient and uncertain 
 one of reckoning from the year of the world, I hope I have 
 deserved the thanks of my readers. I relinquish, on the 
 other hand, all claim to merit on the score of having more 
 accurately defined the chronology of events which occur 
 before the time of Cyrus. I have, on the contrary, in this 
 part of my labour, often stated round numbers, where, in 
 many modern publications, precise dates may be found. 
 Exact determinations of time are only necessary, in my 
 opinion, where a continuous development of circumstances 
 takes place ; not where unconnected facts are recorded. 
 
 The transactions of our own times have thrown a light 
 upon ancient history, and given it an interest which it could 
 not formerly possess. A knowledge of history, if not the 
 only, is at least the most certain means of obtaining a 
 clear and unprejudiced view of the great drama now per- 
 forming around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstand- 
 ing the many opportunities which have tempted me, I 
 considered as foreign to my plan ; but if, notwithstanding, 
 in some chapters of my work, particularly in the history 
 of the Roman republic, I may be thought to make a refer- 
 ence to the transactions of the ten years during which 
 this work has been published, I do not consider it neces- 
 sary to ofier any excuse for so doing. Of what use is the 
 study of history if it do not make us wiser and better ? un-
 
 PREFACE. 1-^ 
 
 less the knowledge of the past teach us to judge more 
 correctly of the present i Should I have contributed in 
 any measure to promote this object, and should I be so 
 fortunate as to lead the minds of my young friends to a 
 deeper study of a science which can only in this Avay re- 
 ward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most dehghtful 
 recompence my labour can receive. 
 
 Goettingen, Sept 23, 1799. 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING GERMAN EDITIONS. 
 
 The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes upon 
 me an obligation to supply the deficiencies of my former 
 work. Corrections have been carefully made, and many 
 parts completely rewritten. A select list of books which 
 treat of the respective departments of my subject is now 
 first added ; the former edition containing only references 
 to the sources from which my facts were derived. This, I 
 trust, will be considered an essential service to the friends 
 of historical science, more especially the young, for whom, 
 and not for the learned, these additions have been made. 
 Their use in this place is particularly obvious, where it is 
 in every one's power to procure the books referred to.^ 
 The short criticisms subjoined, where it seemed necessary, 
 will serve as guides for their use. In the author's de- 
 partment of the work but little has been changed, while 
 its form and appearance have been improved by the use 
 of different types, by more accurate running titles, and by 
 ranging the dates in the margin. By the adoption of the 
 latter method the increase in the number of pages is ren- 
 ^ [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen, Tr.]
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 dered inconsiderable, notwithstanding the nun>erous addi- 
 tions which have been made to the matter. In its ar- 
 rangement, this work is the same as my Manual of the 
 History of the European States and their Colonies. Be- 
 yond this, however, these works have no relation to each 
 other, but have been executed upon quite different princi- 
 ples ; the present as a history of the separate states of the 
 ancient world, and the other as a general history of modern 
 states and their colonies, as forming all together one political 
 system. Each, however, forms a complete work in itself, 
 and it is by no means my intention to fill up the gulf which 
 time has placed betw-een them. 
 
 I regret that the acute researches of ]M. Volney,^ upon 
 the chronology of Herodotus before the time of Cyrus, came 
 too late into my hands to be made use of in its proper 
 place in my second edition. In the third this has been 
 done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the thanks of the 
 reader for giving, in an xlppendix, the results of these re- 
 searches, together with references to the passages by which 
 they are supported ; leaving out, however, all extraneous 
 matter, and every thing that cannot be proved by the po- 
 sitive assertions of the father of history. 
 
 I cannot close this preface without again recurring to 
 the advantage of the mode now becoming more and more 
 general, of computing time in ancient history according to 
 the number of years before Christ. The fact of its being 
 certain and convenient has often been remarked ; but be- 
 sides this it possesses the great advantage of giving us at 
 once a clear and precise notion of the interval that sepa- 
 rates us from the incidents recorded ; Avhich it is impossi- 
 ble to obtain by the use of any other era, whether the year 
 of the world, the olympiads, or the year of Rome, etc. 
 And yet this peculiar advantage, so great in the eyes of 
 the teacher, has not, to the best of my knowledge, been 
 hitherto made the subject of remark. Even for the sci- 
 ence of history itself, this circumstance is of greater mo- 
 
 - Chronologie d'Herodote, conforme ä son Texte par C. F. Volney. 
 Paris. 1809, 3 vols. See the G'ött. Gell. Am. for 1810 and 1816.
 
 PREFACE. XI 
 
 ment than might be at first supposed. Should an inquirer 
 arise who would closely examine all ancient history ac- 
 cording to this era — setting out from the generally received 
 year of the birth of Christ as from a fixed point, to which 
 the labours of M. Volney are a good beginning — the whole 
 science would thereby acquire a firmer consistency. For 
 by this method all dates would not appear equally certain 
 and equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which are 
 computed from the year of the world; but it would be 
 shown what is chronologically certain, what only probable, 
 and Avhat completely uncertain, according as we should 
 recede from the clearer into the more obscure regions of 
 history. The old manner of reckoning from the year of 
 the world, in which congruity was impossible, because 
 there was no agreement upon the point to start from, would 
 certainly be thrown aside ; but where is the harm if some- 
 thing better and more certain be substituted in its place ? 
 In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, though the 
 increase in the number of pages is small, yet all those ad- 
 ditions and corrections which I deemed necessary, and 
 which the progress of knowledge and discovery, as in the 
 case of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to effect, 
 have been most carefully and fully made. The importance 
 of these will be best seen by comparison. 
 
 Goettingen, 1828.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Biographical Sketch of Professor Heeren . i 
 
 Introduction ........ 1 
 
 Book I. Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus : 
 General geographical outline of Asia . . . .13 
 
 General Preliminary Observations upon the History and 
 
 Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires . . .19 
 History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of 
 
 Cyrus 21 
 
 I. Assyrian monarchy . . . . . . . ib. 
 
 II. Median monarchy ...... 22 
 
 III. Babylonian monarchy . . . . . .23 
 
 rV. States in Asia INIinor 24 
 
 1. Trojan empire . . . . . . . ib. 
 
 2. Phrygian empire ...... ib. 
 
 3. Lydian empire . . . . . • .25 
 
 V. Phoenicia ib. 
 
 VI. Syrians 28 
 
 VII. Jews ib. 
 
 1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the 
 conquest of Palestine . . . . . .29 
 
 2. Period of the federative republic ... 30 
 
 3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100—600 . 31 
 The Jewish state as one single kingdom . . ib. 
 The Jewish state as a divided kingdom . . .33 
 
 African Nations : 
 
 General geographical outline of Ancient Africa . . 37 
 I. Egyptians ........ 39 
 
 1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesos- 
 
 trida}, about B. C. 1500 41 
 
 2nd Period. From the Sesostridge till the sole dominion 
 of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500—650 . . .50
 
 CONTENTS. XUl 
 
 7ACE 
 
 3rd Period. Fi'om the reign of Psammetichus to the 
 Persian conquest of Egypt by Carabyses, B. C. 
 
 650—525 56 
 
 II. Carthaginians ....... 59 
 
 1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the 
 
 wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880—480 ... 60 
 2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with 
 Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome, 
 
 B. C. 480—264 64 
 
 3rd Period. From the beginning of the wars with 
 Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264 — 
 
 146 66 
 
 Book II. History of the Persian empire, from B. C. 560 — 
 
 330 72 
 
 Book III. History of the Grecian states : 
 
 Geographical outline of Greece . . . . .90 
 
 1st Period. Traditional History down to the Trojan 
 
 war, about B. C. 1200 95 
 
 2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out 
 
 of the Persian war, B. C. 1200— 500 . . .102 
 
 History of the Hellenic states within Greece . . ib. 
 
 General history ....,., ib. 
 
 Sparta ........ 106 
 
 Athens 110 
 
 Principal data for the history of the smaller states : 
 
 I. Within the Peloponnesus : 
 
 a. Arcadia . . . . . . . .114 
 
 h. Argos . . . . . . . . .115 
 
 c. Corinth ........ ib. 
 
 d. Sicyon . . . . . . . . .116 
 
 e. Achaia . , . . . . . .117 
 
 /. Elis ib. 
 
 II. Central Greece, or Hellas : 
 
 a. Megaris . . . . . . . .118 
 
 h. Bocotia ......... ib. 
 
 c. Phocis 119 
 
 d. Locris ......... ib. 
 
 e. iEtolia ........ ib. 
 
 f. Acarnania . . . . . . . .120 
 
 III. Northern Greece : 
 
 a. Thessaly 120 
 
 b. Epirus 121 
 
 IV. Grecian Islands ....... ib.
 
 XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Minor 
 
 a. Corcyra .... 
 
 h. JEgina .... 
 
 c. Euboea .... 
 
 d. The Cyclacles 
 
 e. Crete ..... 
 / Cyprus .... 
 
 History of the Grecian colonies 
 
 General observations . 
 
 Colonies on the Western coast of Asia 
 
 1. ^olian colonies 
 
 2. Ionian colonies 
 
 3. Dorian colonies . 
 Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and the Black 
 
 Sea .......... 
 
 Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia . 
 Colonies on the Western coast of Greece 
 Grecian settlements in Lower Italy : 
 
 a. Tarentura ........ 
 
 h. Croton ......... 
 
 c. Sybaris ........ 
 
 d. Thurii ......... 
 
 e. Locri Epizephyrii ...... 
 
 f. Rhegium ........ 
 
 g. Cumae ........ 
 
 Grecian settlements in Sicily : 
 
 a. Syracuse ........ 
 
 h. Agrigentum ....... 
 
 c. The smaller Sicilian cities ..... 
 
 Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica ..... 
 
 Colonies in Gaul ; — Massilia ...... 
 
 Colonies in Spain ; — Saguntum ..... 
 
 Colonies in Africa ; — Cyrene ...... 
 
 Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to 
 
 Alexander the Great, B. C. 500—336 . 
 Book IV. History of the Macedonian IMonarchy : 
 Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the 
 
 Great, B. C. 800—323 
 
 Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the 
 
 death of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 
 
 323—301 
 
 Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states 
 
 which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian 
 
 monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus .... 
 
 PAGE 
 
 122 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 
 123 
 ib. 
 
 124 
 125 
 
 ib. 
 127 
 
 ib. 
 128 
 130 
 
 ib. 
 
 132 
 
 ib. 
 
 133 
 ib. 
 
 134 
 
 135 
 ib. 
 
 136 
 ib. 
 
 137 
 141 
 
 ib. 
 142 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 143 
 
 144 
 
 166 
 
 178 
 
 186
 
 CONTENTS. XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidae, 
 
 B. C. 312—64 186 
 
 II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, 
 
 B. C. 323—30 198 
 
 III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from tlie 
 death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323 
 
 —146 215 
 
 Achajan league ....... 223 
 
 -^tolian league ........ 224 
 
 IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms and 
 states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy . . 232 
 The kingdom of Pergamus ...... 233 
 
 Bithynia 235 
 
 Paphlagonia ........ 236 
 
 Pontus ......... ib. 
 
 Cappadocia ........ 238 
 
 Armenia ........ 239 
 
 The kingdom of Parthia ...... ib. 
 
 The kingdom of Bactria ...... 244 
 
 The restored kingdom of the Jews .... 246 
 
 1. Under the Persians ...... ib. 
 
 2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidaj . . .. ib. 
 
 3. Under the Maccabees ..... 247 
 
 4. Under the family of Herod .... 249 
 Book V. History of the Roman state : 
 
 Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient 
 Italy 252 
 
 Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the con- 
 quest of Italy and the commencement of the wars 
 with Carthage, B. C. 754—264, or A. U. C. 1— 
 490 257 
 
 Period 11. From the commencement of the war with 
 Carthage, to the rise of the civil broils under the 
 Gracchi, B. C. 264—134, or A. U. C. 490—620 . 271 
 
 Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils un- 
 der the Gracchi to the fall of the Republic, B C. 134 
 —30, or A. U. C. 620—724 289 
 
 Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy 
 till the overthrow of the AVestern Empire, B. C. 30 — 
 A. C. 476 321 
 
 Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and 
 provinces, and other countries connected with it by 
 war or commerce ....... ib.
 
 XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 1st Section. From Augustus Cassar to the death of 
 
 Commodus, B. C. 30— A. C. 193 . . . 327 
 2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Dio- 
 cletian, A. C. 193—284 349 
 
 3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the 
 Eoman empire in the West, A. C. 284—476 . .361 
 Appendix. Chi'onology of Herodotus from the time of 
 
 Cyrus, according to Volney ..... 378 
 Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon . 383 
 
 the SeleucidiE 384 
 
 — the Ptolemies . 385 
 
 the Jews . 386 
 
 — the Caesars . 387 
 
 — Constantine . 388
 
 A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 
 
 PROFESSOR HEEREN, 
 
 WRITTEN BY HIMSELF IN A LETTER TO A FRIEND.
 
 A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 
 
 PROFESSOR HEEREN, 
 
 WRITTEN BY HIMSELF IN A LETTER TO A FRIEND. 
 
 You ask me, my dear friend, for some account of the course of my studies 
 and of my literary progress. You say that by this means you shall ob- 
 tain the best commentary upon my writings, and you are not much out iu 
 tliinking so ; but you will have only yourself to blame, if my readiness to 
 oblige you should make me somewhat of a gossip. Although the greater 
 part of ray years have flowed along in a smooth and uniform course, yet 
 has my literary life been scarcely ever altogether separated from my 
 natural one ; and I could not wallingly bring myself to recount to you the 
 former, if you would not allow me to mix up with it some portion of the 
 latter. Do not however frighten yourself with the idea that there will be 
 nuicli of this ; it has been ray fate, like that of most scholars, that as I 
 grew^ older my life should become more simple ; therefore you must not 
 tliink it strange, if I have more to tell you of my youth than of my later 
 years : Is not indeed youth the period in which our characters become 
 formed ? 
 
 I am indebted to ray birth for two great advantages, for which, if fur 
 no other, my gratitude is due to Divine Providence ; the one is, that it 
 placed me in tliat easy middle class of society, w^hich, equally distant from 
 Avant and suj)erfluity, never suffered me to feel the hard pressure of po- 
 verty ; the otlier, that it gave me a constitution, which up to the ])resent 
 time, and I am now sixty-one, has |)reserved me in excellent healtli, which 
 has only been intenMii)tcd by one or two slight indis))()sitions. j\Iy 
 parents were both natives of the city of Bremen ; my father was the 
 grandson of a citizen and merchant of that place, and the son of the pas- 
 tor to the very same churcli to wliich he liimself was afterwards ajjpointed. 
 My mother, w^hose maiden name was Wolters, was the eldest daughter of 
 a resj)ectable merchant, wliose family is since become extinct. I was not 
 however born at Bremen, but at the neighbouring little village of Arbergen, 
 of wliich my fathei", after liis return Irora the Universit}', and after spend- 
 ing a few years as teacher in the cathedral school of Bremen and the 
 
 b 2
 
 11 BIOGKArillCAL SKKTCUI. 
 
 Atlienasum, had settled as pastor, some two or three months before my 
 birth. Here I was ushered into the worhl on the 25tli October, 1760, in 
 the very same house in which my celebrated friend Dr, Olbers, the dis- 
 coverer of Pallas and Vesta, had been born three years before. Thus I 
 had the good fortune to pass the days of my boyhood in the country, 
 though exempt from its loneliness, which the close vicinity of the city 
 and my family connexions therein very eifectively hindered. In the 
 year 1775, however, my father, upon being appointed pastor of the 
 cathedral church of Bremen, again took up his abode in that city, 
 whei'e he tranquilly passed the latter half of his long life, and where he 
 died in 1811, at the very advanced age of eighty-four. This venerable 
 old man, his irreproachable life, and his piety, are still remembered with 
 affectionate regard by his numerous flock ; nor will he easily be forgotten, as 
 the hymns which he composed for liis congregation, many of which have 
 been adopted elsewhere, although without his name, will help to preserve 
 his memory. His domestic comfort, when I was only in my tenth year, 
 was desti'oyed by the death of my mother ; a loss which my father never 
 attempted to repair by a second marriage. Of the four children which 
 she left behind I was the eldest. Of these there now only remains, besides 
 myself, a younger brother, a merchant of Hamburg, with whom I live 
 on the most affectionate terms. Our dear and only sister, the truest 
 friend from childhood upwards that life has afforded me, became tlie wife 
 of a distinguished merchant of our native city, and was torn from me by 
 death in the same year as my father. Those who like you have experi- 
 enced the tender solicitude of a sister's love, will pardon me these few 
 words, to the memory of one so dear to me. 
 
 The first instruction 1 received, which was in Latin and geometry, was 
 given me by my father. He was very capable of the office of teacher ; as 
 he had not confined himself to theology, but had perfected himself in 
 mathematical and classical learning at Jena and Gottingen, and was able 
 even in his seventy-eighth year, upon the jubilee of his fifty years' con- 
 tinuance in office, to hold a Latin discourse, which was printed, and of 
 which no classic need be ashamed. He soon felt, however, that he was not 
 born for teaching, and committed me to the care of domestic tutors. The 
 two first of these I shall pass by in silence, but the third, recommended to 
 my father by Dr. Miller, now professor in this University, I must not omit 
 to notice ; his name was H. Hasselmann, and with him began my educa- 
 tion as a scholar. 
 
 He was a good Latinist, and endeavoured to make me one. I trans- 
 lated Licht's Exercises in Syntax, from the beginning to the end, encou- 
 raged by the sweet expectation (do not laugh at me) that I should see my 
 work in print ! This labour, however, was of great importance to me ; 
 as it insensibly inspired me with a taste for history. With the study of 
 the ^neid, he combined readings from the earliest history of Rome in the 
 Universal History ; a method well calculated to chain the attention of a 
 boy, Cornelius Nepos I found a great plague ; but Quintus Curtius 
 was my darling. In Greek I went no further than to learn the paradigms, 
 and to translate Cebes. Indeed about this time Robinson Crusoe fell 
 into my hands, and I had no sooner seized upon it, than almost every 
 tiling else was forgotten, and would have continued so had not Zacharias'
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. Ill 
 
 translation of Paradise Lost, the fight of the good and bad angels, and, 
 above all, the journey of Satan through infinite space, riveted my atten- 
 tion and given my fancy a higher flight. Truth and fiction were to me 
 the same ; but that which did not present itself under an historical guise, 
 left no impression upon my mind. 
 
 In tliis country education, in the house of my father, I had a companion ; 
 one who was destined, in a different field, to ripen into celebrity and use- 
 fulness — my friend Goeschen, of Leipzig. He was at a boarding-school 
 in Arbergen, and became, though some few years older, my playmate, 
 passing his leisure hours at home with me. It is not long ago since we 
 renewed, at his dwelling in Grimma, this our early friendship. You see, 
 then, that I was not the first to make the little village of Arbergen honour- 
 able in the sight of gods and men. And yet even now it makes no figure 
 in geography ! 
 
 I have only to add, that in my education piety and virtue were strictly 
 inculcated ; and I am thankful for it. Religious instruction, both at 
 church and at home, occupied no small space of my time. I had been 
 taught that the prayers of the good remained not unanswered. An over- 
 flowing of the Weser threatened to break through the dykes, I fell upon 
 my knees and prayed that it might not happen ; they held out ; could I 
 doubt that my prayers were the cause ? This was harmless, for I was as 
 yet too young to be vain of my religion ; but I have learned from expe- 
 rience how careful elders and teachers ought to be in communicating 
 religious instruction. The words " whosoever eats and drinks unworthily," 
 etc., Avhich I was made to read before confirmation, threw me into doubts 
 which dreadfully afilicted me. 
 
 Just as I Avas verging from boyhood to manhood, my father, at the 
 express request of the parishioners of the high church, again settled in 
 Bremen, This naturally caused a great change. My domestic instruc- 
 tion was put an end to; at the beginning of 1776 I was placed in the 
 school of the high church at Bremen, and took my station in the first class. 
 Of my teachers there, I think only one, IL D. Nicolai, is now living ; he 
 afterwards succeeded my father in the high church, and has now reached 
 a ripe old age. Nor of my schoolfellows there do I know of more than 
 one now alive ; a second, who sat near me upon the same form, but of 
 whom I have never heard any thing further than that in the late wars he 
 was made a Russian general of artillery. He has, as I learn, been mostly 
 stationed on the Persian frontiers. 
 
 In the connnon instruction of the school, I did not make so much pro- 
 gress as I should have done; this was partly my own fault and partly 
 not. In Latin I remained in much the same position that I Avas in be- 
 fore ; in Greek the only book read at first Avas ' Plutarch de Puerorum 
 Educatione,' for Avhich I never could acquire any taste. The Iliad Avas 
 connnenced next ; and for this I Avas not sufficiently prepared. In He- 
 brew I succeeded Avorst of all ; my schoolfelloAvs were all further advanced 
 than myself; indeed I kncAv just nothing about it ; moreover it Avas taught 
 by Danz's Grammar, in Avhich an account is given of every point and 
 accent. I really could actiuire no clear idea of the subject, and conse- 
 quently passed for a great blockhead. 
 
 Notwithstanding this, my attendance at a public school became in other
 
 IV BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 respects very useful to me. Every Saturday morning we spent two full 
 hours in Latin disputations. Tliis was tny battle field. "Whether as 
 opponent or respondent, I was always ready ; and soon arrived at that 
 pitch that but few would venture to engage with me. These exercises I 
 afterwards regularly continued at the University. If I have any clear- 
 ness in my ideas, any flow of expression, I owe it more especially to them ; 
 and I look back with particular satisfaction to the hours which 1 have 
 devoted to this part of my education. 
 
 With the exception of my school duties, I was left almost entirely to 
 myself; the numerous professional avocations of my father did not allow 
 him to pay much attention to me, even if he had been ever so well dis- 
 posed. I had been introduced, however, to two rich families, who, living 
 retired from business, sought tlieir recreation in science and literature. 
 Having no children of their own, they conceived a great and kind regard 
 for me ; and I was not only constantly invited to their parties in town, 
 but frequently went with them to their country seats. This gratified my 
 ambition, and raised in me a sentiment of honour that kept me from baser 
 pleasures, which otherwise I might easily have fallen into. 
 
 It was naturally to be expected that my thus passing my life in a free 
 trading city, at this time in a very flourishing state, would influence my 
 taste and whole cast of thought. The American war had not long broken 
 out, during which the trade of Bremen, hitherto somewhat Cuiiiliied. began 
 to push itself in every part of the world. All tliis I had an opportunity 
 of seeing, not at a distance, but closely ; within the circle of my nearest 
 connexions and relations, many were taking a part in it. Ventures to 
 America, to the West Indies, and soon even to the East, were subjects of 
 daily conversation. Without the faintest idea that I should ever write 
 upon it, I had already formed a very high notion of trade, and gained 
 considerable insight into its jn-inciples and details. To tliis became added 
 the civil relations of the burghers of Bremen. If they had not yet learned 
 to declaim about liberty and equality, they possessed those advantages in 
 as great a degree as could be wished. It is almost impossible to form a 
 practical idea of a free community without having lived in one; and 
 these young impressions could scarcely become obliterated — the pictures I 
 had seen were too vivid to pass away. Need I say to you how inestimable 
 all this has been to me in my later historical studies ? If I have been 
 somewhat successful in my representations of the spirit of different go- 
 vernments, it is because my pictures have been drawn not merely from 
 books, but from life. Neither was science or literature neglected. My 
 father, with some other friends of learning, laid the foundation of the 
 Museum, Avhich is now become a rich and flourishing institution. A lit- 
 tle circle of cultivated minds were united by a common desire to lay the 
 foundation of a society in which mutual instruction might be carried on 
 by lectures. My father took me with him to their first meetings, which 
 could hardly fail to be profitable to the inquiring spirit of youth. 
 
 Such were the people and associations under which I grew up, until 
 the period arrived for my going to the University. Äly father had des- 
 tined me for the church ; and for that purpose, I being quite willing, I 
 proceeded to Gottingcn at Michaelmas, 1779. How limited my attainments, 
 the Latin language excepted, you may gather from what I have already
 
 BIÜÜUAPHICAL SKETCH. V 
 
 placed before you. In Greek I did not go beyond the New Testament ; 
 in Hebrew I now endeavoured to make myself" acquainted with the fun- 
 damentals of the language, but with little success. Logic I was taught 
 by the venei-able Feder, to whom I am indebted for so much besides, and 
 made as httle progress as might be expected from a youth who had no 
 turn for philosopliical speculation : the lectures on Church history by the 
 elder Walch Avere completely thrown away upon me. Thus my first half 
 year at the Univei'sity was in danger of being as good as lost, if chance 
 had not unexpectedly heli)ed me. I Avas one day idly strolling along the 
 streets, a few weeks after college lectures had begun, when I was accosted 
 by some acquaintance, who were going to Heyue's lectures on Greek an- 
 tiquities, and asked me to attend one as a visitor ; and then recommended 
 me — as an industrious student could not attend less than five courses — to 
 frequent them regularly. Thus I was brought into contact, though not 
 yet as an acquaintance, with a man, who, above all others, had, in every 
 respect, the greatest influence upon my future life. In liis lectures, for 
 the first time, a new world was opened to me, for I saw at once that he 
 had a new world to display : many things which he spoke of, I confess, I 
 could scarcely apprehend, but those wliich I did undei'stand were suf- 
 ficient to rivet my attention. 
 
 These lectures began immediately to give a new direction to my thoughts. 
 I now saw enough to convince me that theology alone, though for about 
 a year longer I remained faithful to its study, would not satisfy me. I 
 heard lectures on dogmatism and the history of theological literature by 
 IMiller, with whom, at the request of my lather, I took up my abode ; on 
 the history of dogmas by Spittler, which, for want of a sufficient stock of 
 preparatory infoi-mation, I could not follow ; and on the Explanation of 
 the Gospels by Koppe. But in none of these did I find myself at home ; 
 indeed how could 1 with my limited knowledge of languages ? The long 
 wit and long-winded discussions of jNIichaelis completely disgusted me 
 with exegetical learning; besides which little could be learned from liim 
 in the Old Testament without some acquaintance with Arabic. Thus 
 my two first years at the University Avere almost entirely lost. I noAv at 
 last pei'ceived that Avithout a solid and systematic study of the Greek 
 language and literature no progress could be made; and the probable 
 expectation which became opened to me by a journey home about Älichael- 
 mas, 1781, of my some day getting a place in the Gymnasium at Bremen, 
 completely determined me to set about it. At tliis period properly began 
 my regular study upon a fixed ])lan. During this Avinter 1 laid every tiling 
 else aside, and confined myself solely to Greek. The lectures Avliich I 
 made my chief study Avere Heyne's on the Odyssey ; to him I had de- 
 voted myself, and he became my guide and counsellor. Even at the end 
 of the first Aveek I felt that I had made an advance. The first book he 
 explained sti'ictly grammatically, Avhich Avas exactly the thing that I 
 needed. I prepared myself in the most careful manner for every hour ; 
 and soon had made sufficient progress to be able to help myself. Upon 
 this I connected Avith my other reading some little pieces of Plato and 
 Plutarch. With my lexicon on one side and my grannnar on the oilier, 
 I proceeded step by step, and never rested till I could give a good account 
 to myself of all the dilliculties of the language Avliich I met Avith. For
 
 VI BlOGRArillCAL SKETCH. 
 
 the first two or three months this was a painful task, but I soon felt re- 
 warded by a sense of my progress. Besides this I took part, though only 
 as a visitor, in the exercises at Heyne's seminary, and obtained soon after 
 Easter liis permission to interpret. Tlie passage chosen was from a chorus 
 in one of Seneca's tragedies ; I had, as you may well suppose, prepared 
 myself beforehand. Heyne suffered me to proceed, only once interfering 
 during the whole lecture ; but after it was over he called me up to him, 
 and then made that encouraging exclamation which perhaps you may 
 remember to have seen in his Biography : "Now you may become a scholar 
 if you please." 
 
 From this time forward I Hved in the territory of classical hterature, 
 and should willingly have lived there altogether, had not my acquaintance 
 with Spittler just at this time become moi-e intimate. Next to Heyne he 
 is the person to whom I am most indebted for directions in my studies. 
 His conversation and his lectures on political history (of which I have 
 two, one on the history of treaties of peace, the other on the history of the 
 German states) were to me aUke instructive. It was not, however, his- 
 tory itsetf that I learned of him ; but the method and handling of history ! 
 I required a model ; not in order that I should follow it, wliich in so many 
 respects was quite beside the mark, even if I had wished it ; but in order 
 to give me clearer notions respecting the general views of liistory at large, 
 respecting liistorical reasoning, and historical composition. For this I 
 am indebted to Spittler, besides whom I never had any other teacher in 
 history, and far distant from me be the paltry vanity of thinking I found 
 all in myself alone. Of Spittler himself I shall say nothing further, as I 
 have already spoken of him in another place. 
 
 Next to Spittler, I must mention the very worthy professor Feder, 
 whose lectures I repeatedly attended. No philosopher in the world could 
 ever have made a philosopher of me, for I had not the least disposition that 
 way ; but his conversation, a conversation full of practical examples of 
 wisdom, was of much more use to me than his lectures ; besides which, I had 
 the benefit of his Latin disputations, which were held every half year. 
 These were not all the exercises that I took in this way. They were doubled 
 at Heyne's seminary ; and in one half year in which I attended a course 
 of Meiner's, they were trebled. Many persons may tliink this branch of 
 my education was overdone ; but can we pay too much attention to the 
 development and graceful delivery of our thoughts ? The almost total 
 discontinuance of these exercises cannot be too much regretted. 
 
 From this time my classical studies took an historical turn. Language 
 had always less attraction for me than facts, and I was now prepared to 
 study ancient liistory at its sources. For each period I took the principal 
 liistorian as my groundwork, making chronological extracts from it as I 
 went on. I then read the contemporary historians, marking those points 
 wherein they differed in the margin. I still believe this the best method 
 for beginners. 
 
 The lectures and exercises of Heyne still, however, enchained me to the 
 world of imagination in which he himself almost entirely lived. In the 
 winter, 1 782, I attended his course upon Pindar, his darUng poet. What 
 a power and copiousness of remark upon words and things, upon lyric 
 poetry and Greek antiquity ! The exercises in his seminary in which I
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. VU 
 
 took part, were mostly confined to the tragedians, so that I was at no loss 
 for opportunities of becoming closely intimate with the language of the 
 Greek poets. Heyne, however, giving me credit for greater abilities than 
 I possessed, believed me the proper person to execute a project, which he 
 had long nourished, of collecting and editing the fragments of tlie Greek 
 lyric poets. The first part of my task was to make the collection ; and 
 this led me into the obscure and out-of-the-way regions of Greek literature. 
 These fragments, as you know, lie scattered in the works of the gram- 
 marians, scholiasts, and rhetors. And all these, Eustathius included, I had 
 to read through ; a labour which kept me employed for al)out a year. 
 Thus was formed a collection, probably tolerably complete. Beyond this 
 I did not go ; my good fortune kept me from an undertaking for which 
 neither my acquirements nor my taste fitted me — the metre alone would 
 have brought me to the grave ! 
 
 Meanwhile the end of my academic years began to draw nigh, and with 
 it the necessity of my fixing on some plan for my future life. Feder, 
 my well-wisher, instructor, and friend, offered me a situation as tutor in 
 a family of rank in Switzerland, with a good salary, tlie expenses of my 
 journey, and a future pension. I had determined upon accepting tins offer, 
 and had as good as given my word to do so ; but fate willed it otherwise. 
 A letter from my sister caused me to hesitate. " What will you do," said 
 she, " at the end of your tutorsliip ? How will you be able to settle down 
 again to our simple mode of life, after having spent years in some proud 
 and lordly mansion?" Heyne, who liad a prejudice against this sort of 
 life, gave the finishing stroke to the business. " If you take this situation," 
 said he, " it leads in the end to nothing. Look a little about, and you 
 cannot fail to get on here." My good genius thus half decided for me 
 upon this occasion, as it has often done upon others. I believe even still 
 in its tokens, at critical moments of life ; but it is of great consequence 
 not to mistake them. 
 
 It was thus, at all events, settled that I should devote myself to an 
 academic course of life. I was well aware how much I still had to learn, 
 and doul)led my industry. In order to get on as a tutor, it was necessary 
 that I should take a doctor's degree, which I did on the 29th of May, 1784. 
 The subject of my exercise for it was : de Chori Greecorum Tragici na- 
 tura et indole, ratione argumenti hahita. Heyne put this subject into my 
 head ; ancient literature would have sustained no great loss if it had re- 
 mained there, and liad never been printed. My opponents, who still 
 survive, were tlie Russian collegial-counsellor, Bidde, now jirofessor at 
 Brunswick ; and Professor Groddek, of Wilna. Heyne himself also had 
 tlie kindness to become an opponent. The ordinance for my creation was 
 ol)tained from tlie dean by my friend and countryman, Professor Doctor 
 Kulenkani]!, of whom I shall shortly have occasion to speak again. 
 
 I was now, then, doctor, master of philosophy and tlie liberal arts, and 
 private tutor. My classical studies had extended over a rather wide field ; 
 still the feeling that I could not, without some degree of disgust, devote 
 my life to the mere study of language, now became very strong ; the truth 
 had forced itself upon my mind while collecting the lyric fragments, 
 which from this cause I had left unfinished. Yet, in spite of this, it 
 seemed necessary, in my present position, that I should do something in
 
 via BIOGRAPHICAL SKPITCH. 
 
 this way to attract the attention of the public ; the editing of some ancient 
 autlioi- was perha})S the best phm. But to edit an autlior Avliose works 
 had already been edited by great masters, I could not tor a moment think 
 of; I partly doubted my own abilities for the task, and I saw but little 
 honour to be gained by it. In reading tlu'ough the lihetors of Aldus, 
 however, for my collection of fragments, I had stumbled upon a dissert- 
 ation de Encomiis by Menander, a Greek rhetor, which as yet tlie hand 
 of no critic had disturbed ; indeed the work itself had been improperly 
 confounded with that of another rhetor, named Alexander. Some happy 
 corrections of the very corrupted text led me to entertain the notion of 
 giving an edition of this work. I bent myself therefore to the task ; every 
 new emendation spurred me onwards, and thus was consumed neaidy the 
 whole of the year 1784. The next question was, where I should find a 
 jiublisher ? I went with my manuscript to the since deceased Dieterich, 
 who now, for the first time in his life, heard the name of JNIenander the 
 rhetor. " Young man," said he, when I had explained to him the object 
 of my visit, " no one will ever read tliis." As, however, I asked for no 
 pay, and as we were already on friendly terms, he undertook my work, and 
 "Menander Rhetor de Encomiis, ex recensione," etc., 1785, was placed 
 before the public. It was the first critical labour of a young classic, done 
 without any help from manuscripts, consequently very incomplete. Never- 
 theless it was something ; and the good Menander might bless liis kind 
 fortune that had sent him such a sospitator, seeing that his pretensions 
 to one were but very small. 
 
 About this time my health began to decline ; though, as was very na- 
 tural from the kind of life I was leading, it was my mind rather than my 
 body that was affected. My first academic year I had passed in a very 
 cheerful manner. My acquaintance had been limited to the circle of my 
 countrymen and friends, mostly of good family, and well brought up ; to 
 these I had added a few natives of Hamburg and some pupils of the 
 Seminary. Our meetings took place at stated intervals, at a public inn ; 
 for notliing was then known of the secret political associations which have 
 been since held at these places, and we frequently invited some of our 
 teachers to join us. Doctor Kulenkamp, a preacher of the I'eformed church, 
 a man of frank and jovial manners, though he never forgot his profession 
 and dignity, as a native of Bremen, was a regular attendant at our meet- 
 ings. He was a philologist of the Dutch school, and deserves more par- 
 ticular mention on account of his excellent classical library, of which he Avas 
 so good as to permit me the use. One after another, however, my friends 
 left the University ; new acquaintance with younger men I could hardly 
 form ; my way of life grew more lonely from day to day, and at length 
 became wholly solitary, while my out-of-the-way dwelling, which had some 
 years before been inhabited by Johannes Müller, and afterwards by the 
 nephew of the owner of the house. Dr. Miller, the author of Siegwart, and 
 the celebrated liistorian of Switzerland, at the end of the upper Mash, ren- 
 dered this loneliness still more lonely. It is by no means uncommon to 
 see great activity of mind, even where it is not overstrained, accompanied 
 by a propensity to lowness of spirits and melancholy ; and a situation 
 could scarcely be found more calculated to nourish such a feeling than 
 mine at this period. Indeed it increased to such a pitch that it became
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. IX 
 
 necessary I should have that recreation and change wliich nothing but a 
 good long journey could pive. I could scarcely, however, ask my father, 
 willing as I am sure he would have been to assist me, tor the requisite 
 means ; my kind stars, however, here again were favourable. A grand 
 uncle, wlio had been domestic physician to the last king of Poland, died 
 about this time at Warsaw, leaving n;e a small legacy, to Avhich my father 
 added sutficient to enable me to accomplish my purpose. My desire was, 
 above all, to see Italy and Rome, a tour which but few German travellers 
 in those days undertook. I had, however, as yet no fixed plan, wlien a 
 second circumstance happened which put all in good train. About this 
 time, Tychsen, my old friend and colleague, returned from Spain, bringing 
 with him from the Escurial, the collation of a manuscript of the Eclogues 
 of John StobiEus, which he was so kind as to offer me. Tliis to me was 
 an important and valuable present. Of the works of John Stobajus the 
 ' Florilegium ' has been several times pubHshed, and is pretty generally 
 known ; while of his Eclogues there are only two editions, that of lö75, 
 printed from a very corrupt and defective manuscript, and that of 1609, 
 which is a mere reprint of it ; both impressions, however, are of great 
 rarity, and only to be found in a few public Hbraries. My collation af- 
 forded me at once a rich harvest of additions and improved readings ; and 
 if you remember what I said above of my edition of Menander, you Avill 
 easily believe that this labour was just to my taste. In this case I had 
 what was of the greatest advantage to me, a settled object for my journey, 
 viz. to collate manuscrii^ts preparatory to the publication of the Eclogues 
 of John Stobfeus ; a work which I hoped would be of great advantage to 
 my future prospects, as it would give me a claim of which I had felt I 
 wanted, to the office of public teacher. Only six or seven manuscripts of 
 the work Avere known to exist, and these, besides the one in Spain, tlie 
 collation of which I possessed, were scattered over Germany, Italy, France, 
 and, as I then believed, Holland. A visit, consequently, to all these coun- 
 tries formed a part of my plan. 
 
 On tlie 17th of July, 178.5, I set out on my grand tour. Augsburg 
 was the first place I intended to visit, as I knew its public library con- 
 tained a manuscript of tlie Eclogues. 1 took Erlangen in my way, and 
 staid there a few days, during which I had the pleasure of making tlie 
 acquaintance of Meusel, Harles, Hufnagel, and some other learned men. 
 A very few weeks taught me the beneficial effect which ti'avelling had 
 upon my liealth. My lowness of spirits vanished, and I was again blessed 
 with the cheerful serenity of youth. I began now, as I saw more of the 
 world, to look upon it with very different eyes from what I had while 
 inuuured in my chamber at Göttingen. At Augsburg I indiiced Mr. 
 Mertens, the librarian, to place sufficient confidence in me to let me have 
 the manuscript home with me to my hotel, so that I was able to work from 
 morning till niglit, and in a few weeks to finish my collation, which fully 
 eciualled my expectations. Satisfied of the benefit I derived from travel- 
 ling, I proceeded to Munich. Ah Munich, how different were you then 
 to what you were six years ago, when I again visited you ! At that time 
 you were full of the disputes and violence of the illuminati, which have 
 scarcely yet ceased; then they formed the subject of almost every tavern 
 conversation. At the library here I met with the kindest treatment.
 
 X BIOGRArHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 The curator of the manuscripts, a dignitary of tlie cliurcli, whose name I 
 have forgotten, left me entirely to myself. I was allowed to examine and 
 copy whatever I chose ; but though 1 found much that was highly inter- 
 esting, I met with nothing that could be useful in my great undertaking. 
 From Munich I proceeded down the Danube to Vienna, where a residence 
 of six weeks made me tolerably intimate with the city and its treasures of 
 art, as well as with the beautiful country surrounding it. At the library 
 I soon became intimate with the chief librarian, Denis, the well-known 
 abbot and ex-Jesuit, as I did also with Alxinger, Fock, von Born, and 
 several other distinguished men. But here again I found no manuscripts 
 of the Eclogues, though I met with one of the ' Florilegium,' wliich I par- 
 tially collated. 
 
 Thus far I had travelled alone. At Vienna I had the good luck to 
 meet with a companion. I was one evening at the theati'e, and there, 
 close behind me, I found my old college friend Bartels, of Hamburg, who 
 has since become a burgomaster of that city. He, like me, was bound for 
 Italy, and Ave soon agreed upon meeting again at Trieste, in order after- 
 wards to travel together. We did so. Our friendship became more closely 
 knit, and the pleasures of our journey were doubled. 
 
 My abode in Trieste was very agreeable ; I lodged at the same hotel 
 in which Winkelniann had been murdered ; and though not very advan- 
 tageous in a literary point of view, it afforded me in otiier respects much 
 delight and instruction. The appearance of the city itself, whicli is rather 
 Italian than German — the view of the Adriatic Sea with its numerous 
 creeks and its shores, of its harbour full of vessels mostly from the Levant, 
 the proximity of Greece, which so many objects announced, as well as 
 that of the southern countries in general, have a magic charm for the be- 
 holder who looks at them for the tirst time ! Nor was I here at a loss for 
 interesting acquaintance, among whom I may rank a brother of the cele- 
 brated Klopstock. Our intention of going to Venice by sea was frustrated 
 by contrary winds ; and we were compelled to proceed by land, through 
 Sacile and Conegliano : the remains of the ancient Aquileia being the most 
 remarkable thing in our journey. From Mestre Ave Avent to Venice by 
 water, Avhere Ave did not ai-rive till late in the eA^ening, so that our a^Icav of 
 this city of Avonders Avas delayed to the foUoAving morning. It certainly 
 at first calls up a feeling of astonishment in the beholder, but it soon grows 
 tiresome. So I was in time to see the old republic before its extinction ; 
 for age displayed itself in every thing, Avhich Avas the more striking from 
 the contrast it presented to us, who naturally contrasted it Avith the young 
 and flourishing Trieste. The obliging attentions of a learned young Ger- 
 man, Siebenkees, whom death unfortunately snatched aAvay at a too early 
 age, greatly assisted us in lionizing the curiosities of Venice. Among 
 the learned Italians Ave met Avitli here, Avas tlie celebrated jMorelle ; he 
 shoAved me many civihties, but could give me no help in the great object 
 of my research. 
 
 Winter had already set in before Ave continued our journey to Padua, 
 Verona, and Mantua. Here I fell ill, and dreaded the fever so fatal to 
 inhabitants of the north. But my good constitution triumphed ; and I Avas 
 sufficiently recovered before the end of the year to be able to reach Florence. 
 Here the gallery and library of the Medici particularly engaged my attention.
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XI 
 
 but my weakness continuing, and a hard frost setting in, for whicli Italy 
 is so ill provided, prevented me from enjoying Florence so much as I migl'.t 
 otherwise have done. Among the learned of this place, I found scarcely 
 any worthy of notice ; Bandini and Brachi most deserve mention. My 
 longing eyes, however, were bent upon Kome ! I reached this ancient 
 capital of the world February 10, 1786. I neither am nor ever have been 
 in the habit of screwing up my feelings to the sentimental pitch, and be- 
 sides, high-raised expectation lessens the effect of reality ; I therefore am 
 free to confess that my first entrance into Rome gave me a feeling of dis- 
 appointment rather than of enthusiasm. The Piazza del Popolo, leaving 
 out the obelisk, was not much fitted to kindle enthusiasm ; but Rome has 
 a charm peculiarly its own. The endless and varied succession of gran- 
 deur and beauty which it contains, gradually unfolds itself to the specta- 
 tor. He becomes every day more and more enchanted ; besides which, a 
 stranger is scarcely any where so much esteemed as at Rome ; he soon 
 finds himself at home, or at least fancies himself so ; and though many 
 may arrive at this capital with indifference, but few can leave it without 
 regret. 
 
 Rome Avas in every respect the principal object of my journey. The 
 Vatican was to furnish me with the most important manuscript of Stobasus ; 
 and a lengthened residence to bring me acquainted with the works of ancient 
 art. Such were my views. I shall not attempt a description of what 
 has been so often described, but shall confine myself entirely to a personal 
 narrative. My first acquaintance was Zoega, a man well known by his 
 letters, and his Life by Welker. He soon became my friend, my guide in 
 my antiquarian rambles, and my almost daily companion. In all this he 
 could have no motive but a sense of kindness towards me. I owe him 
 many obligations for his attentions ; and to him I was indebted for an in- 
 troduction to Cardinal Boi-gia who was then only Monsignore. 
 
 But few individuals have had any great influence upon my literary 
 career, and of these Cardinal liorgia Avas one. I never met with any but 
 him who to such mildness of disposition united such an easy, satirical hu- 
 mour, such a tender susceptibility of friendship, and, when once awakened, 
 such strength of attachment. I came to him without recommendation ; he 
 gradually found pleasure in the society of the young stranger, and became 
 not only my well-wisher, but almost a second father. It was neither by 
 his learning nor his museum that he wrought upon me, but by his kindly 
 disposition ; he appeai'ed to me to realize all that I had ever imagined of 
 the perfection of the human character, an opinion Avhich received ample 
 confirmation in the exalted spectacle he afterwards presented, when strij)- 
 ped of his j^roperty and driven from his country, he sought and found 
 consolation in science and religion. It can scarcely be supposed that I 
 regarded his kindness with indifference ; and, as 1 had constant access to 
 him, I frecpiently passed hours together with him at his apartments in the 
 Propaganda, of which he was secretary. His hobby (if I may so express 
 myself) was his museum of antiquities; and this, as it belonged to the 
 family, was for the most part at the family seat at Velletri, where his 
 brother, the Cavaliere, resided. To this place I frequently accompanied 
 him, and there, with Zoega and other friends, on classic ground, and in a 
 noble family circle, I spent many of my happiest days.
 
 XU J5I0(il{AI'III(JAL SKK'IT.'H. 
 
 As the season of the carnival obliged me to defer my labours at the 
 Vatican, as all libraries during that time are closed, I visited more fre- 
 quently the museum ofthat establishment, mostly in company Avith Zoega. 
 Besides the statues, the magnificent sarcophagi with their reliefs attracted 
 much of my attention ; and among them, one in particular, which I soon 
 felt convinced had been incorrectly described by Winkk-man, in his Monu- 
 menti, as the murder of Agamemnon, instead of that of il"2gistheus and 
 Clytemnestra, by Orestes and Pylades. As I had so recently left Gottin- 
 gen, where I had been deeply engaged in the study of the tragedians, I 
 soon observed this ; and upon a reference to ^schylus, I found that the 
 artist had almost copied him. I therefore came to the resolution of pub- 
 lisliing in Rome a pamphlet upon this work of art, (Commentatio in Opus 
 ca3latum Musrei Pio Clementini, Romce, 1776,) and wliich I have since 
 translated and published in German, in the Bil)liothek der alten Literatur 
 und Kunst. My work was favourably received, and paved the way to 
 many useful and honourable acquaintance : by Borgia's management I ob- 
 tained an oppoi'tunity of presenting it to Pope Pius VI. The correctness 
 of my interpretation was afterwards acknowledged by Visconti in the 
 Museo Pio-Clementine. Soon after this I published a second dissertation 
 on a fragment of marble covered with bas-reliefs and inscriptions in the 
 manner of the Tabula Iliaca ; this was likewise in Latin, but afterwards 
 published in German in the work above mentioned. It was a great plea- 
 sure to Borgia to see critical dissertations published upon specimens in his 
 museum, whence have sprung not only learned treatises, but classical works, 
 like those of Zoega and Adler. His enemies have attributed this to 
 vanity : I only wish that the generality of men possessed such vanity ! 
 
 Meanwhile the time was drawing on at which I might commence my 
 labovirs at the Vatican. Here I knew was the most important manuscript 
 of the Eclogfe of Stobjeus. From what I had heard I did not expect that 
 Monsignore Reggio, the librarian, would receive me in the most civil man- 
 ner. But I feared more than this, the difficulty of discovering the manu- 
 script, the Vatican having no genei-al catalogue, but only particular ones 
 of the different collections from which it has arisen. I had no lack of 
 good recommendations for permission to open the presses of the library ; 
 among which that of Cardinal Garampi v^^as of great service. To this 
 man of refined taste, so much occupied in diplomatic affairs, I had been 
 well recommended ; he had received me politely and I had dedicated to him 
 my first treatise. The morning of the fifth of April I went, provided with 
 his recommendation, to the Vatican, to try my fortune with Monsignore 
 Reggio. His cold but polite answer was : Sara servita ; Signore Abbate 
 dategli il codice! More I did not want; the only question now was 
 where the codex was to be found. One of the catalogues was given to 
 me to look through, and — fancy my joy ! — in less than ten minutes I found 
 my manuscript ! A place in the working room was next assigned me ; 
 every day, with the exception of the numerous holy-days, I was allowed 
 to work from about nine till one o'clock. I began the very next day, the 
 sixth of April ; and finished my collation (consisting of forty-three sheets) 
 on the thirteenth of June, very shortly after which the long vacation be- 
 gan, when the library was closed. My trouble was richly rewarded, I had 
 a treasure of additions and improved readings to carry away with me, as
 
 BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCH. XIU 
 
 my edition when published fully proved. The conviction, daily growing 
 istronger, that I was not travelling in vain, and that the purpose of my 
 journey was accomplished, roused my' activity whenever it began to flag. 
 
 These learned labours, however, did not prevent me freely from eiijo}-- 
 ing the society of my friends and connexions. I spent my time partly 
 amidst a gay circle of German acquaintance, among whom, besides my 
 iellow-traveUer, were Munter, now bishop of Zealand, Hirt, now counsel- 
 lor at Berlin, and Wilhelm Tischbein. In addition to this I had obtained 
 the favour of Counsellor Reiffenstein, who, by receiving pensions from the 
 Prussian and other courts for executing their commissions in the fine arts, 
 lived in good style at Rome. I had earned his good will by my first 
 treatise, in wliich I had mentioned in an honourable manner the monument 
 he had ordered to be erected in the Pantheon. He tried to persuade me 
 to settle in Rome, and said he was sure my success would be equal to his 
 own. My evenings wei'e generally spent with Italian families, in which 
 T occasionally heard the most exquisite music, the greatest delight I could 
 have. Imagine, then, how happy I must have been at Rome, enjoj ing, as 
 I did, in addition to all this, the blessing of health and freedom from care. 
 Having but little knowledge of pictures, my studies in the fine arts were 
 almost exclusively directed to antiquities, particularly to reliefs. Still ar- 
 chitecture on a grand scale, and Avhere can this be seen in such perfection 
 as in Rome, always made a deep impression upon me. The Colosseum, 
 with its gigantic shadows by moonlight ; the interior of the Pantheon, with 
 a fleeting cloud perhaps passing over its cupola, are sights Avhich can never 
 be forgotten, and which even the magic illumination of St. Peter's with 
 the waving cross on the holy eve of our great Christian festival, is not 
 able to obliterate. Not a day did I allow to pass unimproved so long as 
 art and nature offered new beauties to my view ; and it may be easily sup- 
 posed that the environs of Tivoli, Frascati, and even the remote Terni, 
 with its waterfall, were not left unvisited. 
 
 The seven months of my stay at Rome passed away like so many weeks. 
 I left it on the 16th of September to spend a short time at Naples. My 
 fellow-traveller, whom I expected to meet there, was gone on before to 
 visit Calabria and Sicily. My literary labours at Rome compelled me to 
 give up my desire of accompanying him ; a great saci'ifice, but one Avhich 
 my great object required. I arrived at Naples just in the season when 
 that land of wonders exhibits itself in its highest beauty and luxury. 
 The vines could scarcely bear the weight of their fruit, whilst above them 
 Mount Vesuvius repeatedly threw out its columns of fire and streams of 
 lava. It is here alone that earth puts on all her magnificence ; all other 
 scenes sink to notliing in comparison. I came hei'e to enjoy nature, and 
 I did enjoy it ; but even in literary and social matters, my expectations 
 were greatly surpassed. At the library al capo di Monte, I found two 
 manuscripts of the Eclogas, one of them is the oldest extant. In conse- 
 quence of the great distance it was not possible, nor was it necessary, to 
 compare it entirely, as I soon discovered that it belonged to the very same 
 recension as that of the Vatican ; I therefore contented myself with a col- 
 lation of the more corrupt passages. Favourable circumstances and con- 
 nexions brought me into acquaintance with the celebrated Filangieri and 
 his friends. Though not thirty years of age, he had already composed 
 his great work on legislation. He lived away from the court, at his
 
 XIV BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 cliarming; villa la Cava, where my friend Munter and I, on our journey 
 to Faistum, spent a lew liappy days with liini in the bosom of his family. 
 Two years afterwards death made this line healthy man his victim, in the 
 prime of life, no doubt at the right time ; for most of his friends, of whom 
 several were also mine, perished soon after in the dreatlful revolutions 
 which took place ; and it is a question if he would have met with a bet- 
 ter lot. 
 
 My friend soon after returned from Sicily, and we left Naples together 
 on the 1st of November, and returned to Rome in order to prepare for our 
 final departure from Italy. During the fortnight I stayed at Rome, I 
 was so happy as to make the acquaintance of Goethe and Moritz ; I met 
 them at the house of Reiffenstein, and formed one of the party to Frascati, 
 which Goethe has mentioned in his life. On the 19th of November we 
 left Rome, with what feelings ! Late in the evening Borgia came to take 
 leave; a mingled feeling of gratitude for his past kindness, joined to the 
 certainty that I should see him no more, became too powerful for me — 
 I burst into tears ; he clasped me in liis arms, and exclaiming, Heeren, mio 
 che fai! turned away and left me. Absence did not diminish our friend- 
 ship. The very day of his departure for Paris in 1804, for wliich place 
 he set out with Pius VII., to attend the coronation of the emperor, I re- 
 ceived his last letter. He died on this journey at Lyons, but even after 
 his death, I received from him a parcel of prints and manuscripts, which 
 he had previously despatched. Ave sancta animal 
 
 We returned by way of Perugia, Florence, and Leghorn, through Lom- 
 bardy to Älilan, where I found in the Ambrosian library some fragments 
 of Stobajus. From tliis place we continued our route thi'ough Genoa and 
 Turin, and across Mount Cenis to Geneva, and from thence by Lyons to 
 Paris. As we made this journey in the depth of winter, we saw but little 
 of the wonders of nature beyond the sublime spectacle of the Alps covered 
 with snow : for literary research there was no time. We arrived at Paris 
 on the eighteenth of February, 1787. I stayed two months in this city; 
 amply sufficient to see all its beauty and magnificence ; but a much longer 
 time is required to bring a stranger acquainted "with the social and domestic 
 life of the Parisians, there is no cause therefore to wonder that I was not 
 so much at home here as at Rome. Villoison and Belin de BaUu, the 
 only learned Frenchmen to whom I had letters, were absent ; but Barthe- 
 lemy, Larcher, Anquetil Duperron, VauviUiers, etc., received me with- 
 out introduction with as much civility as a stranger could expect. At the 
 royal library, where I inquired for manuscripts of Stobfeus and of some 
 grammarians, I was treated in the most obliging manner by the Abbe Bejot, 
 who had the care of the manuscripts at that establishment. All those 
 men have passed away, and their places are now filled by others equally 
 distinguished, and with whom I have the honour of being intimately ac- 
 quainted, but who were then unknown. Tliis must excuse my short 
 notice of Paris. I have only to add, that I left it in April for Holland, 
 in wliich country, and particularly in Leyden, (though I found no manu- 
 script of the Eclogse,) I passed my time most agreeably, thanks to the 
 friendsliip of the celebrated Ruhnkenius and the intellectual Luzac. How 
 little did I then imagine, that nearly thirty years later I should be invited 
 to fill the chair left vacant by the death of the latter ! 
 
 Thus after an absence of nearly two years I returned to Göttingen,
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XV 
 
 where I intended to settle ; and wliere I hoped soon to get some appoint- 
 ment. Having taken leave of my fellow-traveller, I set out for Bremen, 
 in order to spend a short time with my father and friends, who were very 
 desirous of seeing me. Besides, 1 recjuired rest, hoth for mind and body, 
 and where could I expect to find it better than under my parental roof? 
 After recruiting my spirits here for a few weeks, I returned to Göttingen 
 in August, and on the 27th of that month I obtained from Hanover my 
 appointment to the chair of professor extraordinary of philosophy, just 
 three weeks before the University jubilee in commemoration of its found- 
 ation. On October 20th, I read my inaugural lecture, taking for my 
 subject. De Codicibus manuscriptis Eclogarum Joannis Stobcci; which is 
 found at the beginning of my edition. 
 
 At this epoch opens the second period of my life ; I was now about to 
 engage as a public teacher. As yet, however, I only stood at the starting- 
 point of a career, the great difficulties of which I could not disguise from 
 myself. It is true, that I returned from my travels with a mind enlarged, 
 better cultivated, and enriched by many new acquirements. But my know- 
 ledge was crude and ill-digested. It wanted connexion ; it was defective 
 in every part ; yet, notwithstanding, I had to mount the chair as a public 
 teacher. Besides these disadvantages, there were others not dependent 
 on myself. Those departments. In Avhich I could have shone to the great- 
 est advantage, that is to say, the classical and historical, were already 
 filled, and filled in such a way as they have seldom been in any other 
 academy. Heyne filled the classical chair, with whom I had neither 
 abilities nor inclination to contend ; the historical classes were superin- 
 tended by men of equal celebrity in their way, Gatterer, Sclilozer, Spittler, 
 all in the prime of their glory, and to Avhom Grellman had been joined 
 just before my appointment. What chance was there here for a young and 
 unknown scholar to distinguish himself by the side of such rivals, more 
 especially at an academy where there is no inclination to run after novelty, 
 but where a new teacher must enlarge his circle by degrees ? Still I was 
 obliged to make an attempt. Lectures on the history of the liberal sciences 
 (which became very useful to myself, as they procured me a clear historical 
 insight into this branch of learning) ; on Roman antiquities ; then on 
 Tacitus and Sallust, filled up the first two years of my academical life, 
 although delivered to a very scanty circle of auditors. I could never avoid 
 giving my lectures a historical direction ; and however unfavourable the 
 prospects of the period, I felt more and more attracted by political history. 
 In the autumn of the year 1790, I first began my lectures on ancient his- 
 ' tory, wiiich I have uninterruptedly continued every half year from that 
 time to the present. In these I have connected ancient geography with 
 ancient history, illustrating it by maps. The Avant of this had been much 
 felt ; and though my class continued small, it was attended by a few men 
 of the best capacities and highest talents. I engaged also in several 
 literary undertakings. Soon after my installation, I became joint-editor 
 with my friend Tychsen of the "Library of Ancient Literature and Art" 
 (Bibliothek der alten Litteratur und Kunst); which was continued to the 
 tenth number, when the unpublished ])ieces I had collected on my travels 
 were exhausted. As soon, however, as time permitted, I gave my atten- 
 tion to my magnum opus, the preparation of the Eclogce of Stoba^us, for 
 
 c
 
 Xvi BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 which I had ah-eady obtained a rich collection of materials. It was, how- 
 ever, no easy task ! Imagine a work, corrupt in every page, nay, almost 
 in every line ; consisting mainly of fragments from uncertain poets and 
 authors, without any regular connexion. My first business was to go 
 over it carefully, continually referring to my manuscripts, and correcting 
 it by them. Many points, however, still remained uncertain, and could only 
 be settled by conjecture. At the same time an account was to be given of all 
 these matters in the notes and observations. I next wrote out a fair copy 
 of my text ; for it was only by doing this that a critic could see clearly its 
 faults and gaps. The certainty of doing something useful cheered me in 
 this labour. It was a singular feeling to me to find an author growing, 
 under my hands, into inteUigibiHty, that before could be scarcely under- 
 stood. At Easter, 1792, I pubhshed the first part of "Joannis Stobaei 
 Eclogarum Physicarum et Ethicarum libri duo," etc., which I dedicated to 
 the Cardinal Borgia, as a small tribute of my gratitude ; the second part 
 followed in 1794; the two parts forming the first book, or Physica. The 
 two last parts, comprising the second book, or Ethica, (important from its 
 detailed exposition of the three great systems of Ethics among the Greeks, 
 taken mostly from the writings of men whose works are lost,) together 
 with the remaining collectanea and the indices, appeared in 1801. Upon 
 the publication of the first part I sent a copy to a critical review then in 
 hio-h repute ; but it was not even noticed. After a course of years a 
 critique appeared, but neither approved nor blamed it. I must fi-ankly 
 confess that this neglect vexed me ; but I leave it for you to decide whether 
 this was vanity or natural feeling. It led me to form a resolution, to which 
 I have ever since adhered, to leave my future writings entirely to their 
 fate. And it is to me one of the most agreeable circumstances of my life, 
 that most of them have made their way with the public in that manner 
 alone. Perhaps you wiU think this another trait of literary vanity! 
 What weak creatures we authors are ! 
 
 The great labour which Stobasus had cost me convinced me more than 
 ever that I could never devote my life to the criticism of words, and that 
 this work must be the last of its kind. This resolution was strengthened 
 by other circumstances. A short time before the publication of the first 
 part of Stobseus, I had fallen iU. An attack of scarlet fever had caused 
 an inflammation of my throat, which for some days threatened my life. I 
 recovered, but my sickness left a weakness and irritability which hung 
 upon me for a long time, and only very slowly disappeared. JNIy academi- 
 cal situation did not improve ; many hopes which I had formed, and plans 
 which I had laid down, as you may well imagine a young and aspiring man 
 would, were completely destroyed ; and a similar state of mind to that I 
 had fallen into before my travels seemed to take possession of me. I felt 
 the want of some occupation, which would engage not only my head but 
 my heart. In my lectures on ancient history, the chapter on Carthage 
 always seemed to me the least satisfactory, much as I had felt interested 
 in this republic. This led me to a closer examination of its character and 
 history. I immediately entered upon the study of Polybius, and eagerly 
 consulted all the sources to which I had access. My interest in the task 
 I had undertaken increased from day to day, and so ardent was I in the 
 prosecution of it that I employed in study those hours which ought to have
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XVH 
 
 been devoted to sleep. I soon became familiar with all that concerned 
 this great trading and conquering republic, the first of antiquity ; one new 
 light after another broke in upon me ; my horizon gradually extended ; 
 till at last the ancient world seemed spread out before me from a point 
 of view fi-om which I had never before regarded it. I now considered it 
 with respect to the bearings and influence of ancient ti-ade and intercourse, 
 and, as closely connected therewith, the rise, formation, and constitution 
 of ancient states. By this I was immediately led to the determination of 
 representing it in this new light; and one of the chief objects of my life 
 was discovered. This was the commencement of my " Historical Ee- 
 searches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the principal Nations 
 of Antiquity" (Ideen über die Politik, den Verkehr und dem Handel der 
 vornehmsten Volker der alten Welt). You may form some judgment of 
 the zeal with which I set about it, from the fiict that I finished and printed 
 the first part, containing Africa, during the same Avinter. It was pub- 
 lished at Easter, 1793. If there are faults scattered over this first edition, 
 which betray its hasty composition, the kindness of the public has enabled 
 me to correct them by calling for new impressions. A lasting direction was 
 now given to my historical studies. The route by which I should travel 
 through the wide domains of general history was fixed. They lay spread 
 out before me under the soft sunlight of peace ; but how infinite in ex- 
 tent. How could such a prospect fail to inspire a young and ardent 
 writer ! 
 
 This first part of my work had not been published long, before I re- 
 ceived so many marks of approbation, and so many encouragements to 
 proceed, as moi-e than counterbalanced the indifference shown by our lead- 
 ing critics. It did not fall in with their views. At the same time, if I 
 chose to go on, the Avhole of Asia was before me. But I could not help 
 seeing, that in order to set about this with effect, long and deep prepara- 
 tory studies were required, comprising the geography, history, constitutions, 
 trade, intercourse, in short, a complete knowledge of the Oriental world at 
 large. I entered first upon Persia. I examined all that related to the 
 ancient Persian empii-e, that of the Parthians and Sassanides, and to the 
 kingdoms and nations of central and southern Asia. With this, under the 
 Arabian period, I connected an attentive reading and study of the Koran. 
 I do not believe, including some after labours, that I have omitted one of 
 the more important sources of Asiatic history that were open to me ; and, 
 following the plan I had observed with regard to Africa, of comparing 
 ancient history with modern, I added to these, the study of all tlie recent 
 accounts given by modern travellers. These researches took up about 
 two years. I felt more and more at home in the East ; and the first part 
 of my work on the Asiatic nations appeared at Easter, 1796. Many things 
 which were then new have since grown old, and you must go back to that 
 period in order to judge truly of my work. 
 
 At this time my domestic affairs underwent an important change. A 
 daughter of that I leyne to whom I was so deeply indebted, became the 
 companion of my life. She has lai<l an embargo on my pen respecting 
 herself, but I cannot refrain from telling you, after a twenty-five years' 
 trial, that April 22, 1796, was the beginning of a domestic felicity, which 
 has never been disturbed. The quiet tenor of our lives, relieved every 
 
 c 2
 
 XVIU BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 two or three years, so long as my relations lived, by a visit to my native 
 town, spares me the necessity of observing a very rigid order in my future 
 narration. During the last six years (who could do it before with any 
 degi'ce of pleasure ?) I have extended my journeys to Ba\aria and Saxony, 
 (in both of which I have been repeatedly invited to settle,) to Hamburg, 
 Fi'ankfort, and, during the last autumn, to Switzerland and Suabia. In 
 these journeys, besides the enjoyment of nature and art, I have been grati- 
 fied by the kindness and acquaintance, I may say by the lasting friendship 
 and esteem, of many excellent and highly-honoured individuals. But I 
 must go back to my earlier days. 
 
 As the circle of my historical studies became enlarged, I gradually step- 
 ped out of antiquity into the middle ages. My inquiries respecting the 
 East, which I have already spoken of, afford a proof of this ; but a cir- 
 cumstance now happened which had still more influence. In the great 
 attempt which was made here at this time to elucidate the history of the 
 arts and sciences, its author conferred upon me the department relating to 
 the history of classical litei-ature. This I pursued so far as the middle 
 ages are concerned ; but as my studies began, in conformity with my duties, 
 to be more and more directed to political history, I have been unable to 
 continue it through modern times. My researches, however, upon the his- 
 tory of classical literature during the middle ages, have been published, 
 and form the fourth and fifth volumes of my collected works. This his- 
 tory itself is connected by so many ties with politics, that I could not go 
 into it without finding myself deeper and deeper involved in their study. 
 Besides, the number of my hearers had so wonderfully increased, particu- 
 larly in ancient history, that I now extended my lectures to the middle 
 ages and modern history. Several changes, too, which took place about 
 this time in the University, almost compelled me to this course. Gatterer 
 became old and feeble ; Schlcizer gradually retired from the chair ; Spittler, 
 at the beginning of the year 1797, left the University altogether. Three 
 years before this I had been named ordinary professor of philosophy ; and 
 upon Gatterer's death, 1799, I was expressly appointed professor of his- 
 tory, having already in fact for a long time performed all its duties. As 
 this appointment, however, was the object upon wliich I had always fixed 
 my regard, it brought my duty and inclination into the most perfect har- 
 mony. For the life of an author, properly so called, I never felt any in- 
 clination. ,fÄIy resolution now became fixed, of devoting myself hencefor- 
 ward to history, and to political history with its subsidiary departments 
 of knowledge more especially. This therefore will be perhaps the most 
 convenient place for me to give my opinion, not only upon the method 
 of studying history, but also of treating it as a public teacher and author. 
 From the many years experience I have had in lecturing to a continually 
 increasing circle of hearers, I should hope it would not be considered 
 worthless. 
 
 My situation as tutor has prevented me from confining myself to any 
 particular department ; but has compelled me to turn my attention to al- 
 most eveiy part and branch of history. I do not mean that I have inves- 
 tigated every separate part of history, or that I have been able to include 
 them all in my lectures. Yet a general glance at the whole was indis- 
 pensable to the object I had in view.
 
 BIOGRArHICAL SKETCH. XIX 
 
 Over the whole territory of universal history in all its divisions and 
 bearings, the limited span of liuman life will not allow us to travel, even 
 if a portion of it were not required to be spent in the preparatory learning 
 of languages, and other auxiliary sciences; setting aside, too, the hin- 
 derance which a predilection or antipathy for one part more than another, 
 naturally occasions to him who does not move mechanically. The liistory 
 of the North always had the least attraction for me ; and, though I hardly 
 dare to confess it, that of Germany was scarcely more to my taste, on 
 which account I have never included it in my lectures. Tlie separate 
 German states, indeed, I could not well bring within the sphere of my 
 studies without being unfaithful to the chief object of my design ; and the 
 history of Germany as a political whole, that is to say, of the German em- 
 pire, though of course I could not remain ignorant of it, has always had 
 to me a repulsive character. That continual confusion of chaotic elements 
 which could never attain to any regular shape or stability, that Avasting 
 of the noblest powers for centuries on the other side of the Alps, is little 
 calculated to invite the attention of the philosophical inquirei*. Still my 
 treatise on the Political Consequences of the Reformation will pi'ove that 
 a high esteem for the nation, and the most perfect conviction of what it 
 has done for the Avorld, is quite consistent with this feeling. But of its 
 conduct during the middle ages, I can never become an admirer. The 
 history of the other great states of Europe formed part of my lectures ; 
 and it will naturally be understood that I studied them not only in their 
 secondary, but in all their more important ])rimary sources. I soon, how- 
 ever, found out a new point of view in whiclx to place this department of 
 history. The history of the sej)arate states, though it formed the found- 
 ation, never had such a charm for me as the history of their relations with 
 each other. The history of the separate states indeed, although it was, 
 and did continue to form, from this time, an object of my lectures, had al- 
 ready been so frequently treated of both in manuals and more extensive 
 Avorks, that I did not see any field open to me as an author, which could 
 induce me to set about a new work. I had always, moreover, felt averse 
 to tell over again what others had told before, perhaps better than I should 
 be able to do. But the history of the varied relations of these states to 
 one another had a continually growing interest for me. Accordingly, I 
 endeavoured to penetrate into its interior, and to investigate the causes, 
 which were not confined to outward circumstances, but frequently had 
 their origin in the prevailing ideas and wishes of the different periods, or 
 in the personal character of the leading men who directed the affairs of 
 the sepai-ate states. Thus pure political history became mingled with 
 psychology; while the increasing inlluence of commerce naturally mixed 
 up its affairs with the two Ibrmer, and as commerce was again closely knit 
 to colonies, the study of the colonial system was forced as it were upon mo. 
 Thus, without departing from my preconceived general views of what 
 modern liistoiy should be, I fell into the plan of giving lectures on The 
 liistnri/ of the political st/stcm of Europe and its colonics, from the discovert/ 
 of the tiro Indies. Thesis lectures, from their nature, form not only a his- 
 tory of the practical politics, but also of the commerce of the modern world ; 
 and seemed particularly in place in a University containing a great num- 
 ber of students purposing to follow a political career. My Manual of
 
 XX BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 Modern History, under the above title, grew out of these lectures, and was 
 published in 1809. If the well-known maxim "nonum preraatur in an- 
 num " is any criterion of value, it applies both to this work and to my 
 Manual of Ancient History, first pubhshed in 1799; for on both of these 
 subjects I gave public lectures for nine years before I committed them to 
 the press. I must mention here, however, that these two works are writ- 
 ten upon plans totally different from each other ; one being a History of 
 the principal States of Antiquity, taken separately ; the other, a History 
 of the European State- System, but never intended to be a history of the 
 single states, nor a general history of modern times. Those persons there- 
 fore have altogether misapprehended my views, who think that I should 
 write a manual of the liistory of the middle ages in order to supply what 
 they suppose a deficiency. It never entered into my head to write a 
 manual of universal history in three parts ; we have more of them already 
 than we want, and I do not wish to increase their number unnecessarily. 
 
 The situation of Europe at the time had a considerable influence upon 
 the reception my Manual of the European State- System met with, upon 
 its first publication. Europe [excepting England] was in fetters. Yet 
 my work from the beginning had been announced as the history of a sys- 
 tem of free states. It seemed to me important to keep up their remem- 
 brance, by giving a faithful picture of them as they had formerly existed ; 
 and I have every reason to beUeve that my work supplied what the wants 
 and feelings of the public silently demanded. The first, a large edition, 
 was sold off in a yeax". The second appeared in 1811. Two pirated ones 
 kept back the third till 1819; in the mean time I had seen the triumph 
 of the principles which I sought to uphold, and enjoyed by this delay the 
 advanta"-e of being able to give in this third edition the story of the re- 
 storation of that system whose f^iU we had deplored. This work seemed 
 to me the most appropriate offering that I could lay upon the altar of my 
 country. How great or how little its influence, it is impossible to ascer- 
 tain ; but when I add that my lectures upon this subject were regularly 
 delivered throughout the whole of this period to a continually increasing 
 number of young students, many of whom were entering upon a political 
 career ; it cannot be too much to say that the seed could not have been 
 always sown upon barren ground. 
 
 Thus I have given you a short sketch of my three courses of historical 
 lectures : — on ancient history, on the history of the separate European 
 states, and on the European state-system and its colonies ; to these I oc- 
 casionally added lectures on the crusades, preceded by a general view of the 
 middle ages, serving as an introduction to their history. These lectures 
 followed in such order that those on ancient history, wliich came down to 
 the overthrow of the Western empire, and form a proper introduction to 
 history, naturally became connected with those on the history of the 
 separate states, from the great emigration of nations down to the present 
 times (chiefly according to Spittler's outlines). This history of the separ- 
 ate states, again, forms the foundation work of my general history of the 
 European system, in which a previous acquaintance with particulars is 
 taken for granted. INIy public lectures, however, did not end even here ; 
 and, since I have entered upon the matter, I trust I shall be excused for 
 saying a few words upon two other subjects which I entered upon, and for
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XXI 
 
 showing the relation in which they stand to those I have ah-eady men- 
 tioned : the lectures to which I allude were upon statistics, and upon the 
 general knowledge of lands and nations ; and these, like those on modern 
 history, I gave every alternate halt" year. 
 
 The study of modern liistory necessarily soon led me to remark, that 
 without an accurate acquaintance witlx the whole circle of what are called 
 the pohtical sciences, nothing could be done. The best works upon go- 
 vernment and political economy became, therefore, the first object of my 
 attention ; the application of these studies to history, almost twenty years 
 ago, produced my lectures on statistics. You know my notion of states ; 
 I could never consider them as mere machines, but always regarded them 
 in the light of moral personages, each having its own manner of Uving, 
 moving, and acting ; and the elucidation of this is, in my opinion, alone 
 worthy to be called statistics, and not the compilation of barren tables, 
 containing figures instead of things. I have given, therefore, but little 
 care to mere figures, but have endeavoured instead to call attention not to 
 the form so much as to the spirit of constitutions and governments. Pre- 
 viously to entering upon any particular states, my method has been, to 
 take, without reference to any especial state, a general view of all those 
 objects which are of most importance to a state, abstractedly considered, 
 and give a practical explanation of them — not in order to build up theories 
 of governments, but in order to show the necessity of knowing and con- 
 sidering, in a general way, that which is in actual existence, to observe 
 its practical working ; and as well (in order to check any blind predilec- 
 tion for theories) to explain why it is so. When I have gone over this 
 preliminary ground, but not tiU then, do I venture to enter upon the con- 
 sideration of the separate states. In treating of these my plan is not to 
 take any large portion, or, as some have done, the whole of them, but to 
 confine my observations to a few of the more important among them, such 
 indeed as I think best adapted to serve as representatives of the princij)al 
 constitutions and governments. These have usually been Great Britain, 
 as a monarchy with a free constitution and free government ; France, as 
 a free monarchy, with, hitherto, an autocratic government; Russia, as a 
 monarchy with an autocratic constitution and autocratic government ; and 
 America, as a federative republic, with sovereign power in the hands of 
 the people. By following this method I flatter myself that I have been 
 able to give all the information required for forming a just estimate of all 
 existing forms of government, witliout entering into the separate consider- 
 ation of the whole of them. The statistics of the German states, which 
 were in no way suitable to my purpose, I have designedly left to others. 
 In these lectures, and in the research necessary for tlieir preparation, I 
 have always taken the greatest delight : practically speaking, I think they 
 have been the most useful of any ; and they first breathed a life and si)irit 
 into my historical researches. For what, after all, is the study of the 
 history of states, if we merely consider them as lifeless masses without 
 soul or energy ! If, however, I have been so fortunate as to bring these 
 subjects to a higher degree of maturity tlian tliey had obtained befoi'e, it 
 must in some measure be attributed to the favour of circumstances, and 
 the superior advantages I possessed in having among my auditors kind and 
 well-informed men from the countries I have above spoken of. Whenever
 
 XXU UIOGRAPIIICAL SKETCH. 
 
 I asked for information it was freely given ; and who stands more in need 
 of it than the teacher of statistics. 
 
 Satisfactory and pleasant, however, as these lectures have been to my- 
 self, I never could be prevailed upon to publish them. For tliis I have 
 been publicly censured ; but the question always arose, what was I to 
 publish ? A compendium ? That would have been a mere dry skeleton, 
 while all that is instructive lies in the flesh and marrow. The lectures 
 entire ? Surely that which is well suited for a circle of young beginners, 
 would be but ill calculated for the public at large. 
 
 Inquiries into the manners and customs of nations, and the state of dif- 
 ferent countries, were equally connected with my historical pursuits, and 
 demanded as large a share of my attention. As a teacher of viniversal 
 history, I found it necessary to comprehend within my sphere of vision as 
 much of the globe as I possibly could ; to study mankind in all its varieties 
 and at every stage of civilization. Ample means for this object were fur- 
 nished me by our pubUc libraries, which are exceedingly i*ich in books of 
 voyages and travels. I did not attempt, however, to wade through them 
 all, but confined my'reading to such as seemed of the greatest importance : 
 making it a fixed rule to banish as much as possible from my mind every 
 preconceived conjecture and hypothesis, and to describe every nation as I 
 actually found it. Without doing this effectually, without entirely shaking 
 off the trammels of prejudice, it is impossible to succeed in this difficult 
 task, or to enter perfectly into the character, manners, and customs of 
 difFei'ent nations. In treating of these I again found it necessary to con- 
 fine myself within certain bounds. In my inquiries, for example, into the 
 religion of various nations, and into mythology in general, I never ex- 
 tended them beyond what I felt called upon to do as a liistorian. Sym- 
 bolical and allegorical explanations, and the interpretation of traditions 
 and fables, or mytlii, I have left to those who feel an inclination for that 
 kind of study ; they do not come witliin the limits of pure historical re- 
 search. The lectures on universal geography and ethnography which I 
 have delivered every summer during the last twenty years, are the fruits 
 of my studies in this department. I have never attempted a special geo- 
 graphical description of Europe ; but have treated this part of the world 
 just as I have the rest ; my chief design being in all cases to show, in a 
 general historical point of view, the state in wliich the known nations of 
 the woi'ld now exist ; and the extent of our knowledge concerning them 
 and the countries they inhabit. It is solely as they answer for the pur- 
 poses I have stated that my lectures must be tried : they were not only 
 illustrated and explained by a great number of maps and charts, but, by 
 the kind permission of our government, by a general use of the extensive 
 and valuable collection of materials contained in the ethnographical depart- 
 ment of our museum. 
 
 Thus, my dear friend, I have given you a sketch of my labours as a 
 teacher of history and its auxiliary sciences. Chronology and genealogy 
 are better learned from manuals, in which our literature abounds, than from 
 oral instruction. I have made it a fixed rule from the day I first took my 
 seat in the professor's chair, never to enter upon a lecture until I had fur- 
 nished my head with a clear and distinct chain of ideas upon the subject 
 1 had to treat. For the words in which these were to be expressed I never
 
 BIOGRArHlCAL SKETCH. XXUl 
 
 took any great trouble ; and, the former condition being fulfilled, a very- 
 few written notes to prompt my memory was all I required. By these 
 means that easy and free mode of exposition is soon acquired, without 
 which it is impossible to lecture well on history : to read lectures from 
 written papers entirely destroys the spirit and beauty of this method of 
 teachinof. The interest which hearers feel in a lecture arises principally 
 from the interest the teacher himself takes in delivering it ; and how can 
 he show such an interest if his words do not flow from the living springs 
 of his own mind ? It is a false and hollow maxim that we ought to con- 
 fine ourselves to facts : in this case history Avould be a mere matter of 
 memory. But should not the hearer, should not the reader learn also to 
 examine and judge of facts? And how can he do this, unless the teacher 
 or writer impart, not as infallible oracles, but as materials for reflection, 
 his own views on the subject, by interspersing with the narrative his own 
 train of reasoning ? The study of authorities, on which so much stress is 
 laid, often for the purpose of mere display, is in the highest degree interest- 
 ing and necessary ; but if the whole study of history is to be confined to 
 the mere tracing of facts, if the writer of history is to forget his own in- 
 dividuality, that he has mind, feelings, or opinions, then I, for one at 
 least, feel little desire to prosecute the study. But if this principle be 
 admitted, the names of Polybius and Hume, of Tacitus and Müller, must 
 be struck out of the list of historical writers. 
 
 One part of my studies, which I have above alluded to, namely, the ac- 
 quisition of a knowledge of difiTerent countries, and of the manners and 
 customs of various nations, was prompted not only by my lectures, but also 
 by my labours as a historical writer. The time was drawing nigh when 
 a new edition of my Researches into the principal States of Antiquity would 
 be called for ; and I became impressed Avith the necessity not merely of 
 correcting and revising them, but of altering their very form. In the ten 
 years that had passed away since the publication of the first edition, the 
 geographical and ethnographical horizon had been extended on every side. 
 The French expedition into Egypt, and the discoveries of individual tra- 
 vellers, had done much towards dispelling the dark mist that had hung 
 over Africa; the increased knowledge of India and the neighbouring 
 countries had done the same for Asia. Persevering, therefore, in the 
 plan I had always adopted, of comparing the old world Avith the new, I 
 naturally did my utmost to keep pace with the advances of the age. I 
 had already given proofs of this in the second edition, published in 1805, 
 in which Asia held the first place and Africa the second. The same ne- 
 cessity for exertion still continued, while my ardour was no way abated, 
 but rather increased by the fact that most of the travellers who so boldly 
 went forth to tear away the veil that hung over those distant lands, partly 
 prepared themselves for the task at our University. Seezen, Hornemann, 
 W. Hamilton, Koentgen, and even the celebrated Burkhardt, were all my 
 pupils or friends ; and my work had not been without influence upon their 
 enterprises. What, then, could be more natural than that their discoveries 
 should have a reactive influence upon my studies, and upon my cnd(üi- 
 vours to render my work as perfect as possible ? When the third edition 
 appeared in 1815, it Avas, consequently, more than twice as large as the 
 first. My Historical Researches concerning the Greeks, forming the tirst 
 part of the European Nations, was published shortly after.
 
 XXIV BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 One thing that greatly extended this edition was the Researches upon 
 the ancient Indians, now first introduced into it, wliich occupied more 
 than half of the second volume. I had long felt it incumbent upon me to 
 include this interesting people within my inquiries, but had been deterred 
 from attempting it by the manifold difficulties of the subject. The great 
 events, liowever, which took place in Europe in 1813 and 1814, formed 
 an additional inducement for me to undertake this subject. These events 
 could scarcely fail to give a shock, or violent degree of excitement, to 
 every reflecting individual, and to myself among the rest. I felt, how- 
 ever, the necessity of retaining the mastery over my feelings, and not suf- 
 ferim»- them to carry me away : who, indeed, could require greater caution 
 in this respect than a teacher of liistory, daily giving lectures on similar 
 events ? In order effectually to guard against their influence, I saw no 
 better means than to fix myself in some distant land at some remote period 
 of its history, no way connected with the pi-esent ; and what people could 
 answer so well the conditions I required as the Hindoos ? Every day, 
 therefore, I devoted a few hours to this inquiry. Every thing connected 
 with Indian literature I sought for with avidity, and carefully studied ; 
 the lengthened blockade kept up by the English, however, prevented my 
 obtaining all I desired. The two years above mentioned I spent in the 
 selection and arrangement of my materials, and in 1815 appeared the fruits 
 of my labour in the third edition of my Researches, extra copies being 
 struck off and sold separately for those who possessed the former ones. 
 In this work it seemed to me of the first importance to determine the 
 point at which our knowledge of ancient India had arrived ; to this I have 
 devoted the whole of the first section. And though I have but little ex- 
 pectation of changing the opinions of others, who appear fully convinced of 
 the truth of their own hypotheses, yet I do hope that I have given to 
 readers who come fresh to the subject, a standard by which they will be 
 enabled to estimate their worth. The second section was by this means 
 left entire for the proper object of my work: the politics and commerce 
 of the ancient Indians. 
 
 If to the foregoing you now add, my dear friend, the fugitive pieces 
 which my connexion with the literary society established in this place 
 made it my duty to contribute to it, you will have a pretty accurate and 
 complete idea of my labours as a writer. As early as 1784 I was a visitor 
 of this society, and in 1789 I became a member. My connexion with 
 this society has been in the highest degree useful to me ; it answered the 
 purpose of its foundation by leading me to the most important historical 
 inquiries, and by obliging me to pursue them with assiduity. The fif- 
 teen or sixteen papers I wrote for it, are contained in the old and new 
 series of Dissertations, reckoning from the tenth volume of the former. 
 During the last ten years I have chosen for myself a new field of inquiry ; 
 namely, the sources whence the most celebrated historians and geographers 
 luive drawn their materials. You are acquainted with my labours, in this 
 way, upon Justin, Plutarch, and Strabo. By pursuing this inquiry, I 
 hvipe gradually to lay a soHd foundation for the criticisms of ancient 
 hi story ; and although the work may be too large for me to complete with- 
 out assistance, I look with some degree of confidence both fur helpers and 
 followers. Every one who has fiiirly examined the subject must acknow- 
 ledj^^e that this is the only means of attaining the object desired, and to
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XXV 
 
 whom can this work be so appropriately committed as to the society which 
 has made historical criticism its own peculiar province. For foreign re- 
 views and the academies, which have done me the honour to enrol me 
 among their members, my numerous avocations here have not allowed me 
 to write. The prize offered by the historical class of the French National 
 Institute, now again called the Academie des Inscriptions, of which I was 
 first chosen a correspondent and afterwards a member, (one of its associes 
 etrangers.) tempted me, however, in the year 1808, to enter the field as a 
 comjjetitor ; this I did chiefly at the instigation of my ever-honoured fi'iend 
 von Villers, who kindly offered to become my translator. The subject was, 
 " The Consequences of the Crusades." The courage with which the mem- 
 bers of this Institute reconstructed their down-fallen edifice, the central 
 point of scientific labour and exertion in France, even amidst the storms 
 of the Revolution, as well as the active share they took at the time when 
 our University here was threatened with danger, have ever induced me to 
 regard this institution with the highest veneration and respect. Long 
 may it last and flourish, for the benefit of science ! 
 
 I have now, my dear friend, gone over the whole of my professional la- 
 bours. You will see by this sketch that they are all connected by an 
 internal principle of union, and that they have all been directed to one 
 object ; an object, I admit, so far above my reach, that my highest ambition 
 Avas Hmited to making some slight approaches towards it. A fortunate 
 conflux of circumstances directed my attention to the consideration of the 
 history of the world, in relation to that point which in our days is become, 
 above all others, of the greatest importance, namely, the commercial-politi- 
 cal. If in this I have been to any extent successful, as a writer or teacher, 
 I owe it in a great measure to the age, which has lent itself, as it were, 
 to my assistance in the task. With other branches of science I have not 
 much concerned myself, beyond what was necessary to keep up a general 
 acquaintance with the growing improvements of tlie day. Thus, for instance, 
 none of the many philosophical systems which I have lived to see flourish 
 and fade, have had the slightest influence upon me ; whether to the benefit 
 or detriment of my historical efforts I must leave my readers to determine. 
 My own poetical vein was as good as completely dried up in my youth ; but 
 not my taste and feeling for poetry, which now, in my old age, is as warm 
 and as fresh as ever. The circle of poets in whom I found delight was 
 always a very limited one. Whether the study of the great models of an- 
 tiquity, upon which I have formed my taste, or the powerful creations of 
 Iphigenia, of Oberen, of Piccolomini, or both together, have spoiled me or 
 not, I cannot say, but I have never been able to comprehend how any one 
 could place by their side works which, though in the language of our 
 critics they have been " much spoken of," have, nevertheless, soon been 
 buried in oblivion, and which rather seem calculated to raise the hair on 
 end than touch tiie heart. French poetry has never had so great a charm 
 for me as French prose ; Shakspeare, tor whom my master of languages 
 soon gave me a dislike, I know rather from translations than from the 
 original. Of the Italians, on the other hand, I have read much, and Tasso 
 still remains for me the prince of modern c[)ic poets. With the great his- 
 torians and orators I liave had more to do; yet I never felt myself quali- 
 fied, however I may have desired it, to take any one in particular as a
 
 XXVI BIOGRAI'HICAL SKinCH. 
 
 model. Rhetorical pomp has always had a freezing effect upon me ; 
 while the simple grandeur of William Pitt has affected me beyond descrip- 
 tion. From all 1 deduced a rule, to which I have always adhered, of ex- 
 pressing my thoughts as naturally as possible, and so clearly, distinctly, 
 and properly, that no misunderstanding them could be feared. Such has 
 been my exercise as regards style ; I have resorted to no art, but at the 
 same time have been guilty of no neglect. Indeed it was always my high- 
 est ambition and earnest endeavour to be able to write. How few are 
 there now among us who can do the same ! To the rigid purists (I mean 
 purists in language) I do not belong. To sift our language of the words 
 we have borrowed from foreigners, and which are now in common use, I 
 hold would be to impoverish it ; to do so when writing upon strictly po- 
 litical matters, would be affected and pedantic. Still, wherever I have 
 found I could conveniently do without them, I have avoided them. It was 
 neither my object nor wish to write merely for schools, but for an enlight- 
 ened public. To unite both is diHicult. The art of leaving much unsaid 
 that might be said (an art rarely practised in our literature) is one of the 
 chief requisites to this end ; but in our schools this Avould be called a 
 making of statements upon insulRcient grounds — a lack of profundity, 
 however searcldngly and clearly the writer may have set forth and proved 
 them. 
 
 General extracts from books I never could make ; but always felt it 
 sufficient, in my researches, to make such as were necessary for my sub- 
 ject. The method of John v. Müller might suit him very well, and his 
 history of Switzerland. But had fate permitted him to have bi'ought to- 
 gether his various extracts, and to have formed of them the Mosaic history 
 of the world he intended, we might have had a very learned work, but it 
 would have breathed none of the life found in his spirited sketch of uni- 
 versal history. No, worthy John, only in the enthusiasm of youth could 
 you have expressed a desire to be able to carry on such a design even be- 
 yond the grave ! Should it be my fate ever to meet you in those regions 
 in which you now dwell, you will have something more exalted to show 
 me than books of extracts. 
 
 But enough, perhaps already too much, of myself! You now know the 
 man whose portrait you wished to possess as a commentary upon his 
 Avritin<i^s. Fear not, however, that in those writings he will obtrude him- 
 self upon your notice again. He will be sufficiently happy if his writings 
 should lead you to think him more worthy of your friendship ; and as you 
 now know to what purpose he has lived, may you be able to say with jus- 
 tice, he has not altogether lived in vain. Farewell.
 
 BIOGUAPIIICAL SKETCTl. 
 
 POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 Eighteen years, my dear friend, have now passed away since at your 
 request I gave you the foregoing sketch of my life. I did not then expect 
 that I should be called upon for a continuation of it, in the seventy-eighth 
 year of my age : I comply, however, the more readily with your desire, 
 as my uneventful life has given but few particulars to add. With regard 
 to my official duties, they have continued the same, as have also my lec- 
 tures. I have had the happiness of receiving continued marks of appro- 
 bation and an increasing number of hearers till the arrival of that age in 
 which the duties of the professor's chair, like all others, must be laid aside. 
 I indulge, too, the hope that my lectures, founded as they have been upon 
 those poUtical principles which are set forth in my writings, have not been 
 without use. I never laid much stress upon the mere number of my 
 hearers, still it recalls most agreeable reminiscences to my mind, when I 
 run over the long catalogue of my pupils, to find the names of men, not only 
 of Europe, but of all parts of the world, and of every rank and station, 
 who have risen to the highest eminence in literature and politics. The 
 remembrance that I have had at least some part in their education surely 
 cannot be attributed to me as an idle canity. Let me be allowed to add, 
 that many of the travellers whose bold enterprise has so much enlarged our 
 knowledge of the earth, have, during their preparation for the task at our 
 University, been my hearers and friends. The subjects of my lectures, in 
 general, have required that I should advance with the times in all those 
 departments of science to which they refer; and I have continued the 
 method of delivering them extemporaneously. You will, therefore, readily 
 believe that the continual studies and preparation i-equired for these have 
 taken up a considerable portion of my time. 
 
 My literary labours and duties have been increased in another way 
 which I did not expect : the editorship of our weekly literary journal, 
 {Göttmgische gelehrte Anzeigen,) \\'\\\q\\ is published under the sanction of 
 the Royal Society of Arts, was put into my hands by the directors of that 
 institution in 1827, and for eleven years it has been under my manage- 
 ment. This journal was commenced in the beginning of the year 1739, 
 shortly after the foundation of our University, and has been continued to 
 the present time without interruption ; so that at the end of the present 
 year it will have been established a century. It is by far the oldest of all 
 the literary periodicals of Germany, and Europe entire cannot show many 
 that have stood their ground so long. Among its former editors I must 
 mention Ilaller ; he was followed by ]\Iichaelis, and Heyne, my father-in- 
 law, who filled tliat oftice for foity-two years : upon his decease it passed 
 into the hands of Eichhorn, and at his death into mine, in the year above 
 mentioned. Its chief object is to make the literary world of Germany ac- 
 quainted with the pi'ogress made in science and letters, particularly in
 
 XXVUl inOGRAPIIICAL SKETCH. 
 
 foreign countries, by the publication of great and important works : and 
 it does tliis by criticisms and reviews of such publications as are purchased 
 for our great public library, or are sent for review by booksellers who pub- 
 lish scientific or other books tliey may deem worth our notice. It has been 
 conducted from the beginning with the most rigid impartiality the nature 
 of things would allow, and no complaint has been made, so far as I know, 
 of any departui-e from this course since it has been in my hands. 
 
 It is obvious that the management of this work, from the necessity it 
 imposes upon its editor of acquiring an insight into the very increasing 
 department of scientific literature, besides attending to the correspondence 
 connected with it, must consume a large portion of time. As most of the 
 articles, moreover, must be written in Gottingen, and this the rules of the 
 library render necessary, I have been obliged, in addition to its manage- 
 ment, to be one of its most active contributors. 
 
 These labours, and the loss of time they have occasioned, have not al- 
 lowed me suificient leisure to undertake any work of considerable extent ; 
 they have even prevented me, up to the present moment, from finishing 
 my " Historical Researches into the Politics and Commerce of the pi'inci- 
 pal Nations of Antiquity." I am now engaged upon the last volume, 
 which is devoted to the investigation of the commerce of the Greeks. I 
 have never, however, lost sight of the great object of this my principal 
 work ; but have made use of my connexion "ndth the literary and scientific 
 society of this place, to explain certain points connected ^vith it, in the 
 papers wliich I have furnished to tliis learned body. Two of these, one 
 on the Commerce of Palmyra, and the other on the Commerce of Ceylon, 
 during the period of antiquity and the middle ages, have been incorporated 
 in the English translation of my works. A third was translated and 
 published in numbers 1027 and 1028 of the Literary Gazette of London, 
 in the year 1836, on the Interior of Himalaya, more pai'ticularly on Lit- 
 tle Thibet, in which I have shown that this country, as early as the period 
 of the old Persian monarchy, was the seat of industry and commerce, more 
 especially of weaving and dyeing. And I feel the stronger desire that 
 this treatise should be appended to the English translation of my works, 
 as it is chiefly compiled from the statements of British travellers, and is 
 important as respects the now reviving commerce of India. 
 
 The remainder of my time has been chiefly occupied with the prepar- 
 ation of new editions of my various works, to each of which I have made 
 numerous corrections and additions Both my Manuals have passed 
 through five genuine editions, besides several pirated ones in Southerii 
 Germany. Nor has the circulation of my writings been confined to my 
 native country ; they have been spread to a much wider extent abroad by 
 the translations of wliich they have been thought worthy. JNIy two Manuals 
 have been published in almost every European language ; ten translations 
 I know of, and many of these have passed through several editions. I 
 willingly confess that the favourable reception of my works among so many 
 nations of the earth has been the highest gratification my literary life has 
 afibrded me. It would be false modesty to deny it. Every author writes 
 to be read ; and this great success of my works gives me the more pleasure, 
 as it seems to me a proof of the truth and soundness of the political prin- 
 ciples I have laid down. I hope it vail not be deemed an idle compliment
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XXKK 
 
 for me to add, that the favour shown to my writings by the British pub- 
 lic has given me heartfelt pleasure. To an author who has made the his- 
 tory of politics, commerce, and colonies his principal object, the approba- 
 tion of no other people could be so satisfactory as that, which in its home 
 policy has shown us, by a great example, that constitutions, as they ad- 
 vance in age, may be improved without being destroyed ; while abroad, 
 it has founded colonies in every quarter of the globe, and thus carried 
 European civilization and Christianity into the most distant regions of tlie 
 earth. 
 
 If in addition to this I may be allowed to hope that I have somewhat 
 enlivened the study of history by treating it in the manner which I have 
 thou^lit best calculated to render it cheering and inviting to the friends of 
 humanity, and that I have increased the love of it, especially in the rising 
 generation, I shall consider it the highest reward I could receive for my 
 labours. 
 
 It was naturally to be expected that works so extensively circulated 
 would meet with adversaries. These I never attempted to answer, except 
 where it seemed absolutely necessary ; but it has been a great satisfaction 
 to me, that many of them have since held out a friendly hand towards me : 
 among these I may mention Niebuhr, Avhose early death we have so much 
 reason to regret, and A. W. Schlegel, to whom all interested in Sanscrit 
 literature are so deeply indebted. 
 
 In addition to what I have done by my own pen, I have felt bound, as 
 often as occasion offered, to lend my aid in the promotion of historical 
 science. When, therefore, a proposal was made to me by Mr. F. Perthes, 
 one of our most respectable publishers, to superintend, in conjunction Avith 
 Professor Uckert of Gotha, a history of all the states of Europe, I frankly 
 accepted it. This Avork was commenced in 1 829, since which time twenty- 
 eight volumes have been published by twelve different authors. The liis- 
 tories of four nations are already completed : namely, Germany, Italy, the 
 Netherlands, and Saxony ; while the history of eight others is more or less 
 advanced. One of these, the History of England by Dr. Lappcnberg of 
 Hamburg, is known in that country by the tAvo volumes which have al- 
 ready been published, embracing the earlier period of British history, and 
 is esteemed even there for its learning and research.* 
 
 I have also taken advantage of my oiUcial situation as member of the 
 Society of Arts and of the Faculty of Philosophy at Gottingcn, to clear 
 up several obscure portions of history by proposing them as subjects for 
 prize essays. Those proposed by myself have all been answered to the 
 satisfaction of the Society. The two principal essays among these are, 
 The History of Byzantine Commerce down to the end of the Crusades, by 
 A. E. Hiillmann, professor at Bonn, 1808 ; and, of stiU more importance, 
 The History of the Commerce of the Arabians, with nearly all parts of the 
 world, under the Abassides, 1836, by Dr. Stiive of Berlin, Avho, unfortu- 
 nately, has been snatched from us by an early death. The questions pro- 
 posed to the students of the Faculty were concerning some of the ancient 
 Greek colonies, and drew forth sevei'al very useful papers (monographs) 
 upon Rhodes, in the Macedonian period, Corcyra, on the condition of 
 Athens under the Romans, etc. 
 
 * A translation of tliis work into English is, I believe, in progress. — Tuans.
 
 XXX 15I0GKAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 Thus, my dear friend, I have endeavoured to give you some notion of 
 the literary labours of my riper years. My advanced age has procured 
 me the honour of a double jubilee; the first, the fiftieth anniversary of my 
 Doctor's degree, which fell on the 29th of May, 1834, ■wns a public jubilee; 
 the second, the fiftieth anniversary of my professorship, on the 27th of 
 August, 1837, at my own request, was a private one. At the first I was 
 made a knight of the Guelphic order, by William the Fourth, our late 
 much regretted sovereign ; at the last, which happened just before the 
 centenary jubilee of our University, the ribbon of the Legion of Honour 
 was conferred upon me by the king of the French. I had already been 
 honoured with the order of 'The North Star' by the king of Sweden. 
 
 ]My days are now dwindled to so short a span, that the remainder of my 
 life cannot add much to this sketch. May the hope be realized with which 
 I finished my former letter, that I have not entirely lived in vain. 
 
 Göttingen, April, 1838.
 
 MANUAL 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two 
 heads ; the ancient winters, and the monuments still extant. 
 The various writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at 
 the diiferent divisions of this work. A general view of the 
 ancient monuments, so far as they are sources of history, wiU 
 be found in : 
 
 Obeklin, Orbis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati prints 
 linecs. Argentorati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many dis- 
 coveries have been made since it was published. 
 
 II. General Treatises ox Ancient History. 
 
 1. The more voluminous woi'ks on the subject. These may 
 be divided into two classes : a. The part appropriated to ancient 
 history, in the general treatises on universal history ; b. Works 
 exclusively devoted to ancient history. 
 
 a. To the first class belong : 
 
 The Universal History, ancient and modern ; with maps and 
 additions. Lond. 1736, 26 vols, folio. Reprinted in 8vo, in 
 67 vols., and again in 60 vols., with omissions and additions. 
 
 This work, compiled by a society of Bi'itish scholars, has 
 been transhited into German, and illustrated with remarks, by 
 SiEGM. Jag. Bai;:mgarten. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans 
 frequently designate it by the name of the Halle Universal His- 
 tory of the World : the first eighteen vols, comprise the ancient 
 part. 
 
 Wile. Guthrie, John Gray, etc. General History of the 
 World, frotn the creation to the present time. London, 1764 — 
 1767, 12 vols. 8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original, 
 is rendered valuable and useful by the labours of the German 
 translator, C. G. Heyne, {Leip. 1766, 8vo,) who has corrected 
 the erroi-s, inserted the dates, and added Ids OAvn observations. 
 
 b. To the second class belong : 
 
 RoLLiN, Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, 
 des Assyriens, des Mc'des et des Perses, des Maccdoniens, des 
 
 B
 
 2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Grecs. Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo ; revue par Letronne : the 
 last and best edition. This work, which greatly promoted the 
 study of ancient history in France, still maintains its well- 
 earned reputation. [It was translated into English, 1768: 
 best edition, 7 vols. 8vo : frequently reprinted.] The above is 
 generally accompanied by the Histoire Romaine of the same 
 author. See below, book v. first period. Sources. 
 
 Jac. Ben. Bossuet, Discours stir VHistoire Universelle. 
 Paris, 1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by 
 the French one of their classics. 
 
 [English translation, by Rich. Spencer. London, 1730, 8vo.] 
 
 MiLLOT, EUmens de VHistoire Generale. Paris, 1772, sq. 
 [Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo: and again, an 
 improved edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. 
 The ancient history is contained in the first two volumes. 
 
 f JOH. ]Matth. Schroeckh, General History of the World, 
 for the use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq., 6 vols. 
 
 I J. G. Eichhorn, History of the Ancient World, 1799, third 
 edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.) 
 
 f Dan. G. J. Huebler, Sketch of the General History of the 
 Nations of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the 
 Roman commonivealth. Freyberg, 1798 — 1802. Five parts ; 
 and a continuation : History of the Romans under the Emperors, 
 and of the contemporary Nations, imtil the great migration, 
 1803 ; three parts. A work rendered extremely useful, by the 
 judicious advantage taken by the author of the labours of other 
 writers. 
 
 •j" H. Luden, General History of Nations. 1814 ; three parts. 
 
 |L. von Dresch, General Political History. 1815; three 
 parts. Li each of the above works the first part contains the 
 ancient history, and exhibits the more modern views of the 
 subject. 
 
 [The following is added, as well deserving the attention of 
 the English student ; Ralegh (Sir Walter) History of the 
 World, Part I. extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; 
 with his Life and Trial, by Mr. Oldys. Lond. 1736, 2 vols, 
 folio. Formerly the best edition ; but a new and improved one 
 has been printed at the Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 
 vols. 8vo.] 
 
 IF. VON Raumer, Lectures on Ancient History, parts 1, 2. 
 Berlin, 1821. 
 
 Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization, 
 government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly 
 speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very 
 closely connected with the subject. Among these may be men- 
 tioned : 
 
 GoGUET, De rOrigine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et 
 de leurs progres chez les anciens peuples ; nouv. edit. Paris, 
 1778. [Translated by Dr. Dunn and Mr. Speeriian. Edinb. 
 1761—1775, 3 vols. 8vo.] 
 
 f A. H. L. Heeren, Histoi-ical Researches into the Politics,
 
 INTRODUCTION. o 
 
 Intercourse, and Trade of the Pi-incipal Nations of Antiquity. 
 Third edition, with many additions. Gottingen, 181ö, 8vo. ; 
 the third part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [Tliis 
 edition, the last, contains many improvements and additions, 
 sugge.sted by the great discoveries of modern travellers. Part 
 I. Asiatic Nations, in 3 vols. Persians, Phoenicians, Babylo- 
 nians, Scythians, Indians. Part II. African Nations, 2 vols. 
 Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians. Part III. European 
 Nations : Greeks.] An English translation of these valuable 
 Researches has been published in 6 vols. 8vo. Oxford, Talboys. 
 
 2. Manuals, or epitomes. 
 
 The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first pro- 
 duced manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some ex- 
 cellent, in their kind : they are a result of the progress made in 
 this science at the universities. 
 
 j" J. Chr. Gatterer, Attempt at an Universal History of 
 the World to the discovery of America. Gottingen, 1792. He 
 who possesses this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, 
 may dispense with the earlier manuals published by that author. 
 
 f Chr. Dax. Beck, A Short Introduction to the Knowledge 
 of the Universal History of the World and of Nature. Leip- 
 zic, 1798. Tlie first part connected with our subject extends 
 to A. D. 843. This volume is enriched with such a copious 
 and critical account of books relating to ancient history, that 
 it may supply the place of a particular work on the subject. 
 
 f J, A. Remer, Manual of the more Ancient History, from 
 the creation of the ivorld to the great migration. Fourth edition. 
 Brunswick, 1832. 
 
 f J. M. ScHROECKH, Mamial of Universal History. 1774 : 
 latest edition, 179.5. 
 
 f G. S. Bredow, Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch 
 of the chronology of the ancients. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Trans- 
 lated into English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have: 
 
 The Outlines of History, in 1 vol., (forming part of Lardner's 
 Cabinet Cyclopedia,) by ]\Ir. Keightly, author of a learned 
 and highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient 
 abridgement. Tvtler's Elements of General History, im- 
 proved and continued by Dr. Nares, Lond. 1825, best edition ; 
 owes its reputation and success to the want of a better work on 
 the subject.] 
 
 3. Helps. 
 
 Among the woi'ks subservient to the study of ancient his- 
 tory, the first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables. 
 
 f D. G. J. Huebler, Synchronistic Tables of the History of 
 Nations ; arranged principally according to Gatterer's Ifis- 
 tory of the World. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 
 and 1804. 
 
 1. The object of Political History is to re- o>J'''='°'^ 
 count the destinies of nations, botli in respect to '*°'^^' 
 their foreign relations and internal affairs. In regard 
 
 B 2
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Divided 
 into three 
 parts : 
 
 first, to 
 A. D. 500, 
 
 second, to 
 A. D. 1500, 
 
 third, to 
 our own 
 times. 
 
 Commence- 
 ment of 
 political 
 history. 
 
 to domestic concerns, one of its most important ob- 
 jects is the liistori/ of govcnimoits : in respect to 
 external aftairs, it comprises not only an account of 
 the wars, but likewise of the friendly relations and 
 intercourse with other states. 
 
 Observe here the difference between universal history, or ge- 
 neral history of the human race, and the history of nations : the 
 latter forms part of the former. Observe also the difference 
 between political history and that of civihzation, or of man as a 
 human being : the latter is merely the histoiy of man, as man, 
 without regard to political circumstances. 
 
 2. Universal political history is usually divided 
 into three parts : ancient history, that of the middle 
 ages, and modern history. The first extends to the 
 fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took 
 place towards the close of the fifth century of the 
 Christian era ; the second extends to the discovery 
 of America, and of a passage by sea to the East 
 Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century ; the 
 third extends from the commencement of the six- 
 teenth century to the present time. 
 
 The propriety of the above division is evinced by the natnre 
 of the events which form these epochs. The student will easily 
 perceive that the division of history, into that before and after 
 the birth of Christ, is not judicious. 
 
 3. From the definition just given, it follows, that 
 political history does not commence till after the first 
 formation of states. Whatever is known, therefore, 
 of the period previous to this, or may be gathered 
 from traditions, respecting individuals or tribes, or 
 their migrations, aflSnities, or discoveries, forms no 
 part of political history, but must be referred to the 
 general history of man. 
 
 It is well known that a great deal of information has been 
 preserved in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes 
 of the human race. From these materials have been compiled 
 what has been called an Historia Antedihiviana, sometimes 
 considered as forming a separate division of history. What 
 has been said above will satisfactorily account for the omission 
 of this portion of history in the present work ; although none 
 can deny the high importance of such traditions in the investi- 
 gation of the origin, dispersion, and civilization of the human 
 race.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 4. The sources of history may be ranged under Sources of 
 two general heads ; oral traditions, and written do- ^'^'°'"y '• 
 cuments of various kinds. The history of every na- 
 tion usually commences with oral tradition, which 
 remains the only source, until the art of writing- be- 
 comes known, and in some degree adopted by the 
 people. 
 
 5. Under the name of traditional history or mij- mythology, 
 thology, is comprehended all the general collection 
 
 of oral traditions preserved by a nation ; and some 
 such traditional history or mythology is to be found 
 among every people in the first stage of their exist- 
 ence as a community. This mythology, however, 
 is by no means confined to events strictly historical, 
 but embraces every branch of information which may 
 appear to a nation in its infancy, of sufficient import- 
 ance to be preserved and handed down to posterity. 
 
 Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of 
 very heterogeneous materials ; it not only preserves the remem- 
 brance of various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the per- 
 vading ideas of the people with respect to the natui-e and wor- 
 ship of their deities ; as well as the notions they had formed 
 from observations and experience respecting astronomy, morals, 
 the arts, etc. All these are handed down in the form of his- 
 torical narrative ; because man, as yet unpractised in abstract 
 thinking, necessarily represents every thing to his mind under 
 the figure of some physical object. It is just as useless, there- 
 fore, to attempt to mould the mythology of any people into a 
 consistent and connected whole, or indeed into any scientific 
 system whatsoever, as it is difficult to draw a strict line between 
 what belongs to mythology, and what to pure history. It fol- 
 lows, therefore, that mythology sliould be employed by the his- 
 torian with great caution ; and not without judicious criticism, 
 and an accurate knowledge of antiquity. 
 
 These correct vicAvs of mythology, — the key to the whole of 
 earlier antiquity, — were fi.rst set forth and illustrated by Heyne 
 in his commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition 
 of Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Trans- 
 actions of the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to 
 the aid of these that the Germans owe their superiority over 
 other nations in the science of antiquity. 
 
 6. The place of writing among such nations, is poetry, 
 generally supplied, in a great measure, by poetry ; 
 which being in its origin nothing more than imagery 
 expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously
 
 6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 arise among men, as yet wont to represent every 
 thing to their minds under the form of images. 
 Hence the subject matter of the poetry of every na- 
 tion, while in a state of rudeness, is and can be 
 nothing else but its mythology ; and the great variety 
 in the materials of which this is composed very na- 
 turally gave rise, at the same early period, to various 
 kinds of poetry ; as the lyric, the didactic, the epic. 
 The last of these, inasmuch as it contains the historic 
 songs and the epopee, claims in a more especial man- 
 ner the attention of the historian. 
 
 The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) 
 were in later times frequently collected from the works of the 
 poets, and committed to writing by grammarians ; such as Apol- 
 lodorus and others. This, however, can have had no etfect on 
 their original character. 
 
 written 7. The sccoud source of history, much more copi- 
 
 ' ous and important than the former, are the various 
 kinds of written monuments. These may be ar- 
 ranged, according to the order of time at which they 
 were brought into use, into three classes ; 1st, In- 
 scriptions on public monuments, under which head 
 are included the coins of later date ; 2nd, Chrono- 
 logical records of events, under the form of annals and 
 chronicles ; 3rd, Real philosophical works on history. 
 
 inscriptions, g, Iiiscriptioiis on public monumcuts erected to 
 preserve the remembrance of certain events, though 
 perhaps no more than a stone set upright, or even a 
 bare rock, was used for that purpose, were undoubt- 
 edly the most ancient written memorials. These 
 rude monuments became fashioned by art into co- 
 lumns, obelisks, and pyramids, as the taste of the 
 nation became formed ; and assumed that definite 
 character which local circumstances and the natural 
 features of the country led it to adopt, as architecture 
 arose, and attained to perfection among them. The 
 very object, indeed, for which they were erected — 
 the commemoration of remarkable events, — must 
 have suggested the practice of inscribing upon them 
 some particulars of the facts they were intended to 
 perpetuate. Of this nature, no doubt, were the old-
 
 INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 est monuments, and more particularly those of Egypt. 
 Their use was much more general among nations of 
 a later period, especially Greece and Rome, than 
 among the moderns ; yet of the great mass of in- 
 scriptions still extant, but few comparatively are of 
 any importance as regards history. 
 
 The characters engraved on these monuments Avere either 
 symbolical, (hieroglyphics ; see below under Egypt,) or alpha- 
 betical. The invention and transmission of alphabetical writing 
 ai'e commonly ascribed to the Phoenicians ; although, if we may 
 judge by the shape of the arrow-headed character, it was made, 
 without communication with them, in the interior of Asia. 
 
 The general collections of inscriptions are : 
 
 Lud. Amt. ISIuratori, ä^ovus Thesaurus veterwn Inscrip- 
 tionum. Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with Seb. 
 Don ATI, Supplemetita. Luccte, 1764. Jan. Gkuteri, Inscrip- 
 tiones antiquce totius orbis Romani, cura J. G. Gr^vh. Am- 
 stel. 1707, 2 vols. fol. 
 
 C. A. BoEKHius, Corpus Inscriptionum Grcecarum, aucto- 
 ritate et impensis Academiat literarum Borussicce, vol. i., 1827, 
 folio. 
 
 Among the separate monuments, the most important for an- 
 cient history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, Marmora Ox- 
 07iiensia ArundcUana, edited by Selden, 1629 ; by Prideaux, 
 1677. The best edition is by Ricn. Chandler, Oxf. 1763, fol. 
 A useful and portable edition has been published by Fr. Ch. 
 Wagner, containing the Crreek text, ivith a German translation 
 and notes. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo. 
 
 9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source of coins, 
 ancient history, as by the light they throw upon ge- 
 nealogy and chronology, the events known from other 
 authorities may be better arranged and understood. 
 The importance of coins, therefore, becomes most 
 sensible in those portions of history where our in- 
 formation, in consequence of the loss of the works of 
 the original historians, is reduced to a few insulated 
 facts and fragments. 
 
 Ez. SPANHEMir, Dissertatio de Usu et PrcEstantia Numisma- 
 tum. Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, 
 however, on this subject, and which embraces the whole numis- 
 matic science of anticpiity, is, 
 
 KcKUKi., De Uoctrina Nnmniorum Vcteruin. Vienna*, 1792 
 — 1798, 8 vols. 4to. And the ei)itonu-, 
 
 lEcKiiEL, Brief Elements of Ancient Numisr)iatics. Vienna, 
 1707, 8vo. Another very useful work is.
 
 8 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 anuals, 
 
 regular 
 histories. 
 
 Chronology 
 and Geo- 
 graphy. 
 
 J. C. Rascue, Lexicon Universce Bei Nummari(B Veterum. 
 1785, sq. 5 vols. 8vo. 
 
 10. Chronicles or annals form the second great 
 division of written historical monuments. These 
 presuppose the invention of letters, and the use of 
 materials for writing upon ; consequently they are 
 of a later date than mere inscriptions. They occur, 
 nevertheless, in the earlier periods of nations ; and 
 from such annals, indited by public authority, (state 
 chronicles,) subsequent historians have generally 
 drawn materials for their works. In many nations, 
 and in nearly all the eastern ones, history has not 
 even yet advanced beyond the composition of such 
 chronicles. 
 
 11. The third great division of historical writings 
 is formed of works composed on philosophical prin- 
 ciples, which differ from mere annals by their con- 
 taining not only a chronological narration of events, 
 but also a development of their connexion with one 
 another, their causes and effects. 
 
 But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none 
 among the ancients, except the Greeks and Eomans, that had 
 any acquaintance with this sort of history. A fact which may 
 be attributed, — 1st, To the government ; for the more com- 
 pletely the affairs of a nation are under the control of arbitrary 
 power and caprice, whether of one or more individuals, so much 
 the less apparent is a rational internal connexion of events. 
 Hence philosophical history flourishes most under free govern- 
 ments ; and has not even a shadow of existence under pure de- 
 spotic constitutions. 2nd, To the degree of civilization to 
 which the nation may have attained : for the observing and un- 
 ravelling of the political connexion of events presupposes a con- 
 siderable progress in philosophical culture. 
 
 12. Since all events are considered in reference to 
 the time and place in which they occur, it follows 
 that geography and chronology are indispensable as 
 auxiliary sciences in the study of history, especially 
 the ancient. These sciences, however, need not, for 
 this purpose, be considered in their full extent and 
 detail, but only so far as they are of use in determin- 
 ing and arranging events according to time and place. 
 A fixed mode of computing time is therefore neces-
 
 INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 saiy in ancient history, as well as a continuous geo- 
 graphical description of the countries which were the 
 theatres of the principal events. 
 
 13. No method of computing time was adopted Eras. 
 generally in antiquity. Each nation, each state, had 
 its own era : yet, in the explication of ancient history, 
 there is an evident necessity that some common era 
 should be fixed upon, by which a synchronistic view 
 of the various events may be obtained. For this pur- 
 pose, the years may be computed either from the 
 creation of the world, or before and after Christ. 
 The latter method has the advantage not only of 
 greater certainty, but also of greater convenience. 
 
 Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are 
 those of the Greeks and the Romans ; the former by olympiads, 
 the latter by years from the foundation of Rome. The era of 
 the olympiads commences at B. C. 776 ; that of the foundation 
 of Rome commences at B. C. 753, according to Varro ; at B. C. 
 752, according to Cato. — The era of the Seleucida?, in the Sy- 
 rian empire, commences with B. C. 312. — Various other eras, 
 such as that of Nabonnassar, commencing with B. C. 747, are 
 founded on observations preserved by Ptolemy, and made known 
 by Scaliger, in his Doctrina Temporum. 
 
 Chronology constitutes a distinct science : the best introduc- 
 tion to which will be found in, 
 
 fj. C. Gatterer, Epitome of Chronology. Gottingen, 
 1777. A most excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately 
 been communicated to the public by, 
 
 ■j" L. loELER, Historic Researches into the Astronomical Ob- 
 servations of the Ancients. Berlin, 1806. 
 
 f 1). H. Hegewiscii, Introduction to Historical Chronology ; 
 1811. A very useful and portable work. 
 
 [In English we have the laborious Avork of Dr. Hales, 
 
 Hales (Will:m.) New Analysis of Chronology, explaining 
 the History and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, 
 etc. Lond. 1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and 
 improved, 1830, 4 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Blair's Chronology and Historj/ of the World, from the Cre- 
 ation to the present Time. Lond. 1803, folio. 
 
 And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfac- 
 tory volumes, 
 
 II. F. Clynton's Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary 
 Chronology of Greece, from the ßfty-ßfth to the hundred and 
 twcnty-fmrth Olympiad. Second edition, with additions. Ox- 
 ford, 1827, 4to. And the continuation of the same work to the 
 death of Augustus. Oxford, 1830, 4to. In this valuable work, 
 much light is also thrown upon the chronology of the times an-
 
 10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 terior to the period witli which the first volume is principally 
 occupied.] 
 
 Geo-raphy, 14, Jn aiicient geooraphv there is much care re- 
 caiandtriie. quirecl to distinguish the labulous irom the true. 
 With regard to true geography, as an auxihary sci- 
 ence to history, all that can be expected is some ge- 
 neral information respecting the nature and pecu- 
 liarities of the countries, respecting their political 
 divisions, and finally, respecting the principal cities : 
 ■ — Long lists of the names of places would be quite 
 superfluous. 
 
 Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of 
 every nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by 
 every early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth 
 are peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light 
 as civilization increases, and discovery widens its horizon. — Ne- 
 cessity of treating it historically, on account of the manifold 
 changes to which the division and the face of the countries of 
 the ancient world have been at various periods sul)jected. 
 
 Chkistoph. Cellarii i\'o#^V^a Orbis Antiqid. Lips. 1701 — 
 1706, 2 vols. 4to, cum observed. J. C. Schwarzii. Lips. 1771, 
 et iterum 1773. This work was for a long time the only, and 
 is still an indispensable, treatise on ancient geography. 
 
 ■j" H. ]\1anxert, Geography of the Greeks and Romans. Nu- 
 remberg, 1788 — 1802. This work, now completed in 15 vo- 
 lumes, may be justly designated classical, from the historical 
 and critical learning which the author has every where displayed. 
 Vol. I. contains Spain ; ii. Gallia et Bi-itain ; iii. Germania, 
 Rhaetia, Noricum ; iv. The Northern parts of the World, from 
 the Wessel to China ; v. India and the Persian Empire to the 
 Euphrates, 2 parts ; vi, Asia jNIinor, 3 parts ; vii. Thrace, 
 Illyria, Älacedonia, Thessaly, Epirus ; vui. Northern Greece, 
 Peloponnesus, and the Archipelago ; ix. Italy and Sicily, Sai*- 
 dinia, etc., 2 parts ; x. Africa, 2 parts. 
 
 •j" F. A. Ukert, Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from 
 the earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy : first part, first divi- 
 sion, contains the historical, the second contains the mathema- 
 tical sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps. 
 
 GossELiN, Geographie des Grecs analysee. Paris, 1790, 
 4to. A development of the system of mathematical geography 
 among the Greeks. Partly continued in, 
 
 GossELiN, Recherches sur la Geographie des Anciens. Paris, 
 an. vi. vol. i — iv. 
 
 J. Eexnel, Geographical System of Herodotus. Lond. 
 1800, 4to. 
 
 [Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, 
 for the benefit of the English reader may be mentioned, 
 
 Kernel's Treatise on the Comparative Geography of West-
 
 INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 em Asia, tcith an atlas. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo ; pub- 
 lished since the author's death. And the learned and valuable 
 volumes of Dr. Crazier, princijial of" New Inn Hall, and pub- 
 lic orator of the University of Oxford : they are, 
 
 Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, 
 with a. map, and plan of Athens. Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, 
 with a map. Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, 
 with a map. Oxfoixl, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Tlie maps which accompany these works approach very nearly 
 to perfection. 
 
 As useful compendiums, there are : 
 
 An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes 
 of A?icient and Modern Names, by Peter Ed. Laurent, 
 teacher in the Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, 
 1813, 8vo. 
 
 A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the 
 use of Eton School ; illustrating the most interesting points i?i 
 History, Poetry, and Fahle ; preceded by an Introduction to the 
 study of Astronomy, and containing plans of Athetis, Borne, Sy- 
 racuse, a?id numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the 
 heavenly bodies, by Aaron Arrowsjiith, Hydrographer to the 
 Kinir, 1 vol. 8vo, with or without a copious index. London, 
 1830. 
 
 Butler's (Dr. Sam.) Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geo- 
 graphy. Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his Atlas of Ancient 
 Geography, consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a com- 
 plete accentuated index. 8vo.] 
 
 AVe are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient 
 geography : Atlas Orbis Antiqui, twelve leaves, fol. 
 
 [Tlie Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern 
 Geography, Avith the index, published in several sizes ; and 
 the Älaps published by the Society for the Promotion of Useful 
 Knowledge, are very useful and correct.] 
 
 15. Ancient history may be treated either ethno- Division 
 graphically, that is, according to separate nations Manual. 
 and states ; or synchronistically, that is, according to 
 certain general epochs. Each of these methods has 
 its advantages and its disadvantages. The two, how- 
 ever, may be combined, and formed into one system ; 
 and as this seems the most convenient, it has been 
 adopter! in the present work, which is accordingly 
 divided as follows : 
 
 First Book. — History of the ancient Asiatic and 
 African states and kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, of to 
 the rise of the Persian monarchy, about the year
 
 12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 B. C. 560 : comprising little more than insulated 
 frapjments. 
 
 Second Book. — History of the Persian monarchy, 
 from B. C. 560 to 330. 
 
 Third Book. — History of the Grecian states, both 
 in Greece and other parts, to the time of Alexander, 
 B. C. 336. 
 
 Fourth Book. — History of the Macedonian mon- 
 archy, and of the kingdoms which arose out of its 
 division, until they merged into the Roman empire. 
 
 Fifth Book. — History of the Roman state, both 
 as a commonwealth and a monarchy, until the fall of 
 the western empire, A. D. 476.
 
 MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK. 
 
 HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND 
 AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, 
 OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 I.— ASIATIC NATIONS. 
 
 General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia. 
 
 See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics 
 and Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. i. 
 of the African Nations. 
 
 1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably asia. 
 situated of the great divisions of the globe. Its "^ ~ 
 superficial contents are 11,200,000 square geogr. situation. 
 miles ; while those of Africa do not exceed 4,780,000 ; 
 
 and those of Europe are not more than 2,560,000. 
 As to situation, it comprises the greatest portion of 
 the northern temperate zone. 
 
 Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of 
 the globe, especially Africa. — Advantages over the latter, in 
 consequence of tlie convenience of its indented shores — of its 
 surrounding fruitful islands — of its deep gulfs and large streams 
 — the few sandy deserts in its interior. 
 
 2. Natural features, and consequent division of Natural 
 the land, according to the course of the larger moun- 
 tain chains and of the principal rivers.
 
 14 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Divisions ; 
 
 Northern 
 Asia. 
 
 Central 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Southern 
 Asia. 
 
 Two great mountain chains run from west to east ; in the 
 north, the Altai (nameless in antiquity) : in the south, Taurus. 
 — Branches of both : the Caucasus, between the Black and Cas- 
 pian Seas : Imaus extending along the golden desert (desert of 
 Cobi) : the Paropamisus, on the north of India : the Ural 
 (nameless in antiquity). — Of the rivers remarkable in ancient 
 history, there are four flowing from north to south, namely, the 
 Euphrates and Tigris, which fiiU into the Persian Gulf; the 
 Indus and Ganges, which fall into the Indian Sea : two which 
 run from east to west, and discharged their waters into the 
 Caspian Sea, (but now into the Sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus 
 (or Jilion) and the Jaxartes (or Sirr). 
 
 3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly divided 
 into Northern Asia, comprising the regions north of 
 Altai ; Central Asia, or the countries between the 
 Altai and Taurus ; and Southern Asia, or the lands 
 south of Taurus. 
 
 4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th pa- 
 rallels of north latitude, (Asiatic Russia and Siberia,) 
 was almost, though not entirely, unknown in anti- 
 quity. Some obscure hints, though partly true, re- 
 specting it, are found in Herodotus, the father of 
 history. 
 
 5. Central Asia, the regions extending between 
 the 50th and 40th degrees of north latitude, Scythia 
 and Sarmatia Asiatica (Great Tartary and Mongol) ; 
 for the most part a boundless, barren table land, de- 
 void of arable fields or forests ; and consequently a 
 mere country of pasture. — The inhabitants pastors, 
 (nomads,) without cities or fixed abodes ; recognising 
 no other political association than patriarchal go- 
 vernment. 
 
 Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations : pow- 
 erful influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on 
 political history. — Whether we have a right to expect that the 
 civilization of the human race will for ever continue to advance, 
 when we consider that perhaps one half of it has from time im- 
 memorial remained, and from its physical situation must for 
 ever remain, in a nomad state. 
 
 6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th 
 degree of N. lat. to about the equator. — Its natural 
 features altogether different from those of Central 
 Asia. The great advantages of these regions com- 
 pared with all other parts of the earth, in possessing
 
 BOOK I.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 15 
 
 a soil and climate hio-hly favourable for agriculture ; asia. 
 and an abundance of various costly productions. To 
 these circumstances may be attributed, 1st, The adop- 
 tion of fixed habitations and political associations in 
 these countries, from the earliest times. 2ndly, Their 
 becoming the principal seat of trade, from the in- 
 fancy of civilization to the discovery of America. 
 
 Reflections upon the rise of political associations. — Whether, 
 according to the general opinion, tliey were produced soleli/ by 
 agriculture and the possession of land ; or, whether religion, by 
 which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the na- 
 tional god, (communia sacra,) was not the main bond which 
 united the earliest states of antiquity ? — How shall we account 
 for the very remarkable fact, that in the earliest civil societies 
 in the world, the priesthood is generally found to be a ruling 
 caste. — Reflections on early ti*ade, particularly that of the East, 
 before it was changed, by the discovery of America and the 
 new passage to India, from a land trade to a sea trade. — Ob- 
 servations upon ancient commercial routes across Asia. — The 
 banks of the large rivers destined by nature to become the seats 
 of commerce for the interior ; on the Oxus, Bactra and Mara- 
 canda (Samarcand); on the Euphrates and Tigris, Babylon. — 
 The sea slioi*es on the western coast of Asia Minor and Phoe- 
 nicia, pointed out also by nature as places of commerce ; — line 
 of Grecian and Phoenician factories. 
 
 7. Division of Southern Asia. 1st, South-western 
 Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Indus ; 2nd, 
 South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to the eastern 
 ocean. 
 
 A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into 
 the countries — 1st, on this side the Euphrates — 
 2ndly, between the Euphrates and Tigris — 3rdly, 
 between the Tigris and the Indus. 
 
 1. Countries ou this side the Euphnttes. 
 
 (a) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). Prin- Asia Minor. 
 cipal rivers : the Halys and Sangarius. Countries : 
 three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, Caria. Along 
 the shore, the Greek sea-ports of Phocaea, Ephesus, 
 Miletus, Smyrna, Halicarnassus, etc. Inland, the 
 cities of Sardes in Lydia, of Pergamus in Mysia. 
 
 Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, and 
 Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus. 
 
 Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, 
 Pontus ; with the Greek ports of Heraclea, Amisus,
 
 16 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Islands. 
 
 Syria. 
 
 Phoenicia. 
 
 Palestine. 
 
 Arabia. 
 
 Mesopota- 
 mia. 
 
 Armenia. 
 
 and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together with 
 Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium and Celae- 
 nse ; Cappadocia, with the city of Mazaca. 
 
 (/>) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor : Lesbos, 
 with the city of Mitylene ; Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, 
 with cities of the same name. 
 
 (c) Syria, together with Phoenicia and Palestine. 
 1st, Syria, properly so called. Cities : Damascus, 
 Emessa, Heliopolis (Baalbec). In the desert, Pal- 
 myra. 2nd, Phoenicia, a mountainous tract, extend- 
 ing along the shore. Mountains : Libanus and An- 
 tilibanus. Cities : Tyre, on an island opposite the 
 ancient Tyre, which was situated upon the mainland ; 
 Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradus. 3rd, 
 Palestine. Mountains : Carmel, Tabor. River : 
 Jordan, which discharges its waters into the Dead 
 Sea. Division of Palestine ; first, according to the 
 twelve tribes ; afterwards into the provinces, of Ju- 
 daea, capital Jerusalem ; of Samaria, cities, Samaria, 
 Sichern ; and of Galilee. 
 
 (d) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy 
 deserts, and almost entirely occupied by nomad 
 tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts render it, 
 nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In 
 the north, Arabia Petrsea, so called from the town 
 of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta. In the south, 
 Arabia Felix ; rich, both in natural productions, 
 being the native land of almost every kind of per- 
 fume, particularly frankincense ; and also as being 
 the ancient staple for the merchandise of India. 
 Cities ; Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, the trading 
 town of Gerra, and the islands near the shore, Tylos 
 and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise marts for Ara- 
 bian and Indian wares, particularly cinnamon from 
 Taprobane (Ceylon). 
 
 2. Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris. 
 
 (a) Mesopotamia ; in the interior a sterile table 
 land, entirely occupied by nomad hordes. Cities on 
 the Euphrates, Thapsacus, Circesium, Cunaxa ; in 
 the north, Zoba or Nisibis. 
 
 (b) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very moun-
 
 BOOK I.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 17 
 
 tainous ; for a long time without cities, but at last it asia. 
 
 had Tig-ranocerta. Rivers : the Cyrus and Araxes, 
 
 falHno; into the Caspian ; and the Phasis, falling into 
 the Black Sea. 
 
 (c) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, Babylonia. 
 from winch it was separated by the Median wall. A 
 level plain, remarkable for the richness of its soil ; 
 formerly, by its high cultivation, its canals and lakes, 
 and the erection of dams, the most fruitful, and, from 
 its situation, the most opulent staple of inner Asia. 
 Cities : Babylon on the Euphrates, Borsippa. 
 
 Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, 
 of the size and splendour of Babylon, is not exaggerated ? — 
 Manner in which the great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal 
 encampments of the nomad conquerors. 
 
 3. Coimtries betiueen the Tigris and the Indus. 
 (a) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene ; a table Assyria. 
 land. Cities : Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela. 
 
 The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks 
 in a wider acceptation, as comprising both JNIesopotamia and 
 Babylonia ; it is sometimes even confounded with Syria. 
 
 (Z>) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city Susa Susiana. 
 on the river Choaspes, or Eulaeus, (Ulai,) one of the 
 residences of the Persian monarchs. 
 
 (c) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards the Persia, 
 north ; level and fruitful in the centre ; sandy towards 
 
 the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and Araxes. Cities: 
 Persepolis or Pasargada, the national palace and 
 cemetery of the kings of Persia. 
 
 The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern ge- 
 ograpliy, taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the 
 countries between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of 
 AssjTia. In this sense, it contains tlwee countries towards the 
 south — Persis, properly so called, Carmania, Gedrosia : three 
 central countries — ]\Iedia, Aria, Arachosia : and three countries 
 towards the north — Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana. 
 
 (d) Carmania, an extensive country, for the most Carmania. 
 part desert, ranging along tlie Persian Gulf and In- 
 dian Sea. Cities : Carmana, Harmozia. 
 
 (<?) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the coast GcJrosia, 
 between Carmania and India, and washed by the 
 
 c
 
 18 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Media 
 
 xVri» 
 
 Arachosia. 
 
 Parthia. 
 
 Bactria. 
 
 Sogdiana. 
 
 Indian Sea. A mere sandy desert; towards the 
 north, mountainous. Town, Pura. 
 
 (/) Media, above Persis ; an extensive and very 
 fruitful country ; mountainous towards the north. 
 Rivers : Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus. Cities : Ec- 
 batana, Rages. The northern district was hkewise 
 known by the name of Atropatene, (Azerbeijan,) or 
 Lesser Media. 
 
 (g) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and 
 river, Arius : and one city, Aria or Artacoana. 
 
 (Ä) Arachosia ; a rich and fertile country on the 
 frontiers of India ; bounded towards the north by the 
 Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus and Proph- 
 thasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied by a 
 numerous population, (now Cabul and Kandahar,) 
 are often regarded, in consequence of their being 
 subject to the Persian dominion, as forming part of 
 Persia. They are known by the name of Paropamisus. 
 
 (/) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous 
 districts to the north of Media ; but abounding in 
 maq-nificent and fertile vales. Before and durino; the 
 predominance of Persia, but little known and little 
 valued ; and without cities. It was at a considerably 
 later period that the inhabitants of Parthia became a 
 dominant nation. 
 
 (Z') Bactria, the country on the south bank of the 
 Oxus ; rich in natural productions, and one of the 
 most ancient marts of Asia. River : Oxus. Cities : 
 Bactra and Zariaspa. 
 
 Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, 
 (the north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of 
 Gobi (Herodotus's golden desert) : the road to China runs 
 through this country. Nature, by the geographical situation in 
 which she has placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the 
 great emporium for the wares of south-eastern Asia ; and in pro- 
 portion as we penetrate into early history, we become convinced 
 that Bactria, like Babylon, must have been one of the earliest 
 seats of international commerce, and consequently, if not the 
 birthplace, one of the cradles of infant civilization. 
 
 (/) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper Oxus 
 and upper Jaxartes, the latter dividing it from Central 
 Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.) Its peculiarities
 
 BOOK i] POLITICAL GENERALITIES. 19 
 
 and advantages similar to those of the neighbouring asia. 
 Bactria. Capital : Maracanda (Samarcand). 
 
 B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the Indus, 
 offers nothing remarkable for history till a later period. 
 See Book V. Period IV. 
 
 General Preliminary Ohaervations upon the History and 
 Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires. 
 
 1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does at Magnitude 
 present, empires of immense extent, differing mate- °[ "'^ ^'^' 
 rially both in this respect and in their constitution Asia. 
 from the civilized nations of Europe. Changes were 
 frequent ; but the form of government continued 
 nearly always the same. Some deeply rooted and 
 
 active principles therefore must have been in con- 
 stant operation, to have given so repeatedly, in these 
 various revolutions, the same organization to the king- 
 doms of Asia. 
 
 2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the excep- Nature of 
 tion of that caused by Alexander, were effected by uui'nns^^"' 
 the numerous and powerful nomad races which in- 
 habited a large portion of that continent. Pressed 
 
 by necessity or circumstances, they forsook their own 
 seats, founded new kingdoms, and carried war and 
 conquest into the fruitful and cultivated lands of 
 Southern Asia, until, enervated by luxury, the con- 
 sequence of the change in their mode of life, they were 
 in their turn, and in a similar manner, subjugated. 
 
 3. This orio'in, common to all Asiatic kino-doms, 'T''^''" «''"■■* 
 
 ^ . . . . existence 
 
 accounts for their immense extent, their rapid estab- 
 lislniKmt, and their generally brief duration. 
 
 4. The internal organization must, for the same similarity 
 reasons, have been nearly alike in all ; and the con- constuu- 
 stant re-appearance of despotism is accounted for, tions. 
 partly by the rights of conquest, partly by the vast 
 extent of the subdued countries, which obliged the 
 rulers to have recourse to satrap-government. 
 
 5. To this, it must moreover be added, tliat amono- Eireot>< of 
 
 2 polygamy.
 
 20 POLITICAL GENERALITIES. [book i. 
 
 ASIA, all the considerable nations of inner Asia, the pater- 
 nal government of every household was corrupted by 
 polygamy : where that custom exists, a good political 
 constitution is impossible ; fathers being converted 
 into domestic despots, are ready to pay the same 
 abject obedience to their sovereign that they exact 
 from their family and dependants in their domestic 
 economy. 
 
 To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms 
 despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit 
 THREE essentially different kinds of government. Ist, The de- 
 spotic, in which the members of the state are not secured in the 
 possession of their rights as men, (personal freedom and security 
 of property,) nor of their rights as citizens (active participation 
 in the legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by 
 force, and can never be lawful. 2nd, The autocratic, in whicli 
 the members of the state are in full possession of their rights as 
 men, but not of their rights as citizens. This government, 
 therefore, arises from the union of the legislative and exe- 
 cutive powers in the person of the ruler. In form, it is either 
 monarchical or aristocratical (a pure monarchy, or a pure aris- 
 tocracy). This kind of government is most likely to be estab- 
 lished by usurpation ; it may, nevertheless, be acquired by 
 succession, or even adopted by common consent : it may there- 
 fore be lawful. 3rd, The republican, in which the members of 
 the state are in possession of their rights, both as men and as 
 citizens. This government necessarily presupposes a separation 
 of the legislative and executive powers; aud with regard to its 
 form, may be either monarchical or aristocratical (a moderate 
 monarchy, or a moderate aristocracy). — How far can a pure de- 
 mocracy be called a government, and comprised under any of 
 the foregoing heads ? — Explanation of the despotism in the 
 Asiatic kingdoms, and the attempts made to limit it by religion 
 and religious institutions. 
 
 Rise, pro- 6. General features in the gradual internal de- 
 faiTof no- velopment of all empires formed by nomad con- 
 mad em- querors. {ci) At first the mere occupation of rich 
 ^"^'^^" territories, and levying of tribute. (^) Hence the 
 
 constitutions already established among the conquer- 
 ed or tributary nations generally suffered to remain, 
 (c) Gradual progress towards the adoption of a fixed 
 abode and the building of cities, together with the 
 assumption of the customs and civilization of the 
 conquered. {([) Division into provinces, and, as a 
 necessary consequence, the establishment of satrap-
 
 BOOK I.] 
 
 ASSYRIANS. 
 
 21 
 
 government, (e) Insurrections of the satraps, and 
 the internal ruin of the state prepared thereby, (/]) 
 The influence of the seraglio on the government has 
 the same effect, for its unavoidable consequences are — 
 effeminacy and indolence in the rulers, (g) Hence 
 the dissolution of the empire, or its total annihilation 
 by some violent attack from without. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms 
 previous to Cyrus. 
 
 Sources, and their critical examination : 1. Jewish writings, 
 particularly the books of Kings, Chronicles, and the Prophets ; 
 together Avith the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus, 
 Ctesias, and Diodorus : later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius, 
 Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endea- 
 vours to arrange into one work the accounts of authors so en- 
 tirely different by birth and the times in Avhich they flourished : 
 a task attempted by the French writers, Sevin, Freret, and 
 Debrosse, in their papers contained in the Mem. de I'Acad. des 
 Inscript. 
 
 VoLNEY, Recherches nouvelles sur VHistoire ancienne. 1808 
 — 1814 : very important and authentic, so far as regards the 
 system of Herodotus's chronology. 
 
 I. Assyrian monarchy. 
 
 1, With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a com- 
 mon name applied to the ruling nations about the 
 Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus. 
 With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies a distinct S'ebrews.''^ 
 nation of conquerors, and the founders of an empire. 
 Hence a necessary discrepancy between the Grecian 
 
 and Hebrew statements. 
 
 2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian autho- 
 rities, particularly Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing 
 more than mere traditions of ancient heroes and 
 lieroines, who at some early period founded a large 
 kingdom in the countries about the Euphrates and 
 Tigris ; traditions without any chronological data, 
 and in the style of the East. Ninus — Semiramis — 
 Ninyas — Sardanapalus. 
 
 According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years' 
 
 Assyrians 
 of the 
 Greeks dif- 
 ferent from 
 
 Grecian 
 account.
 
 22 MEDES. [book I. 
 
 Period duration, 1237 — 717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the clironi- 
 
 BEvoiiE cles of Syncellus and Eusebius. 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish autho- 
 
 Jewish ac- j-itics. Chronological history of an Assyrian empire 
 between B. C. 800 and 700. — Seat of the nation in 
 Assyria, properly so called. — Capital : Nineveh on 
 the Tigris. — Extension of their dominion as far as 
 Syria and Phoenicia. 
 
 Line of Assyrian kings : 1. Pul, about 773. Livasion of 
 Syria. 2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the 
 kingdom of Damascus. 3. Shahnaneser, about 720. He de- 
 stroys the kingdom of Samaria. Transplantation of the inha- 
 bitants into inner Asia. 4. Sennacherib, about 714, Mighty 
 expedition against Egypt, frustrated by a pestilence. 5, Esar- 
 haddon. 
 
 Contemporary: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and 
 Judah. — Greeks, decennial archons at Athens. — Romans, rise 
 of the state and the two first kings. 
 
 II. Median monarchy. 
 Different 1, The name of Medes is undoubtedly often used 
 
 ofThfi'oni % ^he Greeks to designate one nation ; it is, how- 
 Medes. evcr, frequently made use of as a common appella- 
 tion of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, from the 
 Tigris to the Indus, (or Persia, in the more extensive 
 sense of that word,) before Cyrus. — With the Jews : 
 nothing more than general hints of the Medes as a 
 conquering nation. 
 Great na- 2. Although the statements of the Grecian writers, 
 t'o°hSe°er' as well as of the Zendavesta, sufficiently prove that 
 isted east of long bcforc the rise of the Persian power mighty 
 '^"^* kingdoms existed in these regions ; and particularly 
 in the eastern part, or Bactria ; yet we have no con- 
 sistent or chronological history of these states : 
 nothing but a few fragments, probably of dynasties 
 which ruled in Media, properly so called, imme- 
 diately previous to the Persians. 
 
 a. Herodotus' s History of the Medes. Herodotus's Medes are 
 unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called. 
 Division into six tribes : among these, that of the j\Iagi. — 
 Ruling nation after the overthrow of the AssjTians. — Capital 
 of their empire, Ecbatana. — Boundaries : west, the Tigris and 
 Halys ; east, unknown. — Internal organization : graduated sub- 
 jection of the various nations to one another, according to their 
 distance from the seat of empire ; rigid despotism ; and impo-
 
 BOOK i.j BABYLONIANS. %d 
 
 sition of tribute. Line of kings between B. C. 717 — 560. Period 
 Deioces, 53 //. the founder of Ecbatana, d. 657. — Phraortes, 22 before 
 y. down to 635. He conquers Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 //. down ^I'^s. 
 to 595. He establislies military discipline among the Medes. 
 Wages war witli the Lydians, the Assyrians. — Irruption of the 
 Scythians and Cimmerians, 625. — He takes Nineveh, 597. 
 Astyages, 38 y. down to 560, when he was dethroned by Cyrus. 
 According to Xenophon, Astyages was followed by another 
 Median prince, Cyaxares II. b. Ctesias's Histor}/ of the Medes, 
 deduced from Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus. 
 Probably a different dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings, 
 between B. C. 800 and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the As- 
 syrians, 18 y. Mandaucus, 50 y. Sosarmes, 30 y. Artias, 
 50 y. Arbanes, 22 y. Arta3us, 40 y. and Artynes, 22 y. 
 Sanguinary wars with the nomad races of the East, the Sacas, 
 and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14 y. Astyages, the last king. 
 
 Contemporary : Jews, kingdom of Judah alone. — Greeks, 
 yearly archons, Draco, Solon. — Romans, kings from Tullus 
 Hostilius to Servius Tullius. 
 
 III. Babijlonian monarchy. 
 
 Periods: 1st, Previous to the Chaldsean conquest, Babyio- 
 which occurred about 630. 2nd, From the Chal- '"^"*" 
 dgean conquest to the Persian, 630 — 538. 
 
 1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most ist period, 
 remote antiquity, but is mentioned in the Jewish t"^-^-'^'^^' 
 
 T • 1 T <• T • 1 • fragments. 
 
 traditions as the earliest scene oi political treaties, 
 and as the most ancient seat of intercourse for the 
 nations of Asia. Traditions concerning Nimrod — 
 and the erection of the tower of Babel. — Comparison 
 of those traditions with the Babylonian mythology in 
 Berosus. — Scanty historical notices of this period in 
 the later Jewish writers ; and probable subjection of 
 Babylon to the Assyrian empire. 
 
 2. In the second period, 630 — 538, the Babylo- ^"53^^"°^' 
 nians were the ruling nation of western Asia. — The chaidicans. 
 Chaldaeans take possession of Babylon, there establish 
 themselves, and ultimately extend their empire, by 
 conquest, to the Mediterranean. 
 
 Origin of the Chaldaians : Avliether that name was applied to 
 a distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general ? — Line 
 of Chaldrt^an kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given 
 by Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bear- 
 ing the name of that sovereign, which commences in the year 
 B. C. 747 (probably because, under the reign of that prince, 
 tlie adoption of the Egyptian solar year first introduced among 
 the Ciialdicans an exact method of reckoning time). Neither
 
 24 ASIA MINOR. [book i. 
 
 Period Nabonassar himself, nor liis twelve immediate successors, are 
 BEFoitE rpinarkable in history : the six last alone deserve notice. 1. 
 Cyrus. N^bopolassar, 627 — 604. Settlement in Babylon ; and com- 
 plete establishment of the Chaldico-Babylonian dominion, by 
 his victory over Pharaoh-Nechoh, near Circesium, in 604. 2. 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 604 — 561. Brilliant period of the Chalda^o- 
 Babylonian empire. He conquers Phoenicia and Old Tyre 
 about 586 : Jerusalem in .587 ; probable irruptions into Egypt. 
 Construction of immense buildings and canals in and about Ba- 
 bylon. Rapid decline of the empire after his death, under — 3. 
 Evil-^Ierodach, .561 — 559. 4. Nei'iglissar, (probably the con- 
 temporary of Ilerodotus's Kitocris,) — 555. Labosoarchad 
 murdered, after a few months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's 
 Labynetus, and probably the Chaldajan Belshazzar,) 555 — 
 538, attacked and conquered by Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by 
 the Persians, 538. 
 
 See the section concerning the Babylonians in A. H. L. 
 Heeren's Historical Researches, vol. i. part 2. 
 
 Contemporary: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of 
 Judah. — Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus. — Romans, Tarquinius 
 Priscus and Servius Tullius. 
 
 IV. States and kin axioms in Asia Minor. 
 No lastino- The number and variety of the inhabitants of this 
 empire peninsula, was probably the reason why they never 
 
 formed in {; -^ 1 • ^ • T'l 4. ■ 
 
 Asia Minor, becanie united into one empire. Ine most import- 
 ant nations among them, were the Carians in the 
 west ; the Phrygians in the centre, reaching as far 
 as the Halys ; the Syro-Cappadocians beyond the 
 Halys ; and the Thracians in Bithynia. Neverthe- 
 less we find here but three kingdoms deserving no- 
 tice — the Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian. 
 
 Troy. 1. The Trojan empire comprised western Mysia : 
 
 its history consists of mere traditions contained in 
 poets, with very uncertain chronological data. 
 
 Kings: Teucer, about 1400. — Dardanus — Erichthonius — 
 Tros (Troja) — Ilus (Ilium) — Laomedon — Priam. The destruc- 
 tion of Troy, after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, 
 B. C. 1190. 
 
 Contemporary/ : Jews, time of the Judges : before the found- 
 ation of Rome, 450 years. 
 
 Phrygia. 2. The Phrygian empire. — Almost all the kings 
 
 were named Midas and Gordius ; their succession 
 cannot be accurately determined. After the death 
 of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a pro- 
 vince of the Lydian empire, about 560.
 
 BOOK I.] PHCENICIA, 25 
 
 3. The Lydian empire. — The Lydians (Mseonians) i'eriod 
 were a branch of the Carian tribe. According to cy'rus!^ 
 Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia ; the Aty- 
 
 adse down to 1232 ; the HeracUdse down to 727 ; uiVe^dynas- 
 and the Mermnadae down to 557 : the two first are »»es there. 
 ahnost wholly fabulous, and the proper history of 
 Lydia may be said to commence with the last dynasty. 
 
 Kings : Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed al- 
 most uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the sea- 
 coast. Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes 
 Priene. Under his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sa- 
 dyattes down to 628. Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the 
 Cimmerians. Capture of Smyrna. Crcesus down to 557. He 
 takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia Minor as far as the Halys. 
 Under his reign, the first rise of a Lydian empire, wliich how- 
 ever is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor becomes a province 
 of the Persian empire. 
 
 Contemporary with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Ba- 
 bylonian empires. — Among the Jews, the last period of the 
 kingdom of Judah. — Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at 
 Athens. — With the Romans, the kings. 
 
 y . PJuvmcia. 
 
 The Phoenicians may be regarded as one of the Fragments 
 most remarkable nations of Asia during this period; dan hTsu'rv. 
 yet we have no complete, or even connected history 
 of this people. But though a few scattered frag- 
 ments are all we possess, we may from these trace 
 out a general outline. 
 
 The peculiar soui'ces of Phoenician history. — How far San- 
 choniatlion deserves to be mentioned here ? — Hebrew writers, 
 particularly Ezekiel : Greek writers ; Josephus — Eusebius, etc., 
 and the fragments which he has preserved of INIenander of 
 Ephesus, and Dius, historians of Tyre. 
 
 MiGNOT, Mcmoires sur les Phaiiciens ; inserted in Mem. de 
 VAcad. des Inscript. t. xxxiv. — xlii. A series of twenty-four 
 papers. 
 
 The section concerning the Phoenicians in A. H. L. Heeuen's 
 Researches into the Politics, etc. 
 
 1. Observations on the internal state of Phoenicia. Piioenician 
 It did not constitute one state, or, at least, one single o'fci'tiei"" 
 empire ; but consisted of several, and their territories. 
 Alliances, however, were naturally formed between 
 them, and hence a kind of supremacy of the more 
 powerful, particularly of Tyre.
 
 26 
 
 rUCENICIANS. 
 
 [hook I. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Each city 
 iiuU'pend- 
 put, l)nt 
 Tyiv tlie 
 first. 
 
 Tyrian 
 kin£:s. 
 
 Phoenician 
 colonies, 
 
 in the 
 islutiJs 
 
 Spain 
 
 2. But tliouo'li Tyre stood at the liead, and claimed 
 a certain def^ree of superiority, each separate state 
 still possessed its own particular government. In all 
 of them we meet witli kinp;s, who appear to have 
 possessed but a limited authority, as we always find 
 magistrates associated with them in power. Among 
 a mercantile and colonizing people, it was impossible 
 that absolute despotism should endure for any length 
 of time. Of the separate states, Tyre is the only one 
 of which we possess a series of kings ; and even that 
 series is not complete. 
 
 This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through 
 Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, 
 about B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are : 
 Hiram, the successor of Abical ; — Ethbaal I., about 920 ; — 
 Pygmalion, Dido's brother, about 900 ; — Ethbaal II. in whose 
 reign Tyre was sacked by Nebuchadnezzar, 586. — Foundation 
 of New T}Te — republican constitution under suiFetes : tributary 
 kings under the Persian rule ; — conquest of New Tyre by 
 Alexander, 332. The flourishing period of Phoenicia in ge- 
 neral, and of Tyre in particular, falls therefore between 1000 
 —332. 
 
 Contemporary in inner Asia : monarchies of the Assyrians, 
 IMedes, and the Babylonians. Jews : period of tlie kings after 
 David. Greeks : from Homer to Solon. Eomans : period of 
 their kings in the last two centuries. 
 
 3. During this period the Phoenicians spread 
 themselves by the establishment of colonies ; some 
 of which, particularly Carthage, became as power- 
 ful as the mother states. 
 
 General ideas concerning colonization. — 1. Colonies are ab- 
 solutely necessary to every seafaring and commercial people, 
 whenever their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They 
 have likewise been established for the purpose of providing for 
 the excessive increase of the poor. 3. And they have some- 
 times arisen from political commotion, when the malcontents, 
 either from free will, or force, have forsaken their countiy, and 
 sought new settlements in distant regions. 
 
 4. Geographical sketch of the Phoenician colonies. 
 They possessed, at a very early period, most of the 
 islands of the Archipelago ; from which, however, 
 they were subsequently expelled by the Greeks. 
 The principal countries in which they had settlements 
 were the south of Spain (Tartessus, Gades, Carteia) ;
 
 BOOK I.] PHCENICIANS. 27 
 
 the north coast of Africa, west of the Lesser vSyrtis Period 
 (Utica, Carthage, Adrumetum) ; and the north-west- cTiu-s! 
 
 em coast of Sicily (Panormus, Lilybseum). It is 
 
 hkewise highly probable that they formed settlements ^ll\1!^.'! 
 towards the east in the Persian Gulf, on the islands probably in 
 of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein). Gu-.f^"""' 
 
 5. This sketch of the Phoenician colonies will give Sea trade of 
 us some idea of the extent of their sea trade and na- ^^.'^ Phcem- 
 
 Clans. 
 
 vigation ; which, however, extended much farther 
 
 than their colonies. Among them, as among other 
 
 nations, commerce took its rise in piracy ; even as 
 
 late as the time of Homer, the Phoenicians appear to 
 
 have been freebooters. The principal objects of their 
 
 commerce were, (a) the settlements in north Africa 
 
 and Spain ; the latter more particularly, on account 
 
 of its rich silver mines, (b) Beyond the Pillars of 
 
 Hercules, the west coast of Africa ; Britain and the 
 
 Scilly islands, for the purpose of procuring tin, and, 
 
 very probably, amber, (c) From Elath and Ezion- 
 
 Gebar, ports situate at the northern extremity of the 
 
 Arabian Gulf, they undertook, in connexion with 
 
 the Jews, voyages to Opliir, that is to say, to the 
 
 rich lands of the south, particularly Arabia Felix and 
 
 Ethiopia, {d) From the Persian Gulf, they extended 
 
 their commerce to the western peninsula of India and 
 
 the island of Ceylon. Finally, (e) they made several xiiey double 
 
 extensive voyages of discovery, among which, the q^^I^ ^o 'e^ 
 
 most remarkable was the circumnavigation of Africa. 
 
 6. Of no less importance was the land trade, mostly Their land 
 carried on by caravans. The principal branches of *'^"''' 
 
 it were ; (a) The Arabian caravan trade for spices 
 and incense, imported from Arabia Felix, Gerra, and 
 the Persian Gulf. (Ä) The trade through Palmyra 
 with Babylon, which opened them an indirect com- 
 munication by way of Persia, with Lesser Bukharia 
 and Little Thibet, probably even with China itself, 
 (c) The trade with Armenia and the neighbouring- 
 countries in slaves, horses, copper utensils, etc. 
 
 7. To all this must be added their own manufac- '^icir manu- 
 tures, particularly their stuffs and dyes ; (the purple, 
 
 made of the juice of a marine shellfish ;) their manu-
 
 28 SYRIANS. [book r. 
 
 Teriod factiircs of G;lass and toys, which, in their commerce 
 'cyeus! with uncivilized nations, g'enerally carried on by bar- 
 ter, were turned to good account. Many other im- 
 portant discoveries, among which the invention of 
 letters liolds the first rank, are attributed to the 
 Phoenicians. 
 
 VI. Si/rians. 
 
 Syria an 1. The iniiabitauts of Syria dwelt in cities as early 
 
 early state ; ^^ ^ Q 2000, whcn Abraham wandered over their 
 country. This country did not form one single state, 
 but consisted of several cities, each of which had its 
 separate territory, and its chief or king ; of these ci- 
 ties, Damascus, Hamath, etc. are mentioned in the 
 most remote antiquity, 
 a frequent 2. Thc Syrians were, however, often subjected by 
 coiq'iSest : foreign conquerors ; and their country was certainly, 
 about B. c. at least in the time of David, a Jewish province. It 
 shook off the yoke, however, in the time of Solomon ; 
 when Rezon, who had formerly been a slave, obtained 
 possession of Damascus. 
 Kinj,n]om of 3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damas- 
 Damascus. ^^^^ which compHsed the greatest portion of Syria, 
 the kings in the other cities becoming tributary to 
 Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, too, were 
 extended, and particularly at the expense of the di- 
 vided kino-doms of Judah and Israel. 
 
 o 
 
 The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chroni- 
 cles, were ; Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I., about 900. Ha- 
 zael, about 850. Benhadad II., about 830. Rezin. Under 
 this last, the kingdom of Damascus was overthro\ATi by the As- 
 S}Tian conqueror Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. 
 
 Contemporary in Inner Asia : Ass}Tiän kingdom. Jews : 
 kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Greeks : settlement of the 
 Asiatic colonies — Lycurgus. 
 
 VII. Jeius. 
 
 Periods of The history of the Jewish people begins with 
 Jewish his- Ai3i..^|^.^„^^ tl^g father of their race ; that of the Jewish 
 state does not commence till after the conquest of 
 Palestine. It is divided into three periods. I. His- 
 tory of the Jews, as a nomad family, from Abraham 
 till' their settlement in Palestine, B. C. 2000—1500. 
 II. History of the Jewish state as a federative repub- 
 
 torv
 
 BOOK I.] 
 
 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 29 
 
 Period 
 
 BEIORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 lie under the high priests and judges, from B. C. 
 1500—1100. III. History of the Jewish state un- 
 der a monarchical government, from B. C. 1100 — • 
 
 600, first in one kingdom, — 976 ; afterwards as two 
 separate kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the down- 
 fal of the latter, 588. 
 
 Sources of the Jewish history. — Their annals : — Books of 
 Judges, Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were 
 composed, and whether tlieir authors may he considered as con- 
 temporary with the events they relate ? How far the Hebrew 
 poets, the prophets in particular, may be considered as historical 
 authority ? — Josephus, as an antifjuarian in his Archcologia, 
 and as a contemporary historian in his Historia Belli Romani, 
 
 Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise 
 on the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor 
 one written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism. 
 The work of Berruyer, Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis son 
 origine jusqii' a la Naissance de J. C, Paris, 1742, 10 vols. 
 8vo ; and the continuation, depuis la Naissance de J. C, 10 
 vols. ; and others of the same kind, do not answer this descrip- 
 tion. Relandi Antiqtiit. Sacr. Heb. ; the writings of J. D. 
 Michaelis, particularly his f Remarhs on the Translation of the 
 Old Testament, ami his ^Mosaic law; together with f Herder, 
 Oh the Spirit of Hebrew Poesy, furnish many excellent materials. 
 
 I. Period of the nomad state, from Abraham to the Jews as a 
 coiKiuest of Palestine. — Under Abraham, Isaac, and """[^'^ 
 Jacob, nothmg more at first than a smgle nomad 
 family ; which, however, during its sojourn in Lower sojourn in 
 Egypt, where, during four hundred and tliirty, or, ac- t^^':li,o'iu'^'''° 
 cording to others, two hundred and fifteen years, it i^oo. 
 roved about in subjection to the Egyptian Pharaohs, 
 — increased to a nomad nation, divided into twelve 
 tribes. The nation, however, becoming formidable 
 from the great increase of its numbers, the Pharaohs, 
 following the usual policy of the Egyptians, wished 
 to compel the Jews to build and inhabit cities. Un- 
 accustomed to restraint, they fled from Egypt under 
 the conduct of Moses; and conquered, under him and 
 his successor, Joshua, Palestine, the land of promise. 
 
 Moses and his legislation. — What he borrowed and what he 
 did not borrow from the l^gyptians ? — The worship of Jehovah 
 in the national sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated 
 with ceremonies rigidly ])rescribed, the point of union for the 
 whole nation, and the political bond which held the tribes to-
 
 30 
 
 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Pkriod 
 
 IlEI'ORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 getlier. — The caste of Levites, compared with the Egyptian 
 caste of priests. 
 
 J. D. Mi(;iiAELis, Mosaic Lmv. Gottingen, 1778, etc., 6 vols. 
 8vo. ; transhitcrl into English by Dr. Alex^v^'DER Smith. Lond. 
 1814, 4 vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more than 
 the lawgiver. 
 
 Jews as a 
 federate re- 
 i)ublic. 
 
 Heroic age, 
 
 Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 Distribu- 
 tion of the 
 Levites. 
 
 Disturbed 
 state of the 
 Jews at the 
 death of 
 Joshua. 
 
 II. Period of the federative republic. From the 
 occupation of Palestine to the estabhshment of mon- 
 archy, 1500—1100. 
 
 1. General character of this period as the heroic 
 age of the nation, which, after the gradual adoption 
 of fixed dwellings and agriculture, was engaged in 
 constant feuds with neighbours, the vagrant Arabs, 
 the Philistines, and the Edomites. Impossibility of 
 exterminating entirely the ancient inhabitants ac- 
 cording to the intention of Moses. — Hence the 
 worship of Jehovah was never the only religion in 
 the land. 
 
 2. Political organization. In consequence of the 
 division of land, according to tribes, and their se- 
 paration from one another, the government long 
 remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its pa- 
 triarch or elder, as in the nomad state. All, how- 
 ever, had, in the worship of Jehovah, one common 
 bond, uniting them into one federate state. Magis- 
 trates were likewise appointed in the cities, to whom 
 scribes are conjoined out of the Levite caste. 
 
 3. The permanent union of the nation, and pre- 
 servation of the Mosaic law, were likewise promoted 
 by the distribution of the Levite caste into forty- 
 eight separate towns situated in various parts of the 
 country, and by making the high priesthood here- 
 ditary in Aaron's family. 
 
 4. But when at the death of Joshua the people 
 were left without a common ruler, the tie of religion 
 became insufficient to hold them together; especially 
 as the weaker tribes became jealous of the more 
 powerful. At this time the high priests appear to 
 have had but little political influence ; and the na- 
 tional bond was only prevented from being dissolved 
 by the dread of a foreign yoke.
 
 BOOK 1.] JEWISH HISTORY. 31 
 
 5, The Jews were sometimes independent, at other PEmoD 
 times tributary. In seasons of oppression and dis- c'l'iiul^ 
 
 tress heroes arose, jealous for the worship of Jehovah, 
 
 to dehver them from bondage. They acted as chief •'"•'=^^- 
 magistrates and rulers of a part, or even the whole 
 
 of the nation, and as champions of the worship of the 
 trae God. The judges, particularly Othniel, De- 
 borah, and Samson. — Concerning the marvellous in 
 their history. 
 
 6. Re-establishment of the worship of Jehovah by Kings, 
 Samuel. He becomes judge, and rules as Jehovah's ■'^^'outiioo 
 minister. — His scheme of making the office of judge 
 hereditary in his own family is defeated by the con- 
 duct of his sons. The nation demands a king, whom 
 Samuel, as minister of Jehovah, is called upon to ap- 
 point. His crafty policy in the election, which he 
 cannot impede. He chooses Saul, politically speak- 
 ing, the most insignificant man of the nation ; but 
 
 the tallest and most stately. A formal constitutional 
 act, according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up 
 and deposited in the national sanctuary. 
 
 Causes wliicli led the nation to demand a king. — Earlier at- 
 tempts made, particularly by Abimelech, to obtain regal power. 
 
 HI. Period of the monarchij from 1100 — 600. 
 
 1 . The Jewish state as one siinjle kingdom from 
 1100 (1095)— 976. 
 
 1. Saul, the new king, strengthened himself on Saui: 
 the throne by a victory over the Ammonites ; and a 
 general assembly of the nation, in which Samuel laid 
 down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged 
 his sovereignty. But Saul no sooner became a con- 
 queror than he threw off the tutelage of Samuel, and 
 ventured himself to consult Jehovah. This was the 
 occasion of a feud between them. Samuel, oft'ended, 
 privately anointed another young man, David the 
 son of Jesse, as king. David acquires fame and po- 
 pularity by his heroic conduct ; but has much diffi- 
 culty in escaping the jealousy of Saul. — Saul sustains
 
 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 PkRIOI) 
 
 iiF.roiui 
 Cvnus. 
 
 fil;iin about 
 Kt-jf). 
 
 Jfwish fio- 
 veininenl 
 ami state 
 uiulcr liim. 
 
 David, 
 1055—1015. 
 
 State of the 
 nation and 
 trovernment 
 in his reiu;n. 
 
 Conquests, 
 
 Solomon, 
 1015—975. 
 
 Declension 
 of the state 
 
 himself amid constant wars with the neighbouring 
 nations ; but at last defeated, he and all his sons, ex- 
 cept one, lose their lives. 
 
 2. State of the nation and constitution under Saul. 
 — The king little more than a military leader under 
 the direction of Jehovah ; without either court or 
 fixed residence. — The people still a mere agricultural 
 and pastoral race, without wealth or luxury ; but gra- 
 dually assuming the character of a warlike nation. 
 
 3. Saul was succeeded by David ; but not without 
 opposition. Eleven tribes declare for Ish-bosheth, 
 the remaining son of Saul ; and David is only ac- 
 knowledged by his own tribe, Judah. It is not till 
 seven years later, and the murder of Ish-bosheth by 
 his own people, that David is recognised as king by 
 the whole nation. 
 
 4. Complete formation of the nation, and a change 
 of constitution during the reign of David over the 
 united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three years. Je- 
 rusalem is made the seat of government and of the 
 national sanctuary. Rigid observance of the worship 
 of Jehovah, the exclusive religion of the nation, con- 
 sidered in respect to its political consequence. 
 
 5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jevvish state by 
 conquest. A war with Hadadezer opens the way to 
 the conquest of Syria and Idumsea. Extent of the 
 kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean ; 
 from Phoenicia to the Red Sea. Gradual decline to- 
 wards despotism and seraglio government ; the po- 
 litical consequences of which become apparent about 
 the end of David's reign, in the rebellion of his sons. 
 
 6. Reign of Solomon. The brilliant government 
 of a despot from the interior of his seraglio ; unwar- 
 like, but civilized, and fond of parade. New organ- 
 ization of the kingdom for the support of the court. 
 Connexions formed with the neighbouring states, 
 particularly with Tyre ; hence a participation in the 
 southern trade carried on from the ports of the Red 
 Sea, conquered by David ; but only as a monopoly 
 of the court. 
 
 7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the
 
 BOOK I.] JEWISH HISTORY. S3 
 
 court ; but the country oppressed and impoverished, Period 
 particularly the distant tribes. Gradual internal de- cVrus! 
 
 cay hastened by the admixture of the worship of 
 
 foreign gods with that of Jehovah ; although Solo- 
 mon, by the erection of the temple according to the 
 plan of his father, seems to have wished to make the 
 worship of the true God the only religion of the 
 country. An unsuccessful attempt at rebellion made 
 by Jeroboam, and by the Edomites, who remain tri- 
 butary under their own kings ; actual secession, even 
 during the reign of Solomon, of the conquered pro- 
 vince of Syria by the foundation of the kingdom of 
 Damascus. 
 
 8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam, Rehoboam. 
 who has scarcely ascended the throne, before the 
 malcontents, increased in number by his imprudence, 
 break into open rebellion. Jeroboam is recalled 
 from Egypt, and ten tribes acknowledge him as their 
 king. Only two tribes, Judah and Benjamin, remain 
 faithful to Rehoboam. 
 
 2. TJie Jewish state as a divided kingdom, 
 976—588. 
 
 1 . Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms Causes ot 
 of Judah and Israel, Althouoh Israel was more ex- ^^^ '"'"^ 
 
 o . wars be- 
 
 tensive and populous than Judah, yet was Judah, in tueen Ju- 
 consequence of possessing the capital, richest of the i^g^^''^ 
 two ; thus their power was nearly balanced ; and 
 hence the struggle between them was the more ob- 
 stinate. 
 
 2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political Policy of 
 division of the nation, by establishing a new form of Israel"-'"^ °^ 
 worship within their dominions, in order to restrain 
 
 their subjects from visiting the ancient seat of the 
 national worship at Jerusalem ; hence they were con- 
 sidered as the enemies of Jehovah. Several kings, of those of 
 however, even of Judah, wei-e so impolitic as to min- •^"''*'^- 
 gle the worship of other gods with that of Jehovah. 
 But oppression itself serves to sustain the worship of 
 Jehovah ; the number and political influence of the 
 
 D
 
 34 JEWISH HISTORY. [book i. 
 
 Pkuioi:. prophets increase in proportion as men feel, amid the 
 CyTuT turbulence of the times, need of the counsels of the 
 
 true God ; the idea of some future happier period, 
 
 under a mighty king- — the idea of the Messiah and 
 of his kingdom — is more fully developed by the lively 
 recollection of the splendid reign of David. — Schools 
 of the prophets. 
 Terniina- 3. Thc rivalry and wars between those two states 
 tion^ofthe ^^^ ^^^^ contiuuc with slight interruption, but be- 
 come more and more fraught with danger, in conse- 
 quence of the alliances entered into with foreign 
 princes, particularly with the kings of Damascus and 
 E2:ypt. An end is at length put to these feeble king- 
 doms by the rise of vast empires in Inner Asia. 
 
 Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms. 
 I. Kingdom of Israel, 976 — 721 ; under 19 kings, from dif- 
 ferent families, who succeeded to the throne amid violent revo- 
 lutions. 1. Jeroboam I., d. 955. Settlement of the royal 
 residence at Shechem ; of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, 
 and appointment of priests, not belonging to the tribe of Levi. 
 Constant wars with the kings of Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's 
 son, murdered in 953, by, 3. Baasha, d. 931. This prince, by his 
 alliance with the kings of Damascus, brought the kingdom of 
 Judah into great danger. 4. Elah, murdered in 930 by one of 
 his generals. 5. Zimri, 930, in whose place the army imme- 
 diately elected, 6. Omri : this prince, at the beginning of his 
 reign, had a rival to the throne in Tibni : d. 925. Omri founded 
 the new capital, Samaria, d. 919. He was succeeded by his 
 son, 7. Ahab : strong connexions by marriage with the kings of 
 Sidon ; introduction of the Phccniciau worship of Baal. Wars 
 with Damascus, in which Ahab at last perishes, 898. Under 
 Ahab a league formed -with the king of Judah. He is succeeded 
 by his sons, 8. Ahaziah, d. 896, and, 9. Jehoram. The league 
 with Judah continues. Jehoram is murdered by Jehu, 883. 
 10. Jehu : this Idng destroys the house of Ahal), which had 
 given 4 kings to Israel, and does away with tlie worship of 
 Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest from the kingdom of Is- 
 rael the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu d. 855. He is succeeded 
 by his son, 11. Jehoahaz, d. 839. The wars with Damascus 
 continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash, d. 823. He de- 
 feats the kings of Damascus and Judah. 13. Jeroboam II., d. 
 782. He restores the kingdom of Israel to its ancient extent. 
 After a turbulent interregnum of 12 years he is succeeded by 
 liis son, 14. Zechariah, 770; who was assassinated the same 
 year, being the last remnant of the house of Jehu, which had 
 given 5 kings to Israel. His murderer, 15. Shallum, after a 
 reign of one month, is, in his turn, assassinated by, 16. Mena-
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 BOOK I.] JEWISH HISTORY. 35 
 
 hem, d. 761 : under his reign the first expedition of the Assyri- Period 
 ans, headed by Pul, whom he buys off by tribute. 17. His son before 
 Pekahiali murdei-ed in 757, by, 18. Pekah, under whose reign 
 falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the Assyrian, and de- 
 struction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 738, by, 19, 
 Hoshea, who, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains possession 
 of the throne, 730. Hoshea endeavours, by an alliance with 
 Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke ; but Shalmaneser, king 
 of Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts 
 an end to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he trans- 
 plants to Media in Inner Asia, 721. 
 
 2. Kingdom of Judah under 20 kings of the house of 
 David, 976 — 588. The regular line of hereditary succession is 
 generally followed without dispute, and is only twice interrupted, 
 by Athaliah's usurpation, and the intervention of foreign con- 
 querors. 1. Rehoboam, d. 959. Jerusalem is still the seat of 
 government ; but even during this i*eign the worship of Jehovah 
 begins to fall into neglect, in consequence of the introduction 
 of foreign gods. Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is 
 attacked and plundered by Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, 
 d. 956. 3. Asa. This prince was attacked by the combined 
 kings of Israel and Damascus, and, no doubt, would have sunk 
 in the conflict, had he not succeeded in breaking their alliance : 
 d. 915. 4. Jehoshaphat, the restorer of the worship of Je- 
 hovah and framer of a league with the kingdom of Israel. His 
 attempt to re-establish the trade to Ophir, on the Red Sea, is 
 unsuccessful: d. 891. 5. Jehoram. The union with Israel is 
 confirmed by the marriage of this prince with Ahab's daughtei', 
 Athaliah ; but Idumaja, under his reign, secedes wholly from 
 the kingdom of Judah : d. 884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the 
 next year, 883, assassinated by Jehu, the murderer and suc- 
 cessor of Jehoram king of Israel. 7. His mother, Athaliah, 
 takes possession of the throne ; murders the whole royal family ; 
 only one son of Ahaziah, 8. Joash, is, in consequence of his 
 youth, rescued from the carnage, secretly educated in the tem- 
 ple, and, after seven years, forcibly placed upon the throne, by 
 means of a revolution wrought by the high priest, Jehoiada ; 
 and Athaliah is put to death, 877. Joash rules under the tute- 
 lage of the priests, which leads to the re-establishment of »Jeho- 
 vah's worship. This prince is menaced by Hazael king of 
 Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute. Slain, 837. 9. 
 Amaziah : he defeats the Edomites, and is in his turn defeated 
 by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself is sacked. 
 He is slain in 808, and succeeded, 10. by his son Azariah (or 
 Uzziah). This prince was leprous, and d. 756. His son, 11. 
 Jotham, d. 741, became regent during the life of his father. 
 The wars with Israel and Damascus recommence. 12. Ahaz, 
 d. 726. The league between the kings of Damascus and Israel 
 induces Ahaz to call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser king of 
 Assyria, who overthrows tlie kingdom of Damascus, and sub- 
 jects Israel and Judah to tribute. 13. Ilezekiah, d. 697. He 
 
 D 2
 
 36 JliWISH HISTORY. Ibook i. 
 
 rERioi) shakes off the Assyrian yoke ; under his reign Shalmanescr de- 
 BEPoiiu stroys Samaria, 721 ; and Shalmaneser's successor, Sennaelierib, 
 Cyrus, undertakes his expedition against Egypt, 713. Jerusalem is 
 a^ain besieged, but fortunately relieved by the total failure of 
 the expedition. Isaiah prophesies during the reign of this 
 prince. 14. Manasseh, d. 642. During his 55 years' reign, 
 the worship of the Phoenician god, Baal, becomes general ; that 
 of »Jehovah falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law into disuse. 
 15. Amon, murdered as early as 640. 16. Josiah, restorer of 
 the temple, and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of the 
 Law, which had been cast aside and neglected, is once more 
 found, and a complete reform instituted according to its princi- 
 ples. Palestine however is the first country attacked by Necos, 
 king of Egypt; and Josiala falls in battle, 609. His son, 17. 
 fJehoahaz, is, after a reign of three months, dethroned by Pha- 
 raoh-Nechoh, and his brother, 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tri- 
 butary prince on the throne. But in consequence of the rise of 
 the Chaldfeo-Babylonian empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived 
 of his Asiatic conquests by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 
 606 ; and Jehoiakim becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar : d. 
 598. The prophet Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son 
 of the former king, after three months' reign, is, together %vith 
 the greater part of the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, after a second expedition, (commencement of 
 the Babylonian captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the 
 father's side to Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary 
 prince. Forming, however, a league with Egypt, in order to 
 throw off the Babylonian yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third 
 time against Jerusalem, conquers it, 588, and delivers it up to 
 pillage and destruction. Zedekiah, after being deprived of liis 
 eye-sight, and losing all his children by the hands of the exe- 
 cutioner, is, together with the I'emaining portion of the nation, 
 led in captivity to Babylon. 
 
 S. Berxhardi Cominentatio de causis quibus affectum sit ut 
 regnum Judce diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum ta- 
 bula geographica, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, contain- 
 ing also several valuable inquiries into the monarchical period 
 of the Jewish state. 
 
 I Bauer, Manual of the History of the Hebrexo Nation, vol. 
 i. — iii., 1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not 
 only to the history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from 
 the rise to the fall of the state.
 
 BOOK 1.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 37 
 
 II. AFRICAN NATIONS. 
 
 General Geograpldcal Outline of Ancient Africa. 
 See A. II. L. Heeren's Historical Researches, etc. 
 
 1. Although the Phoenicians had circumnavi- africa. 
 
 gated Africa, the northern part only of that quarter \ 
 
 of the globe was known to antiquity. With that aucTofthe 
 part, however, the ancients were better acquainted aii^ients 
 than we are at the present day, the coast being 
 
 then occupied by civilized and commercial fiations, 
 who pushed their excursions far inland. This was 
 the case in early times with the Carthaginians and 
 the Egyptians ; still more so with the Macedonian 
 Greeks, under the Ptolemies and under the Romans. 
 War, hunting, and commerce were, generally speak- 
 ing, the objects which gave rise to those excursions. 
 
 2. Considered as a whole, Africa is very different General 
 from Asia, both in situation and form. Asia lies Yf,'^^.''' 
 almost entirely within the temperate, while Africa is 
 almost wholly under the torrid zone. Asia abounds 
 
 in deep gulfs and large rivers ; Africa constitutes a 
 regular triangle, and in its northern half possesses but 
 two large rivers, the Nile and the Niger. No won- 
 der, then, that this portion of our globe should 
 form, as it were, a world in itself, distinguished by 
 its productions and its inhabitants. 
 
 3. Physically considered. Northern Africa may be Physical 
 divided into three regions, distinguished in early an- of Nm^h^ 
 tiquity by separate names. The maritime country Afnca. 
 along the Mediterranean, with the exception of Tri- 
 polis, or the Regio Syrtica, consists principally of 
 
 very fertile districts, and was consequently, at all 
 times, very thickly inhabited : hence in Herodotus it 
 boars the name of tlie inhabited Africa; it is now 
 called Barbary. Above this, and under the 30th
 
 38 
 
 GEOGUAl'IlICAL OUTLINE. 
 
 [hook I. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Political 
 state. 
 
 paralk;! of N. lat., succeeds a mountainous tract, 
 across which stretches tlie Athis chain of mountains; 
 abounding in wild beasts and dates ; hence Herodotus 
 calls it the wild beast Africa : among the Arabs it 
 is called the land of dates (Bilec/uigerid). Beyond 
 this, and between the 30th and 20th degrees of N. 
 lat., the sandy region extends right across Africa and 
 Arabia : this part of Africa is therefore known, both 
 among the ancients and moderns, under the name of 
 Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert (Sahara). The 
 fruitful lands beyond the desert, stretching along the 
 banks of the Niger, were almost wholly unknown to 
 the Greeks ; by them these parts were comprehend- 
 ed under the common name of Ethiopia, although 
 that name applied more peculiarly to the districts 
 above ^gypt. The Greeks were, however, acquaint- 
 ed with some of the fruitful spots in the desert, the 
 Oases ; such as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, 
 properly so called, in Egypt. 
 
 4. There exists no political division which com- 
 prises the whole of Africa. The north coast alone 
 was inhabited by civilized nations, Egyptians, Cy- 
 renseans, and Carthaginians ; of which the first only 
 were aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants either 
 roved about as nomad hordes, or formed insignificant 
 states, of whose existence we have heard some ac- 
 count, though we possess no history of them. Along 
 the shore, reckoning from the Plinthinetic Gulf^ 
 Egypt is succeeded by : 1st, Marmarica, a tract 
 without cities, consisting principally of sandy deserts, 
 occupied by nomad hordes : this country extends 
 from the 40 — 47^ E. long, from Ferro. 2nd, The 
 fertile territory occupied by the Greek colonies, call- 
 ed Cyrena'ica, extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37 — 
 40'^ E. long. Cities : Cyrene, Barca. 3rd, The 
 territory of Carthage, extending from the Greater 
 Syrtis to the Fair Promontory, 25 — 40° E. long. 
 This territory comprised (a) the country between 
 the Greater and Lesser Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which 
 constitutes the modern kingdom of Tripoli ; a sandy 
 tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads. (Z») The
 
 BOOK I.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 39 
 
 territory of Carthage, properly so called (kingdom Africa. 
 of Tunis). A very fruitful country ; the southern 
 part called Byzacena, the northern part Zeugitana. 
 Cities : Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th, Numidia and 
 Mauritania ; occupied during the Carthaginian age 
 by nomad races. Along the shore some Carthaginian 
 settlements. 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial Geography, 
 contents is equal to about two-thirds of Germany, 
 and may therefore justly be ranked among the more 
 extensive countries of the globe ; it greatly varies, 
 however, in its physical properties. The soil is only 
 sufficiently fertile for tillage on the banks of the Nile, 
 and as far as the floods of that river extend ; beyond 
 that, on the west, is a sandy desert, on the east a 
 chain of rocky mountains. From its entrance into course of 
 Egypt at Syene, the Nile flows in one undivided the Nile. 
 stream to the city of Cercasorus, 60 geogr. miles 
 above its mouth, directing its course from south to 
 north through a valley from 8 to 16 geogr. miles 
 broad, bounded on the west by deserts of sand, and 
 on the east by mountains of granite. At Cercasorus 
 the stream first divides itself into two main branches, 
 which formerly discharged their waters into the Me- 
 diterranean, the eastern near the city of Pelusium, 
 the western near the city of Canopus (ostium Pelu- 
 siacinn et Ciuiopicinii) ; from these two diverged se- 
 veral intermediate branches ; so that in the time of 
 Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile, 
 but the number has not always remained the same. 
 The tract between the two extreme arms of the Nile 
 bears, in consequence of its triangular form, tlie 
 name of the Delta ; it was covered with cities, and 
 highly cultivated. The fertile part of Egypt, inha- 
 bited by civilized men, was therefore confined to the
 
 40 (JKüGRAI'IIICAL OUTLINE. [book i. 
 
 Kiai'T. Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two banks of 
 the stream from Syene to Cercasorus ; to which must 
 be added some well-watered spots in the centre of the 
 western desert, known under the name of tlie Oases. 
 In consequence of the perpetual absence of rain, par- 
 ticularly in Upper E^pt, the fertility of the Delta 
 and the valley of the Nile depends on the overflowing 
 of the river, which happens at stated periods. This 
 commences at the begining of August and continues 
 to the end of October ; so that during three whole 
 months the above-mentioned parts of the country are 
 under water. 
 Divisions of Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from 
 Egypt. Syene to the city of Chemmis (capital, Thebes, or 
 Diospolis); Central, from Chemmis to Cercasorus 
 (capital, Memphis); and Lower Egypt, which com- 
 prises the Delta, and the land on both sides : it was 
 full of cities, among which the most remarkable was 
 Sais. 
 Ethiopia. Next above Egypt lies Ethiopia, (Ethiopia supra 
 
 JEgyptum^ ; which, from the earliest times, princi- 
 pally through commerce, appears to have been closely 
 connected with the former country. The regions 
 imniediately above Egypt, usually called Nubia, are 
 little more than deserts of sand, still inhabited by 
 roving hordes of nomad robbers. The rocky moun- 
 tain chain, which forms the eastern boundary of 
 Egypt, stretches along the Red Sea, and was formerly 
 of great importance to Nubia, from its containing, 
 just above the Egyptian frontier, productive gold 
 mines. The Nile, in this country, makes a wide 
 curve to the west, and becomes so full of shallows as 
 to render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining 
 the river, however, are fertile and well inhabited ; 
 and contain numerous ancient monuments. Still 
 higher up, reckoning from 16*^ N. lat., the appear- 
 ance of the country changes ; the region of fertility 
 commences, and its costly productions, its gold and 
 its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable commerce. 
 Among these countries, Meroe, with its capital of the 
 same name, was celebrated in the days of Herodotus.
 
 PERIOD I.] EGYPTIANS. 41 
 
 By Meroe is understood a tract of land bounded by egypt. 
 two rivers, the Nile on the west, and the Astaboras, 
 (Tacazze,) which falls into the Nile, on the east ; for 
 this reason it is frequently, although improperly, call- 
 ed an island. This country extended towards the 
 sources of the Nile, or the modern province of Gojam, 
 where, under the reign of Psammetichus,the Egyptian 
 caste of warriors, having for the most part deserted, 
 established themselves. Meroe itself, like the Egyp- 
 tian states, was sacerdotal, with a king at its head. — 
 The city of Axum, or Auxume, is not indeed men- 
 tioned at so early a period ; but if we may judge by 
 the ruins that still remain, it was of equally high an- 
 tiquity with the old Egyptian towns and with Meroe. 
 The same observations apply to Adule, the harbour 
 on the Arabian Gulf 
 
 The Egyptian history is divided into three periods Divisions of 
 of unequal duration ; iheßrst of which extends from hif^Jryi^" 
 the earliest time down to the Sesostridse, that is to 
 say, to about B. C. 1500 : the second comprises the 
 reigns of the Sesostridse, or the brilliant period of 
 Egypt, down to Psammetichus, 1500 — 650 ; the 
 third brino's us from Psammetichus down to the 
 Persian conquest, 650 — 525. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD 
 
 From, the earliest times down to the Sesostrida, about 
 B. C. 1500. 
 
 Sources : 1. Jewish writers. Moses. His records contain, Peuiou 
 no doubt, a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day ; befoue 
 but no continuous history can be deduced from them. — From Cyuus. 
 
 Moses down to Solomon, (B. C. 1500—1000,) total silence, ~ 
 
 with respect to Egypt, of tlie Hebrew writers. From Solomon 
 down to Cyrus, (B. C. 1000 — ööO,) a few scanty fragments. — 
 Importance and superiority of the Jewish accounts, so far as 
 they are jmrdij historical. 2. Greek writers, (o) Herodotus. 
 The first who published a History of the Egyptians. About 
 seventy years after the destruction of tlie throne of the Pharaohs
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 by the Persian conquerors, this author collected, in Egypt itself, 
 the earliest accounts of the history of the country ; he received 
 his information from the most capable persons, the priests ; and 
 wrote down faithfully that information, such as he heard it. 
 If, tlierelbre, we would estimate at their proper worth the ac- 
 counts given by Herodotus, it is necessary to inquire, what did 
 the priests themselves know of their earlier national history ? 
 And this question cannot be answered until we have ascertained 
 in what manner the historical records of the earlier periods were 
 preserved among the Egyptians. 
 
 The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other 
 nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any 
 other nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical 
 picture writing ; in which the signs borrowed from natural ob- 
 jects served, as modern discoveries have proved, partly to re- 
 present sounds, {kieroglyphes phonetiques,) and partly to express 
 ideas ; in the latter case they were either representative or 
 allegorical. This mode of writing, by its nature, is not so com- 
 plete as the purely alphabetical ; since, 1 . It can express only 
 a narrow circle of ideas, and these separately, without con- 
 nexion or grammatical inflection, at least with very few excep- 
 tions. 2. As it is not so well adapted to v/riting as to painting 
 or engraving, it is not so useful for books as for public monu- 
 ments. 3. Being emblematic, it is not intelligible without the 
 help of a key, which could only be preserved in some tradition 
 connected wdth the monument, and which was exclusively pos- 
 sessed by the priests ; this key, therefore, could hardly be pre- 
 served many centuries without falsification. 4. The same 
 image seems frequently to have been used to express very dif- 
 ferent objects. — It follows, that the Eg}qotian history, as de- 
 duced from the lips of the priests, can hardly have been any 
 thing more than records connected with, and depending upon, 
 public monuments : consisting, therefore, of mere fragments, 
 and reducible to no consistent chronology, it ultimately admitted 
 only of allegorical translation, and consequently was very liable 
 to be misinterpreted. Besides their hieroglyphics, the Egyp- 
 tians certainly had two other species of writing ; the hieratic, 
 confined to the priests, and the demotic, used in common life. 
 Both, however, seem to have been nothing more than running 
 hands derived from the hierogl}^3hic system ; and we have no 
 instance of the employment of either the one or the other in 
 public monuments of the time of the Pharaohs. That the use 
 of papyrus, a material on which all the above kinds of ^wi'lting 
 were employed, had its origin in the highest antiquity, or at 
 least in the more brilliant period of the Phai-aohs, we now know 
 for certain, written documents belonging to those times having 
 been obtained from the tombs. 
 
 Champollion le jeune. Precis du S//steme Hieroglyphique 
 des ancieus Egijptiens. Paris, 1824. The main work on this 
 subject, of which the Lettre ä M. Dacier, 1822, is but the pre- 
 cursor, and tlie two Lett res a M. le due de Blacas the continu-
 
 PERIOD I.] 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 43 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 ation. The new method of deciphering has received its prin- Period 
 cipal confirmation from the work of the British consul in before 
 Egypt, Salt, Essay on the Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics, " 
 
 1825, on the authority of a comparison with the Egyptian 
 monuments themselves. Hitherto, however, little moi-e has 
 been made out tlian the names and titles of the kings, distin- 
 guished by being always enclosed within a border. 
 
 These preliminary rt^marks on the earlier Egyptian history, 
 will derive abundant support from a perusal of tlie account given 
 by Herodotus, (ii. 99 — 150,) of the Egyptian kings previous to 
 Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all 
 doubt, that : I. The whole history is throughout founded on 
 public monuments, and on monuments, too, either in or near 
 Memphis. We may even restrict ourselves to one single monu- 
 ment at Memphis, to the temple of Vulcan, or Phtha, the chief 
 temple of that city. The history commences with Menes, the 
 founder of that edifice, (c. 99,) and we are informed, respecting 
 each of his successors, what was done towards the augmentation 
 imd embellishment of the building : those who made no addition 
 to that temple, but left other monuments, (as the builders of tlie 
 pyramids,) are denominated oppressors of the people, and con- 
 temners of the gods : of those princes who left no monuments 
 at all, the priests could give no other information than a cata- 
 logue of names. II. Hence this line of kings, although the 
 priests gave it to Hei'odotus as such, is not without interrup- 
 tions, but, as is cleai'ly proved by comparison with Diodorus, con- 
 tains many wide chasms : therefore no chronological system can 
 be erected upon such a basis. III. The whole histoiy is inter- 
 Avoven with narrations derived from hieroglyphic representa- 
 tions, and for that very reason allegorical, the meaning of which 
 it is no longer possible to unravel, the priests themselves being 
 either unable or unwilling to explain it, and even inclining, it 
 appeal's, to introduce false interpretations. To this class of nar- 
 rations belongs, for instance, that of the robbery of Rhampsini- 
 tus's treasury ; that of his journey into hell, where he played at 
 dice with Ceres (e. 121, 122) ; that concerning the daughter of 
 Cheops (c. 127) ; concerning the blindness of Pheron, and the 
 manner in which he was cured, etc. (c. 111). To prove that 
 this charge is not without foundation, it will suffice to adduce 
 two examples; one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself ob- 
 serves that such was the case; the other from c. 141, the true 
 meaning of which we gather from other sources. Even in 
 the time of Herodotus, it was customary with the priests to en- 
 deavour to conciliate the Greek and Egyptian authorities ; a fact 
 in proof of which there are many arguments which cannot escape 
 the critic : such, for instance, as the completely GrcBcised his- 
 tory of king Proteus, c. 112 — 115. — The general result of the 
 above observations on Herodotus's Egy[)tian history is, that it 
 is nothing more than a narration connected witli public monu- 
 ments. To this inference but one objection can possibly be 
 made, namely, that the Egyptian priests possessed, besides their
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 44 EGYPTIANS. [book i. 
 
 Period liieroglypliics, an alpliabeticftl mode of writing ; consequently, 
 iiEioKE ti,;it^ „vcr and above the public monuments, they might likewise 
 reler to written annals ; but this objection is overthrown by 
 Herodotus hiniself. All the information the priests could give 
 him beyond what has been above alluded to, consisted in the 
 names of 330 kings subsequent to Menes ; these they read from 
 a papyrus roll, but knew nothing more of the kings who bore 
 them, because those sovereigns liad left no monuments behind 
 tiiem (c. 100). 
 
 {!)) Besides Herodotus, Diodorus (lib. i.) likewise furnishes 
 us with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who 
 wrote 400 years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and 
 collected his history, partly from the oral and written documents 
 of the priests of Thebes, partly from the more ancient Greek 
 writers, and particularly Hecata;us. If we consider Herodotus's 
 line of kings as not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance 
 of contradiction between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus, 
 like Herodotus, did not intend to give a complete enumeration 
 of the Egyptian kings ; but only of the most remarkable ; indi- 
 cating the interruptions by the number of generations which 
 they contained. 
 
 (c) Finally, different from both the above is the Egyptian 
 Manetho, high priest at Heliopolis, who flourished under the 
 reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wi'ote the 
 j.^gyptia.ca, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the 
 enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles 
 of Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three 
 sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all 
 31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In 
 each dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years 
 of their reigns are marked. The authenticity of Manetho is now 
 completely established ; since the names of the Pharaohs men 
 tioned by him have been deciphered on the Egyptian monu- 
 ments. To this period belong the tirst seventeen dynasties ; in 
 the eighteenth begins the second and brilliant period, to which 
 the yet remaining monuments of Upper Egypt, bearing the 
 names of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is worthy of ob- 
 servation, that in Herodotus we have the documents of the 
 priests of Memphis, in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes, 
 in Manetho those of the priests of Heliopolis — the three princi- 
 pal seats of sacerdotal learning : — perfect consistency cannot, 
 therefore, be expected in the accounts of those historians. 
 
 The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, from Kircher, 
 (Edipus JEcjijptkuus, 1670, to De Pauav, Recherches siir les 
 Egyptiens et sur les Chinois, 1772, have too often substituted 
 their own dreams and hypotheses for truth. The principal at- 
 tempts at a chronological arrangement of the dynasties have 
 been made by INLvrshaji, in his Canon Chronicus ; and by Gat- 
 TERER, in his ^ Si/nchronistic History of the World. — Among 
 the principal works on this subject may be reckoned : 
 
 Jablonski Pantheon Mythicum jEgyptiacum, 1750, 8vo.
 
 TERioD I.] EGYPTIANS. 45 
 
 Gatterer, Commentaiiones de Theogonia JEgypt. in Com- Period 
 mentat. Societ. Gotthig., t. vii. heforb 
 
 De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, mictorc G. Zoega ; Romne, '^^«us. 
 1797. 
 
 UEgypte sous les Pharaons, on. Recherches sur la Geograjihie, 
 la Religion, la Langae, les Ecriturcs, et VHistoire de VEgypte 
 avant Vinvasion de Cambyse, par Ciiampollion le jeune, t. i. 
 ii., 1814. These two volumes, dedicated to the geography, con- 
 tain the restoration of tlie ancient Egyptian names of provinces 
 and cities deduced from Coptic authorities. 
 
 Commentationes Herodoteat, scribehat Frid. Creuzer. jEgyp' 
 tica et Helhmica, pars 1. Lips. 1819. A series of most acute 
 and learned illustrations of different points in Egyptian an- 
 tiquity, introduced by different passages of Herodotus. 
 
 Tlie volume in Heeuen's Historical Researches, etc., con- 
 cerning the Egyptians ; and particulai'ly the introduction on 
 liieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the 
 Egyptian monuments, we are indebted to the French expedi- 
 tion. Those of Denon in his Voyage en Egypte, are far su- 
 perior to those of Pococke and Norden ; but Denon's, in their 
 turn, have been greatly surpassed in the magnificent work, 
 
 Description de VEgypte, Antiquitis, P. i. ii. iii. P. i. con- 
 tains the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of 
 Nubia to Thebes ; P. ii. iii. contain the monuments of Thebes 
 alone. 
 
 Belzoni, Researches in Egypt, London, 1824, with an atlas. 
 
 "I" ]\IiNUTOLi, Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Amman, and 
 Egypt, 1824. 
 
 L. BuRCKiiARDT, Travels in Nubia, London, 1819. 
 
 F. C. Gau, A?itiquites de la Nubie, Paris, 1824. A worthy 
 continuation of the great French work on Egypt. 
 
 Fr. Caillaud, Voyage ä Meroe et au Fleuve Blanc, Paris, 
 1 825, contains the description of the monuments of Meroe. 
 
 1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at Early civii- 
 a much earlier period than that to which history Ef/'""."*^ 
 reaches ; for even in the days of Abraham, and still 
 
 more so in those of Moses, the government seems to 
 have been so well organized, that a long period mnst 
 necessarily have elapsed in order to raise the nation 
 to that degree of civilization which we see it had 
 then attained. It may, therefore, be safely asserted, 
 that Egypt ranks among the most ancient countries 
 of our globe in which political associations existed ; 
 although we cannot determine with equal certainty 
 whether they did not exist still earlier in India. of India. 
 
 2. The causes which contributed to render Egypt Causes of 
 thus early a civilized state, may be found in the dvurzation.
 
 46 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 I*r:nior) 
 iiuioiik 
 Cyrus. 
 
 The Nile : 
 
 commerce. 
 
 Egyptian 
 civilization 
 came from 
 the south. 
 
 natural features of the country, and its favourable 
 situation, when compared with the rest of Africa. 
 It is the only tract in all northern Africa situated on 
 a large uninterrupted navigable stream : had it not 
 been for this, it would, like the otlier parts of Africa 
 under the same parallel, have been a mere desert. To 
 this must be added two extraordinary circumstances : 
 on the one hand, the overflowing of the river so per- 
 fectly prepares the soil, that to scatter the seed is 
 almost the only labour of the husbandman ; and yet, 
 on the other hand, so many obstacles impede the 
 progress of agriculture, (by the necessity of canals, 
 dams, etc.,) that the invention of man must neces- 
 sarily have been awakened. When agriculture, and 
 the kind of knowledge requisite for its ulterior de- 
 velopment, had introduced a certain degree of civiliza- 
 tion into Egypt, the situation ofthat country, between 
 Asia and Africa, and in the neighbourhood of the 
 rich land of gold and spices, must have been highly 
 favourable to the purposes of international commerce ; 
 hence Egypt appears in all ages to have been one of 
 the chief seats of the inland or caravan trade. 
 
 3. It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile valley 
 of the Nile, the course of things must have been very 
 different from what it was in the desert of Libya. 
 Several small states appear to have been formed in 
 this valley long before the existence of any great 
 Egyptian kingdom. Their origin, as might naturally 
 be supposed, is enveloped in an obscurity, which his- 
 tory can no longer entirely penetrate. It may still, 
 however, be gathered from monuments and records, 
 that Upper Egypt was first the seat of civilization ; 
 which, originating in the south, spread by the settle- 
 ment of colonies towards the north. It is probable 
 that this took place in consequence of the migration 
 of some tribe, differing from the negroes, as is proved 
 by the representations, both in sculpture and in 
 painting, found on the yet remaining monuments of 
 Eg>^pt. 
 
 4. The records of the high antiquity of political 
 civilization, not only in India, but likewise in Arabia
 
 PERIOD I.] EGYPTIANS. 47 
 
 Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in Meroe, and the Period 
 evident vestiges of ancient intercourse between the cyrus^ 
 
 southern nations of our globe, prove with sufficient 
 
 evidence the truth of such migrations, although thty f/om^hT^ 
 cannot be chronologically determined. It is certain, south. 
 however, that religion had no small share in pro- 
 ducing them. The national bond of union in Egypt 
 not only continued in later times, entirely dependent 
 upon religion, but was originally grounded upon it. 
 Thus every step in political civilization must have 
 depended, if not solely, at least principally, on the 
 caste of priests and on their extension. 
 
 General development of the idea of division into castes. Ori- 
 ginating at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the 
 same country, and their different modes of life. — Its further 
 progress in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms. — Application 
 to Egyi)t and to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, 
 civilized tribe. 
 
 5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship a caste of 
 of certain deities, the principal of which were Am- P"f '* i*^- 
 
 trod u CG 
 
 mon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the Greeks their reii- 
 with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The spread ^.'°".'^"^ 
 
 „ , . 1 • 1 • 1 1 1 • 1 civilization 
 
 of this worship, which was always connected with in Egjpt. 
 temples, aftords, therefore, the most evident vestiges 
 of the spread of the caste itself; and those vestiges, 
 combined with the records of the Egyptians, lead 
 us to conclude that this caste was a tribe which mi- 
 grated from the south, from beyond Meroe in Ethi- 
 opia, and by the establishment of inland colonies 
 around the temples founded by them, gradually ex- 
 tended and made the worship of their gods the do- 
 minant religion in Egypt. 
 
 Proof of the accui*acy of the above theory deduced from mo- 
 numents and express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes 
 and Amnion from Meroe ; it might have been inferred from 
 the preservation of the worship of Ammon in the latter place. 
 Memphis, again, and other cities in the valley of the Nile, are 
 commonly supposed to have been founded by detachments from 
 Thebes. 
 
 6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual Nomos. 
 progress of population, is corroborated by the very 
 ancient division of the country into districts, or
 
 48 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Separate 
 states 
 founded i 
 Egypt : 
 
 Manetho's 
 account of 
 them : 
 
 nomos. Tliis division was intimately connected with 
 the chief temples, each of which represented a sepa- 
 rate colony of the caste of priests ; so that the inha- 
 bitants of every nome belonged to the chief temple, 
 and joined in the religious worship there performed. 
 
 7. To the gradual extension of this civilized tribe, 
 which comprised, not only the caste of the priests, 
 but certainly also that of the warriors, and perhaps 
 some others, may be attributed the formation of se- 
 veral small states along the banks of the Nile ; the 
 central point of each being always such a colony as 
 we have just now described ; although each state 
 consisted both of the aboriginal tribes of the neigh- 
 bourhood, and of those that had migrated into the 
 country. The bond which united every separate 
 state was, therefore, as in most of those formed in the 
 infancy of mankind, a common worship, in which all 
 the members participated. But what, by reason of 
 the peculiarities of soil and climate, could not take 
 place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt : agri- 
 culture, and its progressive improvement, became the 
 great support of civilization ; and, as being the true 
 foundation of states, formed the principal political 
 object of the ruling caste. 
 
 Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in pos- 
 session of great speculative knowledge ; since their knowledge 
 rather had constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, 
 was in their hands the instrumentum dominationis over the peo- 
 ple, by which they rendered themselves indispensable, and kept 
 the former in a state of dependence. — Explanation of the close 
 reference which their gods, their astronomical and mathematical 
 sciences bore to agriculture. 
 
 8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these sepa- 
 rate Egyptian states existed first in Upper and Mid- 
 dle Egypt ; in the former were Thebes, Elephantine, 
 This, and Heraclea ; in the latter, Memphis. It is 
 only in the last division of his work that we meet 
 with states in Lower Egypt, such as Tanis, Mendes, 
 Bubastis, and Sebennytus. 
 
 To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings 
 after Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus ; as 
 also those whom Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to
 
 PEUioD II.] EGYPTIANS. 49 
 
 Sesostris, among whom are remarked Busiris II., founder of Period 
 Thebes, and Uchoreus, the founder of Memphis. Eusebius and before 
 Syncellus have preserved from ]\Ianetho the names of several Cyrvs. 
 of those kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare 
 and arrange. 
 
 9. In the absence of a certain and continuous obscurity 
 chronology, it is impossible to determine accurately °hronob 
 which of these states were contemporary, and which 
 succeeded the others. There can be no question 
 
 that Thebes was one of the earliest, if not indeed the 
 most ancient of them all ; certainly prior to Mem- 
 phis, which was founded by it. According to the 
 natural order of things, some of these states became 
 wealthy and mighty, and swallowed up the others. 
 Even at this early period, Thebes and Memphis had 
 obtained a superiority over the rest. 
 
 This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes ; 
 as were the states of Lower Egypt to Memphis. 
 
 10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Jo- Memphis a 
 seph's time the state of Memphis (the real place, it suTe^in jo- 
 appears, of his residence, not On, or HeliopoHs) seph-stime: 
 
 '^^ • 1 T\/r- 1 11 IT T-. T ^ < about 1800 
 
 comprised Middle and Lower Jbgypt. It possessed b. c. 
 a numerous and brilliant court ; castes of priests and 
 warriors. Its agriculture flourished, and several of 
 its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted civilization. 
 But after the establishment of vassalage in this state 
 by Joseph, when tlie class of free proprietors was 
 destroyed, by making the king the only landholder 
 except the priests, the troubles which already threat- 
 ened the kingdom must have assumed a more dan- 
 gerous and alarming aspect. 
 
 11. These troubles came from abroad. Egypt, invasions 
 surrounded on all sides by nomad tribes, had often ^^' ^^^ 
 
 rr 1 c- 1 • • • 1-1 • nomad 
 
 suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes pour- 
 ed in from the south, sometimes from the east. But 
 never were these invasions so frequent and durable 
 as in the period which immediately followed the ad- 
 ministration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun 
 by the Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by 
 the Egyptians Hi/ksos, settled in the country, forti- Hyksos, or 
 fied Avaris, or Pelusium, and extended their dominion Bedoums. 
 to Memphis, which they made probably the seat of
 
 50 EGYPTIANS. [book i. 
 
 PERion their govcn-nment. They are depicted as the op- 
 IfJnv^. pressors of rchgion, and of the caste of priests ; but 
 
 when we consider that Moses flourished in their time, 
 
 we are led to infer that, like the Mongols in China, 
 they must have gradually adopted Egyptian manners 
 and civilization. They do not appear to have gained 
 possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt ; and it seems 
 highly probable, that the long struggle against them 
 was never, or at least but for a short time, suspended. 
 
 The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C. 
 1800 — 1600; and consequently was contemporary with Moses 
 and the exodus of the Jews. Josephus gives 500 years to their 
 dominion, in which he probably comprises the long periods of 
 earlier wars. 
 
 Expulsion 12. Defeat and final expulsion of the Hyksos from 
 Hyksos- Upper Egypt by Thumosis king of Thebes. The 
 and rising couscquence of this event was not only the restoration 
 ofEgjpn of freedom and independence to Egypt, but also the 
 union of the different states into one kingdom ; as 
 the rulers of Thebes now became monarchs over all 
 Egypt. This expulsion of the Hyksos, which in it- 
 self cannot be considered otherwise than as a vast 
 national effort, must have been the more deeply im- 
 pressed on the memory of the people, as it laid the 
 foundation of the splendid period which immediately 
 followed. 
 
 The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of the 
 chief subjects on which the Eg}'ptian artists exercised their ta- 
 lents : it is supposed to have been represented upon one of the 
 large temples in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From the Sesostrida; imtil the sole dominion of Psammeti- 
 chits. B. C. 1500—650. 
 
 The sources for this period are the same as for the forego- 
 ing ; and the history still preserves the character of records 
 handed down by hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line 
 of kings subsequent to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and 
 Diodorus. Those two historians nearly agree, if we regard
 
 PERIOD II.] 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 51 
 
 Ilerodotus's line of kings, not as uninterrupted, but as the frag- Period 
 uaents of a series deduced solely from public monuments ; this before 
 will be demonstrated by the following table, in which the pre- 
 decessors of Sesostris have likewise been indicated. 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Herodotus. 
 
 Menes. 
 
 He was followed by three 
 hundred and thirty kings be- 
 longing to the previous period, 
 concerning which our informa- 
 tion is very incomplete : among 
 those sovereigns were eighteen 
 Ethiopians, and one queen 
 named Nitocris. 
 
 Mceris. 
 
 Sesostris. 
 
 Pheron, son of Sesostris. 
 
 Proteus, in the time of the 
 Trojan war. 
 Rhampsinitus. 
 
 Cheops, builder of the great 
 pyramid. 
 
 Chephres, brother to the 
 foregoing, builder of a pyra- 
 mid. 
 
 Mycerinus, son of Cheops, 
 builder of a pyramid. 
 
 DiODORUS. 
 
 Menes. 
 
 Followed by fifty-two suc- 
 cessors, ranging over a period 
 of more than 1400 years. 
 
 Busiris I. and eight success- 
 ors ; the last of whom was 
 
 Busiris II., the founder of 
 Thebes. 
 
 Osymaudijas and eight suc- 
 cessors ; the last of whom was 
 
 Uchoreus, founder of Mem- 
 phis. 
 
 ^gyptus, grandson of the 
 foregoing. After the lapse of 
 twelve generations, 
 
 M(x.ris. 
 
 Seven generations. 
 
 Sesostris or Sesoosis. 
 
 Sesostris II., son of the fore- 
 going : he assumed his father's 
 name. 
 
 Interval comprising several 
 generations. 
 
 Amasis, and the Ethiopian, 
 
 Actisanus. 
 
 3Iendes or Manes, builder 
 of the labyi'inth. 
 
 Anarchy which lasted five 
 generations. 
 
 Proteus or Cetes, in the time 
 of the Trojan war. 
 
 Remphis, son of the fore- 
 going. 
 
 Seven generations, in the 
 course of which flourished Ni- 
 leus, from whom the Nile de- 
 rives its name. 
 
 Chemiuis or Chemhes, from 
 Älemphis, builder of the great 
 pyramid. 
 
 Cephren, brother to the fore- 
 going, builder of a pyramid. 
 
 Mycerimis, son of Chemmis, 
 builder of a pyramid. 
 
 2
 
 52 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Pewiop 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Brilliant 
 period of 
 the Pha- 
 raohs. 
 
 Herodotus. 
 
 Asychis tlie legislator. 
 Anysis, who was blind. 
 
 Sahaco, the Ethiopian. 
 
 Anysis, king i'or the second 
 time. 
 
 Sethos, a priest of Vulcan. 
 
 Dodecarchy. 
 
 Psammetichus of Sais, sole 
 ruler. 
 
 DiODORUS. 
 
 Bochoris the legislator. 
 Interval of several genera- 
 tions. 
 
 Sahaco, the Ethiopian. 
 
 Dodecarchy. 
 
 Psammetichus of Sais, sole 
 ruler. 
 
 This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that 
 Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is im- 
 possible to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus 
 more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined. 
 Great importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by 
 Herodotus, ii. 13, where he declares that king Moeris flourished 
 900 years before his own visit to Egypt : consequently between 
 B. C. 1500 and 1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the 
 age of Sesostris was the 15th century B. C, (see Zoega, de 
 Obeliscis,) it cannot be denied but that we have some general 
 epochs ; and with these we must remain content until more 
 satisfactory information can be discovered on the monuments. 
 It should likewise be observed, that the discrepancy between 
 the names of the kings mentioned by Herodotus and Diodorus, 
 and those furnished by Manetho, may be accounted for by the 
 fact, that the sovereigns were distinguished by ditferent names 
 on the monuments and in common life. 
 
 Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd, 
 belong to this period ; more especially the two first, which con- 
 tain the most important of the Pharaohs. 
 
 1. The following period, nearly to its termination, 
 was the brilliant age of Egypt, during which it 
 formed but one empire ; the kings being represented 
 as sovereign lords of the whole country. And, in- 
 deed, it was natural that the expulsion of the in- 
 vaders should be follovved by a period in which the 
 military force and ardour of the nation would be 
 developed, and directed to external conquest. The 
 capital of the empire was, no doubt, Thebes, the 
 great monuments of which were erected in this 
 period ; that honour, however, seems to have alter- 
 nately belonged to Memphis, Herodotus's line of 
 kings being deduced from the monuments of that 
 city, and more especially from the temple of Phtha. 
 
 The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the
 
 PERIOD 11.] 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 53 
 
 founders of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on Period 
 whicli their names are found, are the following : belonging to before 
 the 18th dynasty, some where about 1600—1500. Cyrus. 
 
 Amenopliis I. His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on 
 the temple of Amada, in Nubia. 
 
 Thutmosis I. Commencement of the expulsion of the 
 Hyksos. 
 
 Amenophis II. The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete ex- 
 pulsion of the Hyksos, and commencement of several of the 
 great edifices. His name is also found on the monuments of 
 Tliebes, Elephantine, and even in Nubia, on the distant temple 
 of Soleb. Builder of the palace of Luxor. 
 
 Thutmosis II. His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk 
 at the Lateran. 
 
 Ramesses I. Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Ex- 
 pelled by his brother. 
 
 Ramesses II. Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medinet- 
 Abu in Thebes. One of the royal graves that have been open- 
 ed belongs to this king. 
 
 Amenophis III. Renewed invasion of the Hyksos ; he flees 
 before them into Ethiopia ; but returns victorious with his son 
 Ramesses. 
 
 Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400. 
 
 Ramesses III., called the Great, and sometimes Sesostris ; 
 founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great con- 
 queror. His name and titles, his wars and triumplis, are ibund 
 on the temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and 
 Nubia. His son and follower, 
 
 Ramesses IV., Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is 
 found in the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on 
 many other buildings. 
 
 Among his successors but few names have been preserved 
 until we come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, be- 
 tween 970 and 950 ; he took Jerusalem under the reign of 
 Rehoboam, and therefore furnishes a fixed date. 
 
 f R. V. L. (RuEHLE vox Lilienstern,) Graphic Illustra- 
 tions of the most ancient Ilistonj and Geography of Egypd and 
 Ethiopia, with an atlas, 1827. A work containing everything 
 necessary for understanding the discovei'ies hitherto made in 
 this department of history. 
 
 2. For this splendour, the empire was principally Splendid 
 indebted to Sesostris, son of Amenophis. This prince g'^'f^'^gj^ls 
 is justly entitled to the surname of Great, which was 
 given him by the Egyptians. No one will, to the 
 letter, credit the narrative of his deeds, exaggerated 
 as they were by the traditions of the priests, or repre- 
 sented, as they still appear, on tlie buildings of 
 Thebes ; but who can doubt the existence of a mon-
 
 54 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cykus 
 
 State of 
 the consti- 
 tution. 
 
 Period aroli of whom SO many and such various monuments 
 within and without Egypt bear witness ? 
 
 Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' cam- 
 paign, and conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally 
 directed against wealthy commercial countries ; probably by 
 laud against Ethiopia, Asia Minor, and part of Thrace ; by sea 
 against Ai-abia Felix, perhaps even the Indian peninsula. Can 
 the performance of these exploits be deemed improbable, in an 
 age when western Asia did not contain a single great empire ? 
 The vast undertakings atti-ibuted to Sesostris in the interior of 
 his dominions, extensive buildings, canals, division of the land, 
 and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey, prove 
 that he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt. 
 
 3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were 
 made, the constitution still bore the same general 
 character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy combined 
 with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian kings, like 
 the Indian princes, were distinct from the priests, yet 
 their power was limited in various ways by that caste. 
 The high priest shared the royal authority ; the king 
 was shackled by religious ceremonies, both in public 
 and private life ; he was obliged to evince his vener- 
 ation for the established worship by the erection of 
 public monuments ; and all the high offices of state 
 were in the hands of the priests. It cannot be de- 
 nied, that on the personal character of the king de- 
 pended much of his power ; but how strong must 
 have been this aristocracy, when even successful con- 
 querors were obliged to conciliate its approbation ! 
 
 4. It was probably about this time that the domestic 
 relations of the people, the division into castes, was 
 completed. The sacerdotal caste being in exclusive 
 possession of all scientific knowledge, remained for 
 that reason in possession of the offices of state. The 
 caste of warriors could hardly have assumed its com- 
 plete form before the country was united into one 
 empire : in like manner that of the navigators could 
 not have been completely established before the canals 
 were excavated ; although the origin of all may have 
 been of a much earlier date. 
 
 Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus 
 of the division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but 
 
 Division 
 into castes.
 
 PERIOD II.] EGYPTIANS. 55 
 
 likewise the discrepancies between tlie two, declare in favour of Period 
 
 Herodotus. l^''''''^ 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 5. It appears, therefore, tliat the most prosperous 
 period of the kingdom of the Pharaohs must be placed period of 
 some where between B. C. 1500—900; although, l>^^^?\^^^Q 
 according to Diodorus, even tliis period was inter- —900. 
 rupted by a long anarchy. The splendour of the 
 empire was obscured towards the end. Sabaco, a 714. 
 foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably from 
 Meroe,) subjugated Egypt ; after his departure from 
 
 the country, Sethos, a priest of Phtha, contrary to all 
 precedent, seated himself upon the throne. He was, 
 consequently, considered a usurper ; he offended the 
 caste of warriors, and could not have escaped the 
 dangers of an irruption threatened by the Assyrian, 
 Sennacherib, had not a pestilence compelled the in- 
 vader and his host to retreat. 
 
 The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe, 
 who, as conquerors, subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised be- 
 tween B. C. 800 — 700. Their names likewise have been al- 
 ready discovered on monuments ; some at Abydos in Egypt, 
 others in Nubia. 
 
 6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length Dodecar- 
 fell, and was replaced by an oligarchy ; (or perhaps a ^^^' 
 return was only made to the division of the earlier 
 kingdoms ;) twelve princes sharing among themselves 
 
 the sovereign power. A certain degree of unity 
 seems to have existed at first in this government ; but 
 quarrels soon sprung up among the princes, and they 
 compelled one of their number, Psammetichus of Sais, 
 to take flight. The exiled prince, supported by Greek About _ 
 and Carian mercenaries, contrived to avenge his 
 wrongs ; he drove away his rivals, and became the 
 sole ruler.
 
 5Ö EGYPTIANS. [book i. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 From the reign of Psammetichus, as sole monarch, to the 
 Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. B. C. 650 — 
 525. 
 
 PERion Herodotus (1. ii. c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority 
 BEFORE fQj. tijis portion of history. His statements, however, are no 
 Cyrus, j^j^gg^. clerived from hieroglyphics : they are purely historical. 
 ' During the reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks Avho had mi- 
 
 grated into Egypt gave rise to the caste of interpreters, kpfjrjj'elQ, 
 who acted both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers be- 
 tween the Egyptians and Greeks : these people were enabled 
 to give information respecting the history of the country. It 
 is not, therefore, surprising that Herodotus should assure us, 
 that from this time the history was authentic. — The names of 
 the succeeding Pharaohs are Hkewise found on the monuments ; 
 in the erection of which they rivalled their predecessors. 
 
 Contemporary : Asia : rise and fall of the Chaldieo-Baby- 
 lonian empire ; rise of the Persian monarchy. — Pome : kings 
 from Numa Pompilius to Servius Tullius. — Athens : Draco ; 
 Solon ; Pisistratus. — Jews : the last period and fall of the king- 
 dom of Judah ; Babylonish captivity. 
 
 Revolutions 1. Fi'om tliis epoch Egypt remained uninterriipt- 
 m Egypt, g^jy ^^g kingdom, the capital of which was Mem- 
 phis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the general 
 residence of the royal family. Strangers, and more 
 particularly Greeks, admitted into Egypt ; partly as 
 mercenaries, partly as merchants. Influence of this 
 innovation upon the national character, and upon the 
 political system in particular. A spirit of conquest 
 gradually inherited by the Egyptian kings, is directed 
 principally against Asia ; hence the formation of a 
 navy, and wars with the great rising monarchies of 
 Asia. Continued, but declining influence of the 
 sacerdotal caste, and proofs of the veneration of the 
 kings for the priesthood, deduced from the erection 
 and embellishment of temples, particularly of that 
 consecrated to Phtha in Memphis.
 
 PERIOD in.] EGYPTIANS. 57 
 
 2. Psammetichus He obtains sole power through Period 
 the assistance of Greek and Carian mercenaries, who cyruI^ 
 are continued as a standing- army in the country. 
 
 The caste of Egyptian warriors, taking umbrage in chur^*^'^' 
 consequence, emigrate for the most part to Ethiopia, b. c. eio. 
 where they settle. The southern portico of the temple 
 of Phtha is erected, and projects of conquest are 
 formed against Asia. 
 
 3. Neco, son and successor of Psammetichus. Neco d. 
 His extensive plans of conquest. First formation of ^^^• 
 
 a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to unite 
 by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. 
 Conquests in Asia as far as the Euphrates ; but quick 
 secession of the conquered, in consequence of the 
 loss of the battle of Circesium. Circumnavigation of cog. 
 Africa undertaken at his command by the Phoenicians, 
 and successfully performed. 
 
 4. Psammis his son and successor. Expedition Psimmis j. 
 against Ethiopia, and conquests in the interior of^^^' 
 Africa. 
 
 5. Reign of Apries (the Pharaoh-hophra of the Apries d. 
 Hebrews). Plans of conquest against Asia ; — siege 
 
 of Sidon, and naval battle with the Tyrians ; — expe- 
 dition against Cyrene in Africa ; its fatal result. A 
 revolution caused thereby in Egypt, the inhabitants 
 of which were averse to foreign wars, carried on 
 mostly by mercenary aliens : the revolution headed 
 by Amasis. In the civil war which Apries now 
 wages with his mercenaries against the Egyptians 
 commanded by Amasis, he loses both his throne and 
 life ; and with him ends the family of Psammetichus, 
 wliich had reioned to this time. 
 
 6. The usurper Amasis took possession of the Amasis d. 
 sovereign power ; and although he had to contend ^' ^' ^^'^• 
 with a strong party, who despised him on account of 
 
 his low origin, he contrived by popular measures, 
 and by the respect he showed to the sacerdotal caste, 
 to establish himself upon the throne. — His monu- 
 ments, botli at Sais and Mempliis. — The Egyptians 
 and Greeks become better acquainted and more 
 closely connected with each other, partly in conse-
 
 58 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Period 
 
 11 E FORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Psammeni- 
 tus. 
 
 525. 
 
 E^M pt a 
 province of 
 Persia. 
 
 Revolts 
 B. C. 488 
 to 484. 
 463 to 456. 
 
 414, 
 
 quence of the marriage of the king with a Greek 
 woman ; but principally owing to the mouths of the 
 Nile being opened to the Greek merchants, and the 
 cession of Naucratis as a factory for their merchan- 
 dise. Great and beneficial consequences to Egypt, 
 which, under the long reign of Amasis, reaches its 
 highest pitch of prosperity. This prince had already 
 been engaged in disputes with the Persian con- 
 queror, Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, 
 led an expedition against Egypt, which Amasis, 
 however, luckily for himself, escaped by a seasonable 
 death. 
 
 7. His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian 
 Pharaohs, is attacked by Cambyses in the very first 
 year of his reign. After a single battle, fought at 
 Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis, the empire 
 of the Pharaohs is overthrown, and Egypt merges 
 into a Persian province. The powerful caste of the 
 priests suflTered most from the hatred of the con- 
 queror; but the persecution to which they were 
 subjected must be attributed rather to policy than 
 fanaticism. 
 
 8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian pro- 
 vince. After the death of Cambyses, the country 
 received a Persian governor, and consequently be- 
 came a satrapy. Immediately after the first tempest 
 of war had blown over, Egypt was treated with mild- 
 ness by the Persians. The country paid a moderate 
 tribute, together with some royal gifts, among others 
 the produce of the fisheries in lake Moeris ; never- 
 theless, repeated revolts occurred, which may be 
 principally attributed to the hatred and influence of 
 the sacerdotal caste. The first took place under 
 Darius Hystaspes, and was quelled by Xerxes. An 
 increase of tribute was the consequence. The second, 
 under King Inarus, fomented and supported by the 
 Athenians, happened during the reign of Artaxerxes 
 I. ; it was quelled by Megabyzus. The third oc- 
 curred under Darius IL, and in consequence of the 
 support which the Egyptians received from the 
 Greeks, was of longer duration than either of the
 
 BOOK I.J CARTHAGINIANS. 59 
 
 former, the throne of me Pharaohs beins^ in some Period 
 
 1 BEFORE 
 
 measure restored. Cyrus. 
 
 This thiixl secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. "During 
 tliis period various kings were appointed ; Amyrtajus, d. 408 ; 
 Psammetichus, about 400 ; Nephreus, about 397 ; Pausiris, d. 
 375 ; Nectanebus I., d. 365 ; Tachos, d. 363 ; Nectanebus II. 
 conquered by Artaxerxes III., 354. 
 
 CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 Sources. The first great republic which ancient records 
 mention as applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a 
 phenomenon well deserving the attention of the historical in- 
 quirer. Our knowledge, hoAvever, of Carthaginian history is 
 unfortunately very deficient, as we possess no author who has 
 made it the jirincipal object of his attention. The immediate 
 subject of the Greek and Roman writers was the history of their 
 own country, and they only allude to that of Carthage in so far 
 as it is connected with their main topic. This observation ap- 
 plies as well to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy and Appian. 
 Even the information given by Justin, the only author who 
 says any thing concerning the early state of Carthage, is miser- 
 ably defective, although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. Com- 
 ment, de fontibiis Justini iii Commentat. Soc. Gotting. vol. xv.) 
 Moreover, as Herodotus here fixils us, we have not the writings 
 of any author whatever who Avitnessed Carthage in the days of 
 her prosperity ; Polybius did not see that country till after the 
 decline of its power ; the other historians wrote long afterwards. 
 But although an uninterrupted history of Carthage does not ex- 
 ist, we are yet al)le to trace the main outlines of the picture of 
 that state. — The modern writers on Carthage are : 
 
 IIendkicii, de Republica Carthaginiensium, 1664. A useful 
 compilation. 
 
 t History of the I?ejmhlic of Carthage, 2 vols. Frankfort, 
 1781. A mere history of the wars. 
 
 Dampmartin, Ilistoire de la Rivalite de Carthage et de Rome, 
 tom. i. ii. Very superficial. 
 
 f W. BoETTiCHEU, History of Carthage, part i. Berlin, 1827. 
 The best work on the subject ; in which use has been made of 
 modern researches. 
 
 Concerning the Carthaginians, see IIeeren's African Na- 
 tions. 
 
 The history of Carthage is most conveniently di- Periods of 
 vidcd into three periods: I. From tlie foundation ofniän'iS-' 
 the citv to the commencement of tlie wars with Svra- loi}.
 
 GO CARTHAGINIANS. [book u 
 
 Period cusg, B. C. 880 — 480. IL From the commencement 
 of tlie wars with Syracuse to those with Rome, 480 — 
 264. III. From the commencement of the wars with 
 Rome to the destruction of Cartha<Te, 264 — 146. 
 
 in; FOR 
 Cyrus. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From the foundation of CartJiaqe to the tears with Syra- 
 cuse, B. C. 880—480. 
 
 Contemiporary : Inner Asia : kingdoms of the Assyrians, Ba- 
 bylonians, and first half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks : 
 period from Lycurgns to Themistocles. Romans : period of the 
 kings, and of the commonwealth until the establishment of the 
 tribunes of the people. 
 
 Early his- 1, The foundation and primitive history of Car- 
 thage". ^^' thage, like all very early and important events in na- 
 tional history, have, by long tradition, been wrapt in 
 the veil of romance. The account given of Dido, 
 the supposed founder of the city, cannot be reduced 
 to the standard of pure historical truth, though it ap- 
 pears to justify the inference that some political com- 
 motions in the mother city. Tyre, induced a party of 
 emigrants to proceed to the northern shores of Africa ; 
 where other Phoenician establishments had already 
 taken place : here, by engaging to pay a yearly tri- 
 bute, they purchased from the natives permission to 
 found a city, the site of which was so happily chosen, 
 that it only depended upon the inhabitants to raise it 
 to that greatness which it afterwards attained. 
 Vast extent 2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at first 
 thaViniau " ^Y slow stcps ; yct cven at the end of this first period 
 dominions, she had reached to such a height of power, that she 
 was mistress of a large territory in Africa, and of 
 foreign possessions still more extensive. Establish- 
 ment of the Carthaginian dominion in Africa by the 
 subjection of the neighbouring aboriginal tribes, and 
 the foundation of Carthao-inian settlements within 
 their territories ; the natives, Liby-Phoenicians, gra-
 
 PERIOD I.] CARTHAGINIANS. 61 
 
 dually mingled with the inhabitants of those colonies, period 
 and imbibed from them a love of agriculture and cTnus. 
 
 fixed abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory 
 
 extending southward as far as the lake Triton, were, 
 without exception, Carthaginian subjects. 
 
 3. Her connexion, however, with the ancient Relation of 
 Phoenician towns along the coast, particularly Utica, ^-Jj^th? 
 was of a different nature. For although Carthage other Ty- 
 possessed a certain authority over them, she did not nfe" of °" 
 claim absolute dominion, but rather stood at tlie Africa : 
 head of a federation ; thus affording a protection 
 
 which must frequently have degenerated into op- 
 pression. 
 
 4. In consequence of a treaty with the neigh- ^^ith the 
 bouring republic of Cyrene, the whole territory ex- lon^of'^Cy. 
 tending between the two Syrtes was also ceded to ''«'"e- 
 the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones, 
 inhabitants of this district, preserved their nomad 
 
 mode of life ; they must, however, from their trade 
 with the interior parts of Africa, have been of the 
 highest importance to Carthage. 
 
 5. System of colonization, and, as a necessary Carthagu 
 result, that of conquest without Africa. It was evi- "Jes :*^° °' 
 dently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle on 
 islands, and to subject them to their dominion. Those 
 
 lying in the western part of the Mediterranean oc- 
 cupied the first place in their plan of conquest, which 
 was completely executed in Sardinia, the Baleares, Sardinia; 
 
 11 11 • 1 1 1 • r-\ • • Baleares: 
 
 and other small islands; perhaps in Corsica; in Corsica; 
 Sicily, however, they could never succeed to the full pjyt of si- 
 extent of their wishes. There is also every proba- 
 bility that the Canary islands and Madeira were en- Canaries; 
 tirely in their possession. On the other hand, the 
 Carthaginians, previous to their wars with Rome, 
 were in the practice of establishing separate settle- 
 ments on the main land, partly in Spain, and partly 
 on the western shore of Africa. In the latter, they 
 adopted the policy of their ancestors, the Phoenicians, 
 making the settlements so small, and confining them 
 within such narrow bounds, that the mother country 
 might always insure their dependence.
 
 62 
 
 CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Peihod 
 
 hkfohh 
 Cykus. 
 
 (Conquests 
 of M ago 
 and his fa- 
 mily. 
 
 Carthage 
 connected 
 with Persia, 
 B.C. 5.-J0 
 —480. 
 
 Sea fight 
 between the 
 Carthagi- 
 nians and 
 Phocreans. 
 Colonies 
 without the 
 straits of 
 Gibraltar, 
 B. C. 53i). 
 First treaty 
 Avith Rome, 
 509. 
 
 Arts mili- 
 tary and 
 naval of 
 Carthage. 
 
 Constitu- 
 tion of Car 
 thage : 
 
 6. The glory of extending the territory of Car- 
 thage, by important conquests, belongs principally 
 to the family of Mago, who, together with his two 
 sons and six grandsons, established the dominion of 
 the republic in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. This 
 occurred about the same time that Cyrus, Cambyses, 
 and Darius were laying the foundation of the Persian 
 monarchy, with which Carthage even then entered 
 into connexion. The Carthaginians, therefore, made 
 their first appearance, as extensive conquerors, in the 
 fourth century from the foundation of their com- 
 monwealth ; and it is at this period that mention is 
 made of their first naval engagement, in which the 
 Phocseans were their adversaries. In the same 
 period may be dated the establishment of their colo- 
 nies beyond the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and 
 Himilco — both probably sons of Mago; — by the 
 former on the coast of Africa, by the latter on that 
 of Spain. To the same period hkewise is referred 
 the first commercial treaty between the Carthaginians 
 and Romans, in which the former appear as already 
 masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of Sicily. 
 
 7. To complete these conquests, and to preserve 
 them when completed, the formation and support of 
 vast fleets and armies were indispensably necessary. 
 According to the usual practice of those nations who 
 apply both to trade and to war, the Carthaginian 
 armies were composed for the most part of merce- 
 naries. No nation, however, followed this plan so 
 extensively as the Carthaginians, for to them half 
 Africa and Europe furnished warriors. — Description 
 of a Carthaginian army ; development of the advan- 
 tages and disadvantages of its organization. — Organ- 
 ization of their navy. The state supported very 
 numerous fleets of war-ships, with a multitude of 
 slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems 
 public property. 
 
 8. The political constitution of Carthage, like that 
 ■ of all wealthy trading states, was an aristocracy com- 
 posed of the noble and the opulent, though at all 
 times combined with a certain admixture of de-
 
 BOOK I.] CARTHAGINIANS. 63 
 
 mocracy. The affairs of the state were confided to Period 
 the hands of the two suffetes or kings, — who, in all cTnus! 
 probability, held their office for life, — and to those of 
 
 the senate, (ßov\^,) which contained within itself a ggnatc^' 
 more select council (the r^cpova/a). The privilege of '^tate coun- 
 electing the magistrates resided with the people at ^^ ' 
 large, who also shared the legislative power with the commons, 
 suffetes. Civil and military power was usually di- Miutary 
 vided : the offices of general and magistrate not being f "j^^^Jj^!, 
 always, as at Rome, united in the same individual, — generally 
 although such an instance might not be of impossible ''""''^''" 
 occurrence : — to each military chief, on the contrary, 
 was appointed a committee from the senate, on which 
 he was more or less dependent. 
 
 9. The high state tribunal of the hundred was in- Supreme 
 stituted as a barrier to the constitution against the Timdr^ed: 
 attempts of the more powerful aristocrats, particularly *'« object ; 
 the military leaders ; indeed the brilliancy of Mago's 
 conquests seemed to threaten the republic with a mi- 
 litary government ; and immediately previous to his 
 
 time, one of the generals, Malchus, had actually made 
 an attempt to enslave Carthage. The object of the 
 institution was no doubt attained ; but in later times its eviu. 
 the council assumed to itself a power which increased 
 to absolute despotism. It is not improbable that this 
 court likewise constituted the select committee (the 
 r^epovffi'a) of the senate, 
 
 10. Our information respecting the financial sys- Finances of 
 tem of the Carthaginians is extremely meagre. The *^'=^''"^^=«'- 
 following seem to have been the principal sources of 
 
 the public revenue. 1. The tribute drawn from the Tributes 
 federate cities, and their African subjects ; the for- XriTcan^ 
 mer paid in money, the latter for the most part in federates : 
 kind. This tribute was imposed at the will of the 
 government, so that in pressing cases the taxed na- 
 tions were obliged to give one half of their income. 
 2. The case was the same with their external pro- Sardinia, 
 vinces, particularly with Sardinia. 3. The tribute 
 furnished by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the Syrtic 
 the Regio-Syrtica, and occasionally also by those on '^"''''^^ ' 
 the western side. 4. The customs, which were le- customs:
 
 64 CARTHAGINIANS. [book i. 
 
 Period vied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage, but 
 CyTus! likewise in all the colonies. 5. The products of their 
 
 rich mines, particularly those of Spain. In consider- 
 
 mines. ^^^^ ^.y^g financial system of the Carthaginians, it should 
 not be forgotten that many of the nations with whom 
 they traded, or who served in their armies, were un- 
 acquainted with the use of money. 
 Trade of 11. Systcm and cxtcut of their commcrcc. Their 
 
 Carthage : object was to sccurc a monopoly of the western trade ; 
 hence the practice of restricting the growth of their 
 colonies, and of removing as much as possible all 
 strano'ers from their commercial marts. Their trade 
 was carried on partly by sea, and partly by land. 
 hy sea to Their sea trade, arising from the colonies, extended 
 t^ie^Guiuea^ bcyond the Mediterranean, certainly as far as the 
 coast ; coasts of Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was 
 the mterior Carried on by caravans, consisting principally of the 
 of Africa, nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes : the cara- 
 vans travelled eastward to Ammonium and Upper 
 Egypt, southward to the land of the Garamantes, 
 (Fezzan,) and even still further into the interior of 
 Africa. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the 
 commencement of those with Rome, B. C. 480 — 264. 
 
 Views of 1. The great object of Carthaginian policy during 
 
 Carthage ^^ wholc of the abovc period, was to subdue Sicily ; 
 
 upon Sicily. . r ^ • ^ t 
 
 this object the nation pursued with extraordinary 
 pertinacity, often approximating to, but never ob- 
 taining, complete success. The growing power of 
 Syracuse, which likewise aimed at the sole possession 
 of the island, laid the foundation of that national ha- 
 tred which now arose between the Sicilian Greeks 
 
 Rout at Hi- and the Carthaginians. 
 
 mera by o. First attempt, arisincr out of the league formed 
 
 Gelon, • -y -v t \ • • ■ • r^ r^ 
 
 B. c. 480. With Aerxes i, upon his irruption into Greece. Ge-
 
 PERIOD II.] CARTHAGINIANS. 65 
 
 Ion of Syracuse, in a victory more decisive even than Period 
 that gained by Themistocles over the Persians at Sa- cyrus^ 
 
 lamis, routs the Carthaginians near Himera, and com 
 
 pels them to accede to a disgraceful peace. 
 
 3. This defeat was followed by a period of tran- General ex. 
 quillity lasting seventy years, during which we know the Cartha- 
 little about Carthage. All that we can say with any ^1"'='." ^'"- 
 
 O^ . ** ^ PITG ill 
 
 probability is, that in the mean time the struggle for Africa, 
 territory between Cyrene and Carthage commenced ■*'^"— 4^^- 
 and terminated to the advantage of the latter state, 
 whose dominion was generally extended and confirm- 
 ed in Africa by wars with the aboriginal tribes. 
 
 4. But the accession of Dionysius I. to the throne War in 
 of Syracuse, and the ambitious project formed by neweV4'io 
 him and his successors, of subjecting to their rule all 
 
 Sicily and Magna-Graecia, rekindled once more the 
 embers of war, which had only smouldered for a short 
 time, to burst forth with additional violence. 
 
 Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I., between the 
 years 410 — 368. Neither party able to expel the otlier : terms 
 of the last peace ; that each party should remain in possession of 
 what he then occupied. Second coraraereial treaty with Eome. 
 
 Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal 
 commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of 
 Dionysius II. : they endeavour to obtain their end ; but are 
 thwarted by the heroism of Timoleon, 345 — 340. 
 
 A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which 
 is transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates 
 in favour of Carthage, 311 — 307. 
 
 The war with Pyrrhus, 277 — 275, whose ambition gave rise 
 to an alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise 
 to increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily ; 
 and probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in 
 profiting by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to 
 attain their object, had not tlie seeds of war been thereby scat- 
 tered between Carthage and Rome. 
 
 5. What effect these Sicilian wars had upon the 
 state we are not informed. They were probably re- 
 giirded in Carthage as a beneficial channel for car- 
 rying off the popular fermentation ; — nevertheless, 
 
 two attempts, both unsuccessful, were made by some tempts'ät 
 of the aristocratical party, to overthrow the constitu- revolution, 
 tion ; first by Hanno, 340, and afterwards by Bomil- sos.' ' 
 
 F
 
 66 
 
 CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Excellent 
 state of the 
 Carthasji- 
 uian fi- 
 nances at 
 the begin- 
 ning of the 
 first Punic 
 ■war. 
 
 car, 308. — At the breaking out, however, of the war 
 with Rome, the commonwealth was so formidable 
 and mighty, that even the finances of the state do 
 not appear to have been at all affected ; a circum- 
 stance of tlie highest importance. What consequence 
 was it to Carthaoe whether 100,000 barbarians more 
 or less existed in the world, so long as there remained 
 plenty of men willing to suffer themselves to be sold, 
 and she possessed money to purchase them ? 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 Causes of 
 the Punic 
 
 Fatal con- 
 sequences 
 of the first 
 Punic war 
 to Carthage. 
 
 From the heginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal 
 of Carthage, B. C. 264—146. 
 
 1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were 
 the necessary consequences of a desire of aggrandize- 
 ment in two conquering nations ; any one might have 
 foreseen the strup'o-le between the two rivals as soon 
 as their conquests should once begin to clash. It is, 
 therefore, a question of little importance, to inquire 
 which was the aggressor ; and although Rome may 
 not be entirely cleared of that charge, we cannot 
 help observing that, according to the principles of 
 sound policy, the security of Italy was hardly com- 
 patible with the sole dominion of the Carthaginians 
 over the island of Sicily. 
 
 First war with Rome, 264 — 241, (twenty-three years,) waged 
 for the possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commence- 
 ment by Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the his- 
 tory of it, see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period II. 
 pai'ag. 2 sq.) 
 
 2. This war cost the republic, Sicily and the so- 
 vereignty of the Mediterranean, by which the fate of 
 its other external possessions was already predeter- 
 mined. But that which appeared at the first view 
 to threaten the greatest danger, was the total ex- 
 haustion of its finances ; a circumstance which will 
 no longer surprise us, when we consider how many
 
 PERIOD Tii.T CARTHAGINIANS. 67 
 
 fleets had been destroyed and replaced, how many Period 
 armies had been annihilated and renewed. Carthage cyrus! 
 
 had never before been engaged in such an obstinate 
 
 struggle as this ; and the immediate consequences 
 were more terrific even than the war itself. 
 
 3. The impossibility of paying the mercenaries Dreadful 
 produced a mutiny among the troops, which rapidly b'q^^Yo 
 grew into a rebellion of the subject nations, who had —237. 
 been most cruelly oppressed during the war. The 
 consequence was a civil war of thi-ee years and a half, 
 which probably would have spared the Romans the 
 trouble of destroying Carthage, had not the state 
 
 been snatched from ruin by the heroism of Hamilcar. 
 
 This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting 
 consequences to the state ; it gave rise to the feud between 
 Hamilcar and Hanno the Great, which compelled Hamilcar to 
 seek for support against the senate by becoming the leader of a 
 democratic faction. 
 
 4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia Sardinia is 
 and caused the loss of that most important island, of '°^'' ~^^* 
 which the Romans, flushed with power, took posses- 
 sion, in spite of the terms of the peace. 
 
 5. The influence of the family of the Barcas, sup- Rise of the 
 ported in their disputes with the senate by the popu- Blrca^:'^^^ 
 lar party, now got the upper hand in Carthage ; and 
 
 the first fruit of their power was the new and gigantic 
 project of repairing the loss of Sicily and Sardinia 
 by the conquest of Spain ; a country where the Car- vast projects 
 thaginians already had some possessions and com- ""^"^ '"''"' 
 mercial connexions. The immediate object of the 
 Barcas M''as the support of their family and party ; 
 but the Spanish silver mines soon furnished the re- 
 public with the means of renewing the contest with 
 Rome also. 
 
 6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar com- executed by 
 mandcd, and in the followino; eicrht in which Has- ^^^"Vi^^'" 
 
 Till* -1 1 ^ Has- 
 
 drubal, his son-ui-law and successor, was at the head drubai, 
 of the army, the whole of the south of Spain, as far ^221.^^^ 
 as the Iberus, was brought under subjection to Car- 
 thage, either by negotiation or force of arms. The 
 further progress of the Carthaginians was only 
 
 F 2
 
 68 
 
 CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Pi;nioD 
 UHroiiE 
 Cyrus. 
 
 By treaty 
 with the 
 llornaus 
 the Kbro is 
 fixeil as the 
 boiimlary of 
 their pos- 
 sessions in 
 Si)aiii, 226. 
 Carthagena 
 fbuiuled. 
 Hannibal 
 succeeds to 
 the com- 
 mand of the 
 army, 221 ; 
 
 and begins 
 the second 
 Punic war, 
 218. 
 
 Internal 
 state of 
 Carthage 
 during the 
 second Pu- 
 nic war. 
 
 arrested by a treaty with the Romans, in which the 
 Iberus was fixed upon as a frontier hne, and the 
 freedom of Saguntum acknowledged by both powers. 
 Hasdrubal crowned his victories as a general and as 
 a statesman by the foundation of New Carthage, 
 (Carthagena,) which was to be the future seat of 
 Carthaginian power in the newly-conquered country. 
 Hasdrubal having fallen by the hand of an assassin 
 in the year 221, the party of the Barcas succeeded in 
 appointing Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, a young man 
 of one-and-twenty, for his successor. Hannibal 
 found every thing already prepared in Spain for the 
 furtherance of the hereditary project of his family, 
 which was a renewal of the contest with Rome ; and 
 the vigour with which this project was pursued, 
 clearly proves how great must have been the pre- 
 ponderance of the Barcine influence, at that time, in 
 Carthage. Had the commonwealth attended to the 
 marine with the same ardour as their great general 
 did to the land service, the fate of Rome would per- 
 haps have been very different. 
 
 Second war with Rome, 218 — 201, (seventeen years,) first 
 in Italy and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See 
 the history of this Avar below, in the Roman History, Book V. 
 Period II. parag. 6 sqq.) 
 
 7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the 
 second war cost the republic much less than the 
 first ; the expenses being principally defrayed by 
 Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the head 
 of a powerful party at home, who were clamorous 
 for peace ; and who can say they were wrong ? As 
 might be expected, the family of the Barcas were for 
 war, and their influence carried the day. That 
 general, who, with hardly any support from Carthage, 
 was yet able to maintain a footing in the country of 
 his powerful foes for no less than fifteen years, and 
 that, too, as much by policy as by force of arms, must 
 extort our admiration. It cannot, however, be de- 
 nied, that during the struggle one favourable oppor- 
 tunity, at least, was let slip of making peace ; a fatal
 
 PERIOD III.] CARTHAGINIANS. 69 
 
 omission, for which the hero of Cannae paid dearly Pehiod 
 enough, by the failure of his darhng project. cVrus^ 
 
 8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage 
 
 was deprived of all her possessions out of Africa, ^ii'l'e^ce'^^^" 
 and her fleet was delivered into the hands of the t''e ri ^-.iit of 
 Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city ^*^ '''""^' 
 under the tutelao;e of Rome. But Carthao-e found 
 by this peace her most formidable enemy on the soil 
 of Africa itself Massinissa had been elevated to the Massinissa 
 dignity of king of Numidia ; and his endeavours to I „ewTu- '^ 
 form his nomads into an agricultural people, and to sfrumcnt of 
 collect them into cities, must have changed the !ic°y™^'^ ^'°' 
 military system that Carthage had hitherto followed. 
 Roman policy, moreover, had taken care that the 
 article inserted in his favour in the last treaty of 
 peace, should be so ambiguously worded, as to leave 
 abundant openings for dispute. 
 
 9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family of Hannibal at 
 the Barcas still preserved their influence, and Han- affairs ^'^ °^ 
 nibal was placed as supreme magistrate at the head 
 of the republic. He attempts to reform the constitu- attempts to 
 tion and the finances, by destroying the oligarchy of oligarchy. 
 the hundred, by whom the finances had been thrown 
 into confusion. Complete as was the success of the 
 first blow, it soon became apparent that aristocratic 
 factions are not so readily annihilated as armies. 
 
 The democratic faction, to which even the Barcas owed their 
 first elevation, was tlie cause of the degeneracy of the Cartha- 
 ginian constitution. By that faction tlie legislative authority of 
 the senate and magistrates was witlidrawn and transferred to 
 the ordo judicnm — probably the same as the high state tribunal 
 of the hundred — which now assumed the character of an om- 
 nipotent national inquisition ; and the members, being chosen 
 for life, exercised oppressive despotism. This tribunal was 
 formed of those Avho had served the office of ministers of finance, 
 with whom it shared unblushingly the revenues of the state. 
 Hannibal destroyed tliis oligarchy by a law, enacting that the 
 members should hold their office but for one year ; wliereas be- 
 folge they held it for life. In the reform wrought by this law 
 in the finances it was seen, that after all wars and losses, the 
 revenues of the reiiublic were still sufficient, not only tor the 
 usual expenditure and tlie [)ayment of tribute to Home, but also 
 for leaving a surplus in tlie public treasury. Ten years had 
 hardly elapsed before Carthage was enabled to pay down at
 
 70 
 
 CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Hannibal 
 compelled 
 to fly to 
 Syria. 
 
 B. C. 195. 
 
 Roman in- 
 fluence 
 completely 
 established 
 in Car- 
 thage. 
 
 The Car- 
 thaginian 
 territory 
 gradually 
 dismem- 
 bered. 
 
 once the whole of the tribute which she had engaged to furnish 
 by instahnents. 
 
 10. The defeated party, whose interests were now 
 the same with those of Rome, joined the Romans, to 
 whom they discovered Hannibal's plan of renewing 
 the war in conjunction with Antiochus the Great, 
 king of Syria. A Roman embassy was sent over to 
 Africa, under some other pretext, to demand that 
 Hannibal should be given up. The Carthaginian 
 general secretly fled to king Antiochus, at whose 
 court he became the chief fomenter of the war ag-ainst 
 Rome ; although unsuccessful in his endeavour to 
 implicate the Carthaginian republic in the struggle. 
 
 See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV. Period III. 
 separate kingdoms, I. Seleucidas, parag. 18 ; and Book V. 
 Period II. parag. 10 sq. 
 
 11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal, 
 Carthage fell once more under the dominion of the 
 Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty advantage 
 of the state of parties, to give a show of generosity 
 to the exercise of their power. Even the patriotic 
 faction, if we may judge by the violent steps which 
 they took more than once against Massinissa and his 
 partisans, seem to have been but a tool in the hands 
 of Rome. 
 
 12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the 
 gradual partition of the Carthaginian territory in 
 Africa. The manner in which this territory had 
 been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims 
 upon each of the component parts ; and the in- 
 terference of Rome, sometimes disinterested, but 
 oftener swayed by party-feeling, insured the posses- 
 sion of the territory to the Numidian. 
 
 Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa 
 for fifty years : nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is 
 lost in 193. — Loss of another province unnamed, to which Mas- 
 sinissa inherited some claims from his father. — Seizure of the 
 province of Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date 
 of Cato's embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision 
 had been rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to de- 
 stroy Carthage. — New disputes about 152. — Massinissa's party 
 is expelled Carthage. — Wai' breaks out in consequence, during
 
 PERIOD III. 
 
 CARTHAGINIANS. 71 
 
 which the king in his ninetieth year personally defeats the Car- Period 
 thagiuians ; and what with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's before 
 army, which had been surrounded by the enemy, was nearly yrus. 
 exterminated ; in the mean while the Roman ambassadors, who ~ 
 had come to act as mediators, obeying their private instructions, 
 looked on with quiet indifference. 
 
 13. Though it is evident that the party spirit Destruction 
 raging between Cato and Scipio Nasica had a con- °l^^^' 
 siderable influence in hastening the destruction of third Punic 
 Carthage ; and though it is equally clear that Mas- ^""""^^ ' 
 sinissa's late victory paved the v^^ay for the immediate 
 execution of that project ; yet it is difficult to unravel 
 the web, by which, long before the declaration of 
 war now^ about to follow, treachery prepared the final 
 scene of this great tragedy. Was the account that brou-ht 
 Cato at his return gave of the resuscitated power of ^|^|^p^^°" 
 Carthage consonant to truth ? Was not the sudden Ptoman'du. 
 secession of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, P^'^^'^y- 
 who was to have led a Numidian army to defend 
 Carthage against Massinissa, previously arranged 
 with Rome ? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who 
 first incited the populace to insult the Roman ambas- 
 sadors, and then opportunely rescued them from the 
 fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome ? These ques- 
 tions give rise to suspicions, although they cannot 
 satisfactorily be answered. At any rate, it may be 
 said, that the conduct of Rome, after war had broken 
 out, corroborates the suspicion. The whole history 
 of the last period sufficiently proves, that it was not 
 so much the debased character of the nation, as party 
 spirit, and the avarice of the great, which produced 
 the fall of Carthafre. Advantage was taken of that 
 party spirit and avarice by Roman policy, which, al- 
 though acting according to the dictates of blind pas- 
 sion, knew how to profit by dark and base intrigue. 
 
 Third war with Kome and destruction of Carthage, 150 — ^ 
 146. See hereafter the lloman history, Book V. Period II. 
 parag. 19 sq.
 
 SECOND BOOK. 
 
 History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560 — 330. 
 
 From 
 
 Cyrus 
 
 TO Alex- 
 
 ANUER. 
 
 Original 
 couditioa 
 of the Per- 
 
 sinns. 
 
 Sources. Preservation of historic records among tlie Per- 
 sians themselves under the form of royal annals ; origin and 
 nature of those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are 
 obliged to deduce the history from foreign writers, some of 
 whom, however, availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. 
 Greeks: their authority as writers, contemporary, but not al- 
 ways sufficiently acquainted with the East, (a) Ctesias. His 
 court history, compiled from Persian annals, would be the prin- 
 cipal work did we possess the whole ; we have, however, only 
 an extract from it preserved by Photius. {h) Herodotus, 
 who probably availed himself of similar sources in some portion 
 of his work, (c) Xenophon. To this period of history be- 
 long, not only his Anabasis and Hellenica, but also his Cyro- 
 pjedia, or portraiture of a happy empire and an accomplished 
 ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited in the example of 
 Cyrus : of use so far as pure historic records are interwoven 
 with the narrative, (f?) Diodorus, etc. 2. Jeivish xvriters. 
 The books of Esdras and Nehemiah ; and more particularly 
 that of Esther, as containing a feithful representation of the 
 Persian court and its manners. 3. The accounts of the later 
 Persian chroniclers, IMirkhond in particular, who flourished in 
 the thirteenth century of the Christian era, can have no weight 
 in the scale of criticism ; they are nevertheless interesting, in- 
 asmuch as they make us acquainted with the ideas that the in- 
 habitants of the East form of their early history. 
 
 The modern authors on Persian history are principally those 
 who have written on ancient history in general : see p. 2. A 
 treatise on Persian history, deduced fi-om eastern sources, wiU 
 be found in the Ancient Universal History, vol. iv. 
 
 Brissonius, de Regno Persarum, 1591, 8vo. A very la- 
 borious compilation. 
 
 The section concerning the Persians in f Heeren's Re- 
 searches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Princi- 
 pal Nations of A7itiquity. 
 
 [ÄIalcolm, Sir John, History of Persia, from the earliest 
 ages to the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to, 2 vols. "A valu- 
 able work."] 
 
 1. State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus; 
 a highland people, subject to the Medes, dwelling in 
 the mountainous parts of the province of Persis, and
 
 BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 
 
 73 
 
 leading wholly, or for tlie most part, a nomad life. ^^'^^ 
 Division into ten clans, among which that of the toAlex- 
 Pasargad(E, the noblest and ruling horde, is parti- ander. 
 cularly remarkable on account of the figure it makes ,^^^ ^^^^^ 
 in subsequent history. — The result of this division ofthePa- 
 was a patriarchal government, the vestiges of which ^^''=^'^'^' 
 remain visible in the whole of the following history 
 of the Persians. Permanent distinction between the 
 tribes in reference to their mode of life, observable 
 even during the most flourishing period of the Per- 
 sian state : three of the nobles or warriors, three of 
 the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds. Argu- 
 ment thence deduced, that the history of the Persians 
 as a dominant nation, is that of the nobler clans alone, ^^s the 
 and of the Pasargad^ more especially. 
 
 2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder of Cyrus, 
 the Persian monarchy, was, even in the time of He- gTiItIs-*" 
 rodotus, so obscured under the veil of romance, that than and 
 it was no longer possible to detect the real truth. It Asiatic con- 
 is, however, evident, that the course of the revolution querors ; 
 wrought by him was, on the whole, the same as was 
 followed in all similar empires founded in Asia. 
 Gengis-khan, in a later age, was placed at the head 
 
 of all the Mogol hordes ; in the same manner was 
 Cyrus elected chief of all the Persian tribes, by whose 
 assistance he became a mighty conqueror, at the time founds the 
 that the Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner pire^aboiu " 
 Asia were on the decline, and before the Lydian ^- ^- ^ci- 
 empire under Croesus had been firmly established. 
 
 Descent of Cyrus from the family of Achaemenes (Jamshid ?). 
 That family belonged to the Pasargadae tribe, and therefore re- 
 mained the ruling house. 
 
 3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence ofthoMe- 
 of the overthrow of the Medo-Bactrian empire, after empire, de" 
 the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada. Rapid exten- stroyed 
 sion by further conquest. Subjection of Asia Minor of the Lv- 
 after the victory won by Cyrus in person over Croe- dian em- 
 sus, and capture of the Greek colonies by the gene- AsTatic 
 rals of the Persian monarch. Conquest of Babylon tJreeks 
 and all the Babylonian provinces. The Phoenician about 557:
 
 74 PERSIANS. [book ii. 
 
 From cities submit themselves of their own accord. Even 
 
 To^Aufx- i" Cyrus's time, therefore, the frontiers of the Persian 
 
 ANDER, empire had been extended in Southern Asia to the 
 
 f „ , , Mediterranean, to the Oxus, and to the Indus ; but 
 
 538. the campaio-n agamst the nomad races, inhabitmg the 
 
 Sin ^rbat- steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful ; and Cyrus 
 
 tie with the himsclf fell in the contest. 
 
 Massagetse, 
 
 529. It cannot be denied but that, in the narration of the separate 
 
 wars waged by Cyrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and 
 Ctesias ; those two authors, however, agree in the main facts : 
 and, indeed, the diiferences which exist between them cannot be 
 considered always as direct contradictions. 
 
 The Per- 4. Immediate consequences of this great revolu- 
 thTrciigkln, tion in respect both of the conquerors and the con- 
 laws, and quercd. Among the former, even in the time of Cy- 
 conque^red ^ rus, the civilizatiou and luxury of the ÖMedes, their 
 Medes. legislation and national religion, and the sacerdotal 
 caste of the magi, who were guardians of that reli- 
 gion, had been introduced, and the whole system of 
 the Persian court had been remodelled upon that of 
 the Medes. 
 
 Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the Magian na- 
 tional religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the 
 dogmas of Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the 
 Persians ? — Proof that they were adopted only by the nobler 
 tribes, more particularly the Pasargadre. Their great and be- 
 neficial influence on agriculture. 
 
 Ajs'QUetll du Perrox, Zend-avesta, ouvrage de Zoroastre, 
 traduit en Francois sur V original Zend. Paris, 1771, 4to. 
 This work has been much improved by the critical discussions 
 added to the German translation by J. L. Kleuker. Com- 
 pare the dissertations on Zoroaster by Meixers and Tychsen, 
 in Comment. Sac. Gotting. and Heeren's Researches, etc. vol. i. 
 
 Hyde, De Religione veterum Persarum; Oxon. 1700, 4to. 
 Replete with learned research, and the first work that excited 
 inquiry on the subject. 
 
 f J. S. Ehode, Sacred Traditions of the East ; Breslau, 
 1821. An excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the 
 magian religion, and the antiquities of the j\Iedes and Persians. 
 
 Expedients 5. First political constitution of the Persian empire 
 adopted to ^^^^q^ Cvrus. No ffcneral new oro-anization ; but 
 
 keep pos- J o ..... ~ . 
 
 session of for the most part the origmal nistitutions are pre- 
 qu^eiTTter- servcd among the conquered, who are compelled to 
 ritories. pay tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect the
 
 BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 75 
 
 tribute, are associated with the generals, who with F"«« 
 numerous armies keep in subjection the inhabitants to alex 
 
 AN DE 11. 
 
 of the conquered countries. For the support of the 
 empire large standing armies are kept in pay, besides Tribute. 
 which, recourse is frequently had to the transplant- standing 
 ing of whole nations ; while, as was the case with the Transfer of 
 Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted are '*^'''°^'^ ^^- 
 restored to their country. With the same view in- 
 junctions are issued, as in the case of the Lydians, to 
 effect the enervation of warlike races by a luxurious 
 and effeminate system of education. 
 
 6. Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom, Cam- 
 byses, succeeds as king ; the younger, Smerdis, (the 
 Tcinyo.varces of Ctesias,) becomes independent lord 
 of Bactria and the eastern territories ; but is soon 
 after murdered by the command of his elder brother. 
 
 7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of the Cambyses, 
 Persians are directed against Africa. - Egypt be- ^522 "^^ 
 comes a Persinn province, and the neighbouring Li- conquers 
 bya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of their Egypt, etc. 
 own accord. But the two-fold expedition against 
 
 the opulent commercial establishments, Ammonium 
 in the west, and Meroe in the south, is wholly un- 
 successful ; that against Carthage is arrested in its 
 commencement by the refusal of the Tyrians to join 
 the naval armament. A colony of six thousand 
 Egyptians is transplanted into Susiana. 
 
 8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused His policy 
 of treating the Egyptians was directed rather against |",FtiT''"^' 
 the powerful caste of the priests, than against the E-iyptian 
 whole nation ; and originated more in political than ^"'^* 
 
 in religious motives. It must be observed, how- 
 ever, that we ought to be particularly on our guard his vices 
 against all the evil that is related of Cambyses, inas- j^'^ul^H^px- 
 much as our information respecting that prince is de- ag-e-ated. 
 rived entirely from his enemies, the Egyptian priests. 
 
 9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or Usurpation 
 Ta)ii/o.varces,) was an attempt of the magi to replace ° "^™^s' = 
 a Median dynasty on the throne, by means of a plot 
 hatched within the seraglio. It was the occasion of ^,eath or 
 an accident which cost Cambyses his life, after a reign 522? ^*'^'''
 
 76 PERSIANS. [book ii. 
 
 From q( seven years and a half (or, according to Ctesias, 
 
 TO Alex- of eighteen). 
 
 ^^^^^- 10. The Pseiido-Smerdis kept his seat on the 
 
 The false thronc eight months, during which he attempted to 
 
 Smerdis, bring over the conquered nations to his interest by a. 
 
 of d^Mit^'^'" remission of all tribute for three years ; but the dis- 
 
 months, is coverv of his cheat o-ave rise to a conspiracy of seven 
 
 slain by the n t i • n r^ ■ i i i i i i i 
 
 seven gran- 01 the chiet Pcrsiaus, who could not brook the rule 
 ^^^^' of a Mede, and the usurper lost his life. 
 
 No progress H. It could uot be cxpcctcd that the political or- 
 made to- gauizatiou of the kingdom should advance to com- 
 estabiis'htd pletion during the reign of Cambyses, who was almost 
 government alwavs abscut in the prosecution of war ; or during: 
 
 under Cam- J i/»i-r»ict t t -i 
 
 byses and tlic brief rulc oi the Pseudo-femerdis. It remamed, 
 Smerdis. therefore, in the same state as under Cyrus. But 
 The Per- the introduction of the Median court-ceremonial 
 forsake^nthf among the ruling tribe of the Persians, and the adop- 
 nomad life, tion of fixcd dwellings by that tribe, rendered it ne- 
 cessary that royal residences should be erected for 
 Persepoiis the reccptiou of the king's court; among these Per- 
 is built. sepolis, (see above, p. 17,) probably commenced by 
 Cyrus, was completed under Darius and Xerxes. 
 
 The be.st drawings of the monuments of Persepoiis, remark- 
 able alike for their architecture, their sculpture, and their in- 
 scriptions in the arrow-headed character, are to be found in the 
 Travels of Chakdix and Niebuhe. Illustrations : 
 
 I Herder's Persepoiis, in the collection of his works, vol. i. 
 
 f Heerex's Researches, etc., vol. i. Great assistance in stu- 
 dying the inscriptions, is furnished by 
 
 De Sacy, Memoires sur diverses Antiquites de la Perse; 
 Paris, 1793, 4to. It must be observed, however, that this work 
 is confined to the illustration of the later monuments, belonging 
 to the Sassanidce. The most successful attempt at deciphering 
 the arrow-headed inscriptions of the old Persic, since Tychsen, 
 MuEXTER, and Lichtensteix, will be found in 
 
 t Grotefexd, Oh the Interpretation of the Arroiv-headed 
 Characters, particularly of the Inscriptions at Persepoiis, con- 
 tained in the appendix to Heeren's Researches, etc. vol. ii. 
 with an accompanying Zend alphabet. 
 
 grandees 12. After a very remarkable debate held by the 
 
 cifon th"" seven conspirators, concerning the form of govern - 
 future form mcnt which should be established, Darius, the son of 
 meuT^"^" Hystaspes, one of the family of the Achaemenides,
 
 BOOK 11.] PERSIANS. 77 
 
 was raised to the throne by an oracle ; this king en- From 
 deavoured to strengthen his right to the sceptre by to Alex- 
 marrying two of Cyrus's daughters. ander. 
 
 13. The reign of Darius I., which lasted thirty-six ^^^ 
 
 IIL'S, 
 
 years, (according to Ctesias 31,) is remarkable for (022-486,) 
 the improvements made both in the external and in- stft'eTman 
 ternal administration of the Persian empire. In the ^^'^ f^«"- 
 former, by the great expeditions and conquests, which ^ ""' ' 
 extended the Persian realm to its utmost limits ; in 
 the latter, by several important institutions, estab- 
 lished for the internal organization of the state. 
 
 14. The expeditions of the Persians under Cyrus, ^'le first 
 were directed against the countries of Asia ; those of tinu canies 
 Cambvses, against Africa. But those undertaken bv I"** ^''™* 
 
 ■^ ~ , . "^ into Ku- 
 
 Darius I. were directed against Europe, though the rope : 
 Persian territory was at the same time extended in 
 the two other quarters of the world. In the reign and is em- 
 of this king likewise commenced those wars with the wUh'^t'he 
 Greeks, so fatal to the Persians ; constantly fomented Euro])ean 
 and supported by emigrant or exile Greeks, who 
 found an asylum in the Persian court, and there con- 
 trived to raise a party. — First example of the kind 
 exhibited shortly after the accession of Darius, in the 
 case of Syloson, brother to Polycrates, who had been 
 tyrant of 8amos : at his request the island was taken 
 possession of by the Persians, and delivered up to 
 him after the almost total destruction of the male po- 
 pulation. 
 
 15. Great revolt in Babylon, which would not Babylon Re- 
 submit tamely to a foreign yoke. After a siege of j'^'^'J.^^,,'"'^!] 
 twenty-one months, Darius by stratagem regains pos- b. c. »ir.. 
 session of the city. The power of Babylon and the 
 importance of its situation increased the jealousy with 
 
 which it was guarded by the Persian kings ; so much 
 so, that they were wont to reside there a certain por- 
 tion of the year. 
 
 16. First great expedition of Darius undertaken Campaiim 
 against the Scythians inhabiting the lands north of ^f-v 
 the Black Sea : the former irruption of the Scythians ^13 
 into Asia afforded a pretext for the war, which, there- 
 fore, was considered as a general national under- 
 
 iiist tlie 
 thiaiis,
 
 78 
 
 PERSIANS. 
 
 [book II, 
 
 From 
 Cyrus 
 TO Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 The Per- 
 sians, 
 
 though un- 
 successful, 
 establish 
 themselves 
 iu Europe. 
 
 Campaign 
 against 
 Avesteni 
 India, 509 : 
 
 against 
 Barca in 
 Africa. 
 
 Secession of 
 the Asiatic 
 Greeks, 
 B. C. 502— 
 496; 
 
 who, as- 
 sisted by 
 Athens, fire 
 Sardes, 
 500, 
 
 but are 
 completely 
 routed off 
 Miletus, 
 496, 
 
 taking. Unsuccessful as the Persian arms were in 
 this vast expedition against the Scythians, and dis- 
 graceful as was the retreat from the barren steppes 
 of the Ukrain, yet the power of Darius was estab- 
 lished in Thrace and Macedonia, and the Persians 
 obtained firm footing in Europe. 
 
 Concerning the peculiar character of the Persian national 
 wars, or great campaigns, in which all the conquered nations 
 were obliged to participate, contrasted with the other wars 
 waged by Persian troops alone. 
 
 17. The next expedition made by Darius was more 
 successful. It was carried on along the banks of the 
 Indus, down which river Scylax, a Greek, had pre- 
 viously sailed on a voyage of discovery. The high- 
 lands north of the Indus were then subjected to the 
 Persian dominion, and the Indus became the bound- 
 ary of the kingdom. About the same time that 
 Darius was engaged on the Danube and the Indus, 
 Aryandes, his viceroy in Egypt, led an expedition 
 against Barca, to avenge the murder of king Arce- 
 silaus ; a war which terminated in the destruction of 
 the city, and the transplantation of its inhabitants 
 into Asia. 
 
 18. However trifling the first occurrence which 
 gave rise to the revolt of the Asiatic Greeks, it was 
 much more important in its consequences. It was 
 set on foot by Aristagoras, lieutenant-governor of 
 Miletus, who was secretly supported by his relation, 
 the offended Histiseus, then resident at the Persian 
 court. The share taken by the Athenians in this 
 rebellion, which led to the burning of Sardes, was 
 the origin of the national hatred between Persia and 
 European Greece, and of the long series of wars 
 that ensued. The confederates were this time de- 
 feated ; but the naval battle off the island of Lada, 
 could hardly have had such a fatal result, had not the 
 league been previously corrupted by the craft and 
 gold of Persia. Be that as it may, this war ended 
 in the reduction of the lonians, and the destruction 
 of Miletus, their flourishing capital ; a city which
 
 BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 79 
 
 in those days, together with Tyre and Carthage, en- ^Ro« 
 grossed the trade of the world. xo Alex- 
 
 19. First attack upon Greece, particularly Athens, -^ndei^- 
 Darius, already enraged against the Athenians by pj^st cam- 
 the firing of Sardes, is still lurther instigated by the paign 
 suggestions of the banished tyrant of Athens, Hip- ^e"ce, 
 pias, the son of Pisistratus. This prince, who had 
 
 fled to the Persian court, was evidently the animating 
 spirit of the whole undertaking. Although the first «nder Mar- 
 attempt, made under the command of Mardonius, frustrated 
 was thwarted by a tempest, yet the mighty expedi- ^J^J^J™" 
 tion which afterwards followed, was undertaken with Athos, 492. 
 so much more prudence, and conducted with so second 
 much knowledge of the country, that no one can fail campaign. 
 to recognise the guiding hand of Hippias. Even the 
 battle of Marathon, which seems to have been but a Battle of 
 diversion on the side of the Persians, would not have Sept! 29, ' 
 decided the war, had not the activity of Miltiades ^9^- 
 defeated the principal design of the enemy upon 
 Athens. 
 
 20. It may be said that Darius, by these foreign Progress of 
 wars, debilitated the kinoxlom which he endeavoured tiiePersians 
 
 ' . . '^ . towarils a 
 
 to extend ; this circumstance, however, it cannot be regular 
 denied, increases the merit which he has of perfecting ["'n^^''"' 
 the internal organization of the empire. His reign 
 constitutes precisely that period which must enter 
 into the history of every nomad race that has at- 
 tained to power, and is advancing towards political 
 civilization ; a period at which it becomes visible 
 that the nation is endeavouring to obtain a constitu- 
 tion, however gradual the progress towards it. 
 
 21. Division of the empire into twenty satrapies, Division of 
 and the imposition of a regular tribute on each. i,ito^']^o-a! 
 This division at first depended solely on that of the p^es. 
 various tributary races, but from it gradually arose a 
 geographic division, in which the ancient distinction 
 
 of countries was for the most part preserved. 
 
 Proofs that the division into satrapies was originally a mere 
 arrangement for the civil government and collection of taxes, 
 distinct from military power. Duties of the satraps. The at- 
 tention they were to pay to the cultivation and improvement of
 
 80 
 
 PERSIANS. 
 
 [book ii. 
 
 Persian 
 finances : 
 the con- 
 quered to 
 support the 
 conquerors. 
 
 From the land ; to the collection of the imposts ; to the execution of 
 Cyrus the royal commands relating to provincial affairs. An abuse of 
 '^ander''" *'''^ institution, at a later period, placed in the hands of these 
 1_ satraps the command also of the troops. — Various means of keep- 
 ing the satraps in a state of dependence : royal secretaries ap- 
 pointed for each, who were to be the first to receive the king's 
 commands. — Periodical visits paid to the provinces by commis- 
 sioners under the direct appointment of the king, or by the king 
 himself accompanied with an army. — Establishment of couriers 
 in every part of the empire, for the purpose of securing a safe 
 and rapid communication with the provinces, as was the case 
 also in the Mongol countries (not a regular post, however, the 
 institution here alluded to being intended only for the court). 
 
 22. The Persian finance continues to preserve 
 those peculiarities which naturally result from the 
 formation of an empire by a nomad race of con- 
 querors, desirous of living at the expense of the con- 
 quered, and under a despotic form of government. 
 
 Collection of tribute, mostly in kind, for the support of the 
 court and the armies ; and in precious metals, not coined, but in 
 their raw state. Application of the treasure thus collected to- 
 wards constituting a private chest for the king. Various other 
 royal imposts. — Mode of providing for the public expenditure 
 by assignments on the revenues of one or several places. 
 
 23. Organization of the military system, conform- 
 ably to the primitive state of the nation, and the ne- 
 cessity now felt of keeping the conquered countries 
 in subjection by means of standing armies. 
 
 Military organization of the Persian nations, by means of a 
 decimal division pervading the whole. — Royal troops cantoned 
 in the open field, according to a certain division of the empire, 
 or stationed as garrisons in the cities, and distinct from the en- 
 campments. — Manner in Avhicli the troops were supported at 
 the cost and by the taxes of the provinces. — Introduction of 
 mercenaries and Greeks, more particularly among the Persians, 
 and fatal consequences of that measure. ISIilitary household of 
 the satraps and grandees. — Institution of a general conscrip- 
 tion in national wars. Formation of the Persian navy, con- 
 sisting of the Phoenician, and not unfrequently of the Asiatic 
 Greek fleets. 
 
 ThePersian 24. From tlic time of Darius, the court of the 
 senadio°and kings of Pcrsia attained its complete form, and the 
 *''« '"^■»'J- government soon after was wholly concentrated in 
 the army, the scraglio. Yct the mode of life which the kings 
 
 Art niili- 
 tiirv
 
 BOOK 11. J 
 
 PERSIANS. 81 
 
 led, surrounded by a court, taken principally if not f«om 
 
 wholly from the tribe of the Pasargadse, and changing to Alex- 
 their residence according to the revolutions of the ander. 
 seasons, still preserved the traces of nomad origin. 
 
 Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, the usual residences ; Perse- 
 polis, now used as a royal cemetery. The court supported by 
 the most costly productions of each province ; hence arose the 
 rigid ceremonial observed at the royal table. — Internal organ- 
 ization of the seraglio. — Influence of the eunuchs and queen- 
 mothers on the government. 
 
 25. Already had Darius commenced preparations Revolt of 
 to wreak his vengeance on Athens, when a revolution g" ^'^gg . 
 broke out in Egypt, and hindered him from prose- 
 cuting his design. He died after nominating for his death of 
 successor Xerxes I., grandson of Cyrus, and his eld- ^^g""^' 
 est son by a second wife, Atossa, whose influence 
 
 over her husband was boundless. 
 
 26. Xerxes I. A prince educated in the seraglio, xerxes i. 
 who knew nothing beyond the art of representing the ~^^'^ ' 
 pomp of royalty. Subjection of Egypt, and severe recovers 
 treatment of that country under the satrap Achas- ^»yp^^^^: 
 menes, brother to Xerxes. 
 
 27. Xerxes' famous expedition against Greece was leads a 
 again the result of the cabals and intrigues of the "rliV^ 
 Greek exiles, the Pisistratidse, the soothsayer Ono- against 
 macritus, the Thessalian princes or Aleuadae, who 
 contrived to exert their influence on the king's mind, 
 
 and to raise a party in their favour among the gran- 
 dees. But the progress of the campaign showed that 
 no Hippias was at the head of the invading army, al- 
 though the Persian king did certainly succeed in his 
 avowed object, the capture and destruction of Athens. 
 
 Critique on the detailed account given by Herodotus of this 
 expedition, as a national undertaking in which all the subju- 
 gated nations w^ei'e obliged to take a share. — Preparations which 
 last for three years in tlie Persian empire ; league framed with 
 Carthage for the subjection of the Sicilian Greeks, 48;> — 481. 
 The expedition itself in 480 ; over Asia Minor and the Helles- 
 pont, through Thrace and INIacedonia. — INIuster of the army and 
 division of the troops according to nations at Doriscus ; the de- 
 tailed description of which found in Herodotus, was most pro- 
 bably borrowed from some Persian document. — The pass of 
 Therniopylte taken by treachery ; on the same day a naval cn- 
 
 G
 
 82 PERSIANS. [book ii. 
 
 From gagement ofF Artemisium. — Athens captured and burnt. Bat- 
 
 Cyhus tie of Salamis, Sept. 23, 480. IJctreat of Xerxes ; an army of 
 
 TO Alex- pj^j-gj jj^^,^ j^ft behind, under the command of Älardonius. — 
 
 ^ ^' '• Fruitless negotiations with the Athenians. — Second campaign 
 
 of Mardonius : he is routed at Plataja?, Sept. 25, 479 ; and that 
 
 event puts an end for ever to the Persian irruptions into 
 
 Greece : on the same day the Persian army is defeated, and 
 
 their fleet burnt at Mycale in Asia Minor. 
 
 Persia now 28. TliG consequencGS of these repeated and un- 
 obiiged to guccessful expeditions, in which ahnost the whole 
 herforcesin population was engagccl, must be selr-evident. Ihe 
 AsiaMmor. gj-^pjj.g ^,rjg weakened and depopulated. The de- 
 fensive war which the Persians for thirty years were 
 obliged to maintain against the Greeks, who aimed at 
 establishing the independence of their Asiatic coun- 
 trymen, completely destroyed the balance of their 
 power, by compelling them to transfer their forces to 
 Asia Minor, the most distant w^estern province of the 
 empire. 
 Policy of 29. Little as the Greeks had to fear from the Per- 
 in^i^Uih?"^ sian arms, the danger with which they were now 
 the Greeks, threatened was much more formidable, when the 
 enemy began to adopt the system of bribing the 
 chieftains of Greece ; a system which succeeded be- 
 yond expectation in the first trial made of it with 
 Pausanias, and perhaps was not wholly unsuccessful 
 with Themistocles himself — But the Persians soon 
 Cimon found iu Cimon an adversary who deprived them of 
 Persia tre the sovcrciguty of the sea ; who in one day destroyed 
 sovereignty \yQi\^ their fleet aud their army on the Eurymedon ; 
 battle of the and by the conquest of the Thracian Chersonese, 
 di)n^4(!9 "^vrested from them the key of Europe. 
 Bloody 30. What little we know further concerning the 
 
 p^rsbirs^*^ reign of Xerxes, consists in the intrigues of the se- 
 raglio : raglio, which now, through the machinations of Queen 
 Amestris, became the theatre of all those horrors 
 which are wont to be exhibited in such places, and 
 Xerxes to whicli Xcrxcs liimsclf at last fell a victim, in con- 
 mur ere . ggquguce of the conspiracy of Artabanes and the 
 eunuch Spamitres. 
 
 Was Xerxes the Ahasuerus of the Jews ? — On the diffei'ence 
 between the names of the Persian kin^s in Persian and Chal-
 
 BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 83 
 
 dee; not to be wondered at when we consider that they were From 
 mex*e titles or surnames, assumed by the sovereigns after their <^yrls 
 
 • TO A I p"v- 
 
 accession. ^"^-^ 
 
 ANDER. 
 
 31. Artaxerxes I., surnamed Longimanus. In ^^^^_ 
 consequence of the murder of his father and his elder xerxes._ 
 brother, in the conspiracy of Artabanes, this prince -J424. '* 
 ascended the throne, but was unable to keep posses- 
 sion of the sceptre without assassinating, in his turn, 
 Artabanes. His reign, which lasted forty years, ex- dmiu- his 
 hibits the first symptoms of the decline of the empire, [s'f,"^}^'^'* 
 which this king, although possessed of many good decline. 
 qualities, had not the talent or spirit to arrest. 
 
 32. At the very commencement of his reign re- Rebellions 
 bellions are excited in the provinces : in the mean '" ^'^'^ p™" 
 
 1 ^ ^^ yiucGs. 
 
 while the war with Athens continues. Two battles 
 are require d to repress the insurrection of his brother 
 Hystaspes in Bactria. 
 
 33. Second revolt of Egypt, excited by the Libyan Second sc- 
 king, Inarus of Marea, in conjunction with the p^.f.";'" "' 
 Egyptian, Amyrtseus, and supported by an Athenian b'^'c. 463 : 
 fleet. Although the confederates did not make 
 themselves mxasters of Memphis, they defeated the 
 Persian army, commanded by the kings brother, 
 Achsemenes, who lost his life in the battle ; they 
 
 were at last overpowered by Megabyzus, satrap of 
 Syria, and shut up, together with Inarus, in the town 
 of Byblus. Inarus and his party were admitted to partly 
 capitulation ; but Amyrtccus, having taken refuge in 456^^^''' 
 the morasses, continued to make head against the 
 Persians, 
 
 34. The Grecian war takes, once more, an unfa- Persian 
 vourable turn for the Persians : Cimon defeats the ^^^^ ^'"^ 
 
 urmy etc- 
 
 enemy's fleet and army near Cyprus. The fear of featcd by 
 losing the whole of the island accordingly compels 449^''"' 
 Artaxerxes I. to sign a treaty of peace with Athens, Disgraceful 
 in which he recognises the independence of the Asi- ^^(h*^^,^^'"^ 
 atic Greeks, and agrees that his fleet shall not navi- 449. 
 gate the /Egeean Sea, nor his troops approach within 
 three days' march of the coast. 
 
 35. But the hauo-htv and powerful Mee'abvzAis, Megabyzus, 
 
 1 i- xl X- r» T • • 1 X- !. the first ex. 
 
 enraged at the execution 01 Inarus, m violation ot ample of a 
 
 G 2
 
 84: TEUSIANS. [book h. 
 
 From the proiTiisG made by him to that prince, excites a 
 
 To^Itui- rebellion in Syria ; repeatedly defeats the royal 
 
 ANDEn. armies, and prescribes himself the conditions upon 
 
 "TTT which he will be reconciled to his sovereio-n. This 
 
 satrap, was tlic first great example of a successful insur- 
 
 B. c. 447. j.g(,|.|^j-j excited by one of the Persian satraps ; and 
 
 chequered as were the subsequent fortunes of Mega- 
 
 byzus, his party continued to subsist after his death 
 
 in the persons of his sons. He possessed in the 
 
 centre of the court a support in the dowager queen 
 
 Amestris, and the reigning queen Amytis ; (both 
 
 Death of notorious for their excesses ;) who kept Artaxerxes 
 
 ^j-^a\eixes, ^ .^ ^ constaut statc of tutelage to the hour of his 
 
 death. 
 Xerxes 1 1. 36. Rcvolutions in the government now succeed 
 each other with rapidity and violence. Xerxes II., 
 the only legitimate son and successor of Artaxerxes, 
 is slain, after forty-five days' reign, by his bastard 
 SoGDiANus. brother, Sogdianus ; the latter, in his turn, after a 
 reign of six months, is deposed by another bastard 
 brother, Ochus, who ascends the throne, and assumes 
 the name of Darius II. 
 Dahius II. 37. Darius II. surnamed the bastard, or Nothus. 
 ■ He reigns nineteen years, under the tutelage of his 
 wife, Pary satis, and of three eunuchs, one of whom, 
 Artoxares, even attempts to open a way to the throne, 
 Rapid de- but is put to death. In this period the decline of 
 stl"e." ^ the state advances with hurried steps; partly by 
 reason of the extinction of the legitimate royal line, 
 partly by the increased practice of placing more than 
 one province, together with the military command, 
 in the hands of the same satrap. Although the re- 
 peated insurrections of the satraps are repressed, the 
 court, by the breach of faith to which it is obliged to 
 have recourse, in order to succeed in its measures, 
 exhibits to the world a convincing proof of its in- 
 B.C.422. firmity. The revolt of Arsites, one of the king's 
 brothers, who was supported by a son of Megabyzus, 
 '^^^^ and that of Pisuthnes, satrap of Lydia, are quelled 
 only by obtaining treacherous possession of their 
 persons.
 
 BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 85 
 
 38. In consequence of the weak state of the em- 1^"°" 
 pire, the fire, which had hitherto been smouldering- ^o Ale» 
 under the ashes, burst fortli in Egypt. Amyrtgeus, ander. 
 who had remained till now in the morasses, issued 
 
 forth, supported b}^ the Egyptians; and the Persians Third u-vüit 
 were again expelled the land. Obscure as the sub- 41]^^'^' '' 
 sequent history may be, we see that the Persians 
 were obliged to acknowledge, not only Amyrtaeus, 
 but his successors. [See page 59.] 
 
 39. The Persians must have regarded it as a happy Peioponne- 
 event, that the Peloponnesian war, kindled in Greece voüialte to" 
 during the reign of Artaxerxes, and protracted I'»«" Pfsian 
 through the whole ofthat of Darius II., had prevent- 
 ed the Greeks from unitedly falling upon Persia. It 
 
 now became, and henceforward continued to be, the 
 chief policy of the Persians to foment quarrels and 
 wars between the Grecian republics, by siding at va- 
 rious times with various parties ; and the mutual 
 hatred of the Greeks rendered this game so easy, that 
 Greece could hardly have escaped total destruction, 
 had the Persian plans been always as wisely laid as 
 they were by Tis:^tiphernes ; and had not the caprice 
 and jealousy of the satraps in Asia Minor generally 
 had more effect than the commands of the court. 
 
 Alliance of the Persians with Sparta, framed by Tissaphernes, 
 411; but in consequence of the policy of Alcibiades, and the 
 artful principles of Tissaphernes, followed by no important re- 
 sults, until the younger Cyrus, satrap of all Asia Minor, was 
 by Lysander, 407, brought over to tlie Spartan interest. (See 
 below, the Grecian history, Period III. pai'ag. 23.) 
 
 40. Artaxerxes II., surnamed Mnemon. Althouoh Arta- 
 
 , . . 1 ■, 1 p 1^ • 1 • • 1 xr.iiXES II. 
 
 tins prince was the eldest son 01 Darius, his right to 15. c. 405 
 the throne might, according to the Persian ideas of ~^^''^- 
 succession, have appeared dubious, since his younger 
 brother, Cyrus, had the advantage over him of being 
 the first-born subsequent to the accession of his father. 
 Relying on the support of his mother Parysatis, Cyrus, Anabasis of 
 even without this claim to the throne, would, no doubt, ^'"^" 
 have asserted his pretence to the sovereign power. 
 It would have been, in all probability, a fortunate 
 event for the Persian empire, had the fate of battle,
 
 86 PERSIANS. [book ii, 
 
 FitoM in the ensuing war between the two brothers, assigned 
 TO Alex- the throue to him whom nature seems to have pointed 
 ANDER. Qut as the fittest person. 
 
 History of this war according to Xenophon. Battle of Cu- 
 naxa, in which Cyrus falls, 401. Retreat of the ten thousand 
 Greek mercenaries in the service of Cyrus, under the guidance 
 of Xenophon. 
 
 Weak reign 41. DuHng the wholc of this reign, Artaxerxes, 
 xei^efii. Jiow firmly seated on the throne, remained under the 
 tutelage of his mother, Parysatis, whose inveterate 
 hatred against his wif(3, Statira, and against all who 
 had any share in the death of her darling son, Cyrus, 
 converted the seraglio into a theatre of bloody deeds, 
 such as can be conceived and committed only in 
 similar places. 
 
 42. The insurrection and rout of Cyrus produced 
 a corresponding change in the political relations be- 
 tween the Persian court and Sparta; which, how- 
 ever, were now determined, not so much by the will 
 of the monarch himself, as by the satraps of Asia 
 Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, of whose jea- 
 lousy Sparta knew how to take advantage. The 
 former, by his severity towards the Asiatic Greeks, 
 War with "who had supported the cause of Cyrus, excited a war 
 B^ a'^^oo. with Sparta, in which he himself fell a victim. The 
 death of the satrap is not, however, succeeded by 
 Agesiiaus tranquillity ; for Agesilaus commands in Asia, and 
 396—394 threatens to overthrow the Persian throne itself. 
 The policy of the Persians is shown by the war which 
 they foment in Greece against Sparta : Conon is 
 placed at the head of their fleet, and extricates Persia 
 from her difficulties better than could have been done 
 Peace of by her own generals ; in the peace of Antalcidas she 
 387.^ ci as, ]^gj.gg}f dictates the terms, by which the Grecian colo- 
 nies of Asia Minor, together w^ith Cyprus and Clazo- 
 Poiicy of mente, are again delivered into her possession. The 
 keeping on rising powcr of Thebes under Epaminondas and Pe- 
 good terms lopidas, witli whoui Persia keeps up a friendly con- 
 Thebes, nexion, insures her from any future blow at the hands 
 War with of the Spartans. — War for the possession of Cyprus
 
 BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 87 
 
 with Evagoras, who, however, by the subsequent ^'^^^ 
 peace retains the sovereignty of Salamis. to alex- 
 
 43. The war against the Cadusii in the mountains ^nder. 
 of Caucasus, proves tliat Artaxerxes II. was not fitted Evagoras of 
 for mihtary command ; and his attempt to recover Cyprus, 
 Egypt from King Nectanebus I., which was defeated War with 
 by the feud between Iphicrates and Artabazus, evinces the Cadusii, 
 that the most numerous Persian host could achieve Attempt to 
 nothing without the assistance of Grecian troops and *^'=*^^'^'' 
 Grecian generals. — It could hardly be expected that BfcWi. 
 an empire should endure much longer, when in the 
 
 court all was ruled by the desire of revenge in the 
 women ; when the political organization was already 
 so corrupt, that the satraps waged war against each 
 other ; and when those generals who gave any proof 
 of talent received no better reward than that of 
 Datames. 
 
 44. In fact, it seemed not unlikely that the Per- The succes- 
 sian empire would fall asunder a little before the ^1^° ^° ^^^ 
 death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A quarrel about the Persia is 
 succession arose in the court between the three lep'iti- '^'«p"^*^''' 
 
 1^ 1 1 • 11 I' ^ -r\ ■ "' almost 
 
 mate sons of the king, the eldest or whom, Darms, produces 
 was put to death : the standard of rebellion was erect- ortht^em-'^ 
 ed in the western half of the empire, and joined by piie before 
 all the governors of Asia Minor and Syria, support- Amxelxes'! 
 ed by Tachos, king of Egypt, to whose assistance 
 the Spartans had sent Agesilaus. The insurrection. Rebellion 
 however, was quelled in consequence of the treachery Jj"/ pnedT 
 of the chief leader, Orontes, who was bribed over to treachery, 
 the court. ^^"" 
 
 45. In the midst of these commotions died Arta- arta- 
 xerxes II. : his youngest son, Ochus, took possession ^^'^^^^^jj 
 of the throne, and assumed the name of Artaxerxes 362— 3:js; 
 III. This king conceived that he could not establish 
 
 his power but by the total destruction of the royal 
 family, numerous as it was. He was contemporary contempo- 
 with Philip of Macedon, in whom he soon found a phiup, the 
 more formidable rival than any he could have met 'f !''^^' "f 
 
 . n -1 Alexander 
 
 With in his own family. the Great. 
 
 46. The new insurrection fomented by Artabazus Jion^'Ji^Asia 
 in Asia Minor, was accompanied witli success so long Minor,
 
 88 PERSIANS. [book ii. 
 
 From o,i|y ^s it was backed by tlio Thebans ; but the re- 
 To Alex- ceptioii wliicli Artabazus met with at tlie hands of 
 ^ANDER^ Phihp soon betrayed the secret intentions of the Ma- 
 B. c. 358. cedonian king. 
 
 Rebellion 47. But the extensive rebelhon of the Phoenicians 
 nicianfanci ^^^^ CypHans in conjunction with Egypt, compelled 
 Cyprians, the king to Undertake another expedition, which suc- 
 ceeded almost beyond expectation ; although in this 
 case the object was again attained principally by 
 treachery and by Grecian auxiliaries. 
 
 Treachery of Mentor, the leader of the confederates ; the con- 
 sequent capture and destruction of Sidon, followed by the sub- 
 jection of Phoenicia, 356. Capture of Cyprus by Grecian troops, 
 under the command of Phocion and the younger Evagoras, 354. 
 Expedition of the king in person against Egypt ; victory of Pe- 
 lusium, won over King Nectanebus IL, with the help of Grecian 
 mercenaries. Egypt becomes, once more, a Persian province. 
 
 The Per- 48. This restoration of the empire to its former 
 oncl mUle^ limits was followed by a period of tranquillity, the 
 restored to result of forcc, as Mentor and the eunuch Bagoas, 
 bounds. holding the king in complete dependence, divided 
 The king the kingdom, as it were, between themselves : until 
 fhTeunJ<Sf Bagoas was pleased, by poison, to remove Arta- 
 Bagoas. xcrxcs out of his way. 
 
 Bagoas 49. After the assassination of the royal family, Ba- 
 
 Lrou the' goas placed on the throne the king's youngest and 
 throne, but only surviviug son, Arces. Bagoas was desirous of 
 makes away rcigniug in the name of that prince; but after the 
 ^'^'^oT^ lapse of two years, he found it necessary to depose 
 
 Jo. C 336. 1 . I "^i. .,. , ,. " . '■ . 
 
 nmi, and to substitute m his place a distant relation 
 of the reigning family, Darius Codomannus, who 
 commenced his reign by putting to death the wretch 
 himself 
 Darius III. 50. DaHus III., Codomaunus, not having been 
 educated, like his predecessors, in the seraglio, gave 
 proof of virtues which entitled him to a better fate. 
 His king- Attacked in the second year of his reign by Miicedon, 
 vaded by agaiust which Persia had hitherto made no prepara- 
 Ui'e Gr"^*^' tion for resistance, — unless, perhaps, the dagger which 
 334. ' pierced Philip was pointed by Persian hands, — Da- 
 rius was unable at once to re-establish a kingdom
 
 BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 89 
 
 wliich of itself was mouldering away. And yet, had From 
 not death defeated the invasion of Macedonia bv his ^^\^^^ 
 
 • ' 1 1 1 ALEX- 
 
 general, Memnon, it might have been matter of doubt ander. 
 whether Alexander would ever have shone as the con- 
 queror of Asia. — After the loss of two battles, in Alexander's 
 which he fought in person, Darius III. fell a victim established 
 to the treachery of Bessus ; and the burning of Per- in Asia, 
 sepolis made known to Asia that the realm of Persia ^"^°' 
 was destroyed, and that the East must acknowledge 
 a new lord and master. 
 
 For the history of the Avar, see below : the history of Macedon.
 
 THIRD BOOK. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 Geographical Outline. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 Boundaries 
 of Greece : 
 
 its dimen- 
 sions : 
 
 physical 
 advantages. 
 
 Divisions. 
 
 Northern 
 
 («UEECE. 
 
 Thessalv, 
 
 Greece is bounded on the north by the Cambu- 
 nian mountains, whicli separate it from Macedonia; 
 on the south and east by the ^Egsean, on the west by 
 the Ionian Sea. Greatest length from south to north 
 = 220 geogr. miles, greatest breadth from west to 
 east, = 140 geogr. miles. Superficial contents, = 
 29,600 square miles. — Principal rivers : the Peneus, 
 which discharges its waters into the yEgsean, and the 
 Achelous, which flows into the Ionian Sea. Advan- 
 tages in respect to fertihty, resulting from the mild- 
 ness of the climate, between 37 — 40° N. lat. ; from 
 the number of small streams ; from the qualities and 
 variety of the soil, in which this country has been so 
 much more blessed by nature than any other of simi- 
 lar extent, that every branch of cultivation may be 
 prosecuted equally and in conjunction. — Advantages 
 in reference to navigation and commerce : situated 
 in the vicinity of the three quarters of the world, on 
 three sides washed by the sea, and by reason of its ir- 
 regular, indented coast, abounding with commodious 
 ports and havens. 
 
 It may be divided into Northern Greece, from the 
 north boundary to the chain of (Eta and Pindus, 
 between the Ambracian Gulf west, and the Maliac 
 east. Central Greece, or Hellas, down to the isth- 
 mus of Corinth : and the southern peninsula, or Pelo- 
 ponnesus. 
 
 Northern Greece comprises two countries ; Thes- 
 saly east, Epirus west. 
 
 1. Thessaly, the largest and one of the most fruit-
 
 BOOK III] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 91 
 
 ful of the Grecian countries. Length from north to Greece. 
 
 south 60 geogr. miles ; breadth from west to east 04 
 
 geogr. miles. Rivers ; the Peneus, Apidanus, and 
 several smaller streams. Mountains ; Olympus, re- 
 sidence of the fabulous gods, and Ossa in the north ; 
 the chain of (Eta, Othrys, and Pindus in the south. 
 Division into five provinces: 1. Estiaeotis : cities; 
 Gomphi, Azorus. 2. Pelasgiotis : cities ; Larissa, 
 Gonni, the vale of Tempe. 3. Thessaliotis : cities ; 
 Pharsalus, etc. 4. Phtliiotis : cities ; Pherae, etc. 5. 
 The foreland of Magnesia, with a city of the same 
 name. Other territories, such as Perrhsebia, etc. for 
 instance, derived their names from the non-Greek 
 races who inhabited them. 
 
 2. Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, al- Ej.irus. 
 though one of the least cultivated countries of Greece : 
 48 — 60 geogr. miles long, and the same in breadth. 
 Divisions : Molossis ; city, Ambracia : Thesprotia ; 
 city, Buthrotum ; in the interior, Dodona. 
 
 Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine coun- Central 
 tries. ^'^^^'=^- 
 
 1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the south- Attica. 
 east, and gradually diminishing. Length, 60 geogr. 
 miles ; greatest breadth, 24 geogr. miles. Rivers ; 
 Ilissus, Cephissus. Mountains ; Hymettus, Pente- 
 licus, and the headland of Sunium. City ; Athens, 
 with the harbours Piraeus, Phalereus, and Muny- 
 chius ; in the other parts no towns, but hamlets, 
 ^^lol, such as Marathon, Eleusis, Decelea, etc. 
 
 2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth. The Me<?ans. 
 smallest of the Grecian countries; 16 geogr. miles 
 long, and from 4 — 8 broad. City, Megara. 
 
 3. Boeotia, a mountainous and marshy country, BceoUa. 
 52 geogr. miles long, and from 28 — 32 broad. 
 Rivers; Asopus, Ismenus, and several smaller streams. 
 Mountains ; Helicon, Cytheron, etc. Lake ; Co- 
 pais. — Boeotia was, of all the Grecian countries, that 
 which contained the greatest number of cities, each 
 having its own separate territory. Among these, the 
 
 first in importance, and frequently mistress of the 
 rest, was Thebes on the Ismenus. The others, Platscae,
 
 92 
 
 GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 [book in. 
 
 GREECE, 
 
 Phocis. 
 
 Locris 1st 
 and '2iid. 
 
 Doris. 
 
 ^.Etolia. 
 
 Acarnaiiia. 
 
 Pelopon- 
 nesus. 
 
 Arcadia. 
 
 Laconia. 
 
 Tanagra, Tliespire, Cliaeronea, Lebadea, Leuctra, and 
 Orcliomenus, are all celebrated in Grecian history. 
 
 4. Phocis, smaller than Attica ; 48 geogr. miles 
 long, from 4 — 20 broad. River ; Cephissus. Moun- 
 tain ; Parnassus. Cities ; Delphi, on Parnassus, 
 with the celebrated oracle of Apollo ; Crissa, with 
 the harbour of Cirrha, and, up the country, Elatea. 
 The other cities are insignificant. 
 
 5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The east- 
 ern on the Euripus, territory of the Locri Opuntii 
 and Epicnemidii, is the lesser of the two ; being but 
 little larger than Megaris. City ; Opus : pass, 
 Thermopylse. The western Locris on the Corinth- 
 ian Gulf, station of the Locri Ozolse, is from 20 — 24 
 geogr. miles long, and from 16 — 20 broad. Cities; 
 Naupactus on the sea, Amphissa up the country. 
 
 7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis 
 Dorica, on the south side of Mount CEta, from 8 — 12 
 geogr. miles long, and the same in breadth. 
 
 8. iEtolia, somewhat larger than Bceotia ; from 
 40—52 geogr. miles long, and from 28 — 32 broad ; 
 but the least cultivated country of all. Rivers ; 
 Achelous, which skirts Acarnania, and the Evenus. 
 Cities ; Calydon, Thermus. 
 
 9. Acarnania, the most western country of Hel- 
 las, 32 geogr. miles long, from 16 — 24 broad. 
 River ; Achelous. Cities ; Argos Amphilochicum, 
 and Stratus. 
 
 The peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight 
 countries. 
 
 1. Arcadia, a mountainous country, abounding in 
 pastures, and situate in the centre of the peninsula ; 
 greatest length, 48 geogr. miles ; greatest breadth, 
 36 geogr. miles. Mountains ; Cyllene, Erymanthus, 
 etc. Rivers ; Alpheus, Erymanthus, and several 
 smaller streams. Lake : Styx. Cities ; Mantinea, 
 Tegea, Orcliomenus, Heraea, Psophis ; subsequently 
 Megalopolis, as a common capital. 
 
 2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest length, 
 66 geogr. miles ; greatest breadth, 36 geogr. miles. 
 River ; Eurotas. Mountains ; Taygetus, and the
 
 BOOK III.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 93 
 
 headlands Malea and Tenarium. Cities ; Sparta on Greece. 
 
 the Eurotas. Other places ; Amyclse, Sellasia, and • 
 
 others of httle importance. 
 
 3. Messenia, west of Laconia ; a more level and Messenia. 
 extremely fertile country, subject to the Spartans 
 
 from B. C. 668. Greatest length, 28 geogr. miles : 
 greatest breadth, 36 geogr. miles. City ; Messene. 
 Frontier places; Ithome and Ira: of the other places, 
 Pylus (Navarino) and Methone are the most ce- 
 lebrated. 
 
 4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on ehs. 
 the west of the Peloponnesus. Length, 60 geogr. 
 miles : greatest breadth, 28 geogr. miles. Rivers ; 
 Alpheus, Peneus, Sellis, and several smaller streams. 
 Cities ; in the north, Elis, Cyllene, and Pylus : on 
 the Alpheus, Pisa and the neighbouring town of 
 Olympia: in Triphylia, a third Pylus. 
 
 5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula ; a Aigoiis. 
 foreland opposite to Attica, with which it forms the 
 Sinus Saronicus. Length, 64 geogr. miles : breadth, 
 from 8 — 28 geogr. miles. Cities ; Argos, Mycense, 
 Epidaurus. Smaller but remarkable places; Nemea, 
 Cynuria, Troezen. 
 
 6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise Mgia- Adiaia. 
 lus, comprises the north coast. Length, 56 geogr. 
 miles: breadth, from 12 — 24. It contains twelve 
 cities, of which Dyme, Patrae, and Pellene, are the 
 most important. 
 
 7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geogr. miles Sicyonia 
 long, 8 broad, with the cities of Sicyon and Phlius. 
 
 8. The small territory of Corinth, of the same ex- Corinth. 
 tent as the foregoing, adjoining the isthmus which 
 connects Peloponnesus with the mainland. City ; 
 Corinth, originally Ephyra, with the ports of Le- 
 chaeum and Cencln-eae ; the former on the Corinthian, 
 
 the latter on the Saronic Gulf 
 
 The Greek islands may be divided into three Isl^^nds. 
 classes ; those which lie immediately off the coasts, 
 those which are collected in groups, and those which 
 lie separate in the open sea. ri/f-tre 
 
 1. Islands off the coasts. Off the west coast in c osts.
 
 94 GRECIAN STATES. [dook hi. 
 
 GREECE, the Ionian Sea : Corcyra, opposite Epirus, 32 geogr. 
 
 -; miles long, from 8 — 16 broad. City; Corcyra. A 
 
 Leuwi^diä; Corinthian colony. Opposite Acarnania ; Leucadia, 
 Cephaionia "vvitli the city and headland of Leucas. — Cephalonia 
 and Ithaca; ^j. game, Originally Sclieria, with the cities of Same 
 and Cephalonia. In the neighbourhood lies the small 
 Zacjnthus ; island of Ithaca. — Opposite Elis, Zacynthus. Off the 
 Cytheia; south coast, Cythcra, with a town of the same name. 
 ^gina and Otf the cast coast, in the Saronic Gulf, ^gina and 
 Salamis; Salamis. Oppositc Bceotia, from which it is separ- 
 Euboea; atcd by the Strait named Euripus, Euboea, the most 
 extensive of all; 76 geogr. miles long, from 12 — 16 
 geogr. miles broad. Cities ; Oreus, with the head- 
 Scyathus, land of Artcmisium on the north, in the centre Chal- 
 imbrus' Sa ^^^' Erctria. Off Thessaly, Scyathus, and Halonesus. 
 mothrace, Farther north, Thasus, Imbrus, Samothrace, and 
 ^t^,;""°^' Lemnos. 
 
 Groups. 2. Clusters of islands in the ^gsean sea: the Cy- 
 
 Cyciades chidcs and Sporades ; the former of which comprise 
 rades^-^°" the Western, the latter the eastern islands of the 
 Archipelago. The most important among them are, 
 Andres, Delos, Paros, Naxos, Melos, all with cities 
 of the same names. 
 Separate. 3. The more extensive separate islands: 1. Crete, 
 Crete; 140 gcogT. iiiilcs loug, from 24 — 40 broad. Moun- 
 tain ; Ida. Cities ; Cydonia, Gortyna, Cnossus. 2. 
 Cyprus. Cyprus, 120 geogr. miles long, from 20 — 80 broad. 
 Cities ; Salamis, Paphos, Citium, and several smaller 
 places. 
 
 Concerning the pi'incipal Greek islands off the coast of Asia 
 Minor, see above, p. 16. 
 
 ■j* Fr. Carl. Herm. Kruse, Geographico-Antiquarian de- 
 lineatioji of ancient Greece and its Colonies, tvith reference to 
 modern discoveries. Elustratecl with maps and plates : first 
 part, 1825. General Geography: second part, first division, 
 1826. Second division, 1827. Special Geography of Central 
 Greece. A most minute and careful description of Greece, 
 founded on modern discoveries.
 
 TERioD i.l GREEKS. 96 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 Tlie most ancient traditional history, down to the Trojan 
 war, about B. C. 1200 
 
 Sources : On the formation and progress of history among First 
 the Greeks. Preliminary inquiry into the peculiarities of Gre- Period. 
 
 cian mythology in an historical point of view, as comprising the 
 
 most ancient history of the national tribes and heroes. A his- 
 tory rich in itself, on account of the number of tribes and their 
 leaders ; but embellished and altered in various ways by the 
 poets, particularly the great early epic writers, and afterwards 
 by the tragedians. — First advance of history from tradition, 
 wrought by the logograplii, especially those of the Ionian cities, 
 Hecatajus, Pherecydes, etc., until Herodotus, so justly called 
 the Father of History, raised it at once to such a lofty pitch of 
 eminence. (Compare f The Histoi-ical Art of the Greeks, con- 
 sidered in its Rise and Progress, by G. F. Cueuzer ; 1803.) 
 Nevertheless, in Herodotus, and even later writers, history con- 
 tinued to savour of its origin ; and so far as the realm of tradi- 
 tion extended, even Theopompus and Ephorus felt no disin- 
 clination to borrow their materials from mythologists or poets. 
 It need scarcely be observed, that in this first period the history 
 is merely traditional. 
 
 Among tlie moderns, the English have most successfully 
 treated the subject of Grecian history : the principal works are : 
 
 John Gillies, The History of Ancient Greece, its Colonies 
 and Con fjucsts, from the earliest accounts till the division of the 
 Macedonian Empire in the East, including the history of litera- 
 ture, -philosophy, and the fine arts ; London, 1786, 2 vols. 4to ; 
 and 
 
 William ISIitford, The History of Greece. London, 1784, 
 4 vols. 4to. Several new editions have since appeared. Trans- 
 lated into German, Jena, 1800, sqq. by H. L. Eichstädt. ]\Iit- 
 ford is perhaps superior in learning, copiousness, and solidity, 
 but he certainly is greatly surpassed by Gillies in genius and 
 taste ; and more especially in a proper conception of the spirit 
 of antiquity. [Few English critics wiU here coincide with our 
 author.] 
 
 De Pauw, Recherches sur les Grecs, 1701, 2 vols. 8vo. Re- 
 plete with partial views and hypotheses. 
 
 f Heeren, Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and 
 Trade of the most celebrated Nations of Antiquity. 
 
 Many important inquiries on various portions of Grecian his- 
 tory and antiquities will be found in the great collection, 
 
 Gronovii Thesaurus Antiquitalum Grcccarum, 12 vols, folio.
 
 96 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [book III. 
 
 First 
 
 I'UKIOD. 
 
 Early in 
 habitants o 
 Greece 
 
 Others are contained in the transactions of diflfercnt learned 
 societies, particularly in 
 
 ßlcmoires de VAcadctnie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres. 
 Paris, 1709, sqq. 49 vols. 4to. 
 
 Commentarii, (4 vols.) Commenfarii novi, (8 vols.) Commen- 
 tationes, (16 vols.) and Commentationes recentiores Societatis 
 Scientiarum Gottirig. (5 vols.) 
 
 1. Although Greece was originally inhabited by 
 ^ several insignificant races, two principal tribes claim 
 
 our attention, the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. Both 
 probably were of Asiatic origin ; but the difference 
 of their language characterized them as different 
 Pelasgi. tribcs. The Pclasgi wcrc the first that extended 
 their dominion in Greece. 
 
 First seat of the Pelasgians in the Peloponnesus, under Ina- 
 chus, about B. C. 1800. According to their own traditions, 
 they made their first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated 
 savages ; they must, however, at an early period, have made 
 some progress towards civilization, since the most ancient states, 
 Argos and Sicyon, owed their origin to them ; and to them, 
 perhaps, with great probability, are attributed the remains of 
 those most ancient monuments generally termed cyclopian. — 
 Extension of this tribe towards the north, particularly over 
 Attica ; settlement in Thessaly under their leaders Acha3us, 
 Phthius, and Pelasgus ; here tliey learned to apply themselves 
 to agriculture, and remained for a hundred and tifty successive 
 years; about 1700 — 1500. 
 
 2. The Hellenes, — subsequently so called from 
 Hellen, one of their chieftains, — originally the weaker 
 of the two tribes, make their first appearance in 
 Phocis, near Parnassus, under king Deucalion ; from 
 whence they are driven by a flood. They migrate 
 into Thessaly, and drive out the Pelasgi from that 
 territory. — ^The Hellenes soon after this become the 
 most powerful race ; and spreading over Greece, 
 expel the Pelasgi from almost every part. The latter 
 tribe maintain their ground only in Arcadia, and the 
 land of Dodona ; some of them migrate to Italy, 
 others to Crete, and various islands. 
 
 3. The Hellenic tribe is subdivided into four 
 principal branches, the JEolians, loniaus, Dorians, 
 and Ackceans, which continue afterwards to be dis- 
 tinguished and separated by many peculiarities of 
 speech, customs and political government. These 
 
 Hellenes; 
 
 descend 
 southward, 
 about B. C. 
 1550, 
 
 and obtain 
 the ascend- 
 ant. 
 
 Hellenic 
 tribes.
 
 PERIOD I.] GREEKS. 97 
 
 four tribes, although they must not be considered as F'rst 
 comprising all the slender ramifications of the nation, ^^'^'"°' 
 are derived by tradition from Deucalion's immediate 
 posterity ; with whose personal history, therefore, the 
 history of the tribes themselves and their migrations 
 is interwoven. 
 
 This derivation of the tribes will be better understood by an 
 
 inspection of the following genealogical table : 
 
 DEUCALION. 
 
 I 
 HELLEN. 
 
 I 
 
 DORUS. XUTHUS. J50LUS. 
 
 I I I 
 
 DORIANS. , ^ , yEOLIANS. 
 
 ACH^US. ION. 
 
 I I 
 
 ACH JE ANS. lONIANS. 
 
 4. The gradual spread of the various branches of 
 the Hellenic tribe over Greece was effected by several 
 migrations, between B. C. 1500 — 1300; after which 
 they preserved the settlements they had already ob- 
 tained until the later migration of the Dorians and 
 Heraclidse, about 1100. 
 
 Principal data for the Irisfory of the separate tribes in 
 this period. 
 
 1. ^OLUS follows his father Hellen into Phthiotis, which 
 consequently remains the seat of the ^olians ; they spread from 
 thence over western Greece, Acarnania, -i-Etolia, Phocis, Lo- 
 cris, Elis in the Peloponnesus, and likewise over the western 
 islands. 
 
 2. DoRUS follows his father into Estia^otis, the most ancient 
 seat of the Dorians. They are driven from thence after the 
 death of Dorus by the Perrhaibi ; spread over Macedonia and 
 Crete ; part of the tribe return, cross Mount G'^ta, and settle 
 in the Tetrapolis Dorica, afterwards called Doris, where they 
 remain until they migrate into Peloponnesus, under the guid- 
 ance of the Ileraclidas ; about 1100. (See below, p. 102.) 
 
 3. XuTiius, expelled by his brothers, migrates to Athens, 
 where he marries Creusa, daughter of Ercctheus, by whom he 
 has sons. Ion and Achicus. Ion and his tribe, driven out of 
 Athens, settle in that part of Peloponnesus called ^gialus, a 
 name which by them was converted into Ionia, and in later 
 times exchanged for Achaia. The Achaians preserve their 
 
 H
 
 98 
 
 GREEkS. [book III. 
 
 First footing in Laconia and Argos, until the time of the Dorian 
 Period, migration. 
 
 t L. D. HuELLMAN, Early Grecian History, 1814. Rich in 
 original views and conjectures, beyond wliich the early history 
 of nations seldom extends. 
 
 f D. C. Otfried Mueller, History of the Hellenic Tribes 
 and Cities, 1820, vol. i., containing Orchomenus and the MinycB: 
 vols. ii. iii., containing the Dorians, 1825. 
 
 Colonies 5. Besides these original inhabitants, colonies at 
 
 Gieecr ^^^ same early period came into Greece from civilized 
 countries, from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Mysia. The 
 settlements of these strangers occurred probably be- 
 tween B. C. 1600—1400. 
 
 Establishment in Attica of the colony of Cecrops, fi-om Sais 
 in Egypt, about 1550 ; in Argos, of the colony of Danaus, like- 
 wise from Egypt, about 1500. — The colony of Cadmus, from 
 Phoenicia, settles in Boeotia about 1550. — The colony of Pelops, 
 from Mysia, settles in Argos about 1400. 
 
 Progress of g. The mythology of the Hellenes proves beyond 
 among the ^ doubt, that they were at first savages, like the Pe- 
 Heiienes. lasgi, siucc they had to learn even the use of fire from 
 Prometheus ; yet it is equally clear that they must, 
 even in the earliest period, particularly from 1300 — 
 1200, when they had ceased to migrate, have made 
 the first important steps towards the attainment of a 
 certain degree of civilization. About the time of 
 the Trojan war they appear to have been still barba- 
 rians, though no longer savages. 
 Was the 7. Thc Origin and progress of this national organ- 
 
 ciy'iiization iz^tiou, and the influence wrought upon it by settlers 
 of native or from foreign countries, are difficult subjects to deter- 
 growth? mine. If we allow that Cecrops was the first who 
 introduced marriage in Attica, and that agriculture 
 and the cultivation of the olive were discovered in 
 that country, it unquestionably follows, that the Hel- 
 lenes were indebted to strang-ers for the foundation 
 of domestic civilization. And when we consider that 
 the families which subsequently held sway were de- 
 scended directly from the most powerful of these 
 strangers, their lasting influence can hardly be a mat- 
 ter of doubt. It must, however, be observed, that 
 what the Greeks borrowed from foreigners they pre- 
 viously stamped with their own peculiar character,
 
 PERIOD I.] GREEKS. 99 
 
 SO that it became, as it were, the original property of First 
 the nation. The question, therefore, is deprived of ^'^'"°' 
 much of the importance which it assumes at tlie first 
 glance. 
 
 8. The case was the same with regard to all the Hellenic 
 branches of intellectual civilization, particularly re- r^|ed7rom" 
 ligion. That many deities and religious rites were foreigners. 
 introduced into Greece from Egypt, Asia, and Thrace, 
 
 and generally through Crete, hardly admits of a 
 doubt ; but they did not therefore remain Egyptian, 
 Asiatic, or Thracian ; they became Grecian gods. 
 Hence it appears that the investigation of those rela- 
 tions can hardly lead to any important conclusion. 
 It is a fact, however, of the highest importance, that No sacer- 
 whatever gods the Greeks adopted, no separate order fncleec'e! 
 of priesthood was established among them, still less 
 any caste laying claim to the exclusive possession of 
 knowledge. Several traces, nevertheless, make it 
 probable, that many of the most ancient sanctuaries 
 were settlements of Egyptian, Phoenician, or Cretan 
 priests, who imported with them their own peculiar 
 forms of worship. And notwithstanding this wor- 
 ship consisted merely of outward ceremonies, many 
 ideas and institutions which were attached to it, be- 
 came, in this manner, the common property of the 
 nation. 
 
 9. It was principally, therefore, by religion, that influence «f 
 the rude mind became in some degree polished. 
 
 But it was the ancient minstrels, (aoiBol,) Orpheus, 
 Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious princi- 
 ples, contributed so much towards abolishing revenge, 
 and with it the perpetual state of warfare which had 
 hitherto distracted the country. These it was who 
 in their mysteries contrived in some measure to im- 
 press the narrow circle of the initiated with the ad- 
 vantages resulting from a civilized life. 
 
 Sainte-Croix, RecJierches sur les Mystcres du Pagonisme ; 
 Paris, 1765. Translated into German, with valuable observa- 
 tions, by C. G. Lenz ; Gotha, 1790. 
 
 10. The influence of religion, through the medium of the oia- 
 of oracles, especially those of Dodona and Delphi, '^''^'■ 
 
 H 2
 
 100 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [eook hi. 
 
 First 
 Peuiod. 
 
 of the reli- 
 gious festi- 
 vals : 
 
 of naviga- 
 tion : 
 
 about B. 
 1400. 
 
 was not less powerful. The two latter, with that of 
 Olympia, were, perhaps, originally ancient settlements 
 of priests, such as have been already alluded to. The 
 necessity of consulting these sanctuaries naturally led 
 men to regard the oracles as the common property of 
 the nation, to which every one should have access ; 
 it followed therefore as an inevitable consequence, 
 that the direction of affairs in which all were engaged, 
 depended principally on those oracles. 
 
 A. Van Dalen, De Oraculis Veteriim Ethnicorum Disser- 
 tationes 6. Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A com- 
 prehensive dissertation on the subject, however, is still want- 
 ing : a portion of it is treated of in 
 
 J. Groddek, De Oracidoriim veterum, quce in Herodoti 
 libris continentur, natura, commentatio ; Gotting. 1786. 
 
 11. It happened with Greece as with other coun- 
 tries ; the tender plant of civilization grew up under 
 the shelter of the sanctuary. There the festivals 
 were celebrated, and there the people assembled ; 
 and there various tribes, who had hitherto been 
 strangers to one another, met in peace, and con- 
 versed on their common interests. Hence arose 
 spontaneously the first idea of a law of nations, and 
 those connexions which led to its development. 
 Among these connexions, that of the Amphictyons 
 at Delphi was the most important, and continued the 
 longest : it is probable that it did not assume its 
 complete form till a later period ; yet it appears in 
 early times to have adopted the principle, that none 
 of the cities belonging to the league should be de- 
 stroyed by the others. 
 
 fFR. WiLH. TiTTMANN, Upon the Amphictyonic League; 
 18 12. A dissertation wliich gained the prize ot' the Academy 
 of Sciences at Berlin. 
 
 12. To religion must likewise be added naviga- 
 tion, and the consequent intercourse which brought 
 the nation into contact with strangers, and prepared 
 it to receive civilization. It cannot be denied that 
 the navigators continued long to be mere pirates ; 
 
 • but as Minos of Crete cleared the sea of freebooters, 
 the want of another state of things must have been 
 felt long before.
 
 PERIOD I.] GREEKS. 101 
 
 13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of the First 
 nation was gTadually aroused ; and developed the ^"^"°' 
 first bloom of its youthful vigour in the heroic ages. Age of chi- 
 An affection for extraordinary undertakings was ex- ^^''^' 
 cited ; and conducted the chieftains not only indi- 
 vidually, but also in confederate bodies, beyond the 
 
 limits of their father-land. These undertakino:s were 
 not only important in themselves, but their advan- 
 tages were increased by their being preserved in the 
 songs of their bards by means of a national poesy, 
 such as no other people possessed, and such as con- 
 tributed further to the development of the national 
 genius. 
 
 Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, some where about 
 B. C. 1250 ; war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes 
 about 1225 ; the town, however, was not taken until the second 
 attempt made by the sons of the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215. 
 
 14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some great 
 national undertaking of all the combined Hellenic 
 nations ; and that object was attained in the war 
 against Troy. The most important result of that Effects of 
 expedition was the kindling of one common national ^'"^ 'f^oj-^^ 
 spirit, — a spirit which, in spite of dissensions and 
 
 feuds, was never wholly extinguished, and which 
 must almost necessarily have arisen from an expedi- 
 tion carried on in so distant a field, which lasted ten b.c. 1194 
 years, in which all were joined, and which was~~^^'*'** 
 crowned with such signal success. From the time 
 of the Trojan war downwards the Hellenes always 
 looked upon themselves as but one people. 
 
 General view of the political state of Greece about the time 
 of the Trojan war. — Division into several small states, the most 
 powerful of which were Argos and Mycenie. — All those states 
 were governed by hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain 
 famili/, (kings, ßacriXe'cc,) who combined the offices of leaders in 
 war and judges in peace. Their authority being more or less 
 extended in proportion to the qualities they possessed, and par- 
 ticularly to their valour in battle. — Manner of life among the 
 people : a nation dwelling in cities, but at the same time culti- 
 vating tlie land and tending cattle ; applying also to war, and 
 already somewhat advanced in the art of navigation. 
 
 A. W. Schlegel, De Gcof/rap/iin Ilomeri Commentatio. 
 llainiov. 1788. A review of tlie political geography of Greece 
 at this period. — Oa the topography of Troy.
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 102 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [book hi. 
 
 LechevjU^ier, Description de la Plains de Troie. Trans- 
 lated and accompanied with notes by Heyne, Leipzig, 1794. 
 Compare Clahke, Travels, vol. i. c. 4 — 6, who has thrown 
 doubts on the system of Lechevalicr, Avhich has, however, been 
 again confirmed by Leake, Travels in Asia Minor. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian 
 war, B. C. 1200—500. 
 
 Second Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our in- 
 
 Period. formation so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can 
 be hardly said to have more than a general knowledge of many 
 of the most important events. As in the foregoing period, its 
 commencement is but a traditional and poetical history. It was 
 not till towards the end of it that the use of writing became 
 common among the Greeks ; add to which, the period itself 
 was not rife in great national undertakings, such as might af- 
 ford appropriate materials for the poet or historian. Besides 
 the scattered information whicb may be gathered from Hero- 
 dotus, Plutarch, Strabo, and above all from the introduction to 
 Thucydides' history, Pausanias must not be forgotten ; who, in 
 his description of Greece, has preserved an abundance of most 
 valuable documents relating to the separate histories of the 
 minor states. The books of Diodorus belonging to this period 
 are lost. 
 
 f Fr. Wilhelm Tittmais^n, Delineation of the Grecian 
 Forms of Government, 1822. An industrious collection of all 
 the information we possess respecting this subject. 
 
 f W. Wachsjiuth, Grecian Antiquities ivith regard to Poli- 
 tics. 4 vols. An excellent work. 
 
 Return of 
 THE Hera- 
 clid.s; : 
 about B.C. 
 1100. 
 
 1. History of the Hellenic states within Greece. 
 
 1. The Trojan war was followed by a veiy stormy 
 period, in consequence of the many disorders preva- 
 lent in the ruling families, especially in that of Pe- 
 lops. But more violent commotions soon arose, 
 caused by the attempts of the rude tribes of the north, 
 particularly of the Dorians combined with the ^Eto- 
 lians, who, under the guidance of the descendants of 
 Hercules, exiled from Argos, strove to obtain posses- 
 sion of Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook
 
 PERIOD n ] GREEKS. 103 
 
 Greece during; a whole century, and as the seats of Second 
 most of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the ^''^"'"°- 
 consequences were lasting and important. 
 
 First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules, 
 about 1180. — Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the 
 Heraclida3 are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Te- 
 lephus and Ci'esphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Pro- 
 cles, sons of their brother Aristodemus, 1100. 
 
 2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus Conse- 
 from this migration. The territories of Argos, Sparta, thTt^^reat^ 
 Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the Achseans revolution. 
 who had hitherto inhabited them, become the pro- 
 perty of the Dorians ; Elis fldls to the share of the 
 iEtolians, who had accompanied the former. The 
 Achaeans expelled, in their turn expel the Ionian», 
 
 and settle in the country since called Achaia ; the 
 fugitive lonians are received by their ancient kins- 
 men the Athenians. — But among the consequences 
 of this migration of the Hellenic races must be reck- 
 oned likewise the establishment of Greek colonies in Colonies 
 Asia Minor; an occurrence of the highest import- ^'^""° ^"'' 
 ance to the ulterior development of the nation. This 
 colonization was commenced by the iEolian Hel- 
 lenes, whose example was soon j fter followed by the 
 lonians, and even by the Dorians. 
 
 For the history of these colonies, see the following section. 
 
 3. Althoup'h the effect of these mio-rations and Monmdnc^s 
 wars, in which the ruder tribes oppressed the more b^repub- 
 civilized, must inevitably have been, not only to in- ''" 
 terrupt the progress of civilization, but even almost 
 entirely to annihilate it, yet in this universal move- 
 ment the foundation was laid of that constitution of 
 things which afterwards existed in Greece. The 
 
 tribes which had migrated, as well as those which had 
 been expelled, remained at first under the dominion 
 of their hereditary princes, some for a longer, others 
 for a shorter time. In the two centuries, however, 
 immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C. 
 1100 — 900, republican constitutions took the place 
 of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian countries,
 
 104 
 
 GREEKS, 
 
 [book III. 
 
 Second 
 I'eiuoi). 
 
 Origin of 
 the small 
 republics. 
 
 the distant Epirus excepted. These republics con- 
 tinued to exist amid the various revolutions which 
 happened ; and the love of political freedom, deeply 
 impressed on the minds of the people, constituted 
 from this time the principal feature in the national 
 character. 
 
 4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause of 
 this change so important for Greece, — this change, by 
 which her future internal policy was for ever deter- 
 mined, originated in the progress made by the newly- 
 come tribes towards civic life, and consequently at the 
 same time towards national civilization. In this new- 
 ly-constituted order of things, each city, with the ter- 
 ritory around it, formed a separate state, and framed 
 its own constitution ; hence there arose as many free 
 states as cities. 
 
 The notion that Greece contained the same number of states 
 as countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied 
 that the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek his- 
 tory seems to authorize tlie assertion. It is true that some of 
 those countries, such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each 
 regarded as a separate state, because each constituted the terri- 
 tory of one city. The others, however, such as Arcadia, Boe- 
 otia, etc., did not each form one state, but comprised as many 
 separate states as there were free and independent cities, each 
 of Avhich, AAnth its territory, formed one. Still, however, it 
 must be observed, (a) that the natural ties of kindred subsist- 
 ed ; Arcadians, Boeotians, etc. spoke of one another as country- 
 men, {b) Voluntary connexions were entered into between 
 different cities, and sometimes all the cities of a country, as, for 
 instance, in Achaia, so that the whole formed one confeder- 
 ation ; each individual city nevertheless still preserved its own 
 system of laws and government. Again, (c) in consequence of 
 a greater share of power, one city assumed a sort of dominion 
 over the other ; as, for instance, that of Thebes over the Boe- 
 otian cities. This dominion, however, was always precarious, 
 and depended upon the state of affairs, {d) It must likewise 
 be observed, that the constitution of each separate city under- 
 went many changes, wrought generally by influential citizens, 
 (tyrants,) who not only possessed themselves of the supreme 
 power, but also contrived frequently to make it for some time 
 hereditary in their families. Every one will easily discern that 
 the above are the fundamental principles of Greek history, 
 which cannot be too clearly conceived, or too correctly defined ; 
 since it is self-evident what a wide field was by such a consti- 
 tution of things thrown open to practical politics. The more
 
 PERIOD II. 
 
 GREEKS. 105 
 
 improbable the attainment of fixed constitutions in the separate Second 
 cities was, the more frequent must have been the political at- Period. 
 
 tempts ; (attempts facilitated by the narrow extent of the state ;) 
 
 and the more frequently those attempts failed, the more exten- 
 sive in this intellectual people became the mass of political ideas ; 
 the results of which in later times were the legislative codes of 
 Solon and others. 
 
 5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out into a Unitjofthe 
 
 ■ small Gre- 
 
 cian states. 
 
 number of small states, united by no common poli- ^""^'^ ^"^^ 
 
 tical bond, yet there existed a certain unity of the 
 Hellenic race, a certain national spirit : this was pro- 
 duced in part by national festivals and games, occur- 
 ring at stated periods, among which those in hon- 
 our of Jupiter at Olympia were the chief. The 
 nation at these appeared in all its splendour ; and all 
 Hellenes, but no others, were allowed to join in them. 
 This union, too, was promoted by the extension of the 
 Amphictyonic council : and the reason why this last 
 institution was not followed by all the consequences 
 which might have been expected from it, may per- 
 haps be found in what naturally takes place in every 
 great confederation whenever any of the component 
 states become too powerful. 
 
 The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general, 
 in which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate 
 office was to attend to the temples and tlie oracles of Delphi. 
 But then it must be observed, 1st, that from this council ori- 
 ginated the Grecian ideas of the law of nations ; over the pre- 
 servation of which the Amphictyons watched. 2. In conse- 
 quence of its political influence on the oracle, this council, in 
 certain cases, was enabled to take a share in the affairs of dif- 
 ferent states. 3. The Amphictyons always formed a national 
 institution, since none but Hellenes were admitted. 
 
 St. Croix, Des anciens gouvernemens fcderatifs et de la le- 
 gislation de Crete, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable in- 
 quiries not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but 
 also into otlier matters of Grecian history connected with them. 
 
 6. Among the different states of Greece, Sparta Sparta and 
 and Athens, even at this period, became celebrated, ^''"^"^• 
 not only for their greater power, but also for their 
 superior constitutions and their laws ; and though it 
 may not perhaps be strictly true, that the history of 
 the rest of Greece is connected with that of these two
 
 106 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second citics, vct they Certainly possess the highest claim to 
 
 Period. ,,*' ,• 
 
 . our attention. 
 
 Revolutions 7. History of Sparta. The Achseans at first were 
 
 vernmem'of govcmecl by princcs of the house of Perseus, but 
 
 Sparta. after Menelaus's accession to the throne in virtue 
 
 of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops. When 
 
 the latter had been expelled by the Dorians, Laconia 
 
 fell by lot to the sons of Aristodemus, Procles and 
 
 1100. Eurysthenes, between whose families the royal power 
 
 was divided, so that two kings constantly reigned in 
 
 common, one from each family. 
 
 Families of the Procliclje and ^gidoe ; the latter so called 
 from Agis, the son and successor of Eurysthenes. 
 
 f J. C. F. INIanso, A?i Essay on the Histoi-y and Constitution 
 of Sparta, Leipzig, 1800 sqq., 3 vols. The most important 
 work upon this subject, and which likewise contains much in- 
 formation upon various points of Grecian history connected 
 with it. 
 
 Cragius, De Repnblica LacedcEmoniorrwi, 1642. 
 
 IMeursius, De regno Laconico ; and 3Iiscellanea Laconica. 
 Both laborious compilations. 
 
 Conquests g^ 'pj^g Donaus iiow gradually conquered, and 
 rians. established themselves in many cities of the penin- 
 
 sula ; forming, if not the whole population, at least 
 the only part of it that enjoyed any power, as the 
 Achseans that remained were reduced to slavery. 
 No long time, however, elapsed ere the city of Sparta 
 usurped an authority over the whole country, which 
 it ever afterwards preserved ; the other towns, for- 
 merly considerable, becoming unfortified, defence- 
 less, and insignificant. 
 
 Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a 
 ruling body, and the Lacedaemonians, or ireploiKoi, inhabitants of 
 the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service. 
 Even in the time of Agis, the successor of Eui-ysthenes, this 
 subjection was effected by force ; the inhabitants of Helos were 
 made slaves, as a punishment for their opposition ; while the 
 others, by the sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved 
 their personal liberty, however confined it might be. 
 
 Repeated 9. The history of the two following centuries, to 
 
 Spartans.'^ the tiiBC of Lycui'gus, cxliibits nothing but the re- 
 peated wars of the Spartans with their neighbours 
 the Argives ; their domestic broils, occasioned by the
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 107 
 
 too unequal division of property, by the feuds, and Second 
 
 the diminished power of the kings, and which lasted _ ^1 1 
 
 until Lycurgus, the uncle and guardian of the minor 
 king, Charilaus, about the year 880, gave to Sparta 
 that constitution to which she was principally in- 
 debted for her subsequent splendour. 
 
 Illustration of the principal featiires in the Spartan constitu- 
 tion. Some preliminary observations are necessary. («) As 
 the legislation of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as 
 his laws were not written, but conveyed in apophthegms, 
 {p)lTpai,) which were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many 
 things of later origin have been attributed to Lycurgus. {b) 
 Much that is rightly attributed to him was not original, but 
 deduced from ancient Dorian institutions, which being now 
 upon the decline, were re-established by force of law. Hence 
 it follows, that the legislation of Lycurgus must naturally have 
 had many points of resemblance with that of the Cretans, like- 
 wise of Dorian origin, although much, as we are told, was di- 
 rectly borrowed from them, (c) The principal object of the 
 laws of Lycurgus was to insure the existence of Sparta by cre- 
 ating and supporting a vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. 
 Hence those laws had a more peculiar reference to private life 
 and physical education, than to the constitution of the state, in 
 which the legislator appeal's to have introduced but few alter- 
 ations. 
 
 In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had 
 hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, 
 and the Lacedaemonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The 
 two kings, from the two ruling families, were likewise con- 
 tinued, as leaders in Avar and first magistrates in peace. On the 
 other hand, 3. to Lycurgus is attributed the institution of a 
 senate, {yepovrrta,) consisting of twenty-eight members, none of 
 whom could be less than sixty years old, who were to be chosen 
 by the people for life, and were to constitute the king's council 
 in public affairs. 4. Whether the college of the five Ephori, 
 annually chosen, was originally instituted by Lycurgus, or at 
 some later period, is a question impossible to decide, but of 
 little importance, since the great power of this college, to which 
 every thing was finally referred as the higliest tribunal of the 
 state, Avas certainly assumed after tlie time of Lycurgus. 5. 
 Besides the above, there were likewise the popular assemblies, 
 convened according to the division into <l)v\ag and riiSae, at 
 wliich none but Spartans could assist : tlieir privileges extended 
 no i'urther than to approve or reject the measures proposed to 
 them by the kings and the senate. 
 
 In the laws relating to private life, Lj-curgus aimed at mak- 
 ing the Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible 
 with respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply 
 impressed with the conviction that he was the property of his
 
 108 GREEKS. [book iji 
 
 Second country, to which lie was bound to yield an unconditional obe- 
 Period. dience. Hence, 1. Tlie new division of land, 9000 portions to 
 the Spartans, and 30,000 to the Lacedaemonians ; permission 
 being given to dispose of those portions by entail or gift, but 
 not by sale. 2. Tlie removal as far as possible of every species 
 of luxury, particularly by means of the daily public tables 
 ((TixTffinu) of all the citizens, according to tlieir divisions, in 
 which the commons were settled by law. 3. The complete 
 organization of domestic society in relation both to husband and 
 wife, parents and children, Avhich was so framed as to further, 
 even at the cost of morality, the grand political object, the pro- 
 duction of vigorous and healthy citizens. 4. Hence, finally, the 
 condition of the slaves, comprehended under the general name 
 of helots, who, although they may be regarded nearly as serfs, 
 were likewise the property of the state, which had the right of 
 claiming their services in war. Easy, however, as it is to enu- 
 merate thus generally the principal heads of the Spartan con- 
 stitution, the want of sufficient documents renders it difficult 
 and oftentimes im'possible to answer a crowd of questions, which 
 present themselves on our penetrating more deeply into the 
 subject. Still, however, its long duration, (nearly four hun- 
 dred years,) without any observable change, is more remark- 
 able even than the constitution itself. More remarkable, inas- 
 much as the Spartans soon after this time appear as conquerors. 
 Indeed, it could no longer be expected that any durable peace 
 should exist in Greece, while the centre of the country was oc- 
 cupied by a military commonwealth, whose citizens must have 
 been, by the restlessness common to man, impelled to war, since 
 all the occupations of household life and of agriculture were left 
 to the care of slaves. 
 
 Besides the works mentioned above, p. 95, 
 HeyjsE, De Spartanoriim republica Judicium; inserted in 
 Commentat. Soc. Goiting. vol. ix. Intended to correct the 
 partial opinions of De Pauw. 
 
 Wars of the JQ. Soon after the time of Lycurgus, commenced 
 PdopTn-'" the war of the Spartans with their neighbours, the 
 nesus. Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly the 
 Messenians. The wars with these last appear to 
 have originated in an old grudge on the part of the 
 Dorian tribe, proceeding from the unequal division 
 of lands at the occupation of Peloponnesus : it is 
 nevertheless evident, that the quarrel between the 
 two nations was mainly fostered by the ambition of 
 the Spartan kings, who wrought upon a superstitious 
 multitude by oracular responses and interpretations. 
 
 Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos ; and disputes with 
 Messena, 783 — 745.
 
 TEiiJOD II.] GREEKS. 109 
 
 First Messenian war, 742 — 722, terminated by the capture Second 
 of tlie frontier fortress Ithorae, after the voluntary death of Period. 
 the Messenian king, Aristodemus. — The Messenians become 
 tributary to the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half 
 of tlie revenues of their lands. — Occurrences during this war : 
 1. Institution, according to some authorities, of the college of 
 Ephori as vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbi- 
 trators in the quarrels which might arise between the kings and 
 the senate. 2. The power of the people so far limited as to 
 restrain the popular assemblies from making alterations in the 
 resolutions proposed to them by the senate or the kings, and 
 confining them merely to a vote of approval or rejection. 3. 
 Insurrection of the Parthenii and Helots becomes the motive 
 for sending out colonies ; a measure to which Sparta had more 
 than once resorted for the purpose of maintaining domestic 
 tranquillity. 
 
 Second Messenian war, 682 — 668, waged by the ]Messenians 
 under the command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans 
 under that of Tyrtajus, who fanned the flame of war until the 
 contest was terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira. 
 The Messenian territory is divided among tlie conquerors, and 
 the conquered inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural 
 slaves. 
 
 11. Although the territory of the Spartans was Sparta takes 
 greatly increased by these Messenian wars, the na- a^on^ the 
 tion seems to have been a long time before it recovered Dorian 
 from the struggle, and to have raised itself by slow 
 
 steps to the first rank among the Dorian states, ex- 
 tending its boundaries at the expense of the Argives 
 and Arcadians. 
 
 Wars with Tegea, for the most part unsuccessful ; and with 
 Argos, for the possession of Thyrea and tlie island of Cythora ; 
 by the accession of which tlie Spartan territory received an 
 important augmentation, about 550. 
 
 12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not of r''«''»'^;""- 
 sucli a nature as to give rise to any remarkable sinutaiu 
 changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a long '*'^"='''"^ "''^■ 
 time the nation refused to take any share in foreign peninsula, 
 affairs. But no sooner did King Cleomenes, who in 
 
 the end procured the deposition of his colleague, 
 Demaratus, interfere in the affairs of the Athenians, 
 than the seeds of strife were sown between these two 
 republics. The Persian war next ensued, in which 
 Sparta was obliged to bear a part, although Cleo- 
 menes had refused to participate in the insurrection
 
 110 GREEKS. 
 
 [BOOK in. 
 
 SncoND of Aristagoras : that struggle, togetlier with the idea 
 
 L of supremacy in Greece which now took its rise, 
 
 introduced a series of political relations before un- 
 known. 
 History of 13. TIic historj of Athens during this period is 
 Aliens. rendered important rather by domestic revolutions, 
 which gradually tended to convert the state into a 
 republic, than by external aggrandizement. The 
 situation and peculiarities of Attica, which rendered 
 it less exposed than other parts of Greece to the at- 
 tacks and forays of wandering hordes, favoured the 
 gradual and tranquil growth of national prosperity ; 
 the traces of which are incontestable, though it would 
 be difficult for the most profound research to point 
 out the whole course of its progress so perspicuously 
 as the historian mio-ht wish. 
 
 The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of 
 the woi'ks mentioned above, p. 95. Besides which, 
 
 W. Young, The history of Athens politically and philosophi- 
 cally considered. London, 1796, 4to. Argumentation rather 
 than history. 
 
 CoRSiNi, Fasti Attici. Florent. 1747, 4 vols. 4to. A most 
 careful chronological essay. 
 
 1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history 
 of Athens as a state begins properly with Theseus, who suc- 
 ceeded his father ^geus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain 
 institutions, such as that of the Areopagus, the division of the 
 people into nobles, {evna-picai,) husbandmen, {yewpyoi,) and 
 mechanics (drj/j-iovpyoi) : a division which recalls to our me- 
 mory the Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an ear- 
 lier date, and may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. The- 
 seus was, however, in some measure, the founder of the state, 
 since, instead of the four districts, {h'jfioi,) hitherto inde- 
 pendent of one another, he constituted the city of Athens as 
 the only seat of government. Among his successors the atten- 
 tion of the student is directed to Mnestheus, who fell before 
 Troy ; and the last king, Codrus, who, by a voluntary sacri- 
 fice of his life, rescued Attica from the inroads of the Do- 
 rians, 1068. 
 
 2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus, 
 thirteen of whom ruled ; 1068 — 752. The first was ^Nledon, the 
 last Alcmteon. These archons succeeded like the kings, by in- 
 heritance, but were accountable for their administration {yiztv- 
 Qvvoi). — At the commencement of this period occur the mi- 
 grations of the Ionian s from Attica to Asia Älinor, 1044. See 
 below.
 
 PERIOD n.j 
 
 GREEKS. Ill 
 
 3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeed- Second 
 ed between 752 — 682. These likewise were taken from the Period- 
 family of Codrus. This period is devoid of any remarkable oc- ~ 
 currences. 
 
 4. Period extending to Solon, 682 — 594, that of nine archons 
 yearly chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the 
 former kings, and the preceding archons, were divided among 
 the three first of the nine. With respect to this, as well as to 
 the other changes above mentioned, we know little of the causes 
 which produced them, or of the manner in which they were 
 brought about. Rise of an oppressive aristocracy, (like that of 
 the patricians at Rome, immediately after the expulsion of the 
 kings,) both the archons and the members of the Areopagus 
 being elected only from noble families. First attempt at legis- 
 lation by Draco, 622, which appears only to have consisted in 
 a criminal code, rendered vmavailing by its severity. — The in- 
 surrection of Cylon, 598, in consequence of the manner in 
 which it was quelled, turned out most injurious to the aristo- 
 ci'atical party, inasmuch as the nobles drew upon themselves 
 the pollution of blood, Avhich, even after the purification of 
 Epimenides, 593, was long used as a pretext for commotion. 
 The political factions of the Pediasi, of the Diacrii, and of the 
 Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, during which the 
 neighbouring JSIegarians took possession of the island of Sala- 
 mis ; a conquest which, however, was subsequently wrested 
 from them by Solon. 
 
 14. From this state of anarchy Athens was rescued Solon's 
 by Solon ; a man to whom not only Athens, but Bfc.^sg-i.' 
 the whole human race are deeply indebted. He was 
 chosen archon, and at the same time commissioned 
 to remodel the constitution of Athens : and the suc- 
 cessful manner in which he executed this task, laid 
 the foundation of the happiness of his native country. 
 
 Revieto of the prominent features in Soloti's legislation. Its 
 main object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without, 
 however, introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws: 
 abolition of the statutes of Draco, those against murder except- 
 ed : law enacted for the relief of debtors, (aeKTu^dEia, nova^ ta- 
 bula;,) not so much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing 
 their amount by a rise in the value of money ; and likewise by 
 insuring the personal liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental 
 laws, both in reference to the constitution and in i-eference to 
 private life and private rights. — Constitution of the state, (a) 
 Organization of the people by means of divisions : according to 
 property into four classes ; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who 
 had a yearly income of 500 medimni ; the Equites, (tTTTrtlc,) 
 who had 400 ; the Zeugitse, who had 300 ; and tlie Thetes, (ca- 
 pite censi,) whose yearly revenue did not amount to so much. —
 
 112 GREEKS. [hook hi. 
 
 Second The ancient divisions according to heads, into wards, ((pvXai,) 
 Peuiod. of which there were four, and according to residence into demi, 
 (hunch'eds,) of which a hundred and seventy are enumerated, 
 were j)reserved. (/>) None but citizens of the tliree first classes 
 could fill all the offices of state ; but all were admitted to the 
 popular assemblies, and had a right of voting in the courts of 
 judicature, (c) The nine archons annually chosen, who acted 
 as supreme magistrates, although not permitted to assume mili- 
 tary office at the same time, remained at the head of the state ; 
 the first bearing the name of iiviovvnoc, the second of ßaaiXtvc, 
 the third of iroXi/.tapxp^, the remaining six that of QeajioBtTiu. 
 Combined with the archons was {d) The council, (ßovXi),) which 
 consisted of a body of four hundred persons annually taken 
 from the three first classes of citizens ; (a hundred from each 
 ward ;) these were chosen by lot, but were obliged to submit to 
 a rigid examination (2o;;t/,ta(Tta) before they entered upon office. 
 The archons were obliged to consult the four hundred on every 
 occurrence ; and nothing could be cai'ried down to the commons 
 until it had been previously debated in this council, (e) To the 
 people, consisting of the whole four classes, was reserved the 
 right in its assemblies (tKKXrjcrlai) of confirming the laws, of 
 electing the magistrates, of debating all public affiiirs referred 
 to them by the council, and likewise the public distribution of 
 justice. (/) The Areopagus was, according to Solon's plan, to 
 be the main buttress of the constitution ; that tribunal laad hi- 
 therto been a mere tool in the hands of the aristocracy. It was 
 composed of retired archons, and remained not only the su- 
 preme tribunal in capital cases, but likewise was charged with 
 the superintendence of morals, Avith the censorship upon the 
 conduct of the archons who went out of office, and had the pre- 
 rogative of amending or rescinding the measures that had been 
 approved of by the commons. The power of this court, which 
 might easily have become equal to the college of Ephori at 
 Sparta, might at first have been supposed too extensive, had 
 not experience shown the fatal consequences of the reduction of 
 that power by Pericles. This alloy of aristocracy and demo- 
 cracy certainly gives proof of a deep insight into the nature of 
 republican constitutions ; but Solon is not less entitled to praise 
 for his endeavours to place the helm of government in the hands 
 only of the most enlightened and prudent citizens. It must 
 likewise be observed, that the code for private life given by 
 Solon, exhibits the genius of a man who regarded polity as sub- 
 ordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as subordinate 
 to polity. 
 
 Sam. Petitus, De Legib7is Atticis, 1635, fol. The best com- 
 pilation and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic 
 law. 
 
 Chr. Bunsen, De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Isceo 
 ccBterisque oratoribus Grcecis ducto, Goett. 1812. The law of 
 inheritance was a principal feature in Solon's legislation ; the 
 explanation of it requires a profound acquaintance with the
 
 PERIOD II. J GREEKS. 113 
 
 constitution, so far as it was connected with government by Second 
 clans or families. Period. 
 
 An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise 
 found in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and 
 Wachsrauth. 
 
 15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state Tyranny 
 reforms, was not followed by the total extinction of l^^'^^thens'^ 
 party spirit. It was natural that the commons, now by Pisisna- 
 free, should wish to try their strength with the aris- ^"** 
 tocratical party, and that, after the defeat of the lat- 
 ter, Pisistratus, who headed the commons, should 
 
 grasp the rudder of the state without, therefore, ne- 
 cessarily abrogating the constitution of Solon. Mo- 
 dern history has proved with sufficient evidence, that 
 the framework of a republic may easily subsist under 
 the rule of a usurper. And would that no repub- 
 lics might fall into the hands of a worse tyrant than 
 Pisistratus ! 
 
 First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining 
 a body guard ; flight of the Alcmajonida? under Megacles. Pi- 
 sistratus expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus pro- . 
 cured by his matrimonial connexion with the family of Megacles, 
 556 — 552. — His second expulsion by Megacles, 552 — 538. — 
 His third exaltation ; obtains the power by force of arms, and 
 preserves it to the day of his death, 538 — 528. Flight of the 
 Alcma3onida3 into IMacedonia, where they attach the malcon- 
 tents to their party. Pisistratus is succeeded by his sons Hip- 
 parchus and Hippias, who rule conjointly until 514, when the 
 elder is murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton. The exiled 
 Alcmieonidaj, having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over the 
 Spartans to their interest : backed by a Spartan army, they 
 take possession of Athens in 510 ; Hippias is deposed, and flies 
 over to the Persians. 
 
 16. This return of the Alcmseonidae was followed changes in 
 by a change in the constitution of Solon, Clisthenes, stUution.°"" 
 the son of Megacles, with a view of quenching party 
 
 spirit by a new combination of the citizens, increased 
 the number of wards to ten, and that of the members 
 of the council to five hundred. — But the Athenians 
 liad to purchase the continuance of their freedom by 
 a struggle with Sparta, who, united with the Boeo- 
 tians and Chalcidians, and aided by /Egina, sought 
 to re-establish monarchy in Attica; first in the per- b.c.v>2i— 
 son of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and afiter- ^^*" 
 
 I
 
 114 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [hook III. 
 
 Second 
 Period 
 
 History of 
 the other 
 Grecian 
 states. 
 
 wards in that of the exiled Hippias. But the glori- 
 ous success of the republic in this first struggle in 
 the cause of liberty, gave an additional impulse to 
 the national spirit. Impelled by that spirit, Athens 
 suffered herself to be induced to share in the war of 
 freedom carried on by the Asiatic Greeks under 
 Aristagoras ; and the audacity which led to the firing 
 500. of Sardis, drew upon Attica the vengeance of the 
 Persians, without which, doubtless, neither Athens 
 nor Greece would ever have risen to that degree of 
 eminence which they ultimately attained. 
 
 17. Of the history of the other states of Greece 
 we have at best but few data, and even these in most 
 instances are very scanty. Towards the end of this 
 period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, exalted 
 themselves above the rest, and were recognised, one 
 as the first among the Dorian, the latter as the first 
 among the Ionian states ; yet did Sparta more than 
 once meet with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea : 
 while Athens had to contend with Meo;ara and 
 ^gina. Sparta and Athens had, nevertheless, not 
 only the best constitutions, but possessed also a more 
 extended territory than any other of the great cities. 
 
 Principal data for the history of the smaller states. 
 
 I. Within the Peloponnesus. 
 
 a. Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of 
 kings or hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the "whole 
 of Arcadia ; the line commences with Areas and his son Ly- 
 caon, whose successors kept possession of the supreme power, 
 and shared more or less in the ancient feuds of the Hellenic 
 princes. Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, 
 Arcadia was the only land that did not suffer by the irruption : 
 an advantage for which it was probably indebted more to its 
 mountains, than to the skill of Cypselus its king. The suc- 
 cessors of that prince took a part in the wars between the Mes- 
 senians and Spartans, siding ^^^th the former ; but in the second 
 Messenian war, the last Arcadian king, Aristocrates IL, having 
 betrayed his allies, was in consequence stoned to death by his 
 subjects, and the regal dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia 
 now became divided into as many small states as it contained 
 cities with their respective districts ; among these Tegea and
 
 PERIOD 11.] GREEKS. 115 
 
 Mantinea were the chief, and probably held the others in a cer- Second 
 tain state of control, without, however, depriving them wholly Period. 
 of their independence. As might have been expected in a pas- 
 toral nation, the constitution was democratical. In Mantinea 
 tliere were wardens of the people, (^rji^uovpyoi,) and a senate 
 {ßovXi}). The wars of separate cities are frequently mentioned, 
 but no general confederation united them. 
 
 •f" See A. VON Breitenbauch, History of Arcadia, 1791. 
 
 b. Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the 
 country of Ai'golis was parcelled out into several small king- 
 doms, such as those of Argos, INIycente, and Tiryns. In Argos, 
 the oldest Grecian state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of 
 Perseus, who exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Ti- 
 ryns : here his successors continued to reign till the time of 
 Hercules, whose sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asy- 
 lum among the Dorians. — In Mycenge, said to have been built 
 by Perseus, the throne was occupied by the family of Pelops : 
 and at the period of the Trojan war, this little state, to which 
 Corinth and Sicyon then belonged, was the most powerful in 
 Greece, and governed by Agamemnon. The migration into 
 this country by Pelops, from Asia Minor, must have been at- 
 tended with important consequences, since it has given a name 
 
 to the whole peninsula : the object of Pelops, as we may infer • 
 from the riches he brought with him, was probably to establish 
 a trading settlement. — At the Dorian conquest Argos fell to the 
 share of Teraenus, the Achajans were expelled, and the country 
 was peopled by Dorians. As early as the reign of Cisus, son 
 of Temenus, the royal power was so limited, that the successors 
 of that prince hardly preserved any thing but the mere name : 
 about 984 the regal dignity was wholly abrogated, and its place 
 supplied by a republican constitution, concerning the domestic 
 organization of which we know nothing more than that at Ar- 
 gos the government was in the hands of a senate, (ßovXi),) of a 
 college of eighty citizens, {ol oyoo/yrarra,) and of magistrates, 
 who bore the name of äprvi'oi : in Epidaurus, however, there 
 was a body of one hundred and eighty citizens who chose from 
 among themselves the senate, the members of which wei'e called 
 aprvvoi. As in the other states of Greece, so in Argolis, there 
 were as many independent states as there were cities ; in the 
 north Argos, Mycena;, and Tiryns ; in the south Epidaurus and 
 Troezen. The two last preserved their independence ; but My- 
 cenae was destroyed by the Argives in 425, and the inhabitants 
 of Tiryns were forcibly transplanted to Argos. Tlie district of 
 Argos, therefore, comprised the northern portion of the country 
 called Argolis ; but not the southern portion, which belonged to 
 the towns situated therein. 
 
 c. Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian 
 migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power ; and 
 even at that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its 
 wealth. The Dorians drove out the original inhabitants ; and 
 Aletes, belonging to the race of Hercules, became king about 
 
 I 2
 
 116 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second 1089 ; the posterity of that pi'ince held the scepti'e down to tlie 
 Period, flft)^ generation. After the death of the last king, Telessus, 
 777, the family of the Bacchiadaj, likewise a branch of the 
 family of Hercules, took possession of the government, and in- 
 troduced an oligarchy, electing annually from among tliemselves 
 a Pi'ytane. At last, in 657, Cypselus got the upper hand ; he 
 was succeeded, 627, by his son Periander ; both fatlier and son 
 were equally conspicuous for their avarice and cruelty. Peri- 
 ander {d. 587) was succeeded by his nephew Psammetichus, 
 who reigned till 584, when the Corinthians asserted their free- 
 dom. With regard to the internal organization of the repub- 
 lic, little more is known than that there were at Corinth assem- 
 blies of the commons and a senate {yepovaia) : the government 
 appears to have been the aristocracy of a trading state ; for 
 even the Bacchiadfe, at least some of them, were merchants. — 
 The Corinthian commerce consisted chiefly in the exchange of 
 Asiatic and Italian goods, and therefore was mostly carried on 
 by sea : for such a trade the city of Corinth offered many ad- 
 vantages, particularly if we consider the state of navigation in 
 those times ; but the sea trade of Coi'inth, however profitable 
 to the citizens, and even to the state, in consequence of the cus- 
 toms, cannot be considered as very extensive. — The colonies of 
 Corinth in the west were principally Corcyra, Epidamnus, 
 Leucas, Syi'acuse ; in the east, Potidjea ; these colonies would 
 fain have asserted a sort of independence, but never succeeded 
 for any length of time in so doing. 
 
 From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity 
 of protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a 
 naval power ; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 
 664 gave battle to the Corcyrjeans at sea. On the other hand, 
 her wars by land were generally waged with the assistance of 
 foreign subsidiaries ; and from the facility vnt\\ which she was 
 enabled to pay her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to 
 interfere in the domestic wars of Greece. 
 
 d. Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Ar- 
 gos, as the most ancient in Greece ; the catalogues of early 
 kings and princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, 
 make it probable that in early antiquity some settlements of 
 priests were made in this quarter. In the times previous to the 
 migration of the Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the loni- 
 ans ; at the Trojan war, however, it made part of Agamem- 
 non's kingdom. At the Dorian irruption, Phalces, son of Te- 
 menus, took possession of Sicyon, which then became a Dorian 
 city. After the abrogation of the kingship, the date of which 
 is not precisely known, the constitution assumed the form of an 
 uncurbed democracy, which, as usual, paved the way for the 
 usurpation of one individual. Orthagoras and his posterity, the 
 last and most celebrated of whom was Clisthenes, ruled over 
 Sicyon during a whole century ; 700 — 600. After the restor- 
 ation of her freedom, Sicyon frequently suffered from revolu- 
 tions ; and the period of her highest splendour was during the
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 117 
 
 latter days of Greece, when she became a member of the Second 
 Acha3an league. Pekiod. 
 
 e. Acliaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, " 
 whicii till then had borne the name of -3^gialus, was taken pos- 
 session of by Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his 
 tribe, who from their leader took the name of lonians : the 
 country i^mained in the hands of the lonians until the Dorian 
 migration, when the Acha^ans, driven out of Argos and Laconia, 
 pressed into the northern parts of Peloponnesus under Tisa- 
 menus, son of Orestes ; they settled in the land of the lonians, 
 and the power of the chieftain descended to his posterity, until 
 the tyranny of the last sovereign of that race, Gyges, (of date 
 undetermined,) produced the abolition of monarchy. Achaia 
 thereupon was parcelled into twelve small republics, or so many 
 cities with their respective districts, each of which comprised 
 seven or eight cantons. All these republics had democratic 
 constitutions, and were mutually united by a league, founded 
 on the most perfect equality, and which nothing but the policy 
 of the Macedonian kings could dissolve ; and even this dissolu- 
 tion gave rise to the Achcean league, of such high importance 
 in subsequent times. The Acha^ans lived in peace and happi- 
 ness, inasmuch as they had not the vanity, before the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, to interfere in the affairs of foreign states ; their 
 constitutions were so renowned, that they were adopted by se- 
 veral other Grecian cities. 
 
 f. Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of 
 Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their 
 ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary 
 princes, Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the 
 poets. It appears that this country was divided into several 
 small kingdoms since, at the period of the Trojan war it con- 
 tained four, to whicli, however, must be added Pylus in Tri- 
 phylia, a territory usually reckoned as belonging to Elis. At 
 the epoch of the Dorian migration the iEtolians, who had ac- 
 companied the Dorians, headed by their chieftain Oxylus, set- 
 tled in Elis ; but permitted the ancient inhabitants to remain in 
 tlie country. Among the successors of Oxylus was Iphitus, 
 the contemporary of Lycurgus, and celebrated as the restorer 
 of the Olympian games, to the celebration of which Elis was 
 indebted for the tranquil splendour that distinguished her from 
 this time ; her territory being regarded as sacred, although she 
 had occasional disputes with her neighbours, the Arcadians, 
 for precedence at the games. After the abolition of the royal 
 power, supreme magistrates were chosen, to whose office was 
 added the charge of superintending the games (Hellanodicai). 
 These magistrates were at first two ; they were afterwards in- 
 creased to ten, one from each tribe, although their number fre- 
 quently changed with that of the tribes themselves. There 
 must likewise have been a senate, consisting of ninety per- 
 sons who held their places for life, since Aristotle makes 
 mention of that branch of the Elean constitution. The city of
 
 118 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second Elis was fii'rft built In 477, before which time the Elean.s resided 
 Period, jn several small hamlets. 
 
 II. Central Greece, or Hellas. 
 
 a. Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian miration, this 
 state generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings ; 
 or at least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately 
 previous to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of 
 their last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the 
 hands of magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of 
 the Dorian irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was 
 occupied by Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who con- 
 sequently reckoned the city among their colonies, and during 
 the sway of the Bacchiadae endeavoured to keep it in a state of 
 dependency ; a circumstance which gave rise to several wars. 
 Nevertheless Megara supported her rank as a separate state, 
 both in those and many subsequent wars among the Greeks, ia 
 which she took a share both by sea and land. About the year 
 600, Theagenes, step-father of the Athenian Cylon, had pos- 
 sessed himself of the supreme power ; after the expulsion ofthat 
 tyrant, the republican constitution was once more restored, but 
 soon after merged into the lowest species of democracy. Me- 
 gara, however, even at the period of the Persian war, in which 
 it took a glorious share, appears to have recovered the character 
 of a well-ordered state, although we have no information re- 
 specting its internal organization. 
 
 b. Bosotia. History mentions several very early races in 
 Bceotia, such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc. ; with these were 
 mingled Phoenician emigrants, who had come into the country 
 under the guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became 
 the ruling family, and remained so for a long time : the his- 
 tory of his descendants, who were kings of Thebes, and com- 
 prised under their dominion the greatest part of Boeotia, con- 
 stitutes a main branch of Grecian mythology : among them 
 were Oedipus, Lai'us, Eteocles, and Polynices. After the cap- 
 ture of Thebes by the Epigoni, 1215, the Bosotians were ex- 
 pelled by Thracian hordes, and settled at Arne in Thessaly ; at 
 the time of the Dorian migration they returned to the land of 
 their forefathers, and mingled with the iEolians of those quar- 
 ters. Not long after, upon the death of Xuthus, royalty was 
 abolished, 1126. Boeotia was now divided into as many small 
 states as it contained cities : of these, next to Thebes, the most 
 eminent were the towns of Plata^ce, Thespis, Tanagra, and 
 Chasronea, each of which had its own separate district and pe- 
 culiar form of government ; but all those constitutions appear 
 to have been commuted into oligarchies about the time of the 
 Persian war. Such had been the case even with Thebes, al- 
 though she had received as a legislator, Philolaus from Corinth ; 
 but the code given by this individual cannot have been attended
 
 PHRiou :i.] GREEKS. 119 
 
 with the desired effect, as the government was continually flue- Second 
 tuating between a licentious democracy and an overbearing Period. 
 oligarchy. The Boeotian cities were, however, mutually united ' 
 by a league, at the head of which stood Thebes, who gradually 
 converted her right of precedence into a right of power, al- 
 though her ambitious attempts were resisted to the last ex- 
 tremity by the separate cities, and by Plata;a3 in particular : 
 hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were decided 
 upon in four assemblies, (ßovXal,) held in the four districts into 
 which Bceotia was divided ; these assemblies in conjunction 
 elected eleven Boeotarchs, who stood at the head of the feder- 
 ation as supreme magistrates and field marshals. The great 
 extent and population of their territory might have enabled the 
 Boeotians to act the hrst part on the theatre of Greece, had they 
 not been impeded by their pernicious form of government, by 
 the envy felt against Thebes, and by the want of union which 
 naturally ensued. Yet in subsequent times the example of 
 Epaminondas and Pelopidas gave proof that the genius of two 
 men was sufficient to surmount all these obstacles. 
 
 c. Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said, 
 from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sove- 
 reign power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migra- 
 tion ; but the form of the republican constitution which succeed- 
 ed remains undetermined ; and of the undertakings of the 
 Phocians previous to the Persian invasion, we know nothing 
 more than that they waged war with the Thessalians, and were 
 successful. As history never mentions the Phocians but in the 
 aggregate, the whole territory must have formed but one inde- 
 pendent state. To that state, however, the city of Delphi, wliich 
 had its own constitution, did not belong : the city of Crissa with 
 its fertile district, and the harbour of Cirrha, constituted a se- 
 parate state, which became opulent by practising extortions 
 upon the pilgrims to Delphi : this state lasted till 600, when, 
 in consequence of the insults of the Crissteans to the Delphian 
 oracle, a war was proclaimed against them by the Amphictyons, 
 which ended in 590, with the raising of Crissa ; the land of 
 which was thenceforward added to the sacred glebe of Delphi. 
 
 d. Locris. Although we learn from early history that the 
 Locrians also had their kings, — among whom Ajax, the son of 
 Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war, — and that they likewise 
 in subsequent times adopted a republican form of government ; 
 yet the date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was 
 brought about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians 
 remairied politically distinct. The Locri Ozola», west of Phocis, 
 possessed the most extensive territoiy ; each city of which stood 
 independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The 
 country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district 
 appertaining to the city of Opus ; of their domestic organization, 
 as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we 
 know nothing. 
 
 e. ^tolia. The ^tolians remained the most rude and unci-
 
 120 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second vilized of all the Hellenic races ; they were little more than a 
 PErtion. band of freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions 
 both by sea and land. Renowned as are the names of their 
 earliest heroes, TEtolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation 
 has no place in the history of the flourishing times of Greece. 
 Nor did they acquire any celebrity until the Macedo-Eoman 
 period, when the various insignificant tribes of which they were 
 composed gathered themselves together and chose one common 
 leader, for the purpose of carrying on a war with the Acha^ans. 
 The earlier period of their history seems, however, to afford no 
 previous example of such a union ; their political constitution 
 in those times is wholly unknown. 
 
 f. Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, 
 son of Alcmaeon, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. 
 In the Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at 
 least of this country was subject to the governors of the island 
 of Ithaca. When and how a republican government was intro- 
 duced among the Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities 
 of that government, we know not. All that can be distin- 
 guished through the veil of time is, that here likewise the dif- 
 ferent cities, the most important of which was Stratus, had each 
 its own form of government. Those cities upon particular 
 emergencies were wont to combine ; and out of that practice in 
 later times, during the Macedonian period, grew up a perma- 
 nent confederation. The city and district of Argos Amphilo- 
 chicum constituted a separate state, which endured a long time, 
 and flourished greatly ; it derived its name from Amphilochus, 
 the founder. The inhabitants, however, being driven out by 
 the Ambracians, whom they had themselves called in, sought 
 assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, who with the help 
 of Athens, replaced the exiles in possession of their city, which 
 thenceforward was inhabited in common by Amphilochians and 
 Acarnanians, and was almost constantly engaged in war with 
 Ambracia. 
 
 III. Northern Greece. 
 
 a. The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of 
 Greece, may be gathered from the principal data enumerated 
 above for the history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From 
 this country it was that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over 
 Greece ; and here likewise they maintained their original seat. 
 In the Trojan age Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, go- 
 verned by hereditary princes, several of whom, such as Achilles 
 and Philoctetes, were among the most renowned heroes of the 
 time. In the period subsequent to the Trojan war and the 
 Dorian migration, Thessaly must have experienced poUtical 
 revolutions similar to those of the other Grecian countries ; but 
 neither the time nor the manner in which those revolutions oc- 
 curred can be ascertained. All that can be deduced from the
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 121 
 
 subsequent history is, that if the Thessalian cities ever did re- Second 
 cover their political freedom, they were unable to maintain it ; Teriod. 
 for in the two most eminent cities, Pheraj and Larissa, with 
 whose history that of the whole country is closely connected, 
 the supreme power had fallen into the hands of arbitrary indi- 
 viduals, who appear to have kept possession of it almost without 
 interruption. Even befoi-e the brealving out of the Persian war, 
 Larissa was under the rule of the Aleuadje ; a family who 
 claimed descent from Hercules, and are especially denominated 
 by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. They preserved their 
 power until the Macedonian period. — In Pherte there arose 
 about the year 380, a tyrant, by the name of Jason, who ex- 
 tended his dominion not only over Thessaly, but likewise over 
 several of the neighbouring barbarous tribes. The sceptre of 
 Jason passed rapidly and successively into the hands of his 
 three brothers, Polydorus, Polyphron, and Alexander. The 
 last was first driven out of Larissa by the Aleuadae, assisted by 
 tlie INIacedonians ; was afterwards worsted in war by Pelopidas ; 
 and finally, at the instigation of his wife Thebe, was murdered, 
 356, by her brothers, Lycophron and Tisiphonus. The two 
 murderers then assumed the supreme poAver, but were, in com- 
 pliance with the request of the Aleuadas, deposed by Philip of 
 ]\Iacedon. — Some other such tyrants are met with at intervals 
 in tlie rest of the Thessalian cities, such as Pharsalus, etc. 
 
 b. Epirus. This countiy was occupied by several tribes, 
 partly Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of 
 these was that of the INIolossi, who were governed by kings of 
 the house of the ^acidje, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of 
 Achilles. This Greek family was the only one that held the 
 kingly power for a permanency ; it must be observed however, 
 that previous to the Macedonian period, those sovereigns were 
 by no means lords of the whole of Epirus ; for the other non- 
 Hellenic races, such as the Thesprotii, Orestii, etc., had their 
 own separate kings. Moreover, the Corinthian colony of Am- 
 bracia constituted a distinct state, generally governed as a re- 
 l)ublic, although sometimes subject to the rule of tyrants. But 
 in consequence of an alliance framed with the Macedonian 
 kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia itself, was 
 placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings ; and some of 
 those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to be mighty 
 conquerors. See below. 
 
 IV. Grecian Islands. 
 
 Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the 
 Archi{)elago, all underwent the same political revolutions as 
 occurred in the states on the mainland. But those events did 
 not take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabit- 
 ants, such as the Phcenicians, Carians, etc., had been driven 
 out, and the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes.
 
 122 GRKEKS. [book in. 
 
 Second In the more extensive islands, which contained several cities, 
 Period, there generally arose as many small republics as there were 
 towns, and those little states were wont to enter into mutual 
 alliances. The smaller islands, containing but one city, formed 
 each one small independent state, the territory of which com- 
 prised the whole island. The respective independence of these 
 islands ceased to exist at the period of the Trojan war ; for 
 after the Athenians had by their success placed themselves at 
 the head of confederate Greece, and possessed themselves of the 
 sovereignty of the sea, these smaller states, although called 
 confederates, were treated little better than subjects, except 
 that their political constitutions were not changed. — Among the 
 islands of the Grecian coast, the most remarkable in history are 
 the following : 
 
 a. Coroyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power 
 and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself ; a rivalry 
 which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the 
 principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About 
 the time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of 
 her power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120 
 galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been 
 aristocratic, or oligarchical : but after the Persian war a demo- 
 cratic faction arose, which produced the most violent internal 
 commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra. 
 
 b. ^gina. This small island was, after the Dorian migra- 
 tion, occupied by colonists from Epidaurus : it however soon 
 shook off the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by com- 
 merce and navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. 
 jEgina was for a long time the rival of Athens ; over whom her 
 naval power enabled her to maintain a superiority until the 
 time of the Persian war. Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 
 485, she could no longer support herself against the preponder- 
 ating influence of Athens ; and although subsequently she made 
 another stand for independence, 458, the consequences were but 
 an increase of oppression. Neither must it be forgotten, that 
 -3^gina suffered much, even before the Persian war, from in- 
 ternal broils, caused by the bitterness of party spirit engendered 
 between the aristocratic and democratic factions. 
 
 C. O. MuELLEK, JEgi?ieticorum liber, 1817. This treatise 
 contains not only the political history, but likewise that of ti-ade 
 and arts. 
 
 c. Euboja. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and 
 Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic constitu- 
 tion : in the two towns above mentioned the constitution was 
 aristocratic, since the government was in the hands of the opu- 
 lent (Hippobataä) ; nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis. 
 After the Persian war Euboca became dependent upon Athens, 
 which di'ew from that island a portion of her supplies and pro- 
 visions. The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds 
 of the Euboeans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the se- 
 quel ever ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable
 
 PERIOD II.] 
 
 GREEKS. 123 
 
 opportunity presented itself ; such an opportunity was seized Second 
 in 446, when the island was recovered by Pericles ; and the Pekioi. 
 attempt was renewed in the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 d. Tlie Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the 
 reign of jMinos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread 
 over these islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic 
 invaders, belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian fami- 
 lies. The most important was Delos, chief seat of the lonians. 
 Sheltered under the protection of Apollo, this place became the 
 centre of an extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, 
 was selected for the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed 
 for its marble, and for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489, 
 although it afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and 
 passed under the dominion of the Athenians. We know little 
 of the constitution of the other smaller islands ; each of them 
 contained one city of the same name as the island which con- 
 stituted its territory. 
 
 e. Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, 
 but of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc., mingled 
 with whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and -3^olian stock. 
 In the earlier periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated 
 of whom were Mnos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of 
 the whole island ; his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Me- 
 riones, who followed Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and suc- 
 ceeded him upon the throne : the last king, Etearchus, about 
 800, after whose death a republican form of government was 
 introduced. Under these kings Crete was powei-ful on sea : to 
 Minos is ascribed the honour of having by his fleets purged the 
 -3i^ga;an of pirates, occupied the islands, and insured security to 
 the mariner. To him likewise is attributed the Cretan legisla- 
 tion, the model, it is said, of that given to Sparta by Lycurgus. 
 But the uncertainty as to what does and what does not belong 
 to ]\Iino5, is in this case even greater than in that of Lycurgus ; 
 many of the laws referred to j\Iinos are probably nothing more 
 than ancient Dorian institutions. The insular situation which 
 in some measure insured Crete from foreign inroads, and the 
 proximity of Egypt and Pliojnicia, must indubitably have con- 
 tributed to expand the germ of political civihzation. The abo- 
 lition of the kingly office seems to have been the effect of inter- 
 nal commotions, to which Crete continued to be frequently 
 exposed, even under a republican form of government. Those 
 commotions originated in the jealousy between the two largest 
 cities, Gortina and Cnossus, which, when united, ruled the rest ; 
 but when at war, shook the Avhole island, until the city of Cy- 
 donia, passing over to one of the sides, gave a turn to the ba- 
 lance. The laws instituted by ]\Iinos respecting private life 
 were enforced in all the cities of the island ; but declined at an 
 earlier period than in the country. Each city had its own con- 
 stitution ; each possessed its senate, (yepovma,) at the head of 
 which were ten censors, ((coct/uoi,) chosen from certain families : 
 these cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but likewise in-
 
 124 GREEKS. [liOOK III. 
 
 Second vested with the command in war, not often, it is true, waged by 
 Peiuou. the Cretans against other nations, but, for that reason, more 
 
 frequently with one another ; a circumstance which must have 
 
 necessarily contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, 
 but likewise their national character. 
 
 ]\Ieursii Creta, Rhodus, Ci/pnis, 1675, 4to. Very laborious 
 compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the 
 subject by the inscriptions published in 
 
 CniSHULL's Antiq. Asiaticce ; 1728, folio. A Avork which 
 has been made use of by 
 
 St. Croix, Des anciens gouvernemens, etc. (See above, p. 
 105.) The principal work upon Crete. 
 
 •j- C. HoECK, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology, 
 history, etc., of this island, 1823. 
 
 f. Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race 
 of mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their 
 descent from Phoenicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks 
 out of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis ; of which last 
 the city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 11 60, was a colony. 
 There can be no doubt, that in earKer times the Phoenicians 
 were for a long period the dominant race in the island ; since in 
 the flourishing days of Tyi'e the Cyprians rebelled against their 
 oppressoi'S, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition 
 against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the 
 present day, Phoenician monuments are still found in the island. 
 From that time to the Persian period, there appears to have 
 been a close connexion between this island and the Phoenicians, 
 although the Cyprians preserved their independence. Several 
 smaller kingdoms afterwards arose in various cities of the 
 island ; the number of which in subsequent times amounted to 
 nine, and under Amasis, about 550, were tributary to the Egyp- 
 tians ; and under Cambyses, 525, to the Persians : notwith- 
 standing this species of subjection, the various states preserved 
 their own kings. During the Persian dominion, the Cyprians 
 more than once joined in the insurrections against the Persians ; 
 more particularly the kings of Salamis, now become the most 
 powerful. So early as the year 500, Onesilus joined the Ionian 
 rebels, but was defeated. In the wars which afterwards ensued 
 between the Persians and Greeks, Cyprus was frequently at- 
 tacked by the combined Grecian fleets ; as in 470 by Pausanias, 
 and during the reign of Evagoras I., 449, by Cimon, Avho died 
 at the siege of Citium ; yet the Persians were not driven out, 
 but appear to have kept their footing even after the peace of 
 449. Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was Evagoras II., 
 (400 — 390,) who was master of the greatest portion of the 
 island ; but as in the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was ceded to 
 the Persians, he was obliged to wage a hot war against them, in 
 which he lost every thing but Salamis. Finally, the Cyprians, 
 in 356, took a part in the insurrection of the Phoenicians and 
 Egyptians : thereupon the Persians sent an army against them, 
 under the command of a younger Evagoras, (who had been
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 125 
 
 banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and under that of tlie Athe- Second 
 nian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but matters were made up Period. 
 by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of the island con- 
 tinued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom they voluntarily 
 joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and thenceforward Cyprus 
 constituted a part of the Macedonian monarchy. 
 
 2. History of the Grecian Colonies. 
 
 To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the 
 events connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them 
 will be here carried on tlu'ough the subsequent period. 
 
 Raoul Rochette, Histoire critique de V ctahlissement des 
 Colonies Grecques, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most compre- 
 hensive treatise on the subject : it comprises the earlier Pelas- 
 gian and the later Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the 
 Hellenes. Tiiere is much erudition displayed in this work, but 
 sufficient attention is not paid to the value of the authorities 
 made use of. 
 
 f D. H. Hegeavisch, Geographic and Historic Documents 
 relative to the Colonies of the Greeks, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A 
 brief review of the subject. 
 
 St. Croix, De Vttat et du sort des Colonies des anciens peu- 
 ples, Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important inquiries. 
 
 1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many Historic 
 colonies as the Greeks : these colonies became so öfUie'^tirTek 
 important in various respects, that an acquaintance colonies 
 with them is indispensably requisite towards under- 
 standing the more early history of the world. Not 
 
 only is the history of the civilization of the mother 
 country and that of early trade intimately connected 
 with these settlements, but some of them grew to 
 such power as to have the greatest influence on po- 
 litical history. 
 
 2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following 
 observations apply, are those founded by the Hel- 
 lenes in the time which elapsed between the Dorian 
 migration and the Macedonian period. It appears 
 certain that before the date of that migration some 
 Pelasgian, and perhaps even some Hellenic settlers 
 passed over into Italy. The history of these colonies 
 however is not only involved in obscurity, but it is 
 besides known that they ceased after a time to be 
 Greek. The later settlements of the Macedonians
 
 126 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [look III. 
 
 Second 
 Peimod. 
 
 Hellenic 
 colonies. 
 
 Origin of 
 these colo- 
 nies. 
 
 Relations 
 between 
 colony and 
 metropolis. 
 
 were of a quite different nature from those of the 
 Hellenes, to which we now allude. 
 
 3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east and 
 to the west of Greece, their settlements, however, 
 were confined to the shores of the Mediterranean 
 and Black Sea. The countries in which their prin- 
 cipal colonies were established, were Asia Minor and 
 Thrace in the East ; the coasts of Lower Italy and 
 Sicily in the west. Nevertheless, particular settle- 
 ments were to be found scattered here and there on 
 the shores of most other countries. 
 
 4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either in 
 political motives, being generally made in accordance 
 with the express command or advice of an oracle, 
 (for the propagation of the religion of the parent 
 state was always connected therewith,) or, in com- 
 mercial speculations ; the former was the case, almost 
 without exception, with the settlements made by the 
 mother country herself; the latter, with those which 
 had branched out of such colonies as had already ex- 
 alted themselves by their commerce. In fact, almost 
 all tlie Grecian colonies applied more or less to trade, 
 even when that was not the sole object of their 
 foundation. 
 
 5. The connexion existing between the colonies 
 and the mother cities was generally determined by 
 the same causes that led to their foundation. In 
 those cases where a city had been founded by mal- 
 content or banished emigrants, all dependence on 
 the mother country was naturally out of the ques- 
 tion ; and even in the colonies established for the 
 purposes of trade, that dependence was but feeble 
 and brief; the mother cities failing in power, if not 
 in will, to enforce it. The very independence of so 
 many colonies, made (almost without exception) in 
 countries pre-eminently favoured by nature in pro- 
 ductions and climate, and so situated as to oblige the 
 inhabitants to navigation and commerce, must have 
 given a great impulse to the civilization of the Hel- 
 lenic race, and may be regarded as the main cause 
 of its rapid progress and wide extension ; wider in-
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 127 
 
 deed than that of any other nation of the ancient Second 
 world. What a variety of pohtical ideas must have ^'"°°' 
 been formed among a people, whose settlements, 
 more than a hundred in number, had each its own 
 peculiar form of government. 
 
 6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and importance 
 in many respects the most important, were those atic^Gitek 
 along the western coast of Asia Minor, extendino- settlements. 
 from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. 
 Here, ever since the Trojan war, which first made 
 these countries generally known, Hellenes of the 
 three great families, Cohans, lonians, and Dorians, 
 had planted settlements. These were the most im- 
 portant for trade ; and here likewise in the native 
 country of Homer, the father of Grecian civilization, 
 of Alcaeus, and of Sappho, poesy, both epic and lyric, 
 expanded her first and fairest blossoms ; and hence, 
 too, the mother country herself received the first im- 
 pulse of moral and cultivated taste. 
 
 1. The -3Eolian colonies. Their original foundation dates 
 about 1124: they appear to have been a consequence of the 
 Dorian migration, having been established during that great 
 movement in Greece. The Pelopida?, who had been driven out 
 of Peloponnesus, Orestes, his son Penthilus, his grandson Ar- 
 chelaus, and his great gi'andson Grais, successively headed the 
 emigrants, who proceeded slowly by land, divided, it appears, 
 into several companies, with which .some Boeotians and others 
 gradually coalesced. In Asia they occupied the coasts of My- 
 4sia and Caria ; a strip of land which from thence derived the 
 appellation of ^olis. They moreover possessed the islands of 
 Lesbos, Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the mainland, in 
 the quarter named fi'om them -3<}olis, they erected twelve cities, 
 the most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna ; the latter, 
 however, afterwards fell into the hands of the lonians. But 
 their chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos ; here they 
 inhabited five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of all 
 their other colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise spread 
 inland as far as Mount Ida. AH these towns were independent 
 of one another, and possessed tlieir own peculiar forms of go- 
 vernment : our information, however, respecting these consti- 
 tutions extends no further than to enable us to ascertain that 
 they were subject to many disorders, which it was often at- 
 tempted to quell by nominating rulers of unlimited power, un- 
 der the title of ^symnetoe. These Avere elected sometimes for 
 a stipulated period, at others for life ; the most celebrated of 
 the number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished about 600,
 
 128 (illEEKS. [eook III. 
 
 Second and was the contemporary of Sappho and Alcaius. The -^oli- 
 Period. ans maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with 
 the exception of Smyrna, which, as early as 600, was captured 
 and destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred 
 years afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and en- 
 tered upon its flourishing period. The cities of the mainland 
 were compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian 
 conqueror ; but not the islands. The -ZEolian cities wei'e not 
 leagued together by any permanent bond ; it was only in pecu- 
 liar cases that they debated in common. Mitylene, which they 
 all regarded as their capital, was the only one of their colonies 
 that became rich by trade, and formidable by its naval power. 
 Yet in 470 it was tributary to Athens ; having seceded in 428, 
 at the time of the Peloponnesian war, it was recaptured and 
 almost levelled to the earth by the Athenians. 
 
 2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at 
 a later period than those of the ^olians ; like them, however, 
 they were a consequence of the Dorian migration. The lonians, 
 driven out of Peloponnesus by the Achseans, had withdrawn to 
 Athens, from whence, sixty years afterwards, that is to say 
 about 1044, they proceeded by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus 
 and others of the sons of Codrus. They were joined, however, 
 by some Thebans, Phocians, Euboean Abantes, and various 
 other Greeks. In Asia they settled on the southern coast of 
 Lydia and the northern shore of Caria ; which, together with 
 the islands of Samos and Chios, took from them the name of 
 Ionia. Here they built twelve cities on the mainland ; namely, 
 reckoning from north to south, Phocfea, Erythrce, Clazomene, 
 Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and 
 in the islands, Samos and Chios. They possessed in common 
 one sanctuary, the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the 
 headland of Mycale. Here they celebrated their festivals, 
 and assembled to deliberate upon matters aifecting the general 
 interest, although it must still be remembered that each city» 
 was in itself independent. This independence was maintained 
 until the time of the Lydian dynasty of the Mermnad«, and 
 that of Cyrus, under whose reign they were compelled to sub- 
 mit to the Persian yoke. Still, under the Persian rule, they 
 for the most part preserved their own form of government, and 
 were subject only so much as they had to pay tribute. Never- 
 theless they seized every opportunity of delivering themselves 
 from this species of thraldom ; and hence their history in the 
 following period is closely interwoven with that of Greece. 
 The political constitution was, no doubt, at an early period, re- 
 publican in all ; but these colonies likewise were oppressed by 
 continual factions, and frequently by tyrants. Among the 
 towns situate on the continent, the most remarkable were Mile- 
 tus, Ephesus, and Phoctea. Miletus was the principal seat of 
 trade. It had been founded by the Carians before the arrival 
 of the lonians ; but was by the latter raised to opulence and 
 power. The most flourishing period of its existence was be-
 
 PERIOD II. 
 
 GREEKS. 129 
 
 tween 700 — 500 : in the latter year it was implicated in the Second 
 insurrection of Aristagoras against the Persians, in consequence Period. 
 of which it was destroyed in 496. From that time Miletus 
 never recovered its ancient splendour. Nevertheless, in the 
 days of her prosperity, Miletus was, next to Tyi-e and Carthage, 
 the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade was chiefly 
 carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Maeotis, whose shores, 
 on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting, accord- 
 ing to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By means of 
 these settlements she monopolized the whole of the northern 
 trade in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land trade was 
 carried on by the great military road, constructed by the Per- 
 sians, far into the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted 
 her vessels ; and her naval power was so great, that she had 
 been known, more than once, to fit out, unaided, fleets of from 
 eighty to a hundred sail. — Phoca^a. The flourishing period of 
 this establishment was contemporary with that of INIiletus ; but 
 ended at the rise of the Persian dominion, 540, when the Pho- 
 cajans, rather than submit to the Persian yoke, chose to forsake 
 the city of their fathers and migrate to Corsica, although one 
 half of the inhabitants repented of their resolution and returned. 
 Phoca^a had the most extensive trade by sea of all the Grecian 
 cities ; they were to the west what the Milesians were to the 
 north. Their navigation extended as far as Gades ; and they 
 not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and Corsica, but even 
 founded colonies in these countries ; as for instance, Aleria in 
 Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all, Massilea, (Marseilles,) on 
 the coast of Gaul. — Ephesus. This city was likewise oi'iginally 
 founded by the Carians, but subsequently occupied by the 
 lonians. Its independence was maintained until the time of 
 Croesus, who annexed it to his other conquests about 560. The 
 constitution was aristocratic ; the government being in the 
 hands of a senate, (ytpovo-ta,) combined with the magistrates 
 (tTrt'/cXjjrot) : and the family which had once possessed the throne 
 preserved certain prerogatives. Ephesus was not so important 
 in a connucrcial point of view as Phoca^a and Miletus ; but was 
 much celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in 355 was fired 
 by Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more sumptuous 
 splendour. The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to have 
 commenced at this time, long after that of jNIiletus and Phocasa 
 had terminated ; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages 
 Ephesus was regarded as the first city of Asia IVIinor. — Of the 
 cities on the islands, Samos was the most important, for its 
 trade, and for its naval power. The period of its splendour 
 was under the reign of the tyrant Polycrates, 540 — 523, whose 
 sway extended over the sea and islets of the neighbourhood, 
 Syloson, brother to tlie tyrant, having by the assistance of the 
 Persians, 517, obtained possession of Samos, the island was al- 
 most depopulated. Soon afterwards Samos became dependent 
 upon the Athenians, who in 440 introduced a democratic Ibrm 
 of government, and made it the rendezvous for her troops and 
 
 K
 
 130 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second fleets during the war with Sparta. — Chios was scarcely inferior 
 Period, to Samos, either in power or wealth. It submitted to the Per- 
 sian yoke with the rest of" the Ionian colonies ; but was so pow- 
 erful, that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras, ninety-eight 
 sail of tlie combined fleet belonged to Chios. After the defeat 
 of Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league, from which 
 it endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412. The 
 naval power of the Chians was still considerable ; and those 
 islanders had the high honour of not sufiering prosperity to in- 
 flate them with overweening ambition. 
 
 F. G. Rambach, De Mihto ejusqite coloniis, 1790, 4to. 
 3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, 
 upon the southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and 
 Rhodes, but were all planted at a later period than the Ionian 
 colonies, and, no doubt, were the result of successive migra- 
 tions. The Dorians appear to have gradually spread beyond 
 Peloponnesus, over the isl aids of the Archipelago to the Asiatic 
 coast : in Rhodes they erected the cities of lalyssus, Camirus, 
 and Lindus ; in Cos a city of the same name ; on the mainland 
 two cities, Halicarnassus and Cnidus. These six ancient colo- 
 nies had, like the lonians, one common sanctuary, the temple of 
 Apollo Triopius, where they celebrated their festivals and held 
 their deliberative assemblies. Halicarnassus, however, was 
 afterwards excluded from the confederation. They remained 
 independent until the Persian period, although the constitutions 
 of the separate cities were subject to violent revolutions : thus 
 at Cnidus the oligarchy was converted into a democracy ; Ha- 
 licarnassus was likewise generally subject to the Carian sove- 
 reigns, among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names familiar 
 to all. — The three cities in Rhodes appear never to have grown 
 to any importance ; that of Rhodes, not built till after the ir- 
 ruption of Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others : 
 its flourishing period began after the death of Alexander. At 
 no period of early history could the Dorian colonies, or those 
 of the Cohans, compete in wealth and commerce with the 
 lonians. 
 
 7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black Sea, 
 and the Palus Mseotis, were Hkewise covered with 
 Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were colonies 
 of the city of Miletus alone, and were, without ex- 
 ception, all of them the marts of a prosperous trade. 
 Although the date of each cannot be precisely de- 
 fined, they must have arisen between the eighth and 
 sixth centuries before the Christian era. They were 
 not only sovereigns of the Black Sea, but likewise 
 extended their trade over the whole of southern Rus- 
 sia, and eastward to the regions beyond the Caspian 
 Sea ; that is, to Great Bukharia.
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. ' 131 
 
 On the Propontis stood Larapsacus (adjoining the Helles- Second 
 pont) and Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent Period. 
 by means of bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the 
 most beautiful and flourishing cities of Asia ; but this did not 
 occur until the Roman age, and was in consequence of the fos- 
 tering protection of the Romans. — Opposite to Cyzicus, on the 
 Thracian coast, was Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea ; 
 at the mouth of the Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over 
 against which was Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns 
 affords sufficient proof of the skill with which sites were chosen 
 for the establishment of colonies. 
 
 Heyne, Antiquities Byzantina : Commejitationes duce, 1809. 
 The first of which contains the fragments of the earlier history 
 of Byzantium. 
 
 The colonies of the Black Sea were : on the southern coast of 
 Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This 
 place preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils 
 and revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic 
 factions, until about B. C 370, when the democrats having 
 gained the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who 
 became tyrant, and abrogated the senate (ßovXi)) ; the family of 
 the tyrant continued for a long time in possession of power, after 
 he himself had been murdered by two disciples of Plato. — In 
 Paphlagonia was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian 
 settlements on the Black Sea, of which it long held the sove- 
 reignty. The freedom and independence of this place lasted to 
 about 100, when it fell under the dominion of the kings of 
 Pontus, and afterwards under that of the Romans. The prin- 
 cipal source from which it derived its wealth were the shoals of 
 migratory fish, (ttt^Xcijuvcec,) which, issuing from the Palus Mse- 
 otis, spread along the shore of the Black Sea down to the Thra- 
 cian Bosporus. — In Pontus was Amisus, the mother city of 
 Trapezus, and which shared the fate of Sinope. — On the east- 
 ern coast stood the cities of Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria : 
 this last was the principal mart of the slave trade, and, during 
 the Macedonian period, the staple for Indian commodities im- 
 ported across the Oxus and the Caspian Sea. — In the Cherso- 
 nesus Taurica stood Panticapa^um, capital city of the little 
 Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings (among whom 
 Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, about 
 350, are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till 
 Mitliridates the Great laid there the foundation of his do- 
 minion. — On the northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the 
 moutli of a river of the same name at the bottom of the 
 Palus Ma30tis. Olbia was situated at the mouth of the Bo- 
 rysthenes. These two places, and Olbia in particular, were 
 of the highest importance for the inland trade, which issuing 
 from thence in a northern and easterly direction, was extend- 
 ed to the very centre of Asia. — The colonies of the western 
 coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and Salmidessus, were of less 
 notoriety. 
 
 K 2
 
 132 GREEKS. [book in. 
 
 Second s. The coast of Thnice and Macedonia, waslied 
 '_ by the iEgaean Sea, was likewise covered with Gre- 
 cian colonies, from various cities, and especially from 
 Corinth and Athens. The Athenians having obtained 
 in the Persian war the sovereignty of the sea, endea- 
 voured to establish their dominion in this part of the 
 world ; hence the cities in that quarter were closely 
 implicated in the quarrels and wars excited, first by 
 the jealousy between Sparta and Athens, and after- 
 wards by that which sprang up between Athens and 
 Macedonia, in the reign of Philip. 
 
 On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the 
 key of Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the 
 towns of Sestos, Cardia, and ^gospotamos ; farther to the west 
 stood Maronea and Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of 
 far greater importance, however, were the towns on the Mace- 
 donian coast, Amphipolis, Chalcis, Olynthus, Potidiea. The 
 first of these towns, founded about B. C. 464, was a colony from 
 Athens, which endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependence. 
 Chalcis was a colony from a city of the same name in Euboea. 
 In 470 it was dependent on Athens ; but in 432, the inhal)itants, 
 having raised the standard of rebellion, forsook their houses and 
 voluntarily withdrew to Olynthus. — Olynthus derived its name 
 from the founder, one of the sons of Plercules : in the course of 
 time it ranked among the most powerful cities of Thrace, al- 
 though it was tributary to the Athenians. It took a share in 
 the war between Athens and Sparta, and continued tj be a 
 flourishing city until 348, when it was taken by Philip of Ma- 
 cedon, and destroyed. — Potidasa was a colony of Corinth, from 
 which it received annual magistrates, {iTtici^jxiovpyoi,) having be- 
 come tributary to Athens after the Persian war, it revolted in 
 431 : obliged to yield to the Athenian arms, its inhabitants 
 were expelled, and their place supplied by an Athenian colony. 
 It now became a possession of Athens, and remained so till it was 
 taken by Philip in 358. 
 
 9. The Grecian settlements westward of the mo- 
 ther country were, almost without exception, made 
 at a later period than those in the ^Egsean and Black 
 Seas : they reached nevertheless to an equal degree 
 of splendour ; and though their trade was not so ex- 
 tensive, it was equally profitable : these colonies not 
 only rivalled those we have above described in wealth, 
 but surpassed them in power, being generally cha- 
 racterized by the wisdom and prudence displayed in 
 their respective constitutions. The foundation of
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 133 
 
 most of them may be dated between B. C. 750 and Second 
 650 ; consequently at a period when all the cities in ^"'°"' 
 the mother country had already been republicanized : 
 and at a time when there could be no lack of domes- 
 tic troubles, which would furnish sufficient motives 
 for emigration. 
 
 1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous 
 and important of these were scattered around the bay of Ta- 
 rentum ; they extended likewise along the western coast of 
 Italy up to Naples. These colonies were variously traced to 
 the Dorian, Achaean, and Ionian families : they Avere likewise 
 distinguished by political characteristics, the government in the 
 Dorian settlements being generally more aristocratic, in the rest 
 more democratic : it must be observed, however, that with re- 
 spect to the various revolutions which the respective constitu- 
 tions underwent, it is hardly possible to give any general inform- 
 ation, excepting so far as regards the earliest times. Of Dorian 
 origin were Tarentum, and its colonies Heraclea and Brundu- 
 sium. Of Achaean origin were vSybaris and Croton, together 
 with the colonies of the latter, Laus, Metapontum, Posidonia ; 
 Avhich last founded in its turn, Tcrina, Caulonia, and Pandosia. 
 Of Ionian origin were Thurii, (built on the site where Sybaris 
 had formerly stood,) Rhegium, Elea, Cumae, and its branch 
 settlement of Neapolis. Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the 
 Locri Ozola^, may be regarded as an ^üolian city. The most 
 remarkable of these cities, in respect to general history, are : 
 
 a. Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about 
 707. It waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the 
 vicinity, the Messapians, Lucanians, etc., and grew to be one of 
 the richest and most powerful of the maritime towns. The 
 brilliant period of Tarentum appears to have fallen between 
 500 and 400. Excess of wealth subsequently introduced lux- 
 ury, which extinguished the national spirit. Nevertheless Ta- 
 rentum preserved its independence until 273, when, after the 
 war with Pyrrhus, it fell under the Roman dominion. The 
 constitution was originally a moderate aristocracy ; but was 
 commuted soon after the Persian war into a democracy, which 
 was, however, curbed by prudent restrictions. Tarentum had 
 its senate, (/3ovA?),) without whose consent war could not be un- 
 dertaken ; its magistrates elected half by lot, half by majority of 
 votes given in the assemblies of the commons. Among its 
 most celebrated citizens is reckoned the Pythagor;i?an Archytas, 
 who, after the year B. C. 390, was frequently at tlie head of the 
 state, filling the oflices of general and supreme magistrate. The 
 constitution appears to have preserved its form until the Roman 
 jieriod, although the national spirit was greatly corrupted by a 
 luxury almost exceeding the limits of credibility. 
 
 h. Croton, founded 710, by the Achteans, under the guidance 
 of Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have at-
 
 134 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second tained to very great power during the very first century of its 
 Period, existence ; since in the battle of" Sagra against the Locrians, 
 "~ ~ which may with probabiHty be dated about 600, the Crotoniates 
 
 were able to set on foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does 
 the defeat which they there suffered appear to have debilitated 
 the settlement for any length of time ; for in 510, with nearly 
 the same number of forces, they attacked the Sybarites, and de- 
 stroyed their city. The original constitution was, no doubt, a 
 moderate democracy ; but we are unacquainted with the details 
 of its organization. Pythagoras was the reformer of customs, 
 moral and political, not only at Croton, but in several other of 
 the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher arrived at Croton 
 about 540, and there laid the foundation of the league or secret 
 association named after him, the object of which was, not to 
 change the form of government in the Italian cities, but to 
 create men capable of managing the helm of state. This re- 
 form and influence of the Pythagorjeans lasted about thirty 
 years, when their order underwent the same fate as generally 
 befalls a secret association founded with a political view. Pro- 
 bably about 510 the Pythagorean league was broken asunder 
 by the democratic faction under Cylon. The consequence was 
 universal anarchy, not only in Croton, where, about 494, a 
 certain Clinias usurped the supreme power, but likewise in the 
 other cities : these disorders, however, were quelled by the 
 intervention of the Achseans ; and the Achfean colonies not 
 only adopted the laws of their mother cities, but likewise soon 
 afterwards signed a league in the temple of Jupiter Honorius, 
 about 460 : it appears that Croton, having already recovered 
 from the blow it had received, was at the head of this league. 
 In this happy posture affairs remained till about 400. After 
 the kings of Syracuse had commenced their attacks on Magna 
 Graecia, Croton was repeatedly captured ; as in B. C. 389 by 
 Dionysius I., and about 321 ; and again, in 299, by Agathocles. 
 Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, it became dependent 
 on Rome. 
 
 c. Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the 
 Achffians, who were mingled with Trcezenians : this settlement 
 existed till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after 
 its foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, 
 and luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sy- 
 barites became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the 
 height of her prosperity from about 600 — 550 ; she then pos- 
 sessed a respectable territory, comprising four of the neighbour- 
 ing tribes, and twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary 
 fertility of the soil, and the admission of all strangers to the 
 rights of citizenship, tended to increase the population so much, 
 that Sybaris, in the war against Croton, is said to have brought 
 into the field 300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not 
 only by Sybaris, but by the other cities in this quarter, was 
 probably derived from the great trade in oil and T\'ine carried 
 on with Africa and Gaul : that such was the case at Agrigen-
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 135 
 
 tum we know with certainty, The constitution of Sjbaris was Second 
 likewise, it appears, a moderate democracy : towards the year Period. 
 510 one Telys took possession of the supreme power, and drove 
 out five hundred of the optimates, who fled to Croton. The 
 Crotoniates received the exiles, and the Sybarites having put 
 to deatli their ambassadors, a war was kindled between the two 
 cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat of tlie Sybarites and the 
 destruction of their city. 
 
 d. Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 
 by Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin ; a 
 ciiTumstance which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, 
 the citizens disputing as to who was the real founder ; at last, 
 433, the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of 
 Apollo. The constitution was at first a moderate democracy ; 
 but this was soon converted into an oligarchy, all the power and 
 tlie best lands having been taken possession of by the Sybarite 
 families who had joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, 
 however, again expelled, and Thurii grew into importance by 
 the confluence of several new colonies out of Greece ; its con- 
 stitution was meliorated by the adoption of tlie laws of Charon- 
 das of Catana. The principal enemies of the Thurians were 
 the Lucanians, by whom they were beaten, 390. The desul- 
 tory attacks of that tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the assist- 
 ance of the Romans, which soon after afforded the Tarentines 
 an excuse for attacking them. Thurii now formed a part of 
 the Roman dependencies, and after suffering much in the Car- 
 thaginian wars, was at last, B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman 
 colony. 
 
 e. Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject 
 to dispute : the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in 
 most otlier of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at 
 various times, and those bands themselves were composed of a 
 mixture of several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent 
 out, B. C. 683, by the Locri Ozoloe. After suffering much from 
 violent internal commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver 
 in Zaleucus, whose institutions remained more than two centu- 
 ries inviolate. The constitution was aristocratic, the adminis- 
 tration being in the hands of a hundred families. The supreme 
 magistrate was called cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a 
 thousand members, probably elected from the commons, with 
 whom resided, either wholly or partially, the legislative power. 
 The maintenance of the laws was, as in other Grecian cities, 
 committed to the nonio])hylaces. Locri was certainly neither 
 so wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities above mentioned ; but 
 she was honourably distinguished by the good manners and 
 quiet conduct of her citizens, who were contented with their 
 government. The flourishing period of tliis city lasted till the 
 time of Dionysius 11., who having been driven out of Syracuse 
 fled with his dependents to Locri, the native country of his mo- 
 ther ; by his insolence and hcentiousness of manners the city 
 was brought to the verge of ruin ; after his return to Syracuse,
 
 136 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second 347, the Locrians avenged their wrongs upon Iris family. Lo- 
 Pertod. cri afterward maintained its recovered independence until the 
 time of Pjrrhus, who, 277, placed a garrison in the town ; the 
 Locrians, however, put the troops to the sword, and passed over 
 to the Roman side : the city was in consequence sacked by 
 Pyrrhus in 275. From that time Locri remained a confederate 
 town dependent on Rome, and sutfei'cd much in the second 
 Punic war. 
 
 f. Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 668 : here also 
 the go\ernment was aristocratic, the supreme power being in 
 the hands of a council of a tliousand men, selected only from 
 Messenian families, which had joined the original settlers. 
 Hence arose an oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage 
 to assume the sole dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded 
 by his sons. These having been driven out, 464, commotions 
 ensued, which, after a time, were quelled by adojjting the laws 
 of Charondas. Rhegium now enjoyed a period of happiness, 
 which lasted till B. C. 392, when it was captured and destroyed 
 by Dionysius I. Dionysius II. restored it in some measure ; 
 but in 281 the city was taken possession of by a Roman legion, 
 who being sent for the purpose of garrisoning the place, mur- 
 dei'ed the inhabitants. The soldiers were punished with death, 
 271 ; but Rhegium thenceforth remained in a state of depend- 
 ence upon Rome. 
 
 g. CumfB, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Eubcea. 
 This city attained at an early period to a high degree of power 
 and prosperity ; its territory being of considerable extent, its 
 navy respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or jNIessana) among 
 its colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy : this 
 constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Ai'istode- 
 mus ; but restored after his assassination. Cunife was subject 
 to repeated annoyances from the petty Italian nations ; and in 
 564 she was invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Dau- 
 nians combined : in 474 she beat the Etruscans at sea ; but in 
 420 was captured by the Campanians ; together with whom she 
 became a dependent of Rome in 345. CuraoB, nevertheless, in 
 consequence of its harbour of Puteoli, preserved a share of im- 
 portance, even under the Roman dominion. 
 
 Heyne, Prolusiones \6 de civitatum GrcBcarum per magnam 
 Grceciam et Siciliam institutis et legibtis. Collected in his 
 Opiiscula, vol. vii. 
 
 2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern 
 and southern shores of the island : they were founded in the 
 same period as those of Magna Gr^ecia, and belonged partly to 
 the Dorian, partly to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were 
 Messana and Tyndaris, from Messene ; SjTacuse, who in her 
 turn founded Acra?, Casmena?, and Camarina, from Corinth ; 
 Hybla and Thapsus from Megara ; Segesta from Thessaly ; He- 
 raclea Minoa from Crete ; Gela, which founded Agrigentum, 
 from Rhodes ; and Lipara, on the small island of that name, 
 from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 137 
 
 Leontini ; Catana and Tauromeniuin, from Chalcis ; Zancle, Second 
 (after its occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) Period. 
 founded by Cuma^, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylag. "~ 
 
 Tlie most remarkable of these towns in ancient history are : 
 
 a. Syi'acuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and 
 consequently that concerning which our information is the most 
 copious. The history of S}Tacuse, on which, as that town was 
 for a long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, de- 
 pends nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. 
 1. From the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484 ; a space of 
 two hundred and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse 
 was a republic, but does not appear to have risen to any very 
 great height of power : yet she founded the colonies of Acrae, 
 665, Casmenje, 645, and Camarina, 600. The assistance of her 
 parent city, Corinth, and Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a 
 prey to Hippocrates, sovereign of Gela ; and even then she was 
 obliged to cede Camarina, 497. The constitution was aristo- 
 cratic ; but not free from domestic troubles. The administration 
 was in the hands of the opulent {yapöpoi) ; but these were, about 
 485, expelled by the democratic faction and their own mutinous 
 slaves. They fled to Casmenoe, and by the help of Gelon, sove- 
 reign of Gela, were restored to their homes ; Gelon retaining 
 the power in his own hands. 2. From Gelon to the expulsion 
 of Thrasybulus, 484 — 466. The three brothers, Gelon, Hiero, 
 and Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse. Gelon, 
 484 — 477. He was at once the founder of the greatness of 
 Syracuse, and of his own power : this he effected partly by in- 
 creasing the population, bringing in new inhabitants from other 
 Greek cities ; and partly by the great victory he won over the 
 Carthaginians, in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early 
 period Syracuse was so powerful both by sea and by land, as 
 to justify Gelon in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece, 
 when Sparta and Atliens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent 
 reign not only gained him the love of the Syracusans during his 
 life, but likewise procured him heroic honours after death at 
 the hands of a grateful people. He died in 477, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his bi-other Hiero I., who had till then ruled over 
 Gela. The reign of tliis prince was splendid, his court was 
 brilliant, and a fostering pi-otection was extended to arts and 
 sciences. Hiero's power, strengthened by the establishment of 
 new citizens, both in Syracuse and its subordinate towns of 
 Catana and Naxus, whose original inhabitants are translated to 
 Leontini. — Wars waged against Thero, 476, and his son Thra- 
 sidasus, tyrants of Agrigentum : after the expulsion of Thra- 
 sidajus, that town forms an alliance with Syracuse ; the Syra- 
 cusan fleet sent to the assistance of Cuma;, wins a victory over 
 the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, was succeeded hy his 
 brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short reign of eight months, 
 was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans and the con- 
 federate cities. 3. From the expulsion of Thrasybulus to the 
 elevation of Dionysius I. ; Syracuse a free democratic state :
 
 138 GREEKS. [hook m. 
 
 Second from 466 — 405. Re-establishment of republican forms of go- 
 Period. vernment in Syracuse and the other Grecian cities ; accompanied, 
 ■ however, with many commotions and civil wars, proceeding 
 from the expulsion of the new citizens and the restoration of the 
 ancient inhabitants to their property. — Increasing power and 
 prosperity of Syracuse, who is now at the head of the con- 
 federate Grecian cities in the island, and soon endeavours to 
 convert her precedence into supremacy. The new democratic 
 constitution quickly suiFers from the diseases incident to that 
 form of government ; a vain attempt is made to apply a remedy 
 by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454 ; in the mean 
 time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in closer 
 league under their leader Ducetius ; attempting to expel the 
 Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars ; 
 the arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed 
 by the subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by 
 her naval victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful 
 attempt of the Athenians to interpose in the domestic afltiiirs of 
 Sicily, by siding with Leontini against Syracuse, 427 ; eleven 
 years afterwards occurs the great expedition against Syracuse, 
 415 — 413, caused by the disputes between Segesta and vSeli- 
 nus ; the expedition ends in the total rout of the Athenian fleet 
 and army, (see below,) and the power of S>Tacuse reaches its 
 zenith. A constitutional reform takes place, 412, brought 
 about by Diodes, whose laws were subsequently adopted by 
 several other of the Sicilian cities. The magistrates were 
 chosen by lot. The rest of the laws, which appear to. have had 
 reference to the criminal code, were the production of a commit- 
 tee over which Diodes presided ; these enactments were so bene- 
 ficial to Syracuse, that the author of them was honoured with a 
 temple after his death. Yet as early as 410, a renewal of the 
 differences between Segesta and Selinus afforded a pretext for 
 war with Carthage, from whom the Segestani had besought as- 
 sistance ; by this war the whole state of affairs in Sicily was 
 subverted. The rapid strides made by the Carthaginians, who, 
 under the command of Hannibal the son of Gisgo, took, 409, 
 Selinus and Himera, and even Agrigentum, 406, engendered 
 domestic factions and commotions within Syracuse ; and amid 
 those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded first in obtaining 
 the office of general, and then, after supplanting his colleagues, 
 the sovereign power of Sp'acuse, 405. 4. From Dionysius I. 
 to the Roman occupation, 405 — 212. Dionysius I., 405 — 368. 
 Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at Gela and 
 the mutiny of his troops. — A plague wasting the Carthaginian 
 army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by which 
 it is agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the island, 
 shall retain all the conquests made during the war, together 
 with Gela and Camarina. But the project of expelling the 
 Carthaginians out of Sicily, in order to subject the whole island, 
 and to fall upon Magna Griecia, kindles a long series of wars 
 both with Carthage and the cities of Magna Graecia. Second
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 139 
 
 war with Carthage against Hannibal and Himilco, 398 — 392. Second 
 Dionysius loses all that he before had conquered, and is himself Period. 
 besieged in Syracuse ; but a plague, once more attacking the 
 Carthaginians, rescues hira from his predicament, 396 ; deeds of 
 hostility continued notwithstanding till 392, Avhen a peace was 
 signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of Tauromenium. — 
 From 394, desultory attacks on the confederate Grecian cities 
 in Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief seat of the 
 Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions, is at last 
 compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383, against 
 Mago ; Dionysius wins a victory, which is, however, followed 
 by a greater defeat ; and the war ends the same year by the 
 adoption of a peace, according to which each party is to retain 
 what he tlien had ; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line, so 
 that Selinus and a portion of the territory of Agrigentum re- 
 main in the hands of the Carthaginians. Fourth war : inroad 
 upon the Carthaginian states ; it ends, however, in the signing 
 of a treaty. The decision of these wars generally depended on 
 the side taken by the Siculi, the most powerful aboriginal race 
 in Sicily. Dionysius I. having died by poison, 368, was suc- 
 ceeded by Dionysius II., his eldest son by one of his two wives, 
 Doris of Locri, but under the guardianship of his step-uncle 
 Dio, the brotlier of Dionysius's other wife Aristomache. Nei- 
 ther Dio or his friend Plato, who was three times invited to 
 Syracuse, were able to impi'ove the character of a prince whose 
 mind had been corrupted by bad education. — Dio is banished, 
 360. He returns, 357, and, in the absence of Dionysius, takes 
 possession of Syracuse, all but the citadel. Dionysius now has 
 recourse to stratagem ; he excites in the city distrust of Dio, 
 and foments dissension between him and his general Heraclidas ; 
 meanwhile he himself withdraws to Italy, taking with him his 
 treasures. Dio is compelled to retire from the city, which is 
 sacked by the troops garrisoned in the citadel ; hereupon the 
 Syracusans themselves fetch back Dio ; he possesses liimself of 
 the citadel and wishes to restore the republican government, 
 but soon falls a victim to party spirit, being murdered by Cal- 
 lipus, B. C. 304, who usurped the government till 3.53, when he 
 is driven out by llipp.irinus, a brother of Dionysius, who keeps 
 possession till 350. After ten years' absence, Dionysius II., by 
 a sudden attack, becomes once more master of the city, 346. 
 The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of Icetas of Gela, 
 whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, but who 
 leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the formidable 
 attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to the 
 motlier city Corinth : Corinth sends to their assistance Timo- 
 leon with a small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought 
 by Timoleon : he beats Icetas and the Carthaginians : in 343 
 Dionysius is forced to deliver up the citadel and evacuate the 
 country ; he retires to Corinth, where he leads a private life. 
 Restoration of the republican government, not only in Syracuse, 
 where the laws of Diodes are reinstituted, but also in the rest
 
 140 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second of the Grecian cities : the revohition confirmerl by a great vic- 
 Period. tory over the Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of tlie execu- 
 tion of his phms Tinioleon dies, 337 ; the most splendid ex- 
 ample of a rej)iiblican tliat history affords ! From 337 — 317 ; 
 almost a chasm in the history of Syracuse. Wars with Agri- 
 gentum ; the usurpation of Sosistratus disturbs the peace, both 
 external and internal. The character of the Syraeusans was 
 already too foully corrupted for one to expect that liberty could 
 again be established among them, without the personal superin- 
 tendence of a Timoleon. They deserved the fate that befell 
 them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer Agathocles assumed 
 the sovereign power, which he maintained till 289. Renewal 
 of the plan for expelling the Carthaginians from the island, and 
 subjecting Magna Graecia. Hence arises a new war with Car- 
 thage, in which Agathocles is defeated, 311, and besieged in 
 Syracuse : by a bold stroke he passes over into Africa, accom- 
 panied by part of his fleet and army, and there with general 
 success prosecutes the war until 307 : the insurrection of most 
 of the Grecian cities in Sicily recalls him from the theatre of 
 war : his views in Africa are consequently defeated. In the 
 peace of 306, both parties retain what they had at the begin- 
 ning of the war. The wars in Italy are confined to the sacking 
 of Croton, and a victory won over the Bruttii ; and are rather 
 predatory expeditions than regular wars. In the year 289, 
 Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, Macnon, seized the 
 power ; he is expelled by the general Icetas, and flies over to 
 the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as prnetor till 278, when, in his 
 absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, who meets 
 with a rival in the person of Sosistratus ; in the mean while the 
 mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess themselves 
 of Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward to the very 
 gates of Syracuse. The Syraeusans invite Pyrrhus of Epirus 
 over from Italy : that prince takes possession of the whole of 
 Sicily as far as Lilybajum ; but having by his haughtiness in- 
 curred general hatred and disgust, he is obliged to evacuate the 
 island, B. C. 275. The Syraeusans now appoint Hiero, a de- 
 scendant of the ancient royal family, to the office of general : 
 after defeating the Mamertini he is called to the throne, 269. 
 At the breaking out of the war between Carthage and Rome, 
 the new king forsakes his alliance Avith Carthage, and, passing 
 over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a long and tranquil 
 reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under this wise 
 prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and prosperity 
 Avhich none of her demagogues had been al)le to effect. After 
 his death, the Carthaginian party became predominant ; Hie- 
 ronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hanni- 
 bal's intrigues enabled the Carthaginian party to keep the upper 
 hand, by contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends 
 Hippocrates and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war 
 with Rome ; and the city, after a long siege, celebrated by the 
 inventions of Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212. — The his-
 
 PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 141 
 
 tory of Syracuse is a practical compendium of politics : what Second 
 other state ever underwent so many and such various revolu- Period. 
 tions ? 
 
 The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by 
 partiality. For the topograph)^, see JBaktel's Letters from 
 Caluhr'm and Sic/h/, vol. iii. with a plan. 
 
 f A. Arnold, Historjf of Si/racuse from its foundation to the 
 overthrow of liberty by Dionysius. Gotha, 1816. 
 
 MiPFOKD, History of Greece: the fourth volume contains the 
 history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It 
 would seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in 
 an impartial .«pirit. 
 
 b. Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first 
 city of Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the 
 rival. Its first constitution was that of the mother city ; that 
 is to say, Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its 
 foundation, under the dominion of tyrants ; the first of whom 
 noticed in history is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566 — 
 534. lie was succeeded by Alcmanes, 534 — 488, who was fol- 
 lowed by Alcander, an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the 
 Avcalth of Agrigentum seems to have already been considerable. 
 More renowned than the foregoing was Theron, the contempo- 
 rary and step-father of Gelon ; he ruled from B. C. 488 — 472 : 
 in conjunction with Gelon he routed the Carthaginian army, 
 480, and subjected Himera. His son and successor, Thrasy- 
 dajus, was beaten by Hiero and expelled, 470 ; whereupon the 
 Agi-igentincs, as allies of Syracuse, introduced a democracy. 
 Tlie period following, 470 — 405, is that in which Agrigentum, 
 blessed with political freedom, attained the highest degree of 
 public prosperity. She was one of the most opulent and lux- 
 urious cities in the world, and in the display of public monu- 
 ments one of the most magnificent. For her wealth she was 
 indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine that she carried on 
 with Africa and Gaul, in neither of which were those produc- 
 tions hitherto naturalized. In the year 446 the Agrigentines, 
 excited by envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but were defeated. 
 In the war with Athens they took no shai'e ; but in the Car- 
 thaginian invasion of Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was taken and 
 destroyed ; from this blow she recovered but slowly, and never 
 effectually. By Timoleon she was, in some measure, restored, 
 340 ; and under Agathocles, 307, was able to head the cities 
 combined against him, but was beaten. After the death of 
 Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took possession 
 of the sovereign power ; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas of 
 Syracuse. At the breaking out of tlie first Punic war, Agri- 
 gentum was used by the Carthaginians as a military depot ; but 
 was taken by the Romans as early as 262. 
 
 c. The fate of the other Sicilian cities was more or less de- 
 pendent on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse : they all had ori- 
 ginally republican forms of government ; but though the Ionian 
 colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas,
 
 142 GREEKS. [book m. 
 
 Second (probably about 660,) tbey had the same fortune with the rest, 
 Period, (^f being frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among 
 their own citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to 
 drive out the old inhabitants, and introduce a new population 
 more devoted to their interest : hence must have sprung mani- 
 fold wars. The foregoing history shows how grievously tiiey 
 likewise suffered in the wars between S}Tacuse and Carthage. 
 Following the dates of their respective foundations, they may 
 be thus arranged : Zancle, (after 664, known by the name of 
 Messana,) the earliest, though of uncertain date ; Naxus, 736 
 Syracuse, Hybla, 735 ; Leontini, Catana, 730 ; Gela, 690 
 Acr«, B. C. 665 ; Casmenae, 645 ; Himera, 639 ; Selinus, 630 
 Agrigentum, 582. The dates of the rest cannot be ascertained 
 with any degree of accuracy. 
 
 3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we 
 meet with various insulated Grecian settlements ; in Sardinia, 
 the cities Garalis and Olbia: the date of their foundation un- 
 known ; in Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phocaeans 
 founded, 561 ; hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook 
 themselves in 541 ; and subsequently, after the naval engage- 
 ment with the Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to 
 Rhegium, others to Massilia, 536. 
 
 4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Pho- 
 caeans, who had been driven out of Corsica after the above-men- 
 tioned naval engagement, 536 ; or rather, there was on the same 
 site an old settlement which was now increased. Massilia ra- 
 pidly gi-ew in wealth and power. Our information respecting 
 the wars she waged on the sea against Carthage and the Etrus- 
 cans is but of a general kind. Her territory on the mainland, 
 although rich in wine and oil, was limited in extent ; she estab- 
 lished, nevertheless, several colonies along the shores of Spain 
 and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nicfea, and Olbia are the 
 best known. The trade of MassiUa was carried on partly by 
 sea, and partly by laud, through the interior of Gaul. The 
 constitution was a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was 
 in the hands of six hundred individuals ; the members of this 
 council were called timuchi, they held their places for life, were 
 obliged to be married men with families, and descended at least 
 to the third generation from citizens. At the head of this 
 council stood fifteen men, three of whom were chief magistrates. 
 As early as 218 Massilia was in alliance with Rome, under 
 whose fostering protection she grew in prosperity ; her freedom 
 was preserved to her until the war between Pompey and Cajsar ; 
 having sided with the former, she was stormed, 49, by Caesar's 
 army. She soon retrieved herself, and under the reign of Au- 
 gustus, Massilia was the seat of literature and philosophy, in 
 which public lectures were there given as at Athens. 
 
 Aug. Bruekner, Historia Reipublicce Massilietisium. Get- 
 ting. 1826. A prize essay. 
 
 0. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum, (Zakui'öoe,) a colony 
 from the island of Zacynthus ; the date of its foundation is un-
 
 PERIOD 11. 
 
 GREEKS. 143 
 
 determined. It became opulent by its commerce ; but at the Second 
 opening of tlie second Punic war, B. C. 219, was destroyed by Period. 
 Hannibal, as being an ally of Rome. 
 
 6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the sugges- 
 tion of the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The 
 constitution was at first monarchical. Kings : Battus I., the 
 founder, 631 — 591. In whose family the sceptre remained. 
 Arcesilaus I., d. 575. Under the reign of his successor, Battus 
 II., surnamed the happy, {d. 554,) the colony was much strength- 
 ened by new comers from Greece. The Libyans, bereaved of 
 their lands, seek for help at the hands of Apries, jvlio is de- 
 feated by the Cyrenajans, 570, and in consequence loses his 
 crown. — Arcesilaus II., d. 550. Rebellion of his brothers, and 
 foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by its own 
 separate kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put 
 to death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is 
 poisoned by Eryxo, the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus 
 III., surnamed the lame, {d. about 529,) succeeds to the throne. 
 The royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of 
 Demonax of Mantinea : the king retains nothing more than the 
 revenue and priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes 
 of his own accord tributary to the Persians ; in conjunction 
 with his mother, Pheretime, he seeks to re-establish the regal 
 supremacy, but is expelled ; nevertheless he regains possession 
 of Cyrene. In consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in 
 Barca, about 516. Pheretime seeks for help from the Persian 
 satrap of Egypt, Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of 
 Barca ; the inhabitants are carried away and translated into 
 Bactria, 512. Soon after Pheretime dies. It seems probable 
 that another Battus IV. and Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned 
 at Cyrene, to whom Pindai-'s fourth and fifth Pythian Odes are 
 addressed : their history, however, is veiled in obscurity. Cy- 
 rene then received a republican constitution, probably some 
 where about 450 ; but we are unacquainted with the internal 
 details of the government. Yet though Plato was invited by 
 the Cyrena^ans to give theni laws, and though they had for their 
 legislator Democles of Ai-cadia, they appear never to have been 
 blessed with a good and stable constitution. Not only is men- 
 tion often made of domestic troubles, as in 400, when amid the 
 uproar excited by Ariston most of the aristoci-atic party were 
 cut off; but we likewise frequently meet with tyrants. Con- 
 cerning the external affairs of this state we know nothing but a 
 few general facts relative to the border wars with Carthage. 
 Subsequently to Alexander, Cyrene became a part of the Egyp- 
 tian kingdom ; so early as the reign of Ptolemy I. it was added 
 to that realm by his general Ophelias, about B. C. 331. It now 
 continued to receive various rulers from the family of the Pto- 
 lemies (see below) until the reign of Ptolemy Physcon, when it 
 became a separate state, the bastard son of that prince, Apion 
 by name, having made it over to tlie Romans, 97. Cyrene pos- 
 sessed a considerable share of trade, consisting partly in the
 
 144 GREEKS. [läOOK III. 
 
 Second exportation of country produce, more especially the »Silphium, 
 Period. (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse with Carthage, Ammo- 
 
 niuin, and thence with the interior of Africa. The former 
 
 splendour and im[)ortance of this city and the neighbouring 
 country are testified by an abundance of most noble ruins ; a 
 more accurate research into which every friend of antiquity 
 must desire. 
 
 IIaudion, Histoire de Gyrene, in 3Iem. de V Academie des 
 Inscriptions, t. iii. 
 
 J. V. Thrige, Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita 
 tirbs est, u^que ad mtatem, qua in provincia; foj-mam a Romanis 
 redacta est : particida prior, de initiis colonice Cyrencn deductce, 
 et Cyrenes Battiadis regnantibus historia. Havnia?, 1819. 
 The best work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not 
 disappoint our expectations of the second part, which is to 
 contain the period of republican government. [The whole 
 was completed in 1828. The learned and ingenious author has 
 neglected no authority, whether ancient or modern, and is par- 
 ticularly cautious and judicious in his researches.] 
 
 A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on 
 the remains still found in Cyrenaica by Della Cella, Viaggio 
 di Tripoli ; translated by Spieker, in the f Journal of the latest 
 travels by sea and by land, Sept. 1820. 
 
 W. Beeciiey, Proceedings to explore the northern coast of 
 Africa, from Tripoli eastward, 1827. 
 
 F. R. Pacho, Relation d' un voyage a 3Iarmarique et Cyre- 
 naique, 1828. A most accurate description. 
 
 T. Ehrenberg, Travels through North Africa, in the years 
 1820—1828, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G. Ehren- 
 berg. BerUn, 1828. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time 
 of Alexander the Great, B. C. 500—336. 
 
 Sources. The chief writers in this period are : For the his- 
 tory of the Persian wars to the Battle of Plata^fe, 479, Hero- 
 dotus. For the pei'iod between 479 and the breaking out of 
 the Peloponnesian war, we must, in the absence of contemporary 
 authors, consider Diodorus Siculus as the principal authority. — 
 The beginning of the 11th book, which commences with the 
 year 480, (the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th books being lost,) to 
 the middle of the 12th ; the chronology of this author, however, 
 must in several cases be rectified after Thucydides's summary 
 in lib. i. For the period of the Peloponnesian war, 431 — 410, 
 the history of Thucydides is the capital work ; but it must be
 
 TO Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 PERIOD in.] GREEKS. 145 
 
 accompanied by Diodorus, from the middle of the 12th book to Third 
 the middle of the 13th. — From the year 410 to the battle of Period 
 ]\Iantinea, 362, the principal sources are the Hellenics of Xeno- 
 phon, and occasionally his Anabasis and Agesilaus ; together 
 with Diodorus, from the middle of the 13th book to the end of 
 the 15th. For the years intervening from 362 — 336, no con- 
 temporary historian has been preserved ; Diodorus's 16th book 
 must therefore here be considered as the chief source : for the 
 times of Philip, however, recourse may likewise be had to tlie 
 speeches of Demosthenes and ^schines. The Lives of Plutarch 
 and Nepos often touch upon this period, but cannot be regarded 
 as authentic sources ; of still less authority are the abridged 
 documents given by Justin and some others. 
 
 The modern authors on this, the briUiant period of Greece, 
 are, of course, the same as have been enumerated above. (See 
 p. 95.) To whom must here be added, 
 
 Potter, ArchcBlogia Grceca ; or the Antiquities of Greece : 
 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J, 
 Rambach, 3 vols. 1775. 
 
 Bartiielejiy, Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece. (Be- 
 tween the years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Ac- 
 companied with charts and plans, illustrating the topography of 
 Athens, etc. This work is conspicuous for a rare union of good 
 taste and erudition ; unattended, howevei", with an equal share 
 of critical acumen and a correct appreciation of antiquity. 
 
 f History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in 
 Greece and Rome, by C. Me:ners. Gcittingen, 1781. It con- 
 tains also a delineation of the political state of affairs ; but does 
 not extend beyond the age of Philip. 
 
 The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are, 
 
 Le Roy, Les Ruines dc plus beaux Monumens de la Grece. 
 Paris, 1758. 2nd edit., 1770, fol. The first in point of time; 
 but far surpassed by, 
 
 J. Stuart, The Antiquities of Athens measured and de- 
 lineated ; 3 vols. Lond. 1762 : the 4th vol. published in 1816. 
 In beauty and accuracy of execution superior to all. 
 
 R. Dalton, Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt, 
 1691, fol. The Egyptian monuments are confined to those of 
 Lower Egypt. 
 
 R. CiiAJVDLER, Ionian Antiquities. London, 1796, 1797, 
 2 vols. fol. A worthy companion to Stuart. 
 
 Choiseui, Gouffier, Voyage pittoresque dans la Grece, vol. 
 i. 1779: vol. ii. 1809. Confined pi'incipally to the islands and 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 1. From a multitude of small states, never united, Bcneikiai 
 but continually distracted bv civil broils — and such "i^"^"^ "f 
 
 1 1 • • (^ 1 ■ -1 , the Persian 
 
 at the begmnmg of this period were the states ot invasion. 
 Greece — any thing important could hardly be ex- 
 pected without the occurrence of some external 
 
 L
 
 146 GREEKS. [book iii. 
 
 Tiiinn event, wliicli, by rallying the divided forces round 
 toTlTx- one point, and directing them toward one object, 
 
 ANDER, should hinder them from mutually exhausting one 
 another. It was the hostile attempt of Persia that 
 first laid the foundation of the future splendour of 
 Greece ; certain states then grew so rapidly in power, 
 that upon their particular history hinges the general 
 history of all the rest. 
 
 Causes which led to the Persian war. Share taken by Athens 
 in the Ionian insurrection and firing of Sardes, B. C. 500. (See 
 above, p. 78.) Litrigues of Hippias, first with the satraps, and 
 afterwards at the Persian court itself. — First expedition, that 
 of Mardonius, thwarted by a storm, 493. 
 
 Athens ;md o. Not evcu the summous to acknowledge the 
 
 aionn^eject Pcrsiau authority was sufficient to rouse the national 
 
 the de- energy of the Greeks. All the islands, and most of 
 
 Persia" thc statcs ou the mainland, submitted to the yoke; 
 
 B. c. 491. gparta and Athens alone boldly rejected it. The 
 
 Athenians, unassisted, under their leader Miltiades, 
 
 acquainted from his youth with the Persians and 
 
 their mode of warfare, and with the superiority of 
 
 the arms of his countrymen, became the saviours of 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Quarrel of Athens and Sparta with -^gina, which sides with 
 the Persians, 491 ; and consequent deposition of Demaratus, 
 king of Sparta, by his colleague Cleomenes. 
 
 Persian expedition of Datis and Artaphernes under the guid- 
 ance of Hippias : frustrated by the battle of Marathon, B. C. 
 Sept. 29, 490, and the failure of an attempt upon Athens. 
 
 Expedition 3. The immediate consequence of this victory 
 ros'by MU- ^^^^ ^ naval expedition against the islands, more 
 tiades. particularly Paros, to which Miltiades, out of a 
 private grudge, persuaded the Athenians. It was 
 undertaken for the purpose of levying contributions ; 
 and seems to have given the Athenians the first idea 
 of their subsequent dominion of the sea. The Athe- 
 nians punished Miltiades for the failure of this expe- 
 dition, although the effect of their own folly ; yet was 
 this act of injustice a source of happiness to Athens ; 
 as the fall of Miltiades made room for the men who 
 laid the solid foundation of her glory and greatness.
 
 PERIOD in.] GREEKS. 147 
 
 4. As usual in every democratic state rising to Third 
 power, the history of Athens now becomes tliat of to'alex- 
 eminent individuals, standing at the head of affairs, ander. 
 as generals or demagogues. Themistocles, who united 7iiternai ^ 
 to an astonishing degree in his own person the most state of 
 splendid talents of statesman and general, with a ^^'^"'^' 
 spirit of intrigue, and even of egotism ; and Aristides, 
 
 whose disinterestedness, even in those da3'S, was 
 singular at Athens, were the real founders of the 
 power of tliis commonwealth. Athens, hov/ever, 
 was more indebted to the first than to the latter. 
 
 Rivalry of these two men, 490 — 486. While Themistocles 
 at the head of the Athenian fleet prosecutes the design of Mil- 
 tiades against the islands, the management of state affairs is 
 confided to Aristides. On the return, however, of Themistocles 
 as conqueror, Aristides is by ostracism banished Athens, 486. 
 Themistocles alone, at the head of affairs, pursues his plan for 
 making Athens a maritime power. In consequence of a war 
 against the object of popular hatred, ^gina, B. C. 484, he pre- 
 vails on the Athenians to devote the income from the mines to 
 tlie formation of a navy. While Athens is thus rising to power, 
 Sparta suffers from the insanity of one of her kings, Cleomenes, 
 (succeeded in 482 by his half brother Leonidas,) and the arro- 
 gance of the other, Leotychides. 
 
 5. The glory of frustrating the second mighty Second cx- 
 Persian invasion of Greece under Xerxes I., belongs fhe rer-°^ 
 to Themistocles alone. Not only his great naval vie- si^ns de- 
 tory off Salamis, but still more the manner in which Themisn,- 
 he contrived to work upon his countrymen, proves '^•'^^^ ^- c. 
 him to have been the greatest man of the age, and 
 
 the deliverer of Greece, now united by one common 
 bond of interest. — All national leagues are weak in 
 themselves : yet how strong may even the weakest be 
 made when held together by one great man, who 
 knows how to animate it vvith his own spirit ! 
 
 Themistocles' ])lan for the conduct of the war ; first, a com- 
 mon union of all the Hellenic states ; a measure wliich succeeds 
 to a certain degree, tlie lionour of the command being left to the 
 Spartans ; s(!condly, the sea made the theatre of war. — Gallant 
 death of Leonidas with his three hundred Spartans and seven 
 hundred Thespians, July 6, 480. An example of heroism whicli 
 contributes as much to the greatness of Greece as the victory of 
 Salamis. About the same time naval engagements off Artemi- 
 sium in Eubcea, with two hundred and seventy-one sail. The 
 
 L 2
 
 148 GREEKS. [nooK in. 
 
 TuiRD leaders of the Greeks are kept to their posts merely by bribery ; 
 ruiunn, ^jjg nieans of purchasing their services being for tiie most part 
 ANDEii." furnished by Theniistocdes liiinself. — Athens, deserted by its 
 
 inliabitants, is taken and burnt by Xerxes, July 20. Retreat 
 
 of the Grecian fleet into the bay of Salamis : revocation of all 
 exiles, Aristides among the rest. — Politic measures adopted by 
 Themistoclcs, to hinder the dispirited Greeks from taking flight, 
 and at the same time to secure to himself, in case of need, an 
 asylum with the Persian monarch. — Naval engagement and vic- 
 tory off Salamis, Sept. 23, 480, -with three hundred and eighty 
 sail, (one hundred and eighty of which were Athenian,) against 
 the Persian fleet, alreaily much weakened : retreat of Xerxes. — 
 Poets and historians have disfigured these events by fanciful 
 exaggerations : still, however, they may show us how commonly 
 human weakness is attended with human greatness ! 
 
 Battles of 6. The victoiy of Salamis did not conclude the 
 piatJEce and ^^ . ^^ ^j^g neo'otiations entered into durino; the 
 B."c. Sept. winter months with tlie Pei'sian general, Maixlonius, 
 io, 4/y. jg£^ -^ Thessaly, and with the Asiatic Greeks, to ex- 
 cite them to throw off the yoke, show how far the 
 confidence of the nation in its own strength had in- 
 creased. But by the battle fought on land at Pla- 
 tsese, under the command of the Spartan, Pausanias, 
 (guardian to Plistarchus, son of Leonidas,) and the 
 Athenian, Aristides ; together with the naval battle 
 at Mycale on the same day, and the destruction of 
 the Persian fleet ; the Persians are for ever driven 
 from the territory of Greece, though the war con- 
 tinues for some time longer. 
 Sparta has 7_ f\iQ expulsiou of the Persians wrought an en- 
 encyto47o" tirc chaugc in the internal and external relations of 
 Greece. From beino- the ao-o-ressed the Greeks be- 
 came the aggressors ; to free their Asiatic country- 
 men is now the chief object or pretext for the con- 
 tinuation of a war so profitable ; the chief command 
 of which abides with Sparta until B. C. 470. 
 
 Athens rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles despite of Spar- 
 tan jealousy, 478 : formation of the Pira?us, an event of still 
 greater importance, 477. — Xaval expedition under Pausanias, 
 accompanied by Aristides and Cimon, undertaken against Cy- 
 prus and Byzantium, for the purpose of expelling the Persians, 
 470. Treachery and fall of Pausanias, 469. In consequence 
 of the Spartan's haughtiness, the siipreme command devolves 
 upon the Athenians.
 
 PERIOD III.] GREEKS. 149 
 
 8. This transfer of the command to Athens had a Third 
 decided effect on all the subsequent relations of to'alex 
 Greece, not only because it augmented the jealousy ander. 
 between Sparta and Athens, but because Athens ex- 7.^^ 
 
 1^ . ,' . _ Athens as- 
 
 ercised her predommance tor a purpose entirely dif- sumes the 
 ferent from that of Sparta. — Establishment of a per- man.u'" 
 manent confederacy, comprising- most of the Grecian 
 states without Peloponnesus, especially the islands, 
 and an adjustment of the contributions to be annually 
 furnished by each, with the view of prosecuting the 
 Persian war, and liberating the Asiatic Greeks from 
 the Persian yoke. Although the common treasury 
 was first established at Delos, the superintendence of 
 it was confided to Athens ; and such a manager as 
 Aristides was not always to be found. — Natural con- 
 sequence of this new establishment : 1. What had 
 hitherto been mere military precedence, becomes in 
 the hands of Athens a right of political prescription, 
 and that, as usual, is soon converted into a sove- 
 reignty. Hence her idea of the supremacy of Greece, 
 (cipxy r?i9 'EWacos,) as conuectcd with that of the sea 
 (OaXaffffoKpuTi'ay 2. The oppression of the Athenians, 
 sometimes real, at other times presumed, after a short 
 time, rouses the spirit of discontent and contumacy 
 among several of the confederates : hence, 3. The 
 gradual formation of a counter-league, headed by 
 Sparta, who maintains her supremacy over the great- 
 est part of the Peloponnesus. 
 
 9. The changes introduced into the internal organ- conse- 
 i/ation are not to be determined solely by the palj)able ||j-7iriT 
 alterations made in any of L3?curgus's or Solon's in- change. 
 stitutions. In Sparta, the general framework of Ly- 
 curgus's constitution subsisted; nevertheless the power 
 
 was virtually in the hands of the ephori, whose dicta- 
 torial sway placed Sparta in tlie formidable posture 
 she now assumed. — At Athens, in proportion as the 
 importance of foreign relations increased, and amid 
 the protracted struggles between the heads of the 
 democratic and aristocratic parties, the real power, 
 under the outward aj)p(^arance of a democracy, gra- 
 dually centered in the hands of the ten annually
 
 150 GREEKS. [i:ooK iii. 
 
 Tiiiitn elected generals, (fni>mrj-{ol,) who with more or less 
 TO Alex- effcct played the parts of" demagogues. 
 
 ANDER. 
 
 Abrogation of the law that excluded the poorer citizens from 
 
 ofRcial situations, B. C. 478. 
 
 Expulsion of Theinistocles, implicated in the fall of Pausa- 
 nias, principally through the intrigues of Sparta : he is first 
 banished by ostracism, 469, but in consequence of further per- 
 secution he flies over to the Persians, 466. 
 
 Brilliant 10. Tlic following forty years, from 470 — 430, 
 
 At'hens'^^ Constitute the flourishing period of Athens. A con- 
 currence of fortimate circumstances happening among 
 a people of the highest abilities and promoted by 
 great men, produced here phenomena, such as have 
 never since been witnessed. Political greatness was 
 the fundamental principle of the commonwealth ; 
 Athens had been the guardian and the champion of 
 Greece, and she wished to appear worthy of herself 
 Hence in Athens alone were men acquainted with 
 public splendour exhibited in buildings, in spectacles, 
 and festivals, the acquisition of which was facilitated 
 by private frugality. This public spirit animating 
 every citizen, expanded the blossoms of genius ; no 
 broad line of distinction was anxiously drawn between 
 private and public life ; whatever great, whatever 
 noble was produced by Athens, sprang up verdant 
 and robust out of this harmony, this buxom vigour 
 of the state. Far different was the case with Sparta; 
 there rude customs and laws arrested the develop- 
 ment of genius : there men were taught to die for 
 the land of their forefathers ; while at Athens they 
 learnt to live for it. 
 Athenian H. Agnculturc coutinucd the principal occupa- 
 
 tion of the citizens of Attica ; other employments 
 were left to the care of slaves. Commerce and navi- 
 gation were mainly directed towards the Thracian 
 coast and the Black Sea ; the spirit of trade, however, 
 was never the prevailing one. As affairs of state be- 
 came more attractive, and men desired to participate 
 in them, the want of intellectual education began to 
 be felt, and sophists and rhetoricians soon offered 
 their instruction. Mental expertness was more co- 
 
 civilization.
 
 PEiiiOD III.] GREEKS. 151 
 
 veted than mental knowledge ; men wished to learn Third 
 how to tliuik and to speak. A poetical education to'alex- 
 had long preceded the rise of this national desire ; a>^per. 
 poesy now lost nothing of" its value ; as heretofore, 
 Homer remained the corner-stone of intellectual im- 
 provement. Could it be that such blossoms would 
 produce other fruits than those which ripened in the 
 school of Socrates, in the masterpieces of the trage- 
 dians and orators, and in the immortal works of Plato? 
 
 12. These flowers of national genius burst forth changes in 
 in spite of many evils, inseparable from such a con- a^'jifj' hrad 
 stitution established among such a people. Great otatfuirs. 
 men were pushed aside ; others took their places. 
 
 The loss of Themistocles was supplied by Miltiades's 
 son Cimon ; who to purer politics united equal ta- 
 lents. He protracted the war against the Persians 
 in order to maintain the union of the Greeks ; and 
 favoured the aristocratic party at the same time that 
 he affected popularity. Even his enemies learnt by 
 experience, that the state could not dispense with a 
 leader who seemed to have entered into a compact 
 for life with victory. 
 
 Another expedition under Cimon ; and victory by sea and 
 land near the Euryniedon, B. C. 469. He takes possession of 
 the Hellespontine Chersonesus, 468. Some of the Athenian 
 confederates ah-eady endeavour to secede. Hence, 467, the 
 conquest of Caristus in Euba?a ; subjection of Naxos, 466, and 
 from 465 — 463, siege and capture of Thasos, under Cimon. 
 The Athenians endeavour to obtain a firmer footing on the 
 shore of Macedonia ; and for that purpose send out a colony to 
 Amphipolis, 465. 
 
 Great earthquake at Sparta ; gives rise to a ten years' war, 
 viz., the third ^lessenian war, or revolt of tlie Helots, who for- 
 tify themselves in Ithome, 465 — 455 : in this war tlie Athenians, 
 at the instigation of Cimon, send assistance to the Spartans, 461, 
 who refuse the proffered aid. The democratic party seize the 
 opportunity of casting on Cimon the suspicion of being in tlie 
 interest of Sparta ; he is bani.'^hed by ostracism, 461. 
 
 13. The death of Aristides, and the banishment of A' 'stides 
 Cimon, concur in elevating Pericles to the head of 4677 
 afiairs ; a statesman whose influence had begun to 
 operate as early as 469. Less a general than a de- 
 magogue, he supported himself in authority during
 
 152 GREEKS. [aoüK in. 
 
 Tainn fo,-ty years, Until the clay of his death, and swayed 
 to'aiTx- Athens without being either archon or member of the 
 ANDEu. Areopagus. That under him the constitution must 
 have assumed a more democratic character, is de- 
 monstrated by the fact of his exaltation as leader of 
 the democratic party. The aristocrats, however, con- 
 trive until 444 to set up rivals against hmi in the 
 persons of the military leaders, Myronides, Tolmidas, 
 and more particularly the elder Thucydides. 
 
 Change in the spirit of administration under Pericles, both 
 in reference to internal and external relations. A brilliant 
 management succeeds to the parsimonious economy of Aris- 
 tides ; and yet, after the lapse of thirty years, the state treasury 
 was full. — Limitation of the power of the Areopagus by Ephi- 
 altes, B. C. 461. The withdrawal of various causes which 
 formerly came under the jurisdiction of that tribunal must have 
 diminished its right of moral censorship. — Introduction of tlie 
 practice of paying pei'sons who attended the courts of justice. 
 
 With regard to external relations, the precedence of the 
 Athenians gradually advanced toward supremacy ; although 
 their relations with all the confederates were not precisely the 
 same. Some were mere confederates ; others were subjects. — 
 Augmentation in the imposts on the confederates, and transfer 
 of the treasury from Delos to Athens, 461. The jealousy of 
 Sparta and the discontent of the confederates keep pace with 
 the greatness of Athens. 
 
 Unsuccessful attempt to support, by the help of an Athenian 
 fleet and troops, Inarus of Egypt in his insurrection against the 
 Persians, 462—458. 
 
 Wars in Greece : the Spartans instigate Corinth and Epi- 
 daurus against Athens. The Athenians, at first defeated near 
 Halia;, in their turn rout the enemy, 458, and then carry the 
 war against iEgina, which is subdued, 457. In the new quar- 
 rel between Corinth and Megara respecting their boundaries, 
 the Athenians side ^vith Megara ; Myronides conquers at Ci- 
 molia, 457. Expedition of the Spartans to the support of the 
 Dorians against Phocis ; and hence arises the first rupture be- 
 tween Athens, Sparta, and Boeotia. First battle of Tanagra, 
 in which the Spartans are victorious in the same year, 457. 
 The Boeotians, incited by the Spartans, are in the second battle 
 of Tanagra worsted by Myronides, 456. The i-ecall of Cimon, 
 at the suggestion of Pericles himself, in consequence of the first 
 defeat. 
 
 Cimon re 14. Cimou, recalled from exile, endeavours to re- 
 
 ^'°"^' ■ establish the domestic tranquillity of Greece, and at 
 
 the same time to renew the war aoainst the Persians.
 
 PEllIOD in. 
 
 GREEKS. 153 
 
 He succeeds in his attempt after the lapse of five Third 
 years; and the consequence is a victorious expedi- xoAlex- 
 tion against the Persians. He defeats their fleet off" ander. 
 Cyprus, and routs their army on the Asiatic coast, g q 450. 
 The fruit of this victory is the celebrated peace with 449. 
 Artaxerxes I. (See above, p. 83.) Ere that peace 
 is concluded Cimon dies, too soon for his country, 
 v\^hile occupied with the siege of Citium. 
 
 Termination of the third Messenian war in favour of Sparta, 
 by the cession of Ithome, B. C. 455. Meantime Athens con- 
 tinues the war with Peloponnesus ; Tolmidas and Pericles 
 making an incursion b}^ sea on the enemy's territory, 455 — 454. 
 At the same time Pericles, by sending out colonies to the Plel- 
 lespont, endeavours to secure more firndy the Athenian power in 
 that quarter : a colony is likewise sent out to Naxos, 453. — 
 Cimon negotiates a truce, which is adopted first (451) tacitly, 
 afterwards formally, (450,) for five years. The result of this 
 truce is his victorious expedition against the Persians, and the 
 consequent peace with that nation. Although the conditions of 
 the peace prescribed by Cimon were sometimes infringed, they 
 appear to have been ratified by all parties. 
 
 15. The conclusion of peace with Persia, glorious state of 
 as it was, and the death of the man whose «"rand po- Greeceafier 
 liticai object was to preserve union among the ureeks, with Persia, 
 again roused the spirit of internal strife. For not- 431. 
 withstanding nearly twenty years intervened before 
 the tempest burst with all its fury, this period was so 
 turbulent during its course, that Greece seldom en- 
 joyed universal peace. While Athens by her naval 
 strength was maintaining her ascendency over the 
 confederates, and while some of those confederates 
 were raising the standard of rebellion and passing over 
 to Sparta, every thing was gradually combining to- 
 wards the formation of a counter-league, the neces- 
 sary consequence of which must have been a war, 
 such as the Peloponnesian. Up to this time Athens 
 was at the height of her power ; she was governed by 
 Pericles, who, in every thing but the name, ^vas sole 
 ruler during this period, and for that reason she expe- 
 rienced few of the evils resultino- from a democratic 
 constitution. Who, indeed, could overthrow a de- 
 magogue whose presence of mind, even in the great-
 
 154 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Third gst goocl fortune, iiever once deserted him ; who 
 TO Alex- kncw how to keep ahve among his fellow-citizens the 
 ANDER, conviction that, however exalted they might be, it 
 was to him alone they were indebted for it? 
 
 Diirinji; the five years' truce the sacred Avar for the possession 
 of the Dc^lphian oracle took i)lace, and it is given by the Spartans 
 to the city of Delphi ; but after their return is given back again 
 by the Athenians to the Phocians, B. C. 448. The Athenians 
 commanded by Tolmidas, are defeated by the Bceotians, 447. 
 This expedition, undertaken in opposition to the advice of Pe- 
 ricles, contributes to increase his influence ; particularly as he 
 reduces to obedience the revolted Euboea and INIegara, 446. 
 End of the five years' truce with Sparta ; and renewal of hos- 
 tilities, 445 ; further warlike pi'oceedings are repressed by a 
 new thirty years' peace, which lasts, however, only fourteen 
 years. — Complete suppression of the aristocratic party, by the 
 banishment of the elder Thucydides, 444 ; the whole adminis- 
 tration of the state consequently centres in the hands of Pericles. 
 — Democracy in the confederate states favoured ; forcibly in- 
 troduced in Samos, which, after a nine months' siege, is obliged 
 to submit to Pericles, 440. — Commencement of the war between 
 Corinth and Corcyra, on the subject of Epidamnus, 436, which 
 the Corcyrteans take possession of after Avinning a naval victory, 
 435. The Athenians take part in the quarrel, and side with 
 the Corcyroeans, 432. The rupture AAäth Corinth, and the 
 policy of Perdiccas II., king of Macedonia, lead to the se- 
 cession of the Corinthian colony of Potidiea, which previously 
 belonged to the Athenian confederacy: the war thereby is ex- 
 tended to the INIacedonian coast. Engagement near Potidaea, 
 and siege of that town, 432. The Corinthians direct their 
 steps to Sparta, and excite the Spartans to war ; which is fur- 
 ther accelerated by the attack of the Thebans upon Plataeae, the 
 confederate of Athens, 431. 
 
 Peioponiie- 16. The history of the twenty-seven years' war, 
 
 b! c!^43i knoAvn by the name of the Peloponnesian, or great 
 
 —404. Grecian war, which swept away the fairest flowers of 
 
 Greece, is the more deserving attention from its 
 
 being not merely a struggle between nations, but 
 
 likewise against certain forms of government. The 
 
 policy of Athens, which, to establish or preserve her 
 
 influence in foreign states, excited the multitude 
 
 against the higher orders, had on all sides given rise 
 
 to two factions, the democrat or Athenian, and the 
 
 aristocrat or Spartan ; and the mutual bitterness of 
 
 party spirit produced the most violent disorders. 
 
 influence of 17. The rcspcctivc relations of the tAvo head
 
 PERIOD 111.] GREEKS. 155 
 
 states of Greece to their confederates, were at this Third 
 time of a very opposite nature. Athens, as a naval to^alex- 
 power, was mistress of most of the islands and mari- ander. 
 time cities, which, as tributary confederates, rendered Athens and 
 for the most part a forced obedience. Sparta, as a Sparta. 
 land power, was allied with most of the states on the 
 continent, which had joined her side of their own ac- 
 cord, and were not subject to tribute. Sparta there- 
 fore presented herself as the deliverer of Greece irom 
 the Athenian yoke. 
 
 Confederates of the Atheniuns : the ishxnds Chios, Samos, 
 Lesbos, all those of the Archipelago, (Thera and Melos except- 
 ed, which stood neutral.) Corcyra, Zacynthus ; the Grecian co- 
 lonies in Asia Minor, and on the coast of Thrace and ]\Iace- 
 donia ; in Greece itself, the cities of Naupactus, Platcete, and 
 those of Acarnania. — Confederates of the Spartans : all the Pe- 
 loponnesians, (Argos and Achaia excepted, which stood neutral,) 
 Megara, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, the cities of Ambracia and 
 Anactoriura, and the island of Leucas. 
 
 18. Sketch of the internal state of Athens and internal 
 Sparta at this period. The power of Athens depend- Athens and 
 ed mainly on the state of her finances ; without which Spaita. 
 she could not support a fleet, and without a fleet her 
 ascendency over the confederates would of course 
 fall to the ground. And although Pericles, notwith- 
 standing his lavish public expenditure, was able to 
 enter upon the war with 6000 talents in the trea- 
 sury, experience could not fail to show that, in such 
 a democratic state as Athens was now become under 
 Pericles, the squandering of the public money was 
 an unavoidable evil. This evil was produced, how- 
 ever, at Athens much less by the peculations of indi- 
 vidual state officers than by the demands of tlie 
 multitude, who for the most part lived at tlie expense 
 of the state treasury. On the other hand, Sparta as 
 yet had no finance ; and only began to feel tlie want 
 of it as she began to acquire a naval power, and 
 entered upon undertakings more vast than mere 
 incursions. 
 
 Financial system of the Athenians. Kevenue : 1. The tri- 
 bute paid by the confederates ((püpoi) increased by Pericles from 
 four hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income 
 from the customs, (which were farmed,) and from the mines at
 
 TO Alkx 
 ANDER 
 
 156 GREEKS. [cook hi. 
 
 Tiiiiii) Laurium. 3. The caution money of the non-citizens (jjiToi- 
 I'EnioD, ^-f^t). 4. The taxes on the citizens, (tlrrfopal,) which fell ahnost 
 entirely on the rich, more particnlarly on the first class, the 
 members of which were not only to bear the burden of fitting 
 out the fleet, {rpupap^icu,) but were likewise to furnish means 
 for tlie public festivals and spectacles (x^prj-yiai). Tlie wliole 
 income of the republic at this time was estimated at 2000 
 talents. But the disbursements made to the numerous assistants 
 at the courts of justice, (the principal means of existence with 
 the poorer citizens, and which, more than any thing else, con- 
 tributed to the licentiousness of the democracy and the oppres- 
 sion of the confederates, whose causes w^ere all brought to 
 Athens for adjudication,) together with the expenditure for 
 festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed the greatest 
 part of the revenue. 
 
 ■j" F. BoEKH, Public Economy of the Athenians, 2 parts. 
 Berlin, 1816. The chief work on the subject. [Ably trans- 
 lated by J. C. Leavis, Esq., of Christ Church in this university.] 
 
 Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an 
 Agent of the king of Persia residing at Athens during the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. London, 1798, 2 vols. 4to. The production 
 of several young authors ; first printed, but not published, in 
 1741. This sketch comprises, not only Greece, but likewise 
 Persia and Egypt. 
 
 Fi ist period ]9_ First periocl of the war until the fifty years' 
 
 ot the war, -r» ■ • c i r l i 'a ll 
 
 B.C. 431— peace. Beginning ot the war unsuccessiul to Athens, 
 '*^^- during the first three years, under the conduct of 
 
 Pericles, in whose defensive plan we may perhaps 
 discern the infirmities of age. The Athenians, how- 
 ever, suffered less from the annual inroads of the 
 Spartans than from the plague, to which Pericles 
 429. himself at last fell a victim. The alliance of the 
 Athenians with the kings of Thrace and Macedonia 
 extended the theatre of war ; on the other hand, 
 4^0. Sparta had already conceived the idea of an alliance 
 with Persia. 
 Conse- 20. The death of Pericles was, for the next seven 
 
 quence of years, durino' which the place of that o-reat man was 
 
 the death or * ^ •*- , ^ 
 
 Pericles. Supplied by Cleon, a currier, followed by all the 
 evils of an uncurbed democracy. The atrocious de- 
 427. crees with respect to Mitylene, which, after seceding, 
 had been recaptured, and the insurrection of the 
 Corcyreean populace against the rich, characterized 
 the party spirit then dominant in Greece better than 
 the few insignificant events of a war conducted with-
 
 PERIOD III.] GREEKS. 15' 
 
 out any plan. Sparta, however, found in young Tmnn 
 Brasidas a general, such as are wont to arise in re- xo alex- 
 volutionary times. His prosecution of the war on ander. 
 the Macedonian coast might have brought great 7^^^^ ~ 
 danger to Athens, had he so early not fallen a victim 422. 
 to his own gallantry. 
 
 Capture of Ampliipolis by Brasidas, and exile of Thucj didps, 
 424. Engagement near Ampliipolis between Brasidas and 
 Cleon ; and death of those two generals, 422. 
 
 21. The peace now concluded for fifty years could Peiice not 
 not be of long duration, as many of the confederates b,1"%2. 
 on either side were discontented with its terms. All Akibindps 
 hope of tranquillity must have been at an end when pfltt^iJ^^^^'^ 
 the management of Athenian affairs fell into the hands -I'-O- 
 
 of a youth like Alcibiades, in whom vanity and arti- 
 fice held the place of patriotism and talent, and who 
 thought war the only field in which he could gain 
 credit. Against him what availed the prudence of 
 Nicias ? — Happy was it for Athens that during the 
 whole of this period Sparta never produced one man 
 who could match even with Alcibiades ! 
 
 Attempt of some states, Corinth especially, to set Argos at 
 the head of a new confederacy ; this measure Athens likewise 
 favours, 421. — Violation of the peace, 419; the war indirect 
 until 41.5, and limited to assisting the confederates on either 
 side. — Alcibiades's plan of giving Athens tiie preponderance in 
 Peloponnesus, by an alliance with Argos, is defeated by the 
 battle of Mantinea, 417. — Exterminating war of the Athenians 
 waged against the Melians, who wish to preserve their neutral- 
 ity, whereas neutrality in the weaker party now becomes a 
 crime, 416. 
 
 22. Alcibiades's party brings forward at Athens rmject 
 the project of conquering Sicily, under the pretence "i'°""'*">- 
 of succouring the Segestani against the Syracusans. 
 
 This rash expedition, in which the hopes both of the 
 Athenians and of its instigator, Alcibiades, were 
 blighted, gave to Athens the first great blow, from 
 which she never after, even with the utmost exertion 
 of her strength, recovered ; especially as Sparta also 
 was now become a naval power". 
 
 Early interference of the Athenians witli the concerns of the 
 Sicilian Greeks. — A fleet and army under the command of Ni-
 
 158 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Third ciiis, Lamaclui.s, and Alcibiades, sent against Sicily, 415. — Ac- 
 Pkrioi), cusation, recall, and flight of Alcibiades to Sparta ; formal rup- 
 To Alex- ^^^^.^ ^^ ^j^^ peace by an inroad of the Spartans into Attica, 
 ' where they fortify Decelea, 414. Unsuccessful siege of Syra- 
 cuse, 414 ; and total anniliilation of the Athenian fleet and army 
 by the assistance of the Spartans under Gylippus, 413. 
 
 Ati.cMis af- 23. Fatal as in the present circumstances the blow 
 in'sicüy/' struck in Sicily must appear to have been to Athens, 
 yet the calamity was surmounted by Athenian en- 
 thusiasm, never greater than in times of misfortune. 
 They maintained their supremacy over the confeder- 
 ates ; but the part which Alcibiades, in consequence 
 of the new posture his own personal interest had as- 
 sumed at Sparta, took in their affairs, brought about 
 a twofold domestic revolution, which checked the 
 licentious democracy. 
 
 Alliance of the Spartans with the Persians, and indecisive 
 engagement off INIiletus. — Flight of Alcibiades from Sparta to 
 Tissaphernes ; his negotiations to gain the satrap over to the 
 interests of Athens. — Equivocal policy of Tissaphernes. — Ne- 
 gotiations of Alcibiades with the chiefs of the Athenian army 
 at Samos, and the consequent revolution at Athens, and over- 
 throw of the democracy by the appointment of the supreme 
 council of four hundred in place of the ßovXt), and of a com- 
 mittee of five thousand citizens in place of the popular assembly, 
 41 1. — The army assumes the right of debate ; names Alcibiades 
 to be its leader ; but declares again for democracy. — Great com- 
 motions at Athens in consequence of the discomfiture of the 
 fleet at Eretria, and the secession of Euboea. Deposition of the 
 college of four hundred, after a despotic rule of four months ; — 
 reformation of the government ; — transfer of the highest 
 power to the hands of the five thousand ; — recall of Alcibiades, 
 and reconciliation with the army. 
 
 BiiUiant 24. Brilliant period of Alcibades's command. The 
 
 lucibiades, rcitcratcd naval victories won by the Athenians over 
 the Spartans under Mindarus, who, mistrusting Tis- 
 saphernes, now forms an alliance with Pharnabazus, 
 satrap of the north of Asia Minor, oblige the Spar- 
 410. tans to propose peace, which haughty Athens, un- 
 luckily for herself, rejects. 
 
 Two naval engagements on the Hellespont, 411. — Great vic- 
 tory by sea and land won near Cyzicus, 410. — Confirmation of 
 the Athenian dominion over Ionia and Thrace by the capture 
 of Byzantium, 408. Alcibiades returns covered with glory ; 
 
 B. C. 411 
 
 -41Ü.
 
 PERIOD ni,] GREEKS. 159 
 
 but in the same year is deposed, and submits to a voluntary 'I'liinr, 
 exile, 407. Periop, 
 
 TO AlEX- 
 
 25. Arrival of the younger Cyrus in Asia Minor ; *^"'='*- 
 
 the shrewdness of Lysander wins him over to the Anai.asis of 
 Spartan interest. The repubhcan haughtiness of^^i'""' 
 Lysander s successor, Calhcratidas, shown to Cyrus, 40G. 
 was a serious error in pohcy ; for, unassisted by Per- 
 sian money, Sparta was not in a condition to pay her 
 mariners, nor consequently to support her naval 
 establishment. After the defeat and death of Calli- 4or.. 
 cratidas, the command is restored to Lysander, who 405—403. 
 terminates the twenty-seven years' war triumphantly 
 for Sparta. 
 
 Naval victory of Lysander over the Athenians at Notium, 
 407 ; in consequence of which Aleibiades is depi'ived of the 
 command. — Appointment of ten new leaders at Athens ; Conon 
 among the number. — Naval victory of Callicratidas at Mity- 
 lene ; Conon is shut up in the harbour of that place, 406. — 
 Great naval victory of the Athenians ; defeat and death of Cal- 
 licratidas at the iEginusste islands, near Lesbos, 406. — Unjust 
 condemnation of the Athenian generals. — Second command of 
 Lysander, and last decisive victory by sea over the Athenians 
 at ^Egospotamos on the Hellespont, Dec, 406. — The loss of the 
 sovereignty of the sea is accompanied by the defection of the 
 confederates, who are successively subjected by Lysander, 406. — 
 Athens is besieged by Lysander in the same year, 405 ; the 
 city surrenders in May, 404. — Athens is deprived of her walls ; 
 her navy is reduced to twelve sail ; and, in obedience to Ly- 
 sander's commands, the constitution is commuted into an oli- 
 garchy, under thirty rulers (tyrants). 
 
 26. Thus ended a war destructive in its moral, End of the 
 still more than in its political, consequences. Party reioponne- 
 
 ••11 111 (• I . . ,. "^ siau war. 
 
 spu'it had usurped tiie place or patriotic feeling ; as 
 national prejudice had that of national energy. 
 Athens being subdued, Sparta stood at the head of 
 confederate Greece ; but Greece very soon experi- 
 enced the yoke of her deliverers to be infinitely more 
 galling than that of the people hitherto called her 
 oppressors. What evils must not have ensued from 
 the revolutions Lysander now found it necessary to 
 effect in most of the Grecian states, in order to place 
 the helm of government in the hands of his own party 
 under the superintendence of a Spartan harmost ? —
 
 1()0 GREEKS [book hi. 
 
 Timu) IIow oppressive must not have been the mihtary 
 to^alex- rule of the numerous Spartan garrisons ! — Nor could 
 
 ANDER, any alleviation of tribute be hoped for, now that in 
 Sparta it was acknowledged that the " state must 
 possess an exchequer." — The arrogance and rapacity 
 of the new masteis were rendered more grievous by 
 their being more uncivilized and destitute. 
 
 History of the reign of terror at Athens under the thirty ty- 
 rants, 403. — What happened here must likewise have happened 
 more or less in the other Grecian cities, wliich Lysander found 
 it necessary to revolutionize. In all quarters his party consisted 
 of men similar to Critias and his colleagues, who appear to have 
 been long before united in clubs (eTaipeiai) intimately connected 
 with each other ; from which were now taken the most daring 
 revolutionists, in order to place them every where at the head 
 of affairs. 
 
 Expulsion 27. Happy revolution in Athens, and expulsion 
 lyraÜts.'""^' of the thirty tyrants by Thrasybulus, favoured by the 
 party at Sparta opposed to Lysander, and headed by 
 B. c. 403. King Pausanias. Restoration and reform of Solon's 
 constitution ; general amnesty. It was easy to re- 
 establish forms ; — to recall the departed spirit of the 
 nation was impossible ! 
 
 Ed. Ph. Hixrichs, De Theramenis, Critice et Thrasybuli, 
 virorum tempore belli Peloponnesiaci inter Grcecos illustriiini, 
 rebus et ingenio, Commentatio, Hamburgi, 1820. An inquiry 
 which exhibits much research and impartiality. 
 
 War of the Qg. The defeat of the younger Cyrus entangles 
 wiUi Persia, the Spartaus in a war with the Persians, the same 
 year that, after the death of King Agis, Agesilaus 
 takes possession of the regal dignity. We willingly 
 forget his usurpation as we follow him in his heroic 
 career. None but a man of genius could have in- 
 structed Sparta how to support for so long a time 
 the extravagant character which she had now under- 
 taken to play. 
 
 Opening of the war with Persia by Tissaphernes's attack on 
 the Äolian cities of Asia Minor, 400. — Command of Thimbron, 
 who, 398, is succeeded by the more successful and fortunate 
 Dercyllidas. — Availing himself of the jealousy between Tis- 
 saphernes and Ai'tabasus, he persuades the latter to a separate 
 truce, 397. — Command of Agesilaus ; his expedition into Asia, 
 from the spring of 396 until 394. The conviction which he 
 
 400
 
 PERIOD III.] GREEKS. 161 
 
 obtained of the domestic weakness of the Persian empire in the Third 
 successful invasion of Phrygia, 395, seems to have matured in 1'kriod, 
 the mind of Agesilaus the idea of overturning the Persian ^o^^ex- 
 
 throne : this design he vs^ould have accomplished had not the ' 
 
 Persians been politic enough to kindle a war against Sparta in 
 Greece itself. 
 
 29. The Corinthian war, waged against Sparta Corinthian 
 by Corinth, Thebes, and Argos, to which Athens '^'"■' ^^*- 
 and the Thessahans unite, terminated by the peace 
 
 of Antalcidas. The tyranny of Sparta, and more 387. 
 particularly the recent devastation of Elis, a sacred 
 territory, were the alleged pretexts ; but the bribes of 
 Timocrates, the Persian envoy, were the real causes 
 of this war. 
 
 Irruption of the Spartans into Boeotia ; they engage and are 
 routed at Haliartus, 394. Lysander falls on the field of battle ; 
 and Agesilaus is recalled out of Asia. His victory at Coronea 
 insures to the Spartans the preponderance by land ; but the dis- 
 comfiture of their navy near Cnidus at the same time, gives to 
 their enemies the sovereignty of the sea : Conon, who com- 
 manded the combined Persian and Athenian fleets, avails him- 
 self, with consummate skill, of this success to re-establish the in- 
 dependence of Athens, 393. — Sparta endeavours by apparently 
 great sacrifices to bring over the Persians to her interests : the 
 peace at last concluded by the efforts of the skilful Antalcidas, 
 (see above, Book II. parag. 42,) was I'cadily agreed to by the 
 Spartans, as they gave up only what otherwise they could not 
 have retained. The preponderance of Sparta on the continent . 
 of Greece was established by the article which invested them 
 vvith the power of seeing the conditions of the treaty fulfilled : 
 the stipulated freedom of the Grecian cities was but an ap- 
 parent disadvantage ; and now that the Asiatic colonies were 
 given up, the contest for power in Greece itself must be de- 
 cided by land, and not by sea. 
 
 30. The quarrels which, after the peace of An- b. c. 386. 
 talcidas, Sparta began to have with Mantinea and '^^'*' 
 Phlius, and still more so her participation in those 
 between the Macedo-Grcek cities and the overpower- 383—380. 
 ful Olynthus, prove too plainly the arrogance with 
 which Sparta behaved to the weaker states. But the 
 arbitrary appropriation of the citadel of Thebes by 
 Phoebidas, — an act not indeed commanded, yet ap- 
 proved by Sparta, — was attended with more serious 
 consequences than were at first expected. Would 382. 
 that all authors of similar breaches of good faith 
 
 M
 
 162 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [book III. 
 
 Third 
 
 I'EIHOI), 
 
 TO Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 Rivalry of 
 Sparta and 
 Tliebes. 
 
 and the law of nations were visited with the same 
 vengeance ! 
 
 31. Period of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes, 
 from the year 378, The greatness of Thebes was 
 the work of two men, who knew how to inspire their 
 fellow-citizens and confederates with their own heroic 
 spirit : with them Thebes rose, with them she fell. 
 Rarely does history exhibit such a duumvirate as that 
 of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. How high must our 
 estimation of Pythagoras be, even had his philosophy 
 formed but one such man as Epaminondas ! 
 
 Liberation of Thebes from Spartan rule by the successful at- 
 tempt of Pelopidas, and liis fellow-conspirators, 378. Vain at- 
 tempts against Thebes, by the Spartans under Cleombrotus, 378, 
 and Agesilaus, 377 and 376. The defensive war conducted by 
 Pelopidas, during which he established the Theban supremacy 
 in Boeotia, and brought over the Athenians, (whose fleet, 376, 
 beat that of the Spartans,) deserves our admiration more than 
 the winning of a battle. — The vast plans of Thebes were not 
 unfolded, however, till Epaminondas was at the head of affairs. 
 
 Seran de la Tour, Histoire d' Epaminondas. Paris, 1752. 
 
 f Meissner, Life of Epaminondas. Prague, 1801, 2 parts. 
 In which the authorities are duly considered. 
 
 f J. G. ScHEiBEL, Essays toioards a better understanding of 
 the Ancient World, 1809. The second part contains an essay 
 upon the history of Thebes, as the first does on that of Corinth. 
 
 General 32. A general peace is concluded in Greece 
 
 GreeM^me- through the mediation of the Persians, (who wish to 
 diated by obtain auxiliaries against the Egyptians,) under the 
 condition that all the Grecian cities shall be free : it 
 is acceded to by Sparta and Athens, but rejected by 
 Thebes, because she cannot admit the condition 
 without again falling under the Spartan yoke. In 
 372. fact, the lofty language used by Epaminondas, as en- 
 voy to Sparta, shows that it was problematic whether 
 Sparta or Thebes should now be at the head of Greece. 
 Could the idea, therefore, of a perfect equality be- 
 tween the states of Greece be other than chimerical ? 
 33. The long struggle maintained so gloriously by 
 Epaminondas against Sparta is remarkable both in a 
 political and military point of view. The power of 
 Sparta was abased ; Epaminondas invented a new 
 system of tactics (out of which soon after sprang the 
 
 Persia : 
 B. C. 374 
 
 Epamoni- 
 das: B. C. 
 371—362.
 
 PERIOD III.] GREEKS. 163 
 
 Macedonian art of war) ; and as soon as he found Third 
 confederates in Peloponnesus itself, he made his way xo a'lex- 
 to the very gates of Sparta. ander. 
 
 Victory won by the Thebans at Leuctra, July 8, 371, and 
 annihilation of what hitherto had been called the supremacy of 
 Sparta. — First irruption into Peloponnesus preceded by alliances 
 with Arcadia, Elis, and Argos. — The attack upon Sparta itself 
 is unsuccessful ; but the freedom of Messene is restored, 369. 
 
 34. Sparta in distress forms an alliance with sparta in 
 Athens, under the stipulation that the command shall ^'^'|jj^"'^'^ 
 alternately be in the hands of the two confederates ; Athens. 
 conditions, no doubt, humiliating" to Spartan pride ! 
 
 It however affords them the means of frustratino- 
 Epaminondas's new attempt on Corinth and the Pe- 
 loponnesus. Even Dionysius I. of Syracuse thinks 
 himself bound to assist the Spartans, as being Dorians. 
 
 35. Thebes played a no less brilliant part in the 
 north than she did in the soiith. And had the at- 
 tempts to liberate Thessaly from the rule of the ty- 
 rant, Alexander of Pherse, been attended with suc- 
 cess, Thebes would have received a vast increase of 
 power. Even in Macedonia she acted as arbitress. 
 
 First and successful expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly, 
 368. — After the decision of the disputed succession to the 
 Macedonian throne, young Philip is brought as hostage to 
 Thebes, and educated in the house of Epaminondas. — Pelopidas 
 is sent as ambassador, and taken prisoner by Alexander ; hence 
 the second expedition of the Thebans, in which Epaminondas 
 rescues the army and delivers his friend, 367. 
 
 36. Alliance of Thebes with Persia successfully Alliance of 
 brought about by Pelopidas. In the intrigues of the pe'rsia! ^° 
 opponents at the Persian court, the object of each 
 
 was to bring that court over to his own interest. 
 Yet the domineering tone in which the Persians 
 wished to dictate peace had not the consequences 
 that might have been expected ; and although Sparta 
 consented to her confederates remaining neutral, she 
 would not forego her claims on Messene. The estab- 
 lishment of a navy would have been of more import- 
 ant consequences to Thebes than this alliance, had 
 not all these plans, together with the greatness of 
 Thebes, been swept away by the premature death of b. c. 365. 
 her two leading men. 
 
 M 2
 
 ro Alex- 
 ander 
 
 164 GREEKS. [book iii. 
 
 Third Last expedition of Pelopidas against Alexander of Pherje, in 
 
 Period, -which he himself falls, 364. — New irruption into Peloponnesus 
 caused by the commotions in Arcadia. — Battle of Mantinea, and 
 death of Epaininondas, June 27, 362. — General peace in Greece 
 mediated by the Persians ; Sparta does not assent to it on ac- 
 count of Messene, but sends Agesilaus to Egypt, there to sup- 
 port the insurrection of Tachos. 
 
 State of 37. The result of this bloody struggle for the 
 
 th^war'''^'^'^ supremacy of Greece was, that neither Sparta nor 
 
 between Thcbes obtained it ; the former of these states being 
 
 Sparta! ^° Weakened by the loss of Messene, the latter by the 
 
 loss of its leaders, and both strained by their violent 
 
 exertions. The situation of Greece after this war 
 
 seems to have been thus far changed, that no state 
 
 had the predominance ; an independence proceeding 
 
 from enervation. Even Athens, who by means of 
 
 her naval power still preserved her influence over the 
 
 cities on the coast and in the islands, lost the greater 
 
 part in the war of the allies, together with three of 
 
 her most celebrated leaders, Chabrias, Timotheus, and 
 
 Iphicrates, whose places were ill supplied by Chares. 
 
 Confederacy of the islands Cos, Rhodes, and Chios, and the 
 city of Byzantium ; their secession from Athens, 358. — Unsuc- 
 cessful siege of Chios, before which Chabrias falls, 358 ; of By- 
 zantium, 357. Athens suffers a still gi'eater injury from the 
 cabals of Chares against his colleagues Timotheus and Iphi- 
 crates, and from her imprudent participation in the insurrection 
 of Ai-tabazus, 356. The threats of Artaxerxes III. force Athens 
 to make a peace, in which she is obliged to acknowledge the 
 freedom of her confederates. 
 
 Sacred war. 38. At the vcry time when the growing power of 
 B.c. 356— Macedonia under Phihp ought to have united all the 
 Grecian states, had such a union been within the 
 range of possibility, Greece plunged into another 
 civil war of ten years' duration, which is known by 
 the name of the sacred or Phocian war. The Am- 
 phictyonic assembly, whose duty it was to maintain 
 peace, and whose influence had been in the present 
 circumstances reinstated, abused its authority by 
 kindling discord. The hatred of the Thebans, who 
 sought for new opportunities of quarrel with Sparta, 
 and the ambition of the Phocian Philomelus, were 
 the real causes which led to the war, which the policy 
 
 346.
 
 PERIOD II!.] GREEKS. 
 
 185 
 
 of Philip knew how to prolong till the precise mo- il""'^ 
 ment favourable to his own particular views arrived, to alex- 
 The treasures of Delphi circulating in Greece, were ^^°^'^- 
 as injurious to the country as the ravages which it 
 underwent. A war springing out of private passions, 
 fostered by bribes and subsidiary troops, and termin- 
 ated by the interference of foreign powers, was ex- 
 actly what was requisite for annihilating the scanty 
 remains of morality and patriotism still existing in 
 Greece. 
 
 Sentence of the Ampliictyons against Spai'ta on account of 
 tlie former surprise of the citadel of Thebes by Phcebidas ; and 
 against Pliocis on account of the tillage of the sacred lands of 
 Delphi, 357. — Philomclus is elected general of the Phocians ; 
 the rifling of the treasury of Delphi enables him to take into his 
 pay Athenian and other auxiliaries, and to carry war against 
 the Thebans and their confederates, the Locrians, etc., under 
 pretence of their being the executors of the Amphictyonic de- 
 crees. Philomelus having fallen, 353, is succeeded by his bro- 
 ther Onomarchus, more skilful than himself in intrigue and 
 war : but Onomarchus having fallen, 352, in the battle with 
 Philip in Thessaly, is followed by Phayllus. Philip even thus 
 early endeavours to push through Thermopylte into Gi'eece, but 
 is repelled by the Athenians. He executes this plan after his 
 peace with Athens, 347, and having procured the expulsion of 
 the Phocians from the Amphictyonic council, gets their place 
 and right of vote to be transferred to himself. 
 
 39. From the very first advance of Philip, the fate Pii'iip's ad 
 of Greece could scarcely afford matter for doubt ; Greece, 
 although the eloquence of Demosthenes warded it oft' 
 until the second invasion, caused by the Amphicty- 
 onic sentence passed on the Locrians. (See below, 
 Book IV. parag. 15.) The battle of Chaeronea laid B- c. 338. 
 the foundation of Macedonia's complete ascendency 
 over the Grecian republics : by the appointment of 33g. 
 Philip to be generalissimo of Greece in the Persian 
 war, that ascendency was, as it were, formally ac- 
 knowledged ; nor did it end with the assassination of 
 that prince.
 
 FOURTH BOOK. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From Us origin to the death of Alexander the Great. 
 B. C. 800—323. 
 
 First SOURCES. We have no historian who wrote, particularly, on 
 
 Period. Macedonia, before the time of Alexander. The facts relative 
 to the earlier history previous to Philip are collected from Dio- 
 dorus, Justin, Thucydides, and Arrian ; from Diodorus more 
 especially. In consequence of the loss of the other historians, 
 Diodorus is the chief authority for the history of PhiUp ; the 
 Speeches of Demosthenes and ^schines must likewise be con- 
 sulted, but not made use of without caution and judicious histo- 
 rical criticism. "With respect to Alexander the Great, as so 
 many writers on his reign have been destroyed by time, Arrian 
 must now be considered as the chief authority, on account of 
 the care he has shown in the selection of his authorities, con- 
 jointly with the seventeenth book of Diodorus. Plutarch's bio- 
 graphy contains several valuable additional facts ; and even the 
 superficial Curtius might furnish us with abundance of inform- 
 ation, did his accounts offer higher claims to our credit. 
 
 Ongin of I ^ji Hellenic colony from Argos, headed by the 
 
 (lom ; about Temenidse, a branch of the Heraclidse, settled in 
 B. c. 813. Eniathia, and laid the feeble foundation of the Ma- 
 cedonian empire, which was in time to rise to such 
 power. Not only did the settlers keep their footing 
 in the country, in spite of the aboriginal inhabitants ; 
 but their princes gradually extended their territory, 
 by subjecting or expelling several of the neighbour- 
 ing tribes. Their earlier history, not excepting even 
 the names of their kings, is buried in obscurity till 
 the time of the Persian invasions. 
 
 The three first Macedonian kings, Caranus said to have ruled 
 twenty-eight years, Coenus twenty-thi'ee, Tyrmas forty-five, 
 were unknown to Herodotus, who names as founder of the ]\Ia- 
 cedonian monarchy, Perdiccas, 729 — 678. Of this prince and
 
 PERIOD I.] MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 167 
 
 his successors, Argjeus, d. 640, Philip I., d. 602, yEropus, d. First 
 576, and Alcetas, d. 547, nothing more is known than that they Period. 
 waged war, with various success, against the neighbouring Pi- 
 erians and Illyrians, who had their own kings. 
 
 2. When the Persians commenced their incursions situation at 
 into Europe, Macedonia, by its situation, must have the r^rsian 
 been one of the first countries they ravaged. Ac- invasion, 
 cordingly, as early as the reign of Darius Hystaspes, 
 
 the Macedonian kings were tributary to the Persians ; 
 
 and were indebted for their deHverance from that 
 
 yoke, not to their own valour, but to the victories of 
 
 the Greeks. The battle of Plateese restored inde- b. c. 479. 
 
 pendence to the Macedonian kingdom, although that 
 
 independence was not formally acknowledged by the 
 
 Persians. 
 
 Lnmediately after the Scythian campaign, 513, Amyntas (d. 
 498) became tributary to the Persians ; his son and successor, 
 Alexander, {d. 454,) was in the same state of subjection, and 
 was even compelled to join the expedition of Xerxes. 
 
 3. But the expulsion of the Persians still left Ma- situation 
 cedonia exposed to the attacks of other formidable j^^eat oAhe" 
 neighbours ; on one side there were the Thracians, Persians. 
 among whom, under Sitalces, and his successor, Seu- d. 124. 
 thes, arose the powerful kingdom of the Odrysse ; 
 
 on the other, the Athenians, who, availing themselves 
 of their extensive navy, reduced to subjection the 
 Grecian settlements on the Macedonian shores. 
 Harassing as these neighbours were to the Macedo- 
 nian kings, they proved to be the very instruments 
 by which Macedonia became so early and so deeply 
 involved in the affairs of Greece. 
 
 Commencement of the differences with Athens, under the 
 reign of Perdiccas II., 454 — 413 ; Athens liaving supported his 
 brother Philip against him. — üefection of Potida^a, and forti- 
 fication of Olynthus, into which the Greeks from Chalcis and 
 other cities are transplanted, 432. Potidaja being forced to 
 surrender to Athens, 431, Perdiccas contrives to play so skilful 
 a part in the Peloponnesian war just now commencing, that he 
 outwits tiie Athenians, parrying the attack of Sitalces by a 
 marriage of his sister with Seuthes, the heir to that prince, 429. 
 His alliance with Sparta, 424, is very detrimental to the Athe- 
 nians, Brasidas wresting Amphipolis from their hands ; never- 
 theless Perdiccas chooses rather to conclude a peace with Athens,
 
 168 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [eOOK IV. 
 
 First 423, thtin to throw himself entirely into the arms of his new 
 Period, allies. 
 
 Archclaus 
 lays the 
 foundation 
 of Macedo- 
 nia, B. C. 
 413—400. 
 
 4. Archelaus, the successor of Perdiccas, intro- 
 duced agriculture and civilization among the Mace- 
 donians, who were never, however, recognised by 
 the Hellenes as their legitimate brethren : highways 
 and military roads were constructed ; forts were 
 erected ; and the court became the seat of literature. 
 In these days the Macedonian kingdom seems to 
 have comprised Emathia, Mygdonia, and Pelagonia, 
 to which may be added some of the neighbouring 
 tribes, who, although governed by their own kings, 
 were tributary. The power of the kings was insig- 
 nificant when unaided by the nobles, among whom, 
 as was the case with all the hereditary princes of 
 Greece, they merely held the right of precedence. 
 How difficult was it, even in Alexanders time, to 
 erase from the minds of the Macedonian nobility the 
 recollection of their former importance ! 
 
 5. The murder of Archelaus was followed by a 
 stormy period, wrapped in obscurity : the unsettled 
 state of the succession raised up many pretenders to 
 the throne, each of whom easily found the means of 
 supporting his claims, either in some of the neigh- 
 bouring tribes, or in one of the Grecian republics, 
 
 Aeropus, as guardian to the young king Orestes, usurps the 
 supreme power, B. C. 400 — 394. After his death, and the 
 murder of his son Pausanias, 393, the throne was seized by 
 Amyntas II., son of Philip, and brother to Perdiccas II., who 
 was nevertheless unable to maintain his power until he had 
 gained a victory over Argajus, the brother of Pausanias, who 
 was backed by the Ulyrians, 390 — 369. The war with Olynthus, 
 383 — 380, could not be brought to a successful conclusion until 
 he had formed an alliance with Sparta. 
 
 6. The three sons of Amyntas H., Alexander, 
 Perdiccas, and Philip, successively ascended the 
 throne after the death of their father ; but so violent 
 were the commotions durino- the reig-ns of the two 
 former, that the future existence of Macedonia as a 
 kingdom might have been regarded as problematical : 
 it is certain that they were obhged to submit to the 
 payment of tribute to the Ulyrians.
 
 PERIOD I.] MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 169 
 
 Alexander, in opposition to his rival, Ptolemy of Alorus, First 
 placed on the throne by Pelopidas, sends his youngest brother Period. 
 Philip as hostage to Thebes ; in the same year he is deposed by 
 Ptolemy, 368. Reign of Ptolemy, 388 — 365, with the stipula- 
 tion imposed, 367, by Pelopidas, that he shall only hold the 
 sceptre in reserve for the two younger brothers. Murder of 
 Ptolemy, 365, by Perdiccas III., who is nearly overwhelmed 
 by Pausanias, another and earlier pretender to the crown ; he 
 is at last firmly seated on the throne by the Athenians, under 
 Iphicrates, 364. But as early as 360 he falls in the war against 
 the lUyrians, leaving behind him a son, Amyntas, still a minor, 
 and a youaiger brother Philip, who escapes from Thebes in ordfer 
 to gain possession of the throne. 
 
 7. The reign of Philip, which lasted twenty-four Philip, 
 years, is one of the most instructive and interesting ^336.^^*^ 
 in the whole range of history, as well on account of 
 
 the prudence he displayed, as for the manner in 
 which his plans were arranged and executed. Though 
 it may be difficult to trace in his morals the pupil of 
 Epaminondas, yet it is impossible to view without 
 feelings of astonishment the brilliant career of a man, 
 who, under the almost hopeless circumstances in 
 which he commenced his course, never lost his firm- 
 ness of mind, and who in the highest prosperity pre- 
 served his coolness of reflection. 
 
 The history of Philip, even in his own days, was distorted to 
 his disadvantage by orators and historians. Demosthenes could 
 not, Theopompus would not, be impartial ; and the information 
 contained in Diodorus and Justin is mostly derived from the 
 work of the latter. 
 
 Olivier, Histoire de Philippe, roi de Macedoine. Paris, 1 740, 
 2 vols. 8vo. A defence of Philip. 
 
 De Bury, Histoire de Philippe, et d^ Alexandre le grand. 
 Paris, 1760, 4to. A very mean performance. 
 
 Tii. Lelanp, The History of the Life and Reign of Philip 
 hing of Macedon. London, 1761, 4to. Dry, but exhibiting 
 much reading and strict impartiality. 
 
 In MiTi'OKD, History of Greece, vol. iv., Philip has found his 
 most zealous panegyrist and defender. It would seem that, 
 even in the present day, it is impossible to write an impartial 
 history of this monarch. 
 
 8. Melancholy posture of the Macedonian affairs 
 at the beginning of Philip's reign. Besides victo- 
 rious foes abroad, there were at home two pretenders 
 to the throne ; Arg-cKus, backed by Athens, Pausa- 
 nias, supported by Thrace ; and Philip himself, at
 
 170 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 Policy of 
 Philip : 
 
 possesses 
 himself of 
 Thessaly : 
 
 first, was merely regent, and not king. In the two 
 first years, however, every thing was changed, and 
 Macedonia recovered her independence. The newly- 
 created phalanx insured victory over the barbarians; 
 recourse was had to other means than force for suc- 
 cess against the suspiciousness of Athens and the 
 neighbouring Greek settlements, particularly against 
 the powerful Olynthus. It is in the conduct of these 
 affairs that the peculiar sagacity of Philip is displayed. 
 
 After the defeat of Argteus, peace is purchased from Athens 
 by a momentary recognition of the freedom of Ampliipolis, 360. 
 — Removal of Pausanias by means of an accommodation with 
 Thrace. — By the conquest of the Pajonians and Illyrians, 359, 
 the boundaries of Macedonia are extended to Thrace, and west- 
 ward to the lake Lychnitis. — As early as 360 PhiUp was pro- 
 claimed king. 
 
 9. Development of Philip's further plans of ag- 
 grandizement. — By the gradual subjection of the 
 Macedo-Greek cities, he proposed, not only to make 
 himself sole master in Macedonia, but also to remove 
 the Athenians from his domain. — The first object of 
 his policy against Greece was to get himself acknow- 
 ledged as a Hellen, and Macedonia as a member of 
 the Hellenic league. Hence the subsequent tutelage 
 in which Macedonia held Greece was not converted 
 into a formal subjection, a proceeding which would 
 have savoured too much of barbarian origin. — The 
 execution of all these plans was facilitated by the 
 possession of the Thracian gold mines, which enabled 
 Philip to create finances as well as the phalanx. 
 
 Capture of Ampliipolis, 358 ; in the mean while Athens is 
 amused with promises, and Olynthus with the momentary cession 
 of Potida^a, which had likewise been captured : this event is fol- 
 lowed by the conquest of the mountainous districts, abounding 
 in gold, which extend from the Nestus to the Strymon, and 
 furnished an annual income of nearly 1000 talents. 
 
 10. The interference of Phihp in the affairs of 
 Thessaly dates from the year 357 ; the possession of 
 that country was an object equally important for the 
 furtherance of his views upon Greece, as for the im- 
 provement of his finances. He first stepped forth as
 
 PERIOD I.] MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 171 
 
 the deliverer of Thessaly, and ended in making it a First 
 province of Macedonia. ^"_ 
 
 Expulsion of the tyrants from Phera?, at the request of the 
 Aleuada?, 356 ; the tyrants, however, receive support in the sa- 
 cred war from the Phocians under Onomarchus. The final de- 
 feat of Onomarchus, 352, makes Philip master of Thessaly ; he 
 places Macedonian garrisons in the three chief places, and thus 
 supports his authority in the country until he is pleased to make 
 it entirely a Macedonian province, 344. 
 
 11. The protraction of the sacred war in Greece takes ad- 
 furnished Phihp with an excellent opportunity of J^"^^^^^^^Jj[ 
 promoting his views upon that country ; although war : 
 
 his first attempt at an irruption, too precipitately un- 
 dertaken, was frustrated by the Athenians. The cap- 
 ture of Olynthus, notwithstanding the assistance af- 
 forded it by the Athenians, after a season of apparent 
 inaction, insured the safety of the frontiers in his 
 rear ; and by a master-stroke of policy, almost at the 
 very moment in which he was driving the Athenians 
 out of Eubcea, he found means to enter with them in- 
 to negotiations, which, after repeated embassies, were 
 closed by a peace, opening to him the way through 
 Thermopylae, and enabling him to raise a party fa- 
 vourable to himself within the very walls of Athens. 
 
 12. First descent of Philip into Greece, and ter- invades 
 mination of the sacred war by reducing the Phocians. ^^^^^ ' 
 The place which he now obtained in the Amphic- 
 tyonic council, had been the height of his wishes ; 
 
 and the humility of Sparta proved how firmly his 
 ascendency over Greece was already established. 
 
 13. Brief view of the state of Greece, and more fosters u 
 particularly of Athens, after the sacred war ; descrip- Greece" 
 tion of the means by which Philip succeeded in 
 creating and supporting parties favourable to his 
 
 own interests in the Grecian states. Bribery was 
 not his only instrument ; what he gave he borrowed 
 from others ; the main feature of his policy was, that 
 he seldom or ever recurred to the same means. 
 Scheming and consistent even in his drunken revels, 
 he hardly ever appears under the same form. 
 
 Dreadful consequences to the morals of the Greeks, resulting
 
 m 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV 
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 18 thwarted 
 by Pho- 
 cion ; 
 
 but obtains 
 the com- 
 mand in the 
 second sa- 
 cred war ; 
 
 and falls 
 
 upon 
 
 Greece. 
 
 from the spirit of party, the decline of religion, and the vast in- 
 crease in the cireuhiting medium, produced by the treasures of 
 Delphi and JVIaeedonia. — Estimate of the power of Athens dur- 
 ing the period of Demo.sthenes and Phocion. It seems that, un- 
 fortunately, the eloquence and political acuteness of the former 
 was not accomi)anied with sufficient talents for negotiation ; the 
 latter, perhaps, did not place confidence enough in his country, 
 while Demosthenes placed too much. In spite of public indo- 
 lence and effeminacy, Athens was still enabled to support her 
 rank as a mai'itime power, the navy of Philip not being equal 
 to hers. 
 
 f A. G. Becker, Demosthe7ies as a Statesman and an Ora- 
 tor. An historico-critical introduction to his works : 1815. A 
 very useful work, both as a history and as an introduction to 
 the political orations of Demosthenes. 
 
 14. New conquests of Philip in Illyria and Thrace. 
 The Adriatic Sea and the Danube appear to have 
 been the boundaries of his empire on this side. But 
 the views of the Macedonian king were directed less 
 against the Thracians, than against the Grecian set- 
 tlements on the Hellespont ; and the attack of the 
 Athenian Diopithes furnished him a pretext for 
 making war against them. The siege, however, of 
 Perinthus and Byzantium, was frustrated by Phocion, 
 to the great vexation of Philip ; an event which 
 aroused the Athenians, and even the Persians, from 
 their lethargy. 
 
 15. Policy of Philip after this check. — At the very 
 time that, engaged in a war against the barbarians on 
 the Danube, he appears to have wholly lost sight of 
 the affairs of Greece, his agents redouble their ac- 
 tivity, ^schines, richly paid for his services, pro- 
 poses in the Amphictyonic council, that, to punish 
 the sacrilegious insults of the Locrians to the Del- 
 phian oracle, he should be elected leader of the 
 Greeks in this new sacred war. Following his usual 
 maxim, Philip suffers himself to be entreated. 
 
 16. Second expedition of Philip into Greece. 
 His appropriation of the important frontier town of 
 Elatea soon showed that, for this time at least, he was 
 not contending merely for the honour of Apollo. — 
 Alliance between Athens and Thebes brought about 
 by Demosthenes. — But the defeat of Chaeronea in 
 the same year decided the dependence of Greece.
 
 PERIOD I.] MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 173 
 
 Philip now found it easy to play the magnanimous first 
 character towards Athens. eriod^ 
 
 17. Preparations for the execution of his plan Philip's 
 against Persia, not as his own undertaking, but as a a!^-^"^ 
 national war of the Hellenes against the barbarians. Persia. 
 Thus, while Philip, by obtaining from the Amphic- 
 tyons the appointment of generalissimo of Greece 
 against the Persians, secured in an honourable man- 
 ner the dependence of the country, the splendour of 
 
 the expedition flattered the nation at whose expense 
 it was to be conducted. It is a question, indeed, 
 whether Philip's own private views extended much 
 further ! 
 
 18. The internal government of Macedonia, under internal 
 so skilful and successful a conqueror, must neces- Macedonia 
 sarily have been absolute. No pretender would dare under Phi- 
 to rise up against such a ruler, and the body guard '''' 
 (popv(j>6poi) established by him at the beginning of his 
 
 reign, and taken from the Macedonian nobility, con- 
 tributed much to keep up a proper understanding 
 between the prince and the nobles. The court be- 
 came a military staff, while the people, from a nation 
 of herdsmen, was converted into a nation of warriors. 
 — Philip was unfortunate only in his own family ; 
 but the blame is not to be attributed to him if he 
 could not agree with Olympias. 
 
 19. Philip murdered by Pausanias at -/Egse, pro- Philip mur- 
 bably at the instigation of tlie Persians, while cele- '^'^^'''336 
 brating the marriage of his daughter. 
 
 20. The reign of Alexander the Great, in the Alexander: 
 eyes of the historical inquirer, derives its great inter- ^^ 
 
 est, not only from the extent, but from the perma- 
 nence of the revolution which he effected in the world. 
 To appreciate properly the character of this prince, 
 who died just as he was about to carry his mighty 
 projects into execution, is no easy task ; but it is to- 
 tally repugnant to common sense to suppose that the 
 pupil of Aristotle was nothing more than a wild and 
 reckless conqueror, unguided by any plan. 
 
 St. Croix, Examen critique des ancie7is historiens (TAlexan- 
 dre-le-grand, 2nd edition, considerablement augmentie. Paris,
 
 174 MACEDONIAN MüNAUCUY. [book iv. 
 
 FinsT 1804, 4to. The new edition of this, which is the principal work 
 Period, on the history of Alexander, and important in more respects 
 tlian one, contains more than the title implies, though by no 
 means a strictly impartial estimate of that pi-ince's character. 
 
 Disturb- 21. Violent commotions at court, in the conquered 
 
 ancesofthe countries, and in Greece, after the death of Phihp. 
 nian court. Great as his power appeared to be, tlie preservation 
 of it depended entirely on the first display of charac- 
 ter in his successor. Alexander showed himself 
 worthy to inherit the sceptre by his victorious expe- 
 dition against the Thracians ; (to whom, and more 
 especially to his alliance with the Agrians, he was 
 afterwards indebted for his light horse ;) and by the 
 example which he exhibited to Greece in his treat- 
 ment of Thebes. 
 Alexander, 22, Appointment of Alexander in the assembly at 
 fimrof'^" Corinth to be generalissimo of the Greeks. Yet what 
 Greece. his father would probably have turned to a very dif- 
 ferent account, he allowed to remain a mere nominal 
 office. — Development of his plan of attack upon Per- 
 sia. — The want of a navy, soon experienced by Alex- 
 ander, would probably have frustrated his whole pro- 
 ject, had not Memnon's counterplan of an inroad 
 into Macedonia been thwarted by the celerity of 
 the Macedonian king. 
 Battle of the 93. Passap-c ovcr the Hellespont, and commence- 
 ment of the war. The tranquillity of his kingdom 
 and Greece appeared to be secured, Antipater being- 
 left at the head of affairs. — The victory on the Gran- 
 icus opens to Alexander a path into Asia Minor ; 
 but the death of Memnon, which soon after followed, 
 was perhaps a greater advantage than a victory. 
 Battle of 24. The victory of Issus, gained over Darius in 
 
 B.C. 333. person, appears to have given Alexander the first 
 idea of completely overturning the Persian throne, 
 as was proved by the rejection of Darius's offers of 
 peace. When, indeed, have not the plans of con- 
 querors been dependent on the course of events? 
 Yet Alexander must have been pretty certain of his 
 future victory, since he permitted Darius to escape, 
 332. while he sat down seven months before Tyre, in order
 
 PERIOD I.J MACEDONIAN MONARCHY, 175 
 
 to make himself master of the sea ; and, after the First 
 conquest of Egypt without a battle, to which the '^"'^°' . 
 possession of Tyre opened the way, to build Alexan- 
 dria, and erect to himself a monument more lasting 
 than all his victories. 
 
 Although Alexandria perhaps in the end may have surpassed 
 the expectations of the founder, yet the selection of the site, fa- 
 vourable only for navigation and commerce, shows that an eye 
 was originally had to those objects. 
 
 25. Invasion of Inner Asia, facilitated by the tacit Decisive 
 submission of the ruling tribes, and by the state of ÄTuela, 
 cultivation in which the country was found. On the 
 
 plains of Arbela the Macedonian tactics were com- Oct. i, 331. 
 pletely triumphant. It might now be said that the 
 throne of Persia was overturned ; and the unexpect- 
 edly easy capture of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, 
 was surely of more importance for the moment than 
 the pursuit of a flying king. 
 
 Insurrection of the Greeks quelled by Antipater ; Alexander 
 himself falls in with the malcontent envoys to Dai'ius in the in- 
 terior of Asia. 
 
 26. The subjection of the north-eastern provinces Persia 
 
 of the Persian empire would perhaps have been at- ^g^t" j^ ^^^' 
 
 tended with the greatest difficulties, had not the 
 
 astonishing activity of the conqueror crushed in 
 
 their birth the schemes of the treacherous Bessus, 
 
 who, after the assassination of Darius, wished to erect b. c. 330 
 
 a separate kingdom in Bactria. The Jaxartes was 
 
 now the northern boundary of the Macedonian mon- 329. 
 
 archy, as it had hitherto been that of the Persian. 
 
 Besides, the possession of the rich trading countries, 
 
 Bactria and Sogdiana, was in itself an object of vast 
 
 importance. 
 
 During this expedition, the execution of Philotas and his 
 father l^armenio took place, though both were, probably, guilt- 
 less of the conspiracy laid to their charge, 330. After the 
 deatli of Darius, Alexander met witli almost constant oppo- 
 sition in his own army : tlie majority of the troops fancying 
 that tliat event precluded the necessity of any further exer- 
 tions. Cautious as Alexander was in his treatment of the 
 Macedonian nobles, we may discern, not liowever by tlie mere 
 example of Clitus, how difficult they found it to banish from
 
 176 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 Alexander 
 
 marches 
 
 as^ainst 
 
 India. 
 
 328—326 
 
 their memory the relations in which they had formerly stood to 
 their kings. 
 
 27. Alexanders expedition against India had, no 
 doubt, its origin in that propensity to romantic en- 
 terprise which constituted a main feature in his 
 character. Yet what could be more natural than that 
 a close view of Persian splendour, the conquest of 
 such wealthy countries, and the desire of prosecuting 
 his vast commercial designs, should gradually mature 
 in the mind of the Macedonian king the plan of sub- 
 jecting a country which was represented as the golden 
 land of Asia. To this likewise the scantiness of geo- 
 graphic information must have greatly contributed ; 
 if he pressed forward to the eastern seas, the circle 
 of his dominion would, it was supposed, be complete. 
 — It appears very certain that Alexander was desti- 
 tute of a sufficient knowledge of the country when he 
 entered upon this expedition. 
 
 Alexander's invasion was directed against Northern India, or 
 the Panjab ; in those days a populous and highly cultivated 
 country ; now the seat of the Seiks and Mahrattas ; and then, 
 as now, inhabited by warlike races. He crossed the Indus at 
 Taxila, (Attock,) passed the Hydaspes, (Behut or Chelum,) 
 and, availing himself of the quarrels between the Indian 
 princes, defeated the king, Porus. He then proceeded across 
 the Acesines (Jenaub) and Hydraotes (Rauvee). The eastern 
 verge reached in this expedition was the river Hyphasis 
 (Beyah) ; here, having already proceeded half way to the 
 Ganges, the conqueror was, by a mutiny in his army, compelled 
 to retreat. His return was through the country of the Malli 
 (Multan) as far as the Hydaspes, when the majority of his 
 troops took ship, and were floated along that stream into the 
 Acesines, and from thence into the Indus, which they followed 
 down to its mouth. 
 
 Rennel, 3Iemoir of a Map of Hindostan. London, 1793, 
 (3rd edit.,) and 
 
 St. Croix, Examen, etc., (see p. 173,) furnish all the neces- 
 sary historical and geographical explanations relative to the 
 Persian and Indian campaigns of Alexander. 
 
 Conse- 28. Although Alexander was obliged to give up 
 
 Xis°eT)etu ^^^^ projcct of couquering India, yet the connexion 
 
 tioa. between Europe and the East, which has continued 
 
 from that time, was the work of his hands. While 
 
 the communication on land was secured by the estab-
 
 PKRiOD I.] MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 177 
 
 lishinent of various settlements, the communication F'^st 
 
 by sea was opened by the voyao-e of his admiral, !_ 
 
 Nearchus, from the Indus to the Euphrates. In tlie 
 mean time Alexander himself proceeded to Persis 
 and Babylon, across the desert, and the unexplored 
 provinces of Gedrosia and Carmania. 
 
 Nearclms's voyage (our knowledge of which is derived from 
 his own journal, preserved in Arrian's LuUca) lasted from the 
 beginning of October, 326, to the end of February, 325 : nearly 
 the same time was occupied in the almost incredible land march 
 of the king. 
 
 Vincent, The Voyage of NcarcJms from the Indus to the 
 Euphrates. London, 1797, 4to. Exhibiting the most learned 
 researches, and illustrated with excellent charts. 
 
 29. After the abandonment of India, the whole Alexander's 
 circuit of Alexander's conquests was precisely that col^quel-pd^ 
 of the former Persian empire; his later projects couutries: 
 were probably directed against Arabia alone. How- 
 ever easy it had been to make these conquests, it 
 
 was a more difficult task to retain them ; for Mace- 
 donia, exhausted by continual levies of men, could 
 not furnish efficient garrisons. Alexander removed 
 this difficulty, by protecting the conquered from op- 
 pression ; by showing proper respect to their religion ; 
 by leaving the civil government in the hands of the 
 native rulers who had hitherto possessed it ; and by 
 confiding to Macedonians the command only of the 
 garrisons left in the chief places, and in the newly 
 established colonies. To alter as little as possible in 
 the internal organization of countries was his funda- 
 mental principle. 
 
 30. Simple as Alexander s plans were in the out- his views, 
 set, their simplicity was more than compensated by 
 
 the magnitude and importance of their results. Ba- 
 bylon was to be the capital of his empire, and con- 
 sequently of the world. The union of the east and 
 the west was to be brought about by the amalgama- 
 tion of the dominant races by intermarriage, by edu- 
 cation, and, more than all, by the ties of commerce, 
 the importance of which much ruder conquerors, in 
 Asia itself, soon learnt to appreciate. In nothing 
 
 N
 
 178 
 
 MACEDONIAN .MüNAUCHY. 
 
 [bock IV. 
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 Death of 
 Alexander, 
 April 21, 
 B. C. 323. 
 
 probably is the superiority ot" his genius more bril- 
 liantly displayed, than in his exemption from all na- 
 tional prejudice, particularly when we consider that 
 none of his countrymen were in tliis respect to be 
 compared with him. To refuse him this merit is 
 impossible, whatever judgment we may form of his 
 general character. 
 
 31. Sudden death of Alexander at Babylon by 
 fever; under the peculiar circumstances of the time, 
 the greatest loss mankind could experience. From 
 the Indus to the Nile the world lay in ruins ; and 
 where was now the architect to be found, that could 
 gather up the scattered fragments and restore the 
 edifice ? 
 
 Alexander's clisoi'der may be easily accounted for by the 
 hardships he had undergone, and the impure air to which he 
 exposed himself in cleaning out the canals about Babylon. He 
 certainly was not poisoned ; and in the charge of immoderate 
 drunkenness brought against him, we must take into account 
 the manners of the Macedonian and Persian courts. Was it 
 not the same with Peter the Great ? In estimating his moral 
 character we must bear in mind the natural vehemence of his 
 passions, ever inclined to the most rapid transitions ; nor should 
 we forget the unavoidable influence of constant success upon 
 manldnd. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 History of the Macedonian 7Jionarchy. from the death 
 of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsits, B. C. 
 323—301. 
 
 To enable the reader to take a general view, the history of 
 the European events is resumed below, under the head of the 
 history of Macedonia Proper. 
 
 Sources. Diodorus, Ub. xviii. — xx., is the great authority 
 for this portion of history. He compiled mostly, for this period, 
 from a contemporary historian, Hieronymus of Cardia. He is 
 followed by Plutarch in the Lives of Eumenes, Demetrius, and 
 Phocion ; and by Justin, lib. xiii., etc. Of Arrian's history of 
 Alexander's successors, nothing unfortunately remains but a 
 few fragments in Photius. 
 
 f Maknert, History of Alexander's successors. Nuremberg,
 
 I'ERIOD II. 
 
 TO THE BATTLE OF IPSUS. 179 
 
 1787. Composed with the usual judgment and learning ofthat Second 
 author. Period. 
 
 1. The very first measure adopted after the death Measures 
 of Alexander contained within itself the seeds of all fuiopted at 
 the dire revolutions that afterwards ensued. Not ATexander.' 
 only were the jealousy and ambition of the nobles 
 aroused, but even the interference of the army was 
 exhibited in the most terrific manner. Although 
 
 the idea of the supremacy of the royal family was 
 cast ofi' only by degrees, yet the dreadfully disturbed 
 state in which that family stood, rendered its fall un- 
 avoidable. 
 
 State of the royal family at the death of Alexander. lie left 
 his wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months 
 brought into the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexan- 
 der ; he left likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules ; a bastard 
 half-brother, Arrhidteus ; his mother, the haughty and cruel 
 Olympias, and a sister, Cleopatra, both widows ; the artful 
 Eurydice, (daughter to Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subse- 
 (juently married to the king, Arrhidajus ; and Thessalonica, 
 Phihp's daughtei', afterwards united to Cassander of Macedonia. 
 
 2. The weak Arrhidseus, under the name of Philip, Arriiid»us 
 and the infant Alexander, were at last proclaimed '*'"! '^'.*''^\ 
 
 ■ , tr iiiuler joint 
 
 kings, the regency being placed in the hands of Per- kin-s : 
 diccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager ; the last of whom 
 was quickly cut off at the instigation of Perdiccas. Peudiccas 
 Meanwhile Antipater, with whom Craterus had been '■*^»^'"*- 
 joined as civil ruler, had the management of affairs Antipater 
 
 £*■ in Europe. 
 
 urope. 
 
 3. The spquel of the history becomes naturally Violent re- 
 that of satraps, who fell out among themselves, all '*°'"'^'°"* 
 being ambitious to rule, and none willing to obey. 
 Twenty-two years elapsed ere any massy edifice arose 
 
 out of the ruins of the Macedonian monarchy. In 
 few periods of history are the revolutions of atlairs so 
 violent, in few periods, therefore, is it so difficult to 
 unravel tlie maze of events. For this purpose the 
 most convenient division of the history is into tln^ee 
 periods : the first extending to the death of Per- 
 diccas, 321 : the second to the death of Eumenes, 
 315 : the third to the defeat and death of Antigonus 
 at the battle of Ipsus, 301. 
 
 N 2
 
 180 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [bock iv. 
 
 Second 4. First grant of the provinces made by Perdiccas. 
 
 Period^ The vanity of this man seems to have induced him to 
 
 Division of select the office of" regent, in order that no separate 
 
 bV.'^sS!' province might fall to his share ; he placed his whole 
 
 reliance on having the command of the royal army, 
 
 although it had already given so many proofs of its 
 
 determination to command rather than to obey. 
 
 In this division Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt ; Leon- 
 natns, ]\Iysia ; Antigonus, Plirygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia ; 
 LysimacliLis, Macedonian Thrace ; Antipater and Craterus re- 
 mained in possession of Macedonia. — The foreigner, Eumenes, 
 would hardly have received Cappadocia, although yet to he con- 
 quered, had Perdiccas been able to dispense with his services. 
 Tlie remaining provinces either did not come under the new 
 division, or else their governors are unworthy of notice. 
 
 First acts of ^ The first acts of Perdiccas's government showed 
 how little dependence he could place on the obedi- 
 ence of men who hitherto had been his colleagues. 
 The general insurrection among the mercenaries who 
 insuncc- had bccn settled by Alexander in Upper Asia, and 
 pe"Asia. ^'" now wished to return to their homes, was, no doubt, 
 quelled by Python's destruction of the rebels ; but it 
 was not Python's fault that he did not make himself 
 independent master of the scene of mutiny. 
 Disobetii- 6. Still more refractory was the behaviour of Le- 
 U'onuiand onuatus and Antigonus, when they received orders 
 Leonnatus. to put Eumcues in posscssion of his province. Anti- 
 gonus was too haughty to obey ; and Leonnatus pre- 
 ferred going over into Europe to marry Cleopatra ; 
 there, however, he almost immediately met with his 
 death in the Lamian war. (See below. Book IV. 
 Period III. parag. 2.) Perdiccas, therefore, was him- 
 self obliged to undertake the expedition with the 
 B. c. 322. I'oyal army ; he succeeded by the defeat of Ariarathes. 
 Perdiccas 7. Ambitious views of Perdiccas, who, in order to 
 marry^ 01*60- fisccnd the throue by a marriage with Cleopatra, re- 
 patra, but is pudiates Nic8ea, the dauo;hter of Antipater. Cleo- 
 
 frustrated * ^ . . 
 
 ' patra actually came over to Asia ; but Perdiccas, 
 being obliged, at the request of the army, to marry 
 Eurydice, Philip's niece, after the murder of her 
 mother Cyane, to the king Arrhidseus, found her a 
 troublesome rival and opponent in the government.
 
 PERIOD II.] TO THE BATTLE OF IPSUS. 181 
 
 8. Attempts of Perdiccas to overtlirow Antigonus Second 
 and Ptolemy, by accusing them before the army. __^^^' _ 
 Antigonus passes over to Antipater in Macedonia ; seeks to 
 and o-ives rise to the leao-ue between Antipater, Cra- "^"'^ ^"^'7 
 terus, and Ptolemy, agamst Perdiccas and Eumenes. Ptolemy, 
 
 9. Commencement and termination of the first war be- 
 war. Perdiccas himself marches against Egypt, Iwr'iVrt^s 
 leaving his friend Eumenes to command in Asia Mi- 32i. 
 
 nor : meanwhile Antipater and Craterus fall upon 
 Asia ; the former advances towards Syria against 
 Perdiccas ; the latter is defeated and slain by Eu- 
 menes. Before the arrival, however, of Antipater, 
 Perdiccas, after repeated and vain attempts to cross 
 the Nile, falls a victim to the insurrection of his own 
 troops. — Thus three of the principal personages, Per- 320. 
 diccas, Craterus, Leonnatus, were already removed 
 from the theatre of action ; and the victorious Eu- 
 menes, now master of Asia Minor, had to maintain, 
 unaided, the struggle against the confederates. 
 
 10. Second period, from the death of Perdiccas to b-c. 320— 
 that of Eumenes. — Python and Arrhidaeus quickly ^^'^' 
 resigning the regency, it is assumed by Antipater. — Antipater 
 New division of the provinces at Trisparadisus in goff^^' 
 Syria. Seleucus receives Babylon ; Antigonus is 
 promised, besides his former possessions, all those of 
 
 the outlawed Eumenes. 
 
 11. War of Antigonus with Eumenes. The lat- 
 ter, defeated by treachery, shuts himself up in the 
 mountain fastness of Nora, there to await more fa- 
 vourable times ; and Antigonus remains master of all 
 Asia Minor : in the mean time Ptolemy ventures to 
 take possession of Syria and Phoenicia. 
 
 12. Death of the regent Antipater, in the same Antipater 
 year (320) ; he bequeaths the regency to his friend, ij!,^^*- 
 
 the aged Polysperchon, to the exclusion of his own Polysper- 
 son Cassander. Antio'onus now begins to unfold his ^^"^ '"^' 
 ambitious plans ; he endeavours vainly to win over 
 Eumenes, who deceives him in the negotiations, and 3i9 
 seizes the opportunity of leaving his mountain fastness. 
 
 13. Eumenes's plan to strengtlien himself in Up- 
 per Asia ; as he is on the way he receives tidings of
 
 182 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Second his being appointed generalissimo of the royal troops. 
 ^'"""' What better man could Polysperchon have selected 
 for the office, than he who in his conduct towards 
 Antigonus exhibited so striking an example of attach- 
 ment to the royal house ? 
 
 14. Exertions of Eumenes to maintain himself in 
 Lower Asia, ineffectual, the naval victory won by 
 
 B. c. 318. Antigonus over the royal fleet, commanded by Cli- 
 
 tus, depriving him of the empire of the sea. He 
 
 bursts into Upper Asia ; where, in the spring, he 
 
 317. unites with the satraps, who had taken arms against 
 
 the powerful Seleucus of Babylon, 
 
 15. Antigonus following up the royal general, 
 Upper Asia becomes the theatre of war. Victorious 
 as was at first the stand made by Eumenes, neither 
 valour nor talent were of any avail against the insub- 
 ordination of the royal troops, and the jealousy of the 
 other commanders. Attacked in winter-quarters by 
 Antigonus, he was, after the battle, delivered into the 
 hands of his enemy by the mutinous Argyraspidae, 
 
 315. who had lost their baggage : he was put to death, 
 and in him the king's family lost its only loyal sup- 
 porter. 
 
 16. Great changes had also taken place in the 
 royal family. Her enemy Antipater having deceased, 
 Olympias, invited by Polysperchon, who wished to 
 strengthen himself against Cassander, had returned 
 
 317. from Epirus, and put to death Arrhideeus together 
 with his wife, Eurydice : in the year following she 
 was besieged in Pydna by Cassander, and being 
 315. obliged to surrender, w^as in her turn executed ; 
 meanwhile Cassander held Roxana and the young 
 king in his own power. 
 315—301. 17. Third period, from the death of Eumenes to 
 rance"of' ^^^^ ^^ Autigonus. — Tlic rout of Eumenes seemed to 
 Auti-onus. have established for ever the power of Antigonus in 
 Asia ; still animated with the fire of youth, though 
 full of years, he saw himself revived in his son De- 
 metrius, fond of boisterous revelry, but gallant and 
 B. c. 315. talented. — Even Seleucus thought it time to consult 
 his safety by flying from Babylon into Egypt.
 
 PERIOD II.] TO THE BATTLE OF IPSUS. 183 
 
 18. Changes introduced by Antigonus into the ^'^econd 
 upper provinces ; return to Asia Minor, where his ' 
 presence seemed indispensable, by reason of the ag- 
 grandizement of Ptolemy in Syria and Phoenicia, of 
 
 the Macedonian Cassander in Europe, of Lysimachus 
 in Mysia, and the Carian Cassander in Asia Minor. 
 — He repossesses himself of Phoenicia, a country of 
 the first importance for the construction of a fleet. 
 
 Siege of Tyre, 314 — 313 : it lasts fourteen months ; a proof 
 that the city was certainly not razed by Alexander. 
 
 19. The fugitive Seleucus forms a league against 
 Antigonus and Demetrius, betw^een Ptolemy, the 
 two Cassanders, and Lysimachus. But Antigonus 
 frustrates their combination, himself driving out the 
 Carian Cassander, and his son marching against 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 Victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312 ; after 
 which Seleucus marches back to Babylon, and, although subse- 
 quently followed up by Demetrius, permanently maintains his 
 footing in Upper Asia. — On the other hand, Ptolemy, at the 
 first approach of Antigonus with the main body, surrenders back 
 Syria and Phcenicia, 312. 
 
 20. A general peace concluded between Antigo- Peace 
 nus and his enemies, Seleucus only excepted, from concluded, 
 whom Upper Asia is to be again wrested. The first 
 article, that each should retain what he had, demon- 
 strates pretty evidently that the treaty was dictated 
 
 solely by Antigonus ; the second, tliat the Greek 
 cities should be free, was pregnant with the S( eds of 
 a new war, ready to burst ft)rth at every favourable 
 opportunity ; the third, that the young Alexander 
 should be raised to the throne upon attaining his ma- 
 joi^y, was probably the death-warrant of the hapless 
 prince, who, that same year, together with his mother, 
 was murdered by Cassander. — Shortly after, at the 
 instigation of Antigonus, Cleopatra was put to death, 
 in order that Ptolemy might be thwarted in his ob- 
 ject, which depended on a matrimonial connexion 
 with that princess. Di,p„,es on 
 
 21. Even the execution of the articles must have t|ie iibera- 
 given rise to hostilities ; Ptolemy wishing to force Greece.
 
 184 MACliüONIAN MONAliCIIY. [book iv. 
 
 Second Aiitij^onus, and he, on his side, to compel Cassander, 
 Peuiou. ^^^ withdraw the [Harrisons from the Grecian towns; 
 a condition which neither party felt inclined to fulfil. 
 Grecian freedom was now but a name ; this, how- 
 ever, is not the only example history furnishes of po- 
 litical ideas making the greatest stir long after they 
 have survived their own existence ; for then they be- 
 come excellent tools in the hands of artful designers. 
 
 Expedition of Demetrius to liberate Athens, 308. The day 
 when he announced freedom to the Athenians, must have been 
 the happiest of his life ! Few portions of history present such 
 a scope for the contemplation of human nature as the twofold 
 sojourn of Demetrius at Athens. 
 
 22. The growing power of Ptolemy on the sea, 
 and the capture of Cyprus, determines Antigonus to 
 an open rupture : he commands his son to drive Pto- 
 lemy out of the island. 
 
 Naval victory of Demetrius off Cyprus, 307, perhaps the 
 greatest and most bloody in history ; nevertheless, as little de- 
 cisive to the general question as are most naval battles. The 
 assumption of the royal title, first by the conqueror, afterwards 
 by the conquered, and ultimately by all the rest, was but a 
 mere form now that the royal family was extirpated. 
 
 Rhodes 23. The conquerors having failed in their project 
 
 besieged. ^^ subduing Egypt, made the wealthy republic of the 
 Rhodians, as an ally of that country, the victim of 
 their fury. But though in the renowned siege of 
 their capital, Demetrius earned his title of Polior- 
 B. c. 3ÜÖ. cetes, the noble defence of the Rhodians aiforded an 
 illustrious example of the power of discipline in con- 
 junction with well-guided patriotism. The invitation 
 of the Athenians came seasonably to Demetrius ; he 
 raised the blockade and proceeded to complete the 
 304. liberation of Greece, the necessity of which became 
 every day more pressing. 
 Demetrius 24. Sccoud sojoum of Dcmctrius in Greece. The 
 Greece'*"* cxpulsiou of Cassaudcr s garrisons from the Grecian 
 cities, and more particularly from those in Pelopon- 
 nesus ; the appointment of Demetrius i, s generalissimo 
 of Greece, for the conquest of Macedonia and Thrace ; 
 proved not only to Cassander, but also to the other
 
 rERiOD II.] TO THE BATTLE OF IPSUS. 185 
 
 princes, that their common interest loudly called Second 
 upon them to resist the over-powerful Antigonus. eriod. 
 
 25. Third grand league of Cassander, Ptolemy, League 
 and Seleucus, against Antigonus and his son ; brought S'Snus, 
 about by Cassander. How easily, even after the vio- :5u^. 
 lent irruption of Lysimachus into Asia Minor, might 
 Antigonus have dispersed the gathering storms, had 
 
 not his presumption led him to place an overweening- 
 reliance on his own good fortune ! 
 
 26. Junction of Seleucus of Babylon and Lysima- Junction of 
 chus, in Phrvp'ia. Anti&'onus, to concentrate his ^«'if^cus 
 
 ■ 11111 11 ^ Lysi- 
 
 forces, recalls his son, who had pushed on to the bor- machJs, 
 ders of Macedonia. The cautious Ptolemy, on the '^^^' 
 other hand, is afraid to invade Syria ; and, in conse- 
 quence of a false report, that Lysimachus had been 
 defeated, retires full of alarm, into Egypt. 
 
 27. Great and decisive battle fought at Ipsus in Battle of 
 Phrygia, in the spring of 301, which costs Antigonus Jj^^c^'ß^i 
 his life, and annihilates his empire, as the two con- 
 querors divide it between themselves, without taking 
 
 any account of the absent confederates. Asia Minor, 
 as far as Mount Taurus, falls to the share of Lysima- 
 chus ; and all the rest, with the exception of Cilicia, 
 which is given to Plisthenes, Cassander s brother, is 
 left to Seleucus. — Demetrius, by the help of his navy, 
 escapes into Greece. 
 
 28. The almost unbroken series of wars which had Domestic 
 raged from the time of Alexander, must have pre- "i^u^n "nhe 
 eluded the possibility of much being effected with moiuirciiy. 
 respect to domestic organization. It appears to have 
 
 been n(;arly, if not wholly, military. Yet were the 
 numerous devastations in some measure compensated 
 by the erection of new cities, in which these princes 
 vied with one another, impelled partly by vanity to 
 immortalize their names, partly by policy to support 
 their dominion, most of the new settlements being 
 military colonies. Nevertheless tliis was but a sorry 
 reparation for the manifold oppressions to which the 
 natives were exposed by the practice of quartering 
 the army upon them. The spread of the language 
 and civilization of the Greeks deprived them of all
 
 Second 
 Feriod. 
 
 186 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 national distinction ; their own languages sinking into 
 mere provincial dialects. Alexander's monarchy af- 
 fords a striking example of the little that can be ex- 
 pected from a forced amalgamation of races, when 
 the price of that amalgamation is the obliteration of 
 national character in the individuals. 
 
 Heyne, Opnm regni Macedonici auctarum, attritarum et 
 eversarum, causce probabiles ; in Opusc. t. iv. This collection 
 contains several other treatises on Grecian and Macedonian 
 history, which cannot be all separately enumerated. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 History of the kingdoms and states which arose npon the 
 dismemberment of the Macedonian Monarchy after the 
 battle of Ipsus. 
 
 I. History of the Syrlin empire under the Seletjcid^, 
 B. C. 312—64. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Nicator, 
 
 Sources. Neither for the history of the Syrian, nor for that 
 of the Egyptian and Macedonian kingdoms, has any eminent 
 vv'riter been preserved. The fragments of the lost books of Dio- 
 dorus, and, from the time that these kingdoms became allies of 
 Rome, those of Polybius, several narratives of Livy, the Syriaca 
 of Appian, and a few of Plutarch's Lives, are the principal au- 
 thorities ; too frequently we ai-e obliged to rely upon the ex- 
 tracts of Justin. For the history of the Seleucida?, in conse- 
 quence of the political connexion between these princes and the 
 Jews, the Antiquities of Josephus and the Book of Maccabees 
 become of importance. Besides these authorities, the many 
 coins that have been preserved of these kings, afford much in- 
 formation respecting their genealogy and chronology. 
 
 Of modern publications on the subject, the principal work is 
 
 Vaillant, Imperium Seleucidarum sive historia recfiim Sy- 
 ria;, 1681, 4to. The inquiry is principally grounded on coins, 
 as is the case with 
 
 Froeuch, Annates rerum et regum Syrice. Vienna, 1 754. 
 
 1. The kingdom of the Seleucidse was founded in 
 Upper Asia by Seleucus Nicator. It was an exten- 
 sive empire ; but, being composed of various coun- 
 tries united only by conquest, it could possess but
 
 PERIOD III. J 
 
 I. SELEUCID^E. 187 
 
 littie internal stability except what it derived from Third 
 the power of its rulers. That power fell with the __^^"L 
 founder ; and the transfer of the seat of empire from 
 the banks of the Tigris to Syria, entangled the Se- 
 leucidae in all the political disputes of the western 
 world, and facilitated the insurrection of the upper 
 provinces. The liistory of this kingdom divides it- 
 self into the periods before and after the war with 
 Rome ; although at the breaking out of this war the 
 seeds of its decline and fall had already been sown. 
 
 Seleucus received, 321, Babylon as his province ; but after 
 the defeat of Eumenes was obliged to take to flight, 315, in 
 order to avoid subjection to the conqueror Antigonus. But his 
 moderate government had rendered him so popular, that after 
 tlie victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312, he 
 could safely venture to return with only a few adherents to Ba- 
 bylon. In this year commences the kingdom of the Seleucidaj. 
 
 2. In the ten following years, and while Anli- founds the 
 gonus was busied in Asia Minor, Seleucus laid the the'sel^u- 
 foundation of his power over all Upper Asia, with a cWse. 
 facility to which the detestation excited by the rigid 
 government of Antigonus mainly contributed. After b, c. 313. 
 his victory over Nicanor of Media, all in that quarter 
 declared spontaneously for him ; and the unsuccess- 311. 
 
 ful expedition of Demetrius taught Antigonus himself, 
 that it would no longer be prudent to assert his claims. 
 As early as 307, Seleucus was in possession of all the 
 countries between the Euphrates, Indus, and Oxus. 
 
 3. Great campaign in India undertaken by Se- Campaign 
 leucus against King Sandracottus. He penetrated ij'^n"^^'^ 
 as far as the Ganges, and the close alliance he formed ^- c. 3ü5. 
 with the Indian sovereign lasted a long time after, 
 
 and was kept up by embassies. The great number 
 of elephants which he brought back with him was not 
 the only advantage accruing from this expedition ; 
 the intercourse with the East seems to have been per- 
 manently re-established. 
 
 4. By the battle of Ipsus Seleucus added to his Seat of go- 
 dominions the greater part of the territories of An- rj!™"'^"' 
 tigonus ; — Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, and Ar- ;»>" Syria, 
 menia. Unfortunately Syria now became the head
 
 188 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [eook. iv. 
 
 Third province, notwithstanding Coele-Syria and Phamicia 
 ^"°"' were left in the hands of Ptolemy. How widely dif- 
 ferent would have been the course of historic events, 
 had the seat of empire remained at Seleucia on the 
 Tigris, and the Euphrates continued to be the western 
 boundary of the Seleucidai ! 
 
 5. Reciprocal relations between the several kings, 
 who now combine in forming a kind of political sys- 
 tem, in which continued exertions to maintain a ba- 
 lance of power by alliance and marriage are plainly 
 discernible. 
 
 Connexion between Seleucus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by 
 the marriage of the former with the beautiful Stratonice, daugh- 
 ter of the latter ; made Avitli a view of counterbalancing a si- 
 milar connexion between Ptolemy and Lysimachus ; Lysima- 
 chus and his son Agathocles having united themselves with two 
 daughters of Ptolemy. 
 
 Long peace 6. The eighteen years of tranquillity enjoyed by 
 301^983 ^^^^ ^^'^^'^ ^^^^ battle of Ipsus, prove that Seleucus 
 was one of the few followers of Alexander who had 
 any genius for the arts of peace. He either founded 
 or embellished a vast number of cities, the most im- 
 portant of which were the capital, Antiochia in Syria, 
 and the two Seleucias, one on the Tigris, the other on 
 the Orontes : the flourishing prosperity of several of 
 these places was the result of the restoration of eastern 
 trade ; new channels for which appear to have been 
 opened at this period on the main streams of Asia, 
 and .more particularly on the Oxus. 
 The empire 7. The homc department of his empire was organ- 
 satrapies. ^'^^^ ^^^^^ satrapies, of which there were seventy-two. 
 But Alexander s maxim, " to give the satrapies to na- 
 tives," was wholly forgotten by his followers ; and the 
 Seleucidae were not long before they experienced the 
 evil consequences of swerving from that practice. 
 Under such a prince as Seleucus scarce any king- 
 dom could of itself fall to pieces ; but the king him- 
 self paved the way for the dismemberment of his em- 
 B. c. 293. pire, by ceding Upper Asia, together with his consort 
 Stratonice, to his son Antiochus ; not, however, with- 
 out the previous approbation of the army.
 
 PERIOD III.] I. SELEUCIDiE. 189 
 
 8. War with Lysimaclms, kindled by ancient jea- Third 
 lousy, and now fomented by family feuds. The battle ^''^'*'°°- 
 
 of Curopedion cost Lysimachus his throne and his Conquest of 
 life; and Asia Minor became a part of the Syrian :^^.',''-^^'"°'^" 
 realm. But as Seleucus was crossing over to Eu- 
 rope, to add Macedonia to his dominions, he fell by 
 the hand of an assassin, Ptolemy Ceraunus, and with 28i. 
 him the splendour of his kingdom was extinguished. 
 
 9. The reign of his son, Antiochus I., surnamed Antiochus 
 Soter, seemed not unprosperous, inasmuch as the 281— 262 
 empire preserved its former extension ; but in any 
 
 state founded upon conquest, the failure of new at- 
 tempts at an increase of territory is a sur token of 
 approaching ruin ; and this was the case here. — In 
 such a state the more immediately all depends on the 
 person of the ruler, the more rapid and sensible are 
 the effects of degeneration in a family like that of the 
 Seleucidae. 
 
 The late conquests of his father in Asia jVIinor entangled An- 
 tiochus in new wars ; although, by the marriage of his step- 
 daughter Phila Avith Antigonus Gonatas, he ceded his claims on 
 Macedonia, 277. — Fruitless attempt at subjecting Bithynia, 279; 
 the king of that country, Nicomedes, calls in the Gauls, who had 
 invaded IMacedouia, and giv sthein a settlement in Galatia, 277, 
 where they keep tiieir footing, even after the victory won over 
 them by Antiochus, 275, and by their participation in the wars, 
 as mercenaries, become of importance. — The newly risen state 
 of Pergamus likewise thrives, at the expense of the Syrian em- 
 pire, in spite of Antiochus's attack, 263 ; and the inroad into 
 Egypt, for the purpose of supporting the rebel Magas, is antici- 
 pated by Ptolemy II., 264. 
 
 10. Antiochus II., surnamed Oco'9, Durino- his Antiochus 
 reign the sway was in the liands of women ; and the bI' c. '202 
 diseased state of the interior of the empire became —'-^im- 
 palpable by the secession of various eastern provinces, 
 
 out of which arose the Parthian and Bactrian king- Rise of the 
 doms. The boundless luxury of the court hui-ried aiui'i^ü.'. 
 on the decline of the ruling family ; having once be- "'"" i^'"»- 
 gun to sink, it could not without difficulty have re- "^"^^' 
 trieved its virtue independently of the matrimonial ~" 
 connexions now constantly formed from within itself. 
 
 Ascendency of his step-sister and wife Laodice, and of his sister , 
 
 Aparae, relict of Magas ; the latter involves him in war with
 
 190 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Tmnn 
 Period. 
 
 Seleucus 
 Callinicus, 
 B. C. 247- 
 227. 
 
 Seleucus 
 
 Ceraunus, 
 
 227. 
 
 224. 
 
 Antiochus 
 the Great, 
 B.C. 224- 
 187 
 
 Ptolemy JI. to vindicate, lior claims upon Cyrene ; it ends by 
 Antioclms's mai'riii;,^e with Berenice, daui^liter of Ptolemy, and 
 his repudiation of Laodiee, 260 — 252. Having, after the death 
 of Ptolemy, 247, put away l>erenice and taken back Laodiee, the 
 latter, distrusting his motives, cuts him off by poison. The se- 
 cession of Partliia happened in consequence of the expulsion of 
 the Macedonian governor by Arsaces, founder of the house of 
 the Arsacidfe : tliat of Bactria, on the other hand, was brought 
 about by the Macedonian governor himself, Theodotus, who as- 
 serted his independence. (Concerning these two kingdoms, see 
 below, Book IV. Period III. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 4, 5.) 
 At first, the former of these kingdoms comprised but a part of 
 Parthia ; the latter only Bactria, and perhaps Sogdiana ; both, 
 however, were soon enlarged at the expense of the Seleucidas. 
 
 11. Seleucus II. surnamed Callinicus. His reign, 
 twenty years in duration, is one unbroken series of 
 wars ; in which the kingdom, already enfeebled, was 
 subverted, partly by the struggle with Egypt, caused 
 by the hatred between Laodiee and Berenice ; partly 
 by the jealousy of his brother Antiochus Hierax ; and 
 partly by vain attempts at recovering the upper 
 provinces. 
 
 Assassination of Berenice, and most unfortunate war thereby 
 kindled with Ptolemy Evergetes of Egypt, 247 — 244. The as- 
 sistance which Seleucus obtains from his junior brother, Antio- 
 chus, governor of Asia Minor, induces Ptolemy to a truce, 243 ; 
 but another war ensues between the two brothers, in Avhich 
 Antiochus, at first conqueror, is himself soon afterwards con- 
 quered in his turn, 243 — 240 ; and during this contest, Eu- 
 menes of Pergamus greatly increases his territory at the expense 
 of Syria, 242. — His first campaign against Arsaces, who had 
 formed an alliance with the Bactrian king, ended in a defeat, 
 238, regarded by the Parthians as the real epoch of the found- 
 ation of their kingdom. In the second campaign, 236, he him- 
 self fell into the hands of the Parthians, and rem^iined a prisoner 
 till the day of his death, 227. 
 
 12. His elder son Seleucus III., surnamed Ce- 
 raunus, on the point of taking the field against At- 
 tains, king of Pergamus, was removed by poison. 
 But the dominion of the Seleucidae was re-established 
 in Asia Minor by his mothers fraternal nephew, 
 Achtens; and the crown insured to the younger 
 brother Antiochus, governor of Babylon. 
 
 13. The long reign of Antiochus III., surnamed 
 the Great, is not only the most eventful in Syrian 
 history, but likewise marks an epoch, by the rela-
 
 PERIOD in.] I. SELEUCID^. 191 
 
 tions now commencing between Syria and Rome. — Third 
 To earn the title of great was a task of no extreme '^"'°°' 
 difficulty in such a line of princes. 
 
 14. Great power of Hermias the Carian, who soon insunec- 
 became so formidable to the young monarch, that he IiTa'ami'^^^' 
 was obliG:ed to rid himself of him by murder. The Persia. 
 great stand made by the brothers, Molo and Alexan- 
 der, satraps of Media and Persia, who probably had 
 
 an understanding witli Hermias, threatened the king 
 with the loss of all the upper provinces ; it ended in 
 tlie defeat of Molo, Hermias being at last no longer 
 able to hinder the king from marching against him 220. 
 in person. 
 
 15. The intrigues of Hermias excited Achgeus to War with 
 rebellion in Asia Minor : but Antiochus held it more ^^^ 'p^<^}^- 
 miportant, first to execute the plan he had previously surrectiou 
 traced, of ejecting the Ptolemies from their posses- ^0^^220. 
 sions in Syria ; great as the success which at first 219. 
 attended this expedition, it was completely traversed 
 
 by the battle of Raphia. — Combining with Attains of 217. 
 Pergamus, Antiochus then defeated Achseus, who, 
 being shut up in the citadel of Sardes, was treacher- 21G. 
 ously delivered into his hands. 
 
 16. Great campaign of Antiochus in the upper Campaign 
 provinces, in consequence of the seizure of Media by per pro'^''" 
 Arsaces HI. — Hostilities ended in a compact, by ^•'nces, 
 which Antiochus agreed formally to cede Parthia " 
 
 and Hyrcania ; Arsaces, on his side, pledging him- 210. 
 self to furnish assistance against Bactria.- — ^But the 
 war with Bactria was also followed by a peace, leav- 
 ing the king, Euthydemus, in possession of his crown 
 and dominions. — The expedition now undertaken by 206. 
 Antiochus, in company with Demetrius of Bactriana, 
 against India, extended probably far up the country, 
 and was attended with important consequences to 
 Bactriana. (See below, history of Bactria, Book IV. 
 Period HI. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 5.) 
 
 Tiie result of these great expeditions was the 
 establishment of the supremacy of the Seleucidse in 
 Upper Asia ; those countries excepted which had 
 been formally resigned.
 
 192 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Tmiu> Oil his i-eturn tliroug;li Arachotus and Carmania, where he 
 
 Period, wintered, he likewise undertook a naval expedition on the Per- 
 sian Gulf: here Gerrha, in possession of its freedom, appears a 
 flourishing place of trade. 
 
 War with 17. Resumption of the plan against Egypt, after 
 Egypt, 203. ^j^^ death of Ptolemy Philopator ; and alliance with 
 Philip of Macedonia, then carrying on war in Asia. 
 Antiochus, it is true, attained his end in the expulsion 
 of the Ptolemies from their possessions in Syria, 
 Ccele-Syria, and Phoenicia ; but then, his success 
 203—198. brought him in contact with Rome, an event of de- 
 cisive importance to himself and his successors. 
 War with 18. Growth of the disputes between the king 
 
 Rome. ^j^j Rome, proceeding from the conquest of the 
 major part of Asia Minor and the Thracian Cher- 
 197. sonesus ; meanwhile Hannibal had taken refuge 
 at the Syrian court, and the probability daily in- 
 creased of a great league being formed against 
 B. c. 195. Rome, although that power, after conquering Car- 
 thage, 201, and Macedonia, 197, had succeeded in 
 winning over Greece even, by the magic spell of 
 freedom. But Antiochus ruined all : instead of fol- 
 lowing Hannibafs advice, and attacking the Romans 
 on their own ground, he stood on the defensive, and 
 suffered himself to be invaded by them in Asia. His 
 defeat at Magnesia near Mount Sipylus compelled 
 190. him to accede to such conditions as Rome chose to 
 dictate, and the power of the Syrian empire was for 
 ever broken. 
 
 For the history of tliis war see below in the Roman history, 
 Book V. Period II. parag. 10, 11. 
 
 Conditions 19. The coiiditioiis of the peace were: 1st, That 
 oipeace Antiochus should evacuate Asia Minor (Asia eis 
 
 with Rome. i i i i 
 
 Taurum). 2nd, That he should pay down 15,000 
 talents ; and to Eumenes of Pergamus four hundred. 
 3rd, That Hannibal and some others should be deli- 
 vered up, and the king's younger son, Antiochus, be 
 given as an hostage. — The loss of the surrendered 
 countries was a consequence of this peace, less disad- 
 vantageous to the Syrian kings, than the use made of 
 it by the conquerors. By adding the greatest part
 
 rERioD in] I. SELEUCID/E. 193 
 
 of the ceded territories to those of the kings of Per- Tiuhd 
 gamus, the Romans raised up alongside of their ene- ''"'°" ' 
 my a rival, whom they might at their own will use as 
 a political engine against him. — Rome took care like- 
 wise that the stipulated sum should be paid by instal- 
 ments in twelve years, to the end that Syria might 
 be kept in a permanent state of dependence. 
 
 20. Murder of the king, 187. The reign of his Seiencus 
 elder son, Seleucus IV., surnamed Philopator, was a fg;!^'!-^'^' 
 period of tranquillity ; peace arising from weakness. 
 
 — Though once he unsheathed his sword in defence 
 of Pharnaces king of Pontus, against Eumenes, his 
 fear of Rome soon compelled him to restore it to the 
 scabbard. He exchanged his son for his brother at 
 Rome ; but fell a victim to the ambition of his minis- 
 ter Heliodorus. 
 
 21. Antiochus IV., surnamed Epiphanes. Edu- Antiochus 
 cated at Rome, he sought to combine the popular no— röT' 
 manners of a Roman with the ostentatious luxury of 
 
 a Syrian ; and thereby becanie an object of universal 
 hatred and contempt. Our information respecting 
 his history is too meagre to allow of our deciding 
 whether most of the evil reported of him, in the Jew- 
 ish accounts especially, may not be exaggerated. At 
 any rate, among all his faults, we may still discern in 
 him the germs of good qualities. 
 
 22. War with Egypt, springing out of Ptolemy iiiswar 
 Philometor's claims upon Ccele-Syria and Palestine. t^S 
 Obscure as many parts are in the history of this war, i72— 168: 
 yet it is evident that success attended the arms of 
 Antiochus, and that he would have become master 
 
 of Egypt had not Rome interfered. 
 
 The pretext for war, on the Egyptian side, was, that those 
 provinces had by Antiochus III. been promised as a dowry to 
 Cleopatra, sister of Antiochus and the mother of Philometor : 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, on his side, hiid chiim to the regency of 
 Egypt, as uncle to the young king, who, however,. was soon de- 
 clared of age. — Opening of the war, and victory won by Antio- 
 chus at Pelusium, 171 ; in conseipience of which Cyprus is 
 betrayed into his hands. — Pelusium is fortified witli a view of 
 insuring the possession of Ccjele- Syria, and of focilitating an 
 irruption into Egypt. — Another victory, 170, and Egypt sub- 
 dued as far as Alexandria. Pliilometor driven by a sedition out 
 
 O
 
 194 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Tinni) 
 Period. 
 
 his intoler- 
 
 B. C. lf,7. 
 
 his death, 
 B. C. 165. 
 
 Antiochus 
 Eupator. 
 
 164—161, 
 
 of Alexandria, Avhere his brother Physcon is seated on tlie 
 throne, falls into the hands of Antiochus, who concludes with 
 ■ him a most advantageous peace, and takes his part against 
 Physcon. Hence siege is laid to Alexandria, 169 ; attended 
 with no success. Upon the retreat of Antiochus, Philometor, 
 concluding a separate peace with his brother, according to which 
 both are to rule in conjunction, is admitted into Alexandria. 
 Antiochus, bitterly enraged, now declares war against both bro- 
 thers, who crave assistance from Rome : he once more pene- 
 trates into Egypt, 168 ; where the Roman ambassador, Popil- 
 lius, assumes so lofty a tone, that the Syrian king is glad to 
 purchase peace by the surrender of C}^rus and Pelusium. 
 
 23. The religious intolerance of Epiphanes, exhi- 
 bited in his wish to introduce the Grecian worship 
 every where among the subjects of his empire, is the 
 more remarkable, as such instances were less fre- 
 quent in those times. This intolerance seems to have 
 taken its rise, not only in the love of pomp, but in 
 the cupidity of the king, who by that means was en- 
 abled to appropriate to himself the treasures of the 
 temples, no longer inviolate, since the defeat of his 
 father by Rome. The consequent sedition of the 
 Jews, under the Maccabees, laid the foundation of 
 the future independence of that people, and contri- 
 buted not a little to weaken the Syrian kingdom. 
 
 See below ; History of the Jews, Book IV. Period IV. ; Small 
 states Jews, parag. 6. The deep decay of the finances of the 
 Seleucida3, palpable from the latter days of Antiochus the 
 Great, may be accounted for well enough, by the falling off of 
 the revenue, accompanied with increased luxury in the kings, 
 (an instance of which is furnished in the festivals celebrated by 
 Antiochus Epiphanes at Daphne, 166,) and in the vast presents 
 constantly sent to Rome, in addition to the ti'ibute, for the pur- 
 pose of keeping up a party there. 
 
 24. His expedition also into Upper Asia, Persis 
 especially, where great disorders were likewise ex- 
 cited by the introduction of the Grecian religion, had 
 for its object not only the recovery of Armenia, but 
 the rifling of the temples. He died, however, on his 
 way to Babylon. 
 
 25. The real heir to the throne, Demetrius, being- 
 detained at Rome as an hostage, Epiphanes was first 
 succeeded by his son Antiochus V., surnamed Eupa- 
 tor, a child nine years old. During his short reign,
 
 PERIOD III.] I. SELEUCID^. 195 
 
 the quarrels of his guardians, the despotism of the Third 
 Romans, the protracted war with the Jews, and the _^^^-_ 
 commencing conquests of the Parthians, reduced the 
 kingdom of the Seleucidae to a powerless state. 
 
 Contest between Lysias, regent in the absence of Epiphanes, 
 and Philip, appointed by the king, previously to his death, as 
 guardian of the young prince, terminated by the defeat of Philip, 
 162. — Eupator's right acknowledged at Rome, in order that the 
 guardianship might fall into the hands of the senate, who ad- 
 minister the government by means of a commission sent over 
 into Syria, and completely deprive the king of all power of re- 
 sistance. Octavius, head of the commission, put to death, pro- 
 bably at the instigation of Lysias. — While the Parthian king, 
 Mithridates I., is prosecuting his conquests at the expense of 
 the Syrian kingdom in Upper Asia, Demetrius secretly escapes 
 out of Rome, takes possession of the throne, and causes Eupator 
 and Lysias to be put to death, 161. 
 
 26. Demetrius I., surnamed Soter. He succeeded Demetrius 
 in getting himself acknowledged at Rome, on which loiüliso 
 all now depended. The attempts to extend his power, 
 
 by supporting Orofernes, the pretender to the crown 
 of Cappadocia, against the king Ariaratlies, had their 
 origin partly in family relations, but still mon;, as 
 was the case with almost all political transactions of 
 those times, in bribery. By this act he oidy drew 
 upon himself the enmity of the kings of Egypt and 
 Pergamus ; as, moreover, he was hated by his sub- 
 jects on account of his intemperance, the chances of 
 success were greatly in favour of the shameful usurp- b. c. 154. 
 ation of Alexander Balas, brought about by Hera- 
 clidas the expelled governor of Babylon, and backed 
 by the yet more shameful conduct of the Roman 
 senate, who acknowledged his title to the throne. 
 The Syrian kingdom was now fallen so low, that both 
 king and usurper were obliged to court the favour of 
 the Jews under Jonathan, hitherto regarded as rebels. 
 In the second battle Demetrius lost his life. 
 
 27. The usurper Alexander Balas endeavoured to Alexander 
 confirm his power by a marriage with Cleopatra, is'^ÖÜ'hs. 
 daughter of Ptolemy Philometor: but he soon evinced 
 himself more unworthy even than his predecessor of 
 wielding the sceptre. While he abandoned the go- 
 vernment to his favourite, the detested Ammonius, 
 
 o 2
 
 196 MACEDONIAN MüNAllCHY. [book iv. 
 
 TiiiKD tlio eldest nnnaining son of Demetrius succeeds not 
 ^^'"°" ' only in raising a party against the usurper, but even 
 in prevailing on Philometor to side with himself, and 
 give him in marriage Cleopatra, whom he takes away 
 from Balas. The consequence of this alliance with 
 145. Egypt was the defeat and downfal of Balas, although 
 it cost Philometor his life. 
 
 The account, that Philometor wished to conquer Syria for 
 himself, must probably be understood as meaning that he had 
 formed the design of recovering the ancient Egyptian posses- 
 sions, Ccele-Syi'ia and Phoenicia. Otherwise, why sliould he 
 have given his daughter to a second pretender to the tlu'one ? 
 
 Demotiius 28. Dcmctrius II., surnamed Nicator, 145 — 141, 
 f45-r26. and for the second time, 130—126. The disband- 
 ino- of his father's mercenaries havino; roused the in- 
 dignation of the army, the cruelty of his favourite 
 Lasthenes kindled a sedition in the capital, which 
 could not be quenched without the assistance of the 
 Jews, under their high priest and military chieftain, 
 Jonathan. — While affairs were in this posture, Dio- 
 B. c. 145. dotus, subsequently called Triphon, a dependent of 
 Balas, excited an insurrection, by bringing forward 
 Antiochus, the latter's son, and even, with the help 
 of Jonathan, seating him on the throne of Antioch : 
 144. soon after, Tryphon, having by treachery got Jona- 
 143. than into his power, removed Antiochus by murder, 
 i^'- and assumed the diadem himself. — Notwithstanding 
 Demetrius kept his footing only in a part of Syria, 
 he was enabled to obey the call of the Grecian colon- 
 ists in Upper Asia, and support them against the Par- 
 thians, who had overrun the country as far as the 
 Euphrates. — Although victorious in the commence- 
 ment of the contest, he was soon after taken by the 
 140—130. Parthians, and remained ten years a prisoner, though 
 
 treated meanwhile as a king. 
 Antiochus 29. In order to maintain herself against Tryphon, 
 139."^^' Cleopatra marries the younger and better brother, 
 Antiochus of Sida (Sidetes) ; he being at first in alli- 
 ance with the Jews, — who, however, were soon after 
 subdued, — defeats and overthrows Tryphon. Being 
 now lord and master of Syria, he undertakes a cam-
 
 PERIOD m.l I. SELEUCIDiG. 197 
 
 paign against the Partliians ; at the commencement, Third 
 
 Period. 
 
 befriended by the subjects of tlie Parthians, he is suc- 
 cessful, but soon afterwards is attacked in winter- 132. 
 quarters by those very friends, and cut to pieces, 131. 
 together with all his army. 
 
 If the accounts of the wanton licentiousness of his army are 
 not exaggerations, they furnish the clearest proof of the military 
 despotism of those times. By continued pillage and extortion, 
 the wealth of the country had been collected in the hands of the 
 soldiers ; and the condition of Syria must have been pretty 
 nearly the same as that of Egypt under the Mamluk sultans. 
 
 30. Meanwhile Demetrius II. having escaped from Demetrius 
 prison, again seated himself on the throne. But be- störe«?'"^' 
 ing now still more overbearing than before, and b- ('. i3o 
 meddling in the Egyptian aifairs, Ptolemy Physcon ~ ~ 
 
 set up against him a rival in the person of Alexander 
 Zebinas, a pretended son of Alexander Balas ; by 120. 
 him he was defeated and slain. 
 
 The Parthian king Phraates II., had, at first, liberated De- 
 metrius, to whom his sister Rhodogune was vmited by marriage, 
 in order that, by appearing in Syria, he might oblige Antiochus 
 to retreat. Antiochus having fallen, Phraates would fain have 
 recaptured Demetrius, but he escaped. 
 
 31. The ensuing history of the Seleucidse is a isn— 85 
 picture of civil wars, family feuds, and deeds of hor- 
 ror, such as are scarcely to be paralleled. The ut- 
 most verge of the empire was now the Euphrates ; 
 
 all Upper Asia acknowledging the dominion of the 
 Parthians. The Jews, moreover, having completely 
 vindicated their independence, the kingdom was con- 
 sequently confined to Syria and Phoenicia. So 
 thoroughly decayed was the state, that even the Ro- 
 mans — whether because there was no longer any 
 thing to plunder, or because they conceived it more 
 prudent to suffer the Seleucidae to wear themselves 
 out in mutual quarrels — do not seem to have taken 
 any account of it, until, at the conclusion of the last ^>"'^ ''^- 
 war with Mithridates, they thought proper formally Romau 
 to annex it to their empire as a province. rmvince, 
 
 War between Alexander Zebinas and the ambitious relict of 
 Demetrius, Cleopatra, who witli her own liaiid murders her 
 eldest son Seleucus, B. C. 12.5, for protending to tlie crown,
 
 198 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third wliicli she now gives to her youngest son, Antiochus Gryphus ; 
 
 Period, tjjg ng^y king, however, soon saw himself compelled to secure 
 his own life by the murder of his mother, 122 ; Alexander Ze- 
 binas having been the year before, 123, defeated and put to 
 death. After a peaceful rule of eight years, 122 — 114, Anti- 
 ochus Gryphus is involved in war with his half-brother Anti- 
 ochus Cyzicenus, son of Cleopatra by Antiochus Sidetes : it 
 ends. 111, in a partition of territoiy. But tlie war between the 
 brothers soon burst out anew, and just as this hapless kingdom 
 seemed about to crumble into pieces, Gryphus was murdered, 
 97. — Seleucus, the eldest of his five sons, having beaten and 
 slain Cyzicenus, 96 ; the eldest son of the latter, Antiochus Eu- 
 sebes, prosecuted the war against the sons of Gr3"phus ; Eusebes 
 being at last defeated, 90, the surviving sons of Gryphus fell to 
 war among themselves, and the struggle continued until the 
 Syrians, weary of bloodshed, did what they ought to have done 
 long before, viz. made over the sovereign power to Tigranes 
 the king of Armenia, 85. Yet Eusebes's widow, Selene, re- 
 tained Ptolemais till 70 ; and her elder son Antiochus Asiaticus, 
 at the time that Tigranes was beaten by Lueullus, in the Mith- 
 ridatic war, took possession of some provinces in Sp'ia, 68 ; 
 these were wrested from him after the total defeat of Mithri- 
 dates by Pompey, when Tigranes was obliged to give up his 
 claim, and Syria became a province of the Roman empire, 64. 
 Antiochus Asiaticus died 58 ; his brother Seleucus Cybiosactes, 
 having married Berenice, was raised to the Egyptian throne, 
 but murdered at her command, 57 ; and thus the family of the 
 Seleucidae was completely swept away. 
 
 II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, 
 323—30. 
 
 The sources of this history are for the most part the same as 
 in the foregoing section ; see above, p. 186; but unfortunately 
 still more scanty : for in the first place, less information can here 
 be derived from the Jewish writers ; secondly, as on the coins 
 struck under the Ptolemies no continuous series of time is 
 marked, but only the year of the king's reign, they are by no 
 means such safeguards to the chronology as those of the Seleu- 
 cidse. "With respect to some few events, important illustrations 
 are supplied by inscriptions. 
 
 By modern writers, the history of the Ptolemies has been com- 
 posed under a form almost entirely chronological, and by no 
 means treated of in the spirit which it deserves. 
 
 Vaillant, Ilistoria PtolemxEorum, fol. Amstelodam. 1701. 
 Illustration by the aid of coins. 
 
 Champolliox Figeac, Annates des Lagides, ou Chronologie 
 des Rois dEgypte, successeicrs d Alexandre le Grand. Paris, 
 1819. 2 vols. This treatise, which was honoured with a prize
 
 PERIOD in.] II. PTOLEMIES. 199 
 
 by the Academic des Inscriptions, has by no means exhausted Third 
 the whole of the subject. See Period. 
 
 J. Saint-Martin, Examen Critique de Fouvrage de M. Cii. 
 F, intitule Annales des Lagides. Paris, 1820. 
 
 Letkonne, Recherches pour servir a Vhistoire de TEgypte 
 pendant la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tirees des in- 
 scriptions Grecques et Latines, relatives a la chronologic, a Vetat 
 des arts, aux usages civils et religieux de ce pa?/s. Paris, 1 828. 
 It cannot be denied that the author lias thrown a much clearer 
 light on the subjects mentioned in his title. 
 
 1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies, fulfilled, and per- nourishing 
 haps more than fulfilled, the designs projected by ^^ly^t 
 Alexander ; it became not only a mighty kingdom, "n^'*^»' t.^e 
 but likewise the centre of trade and of science. The 
 history of Egypt, however, confines itself, almost sole- 
 ly, to that of the new capital, Alexandria ; the found- 
 ation of that city produced, imperceptibly, a change 
 
 in the national character, which never could have 
 been wrought by main force. In the enjoyment of 
 civil welfare and religious freedom, the nation sunk 
 into a state of political drowsiness, such as could 
 scarce have been expected in a people who so often 
 rose up against the Persians. 
 
 Alexandria, originally, was no doubt a military colony ; it was 
 not long, however, before it became a general place for resort 
 for all nations, such as was scarcely to be met with in any other 
 town of that day. The inhabitants were divided into three 
 classes ; Alexandrines, (that is to say, foreigners of all nations, 
 who had settled in the place ; next to the Greeks, the Jews were, 
 it appears, the most numerous,) Egyptians, and Mercenaries in 
 the king's service. The Greeks and Macedonians, divided into 
 wards, (^vXac,) constituted the citizens; they were under mu- 
 nicipal government ; the others, such as the Jews, formed bodies 
 corporate according to their respective nations. The more im- 
 portant, in so many respects, that Alexandria is for history, the 
 more it is to be regretted that the accounts respecting it, which 
 have reached us, are so far from satisfactory I — Concerning the 
 topography of ancient Alexandria : 
 
 BoN/UiY, Description de la ville d' Alexandrie in the Man. de 
 V Academic des Inscript. vol. ix. Compare, 
 
 f J. L. F. Manso, Letters upon ancient Alexandria, in his 
 Vermischte Schriften, vol. i. 
 
 2. Ptolemy I., urnamed Soter, tlie son of Lagus, Ptolemy 
 received Egypt for his share, at the first division after b° c'^':}23 
 the death of Alexander. Aware of the value of his — 2«-i.
 
 äOO MACEDONIAN MONARCHY, [book iv. 
 
 riiiRD lot, he was the only one of Alexander's successors 
 
 Ve ftlOD 
 
 that had the moderation not to aim at grasping all. 
 No doubt he was, by the ambition of the other princes, 
 entangled in their quarrels; but his conduct was so 
 cautious, that Egypt itself w^as never endangered. 
 321. Twice attacked in that country, first by Perdiccas, 
 307. afterwards by Antigonus and Demetrius, he availed 
 himself successfully of his advantageous position, and 
 moreover, in this period, added to his dominion several 
 countries without Africa, such as Phoenicia, Judaea, 
 Ccele-Syria, and Cyprus. 
 
 The possession of Phoenicia and Cccle- Syria, by reason of their 
 forests, was of indispensable necessity to Egypt a$ a naval power. 
 They frequently changed masters. The first occupation of those 
 provinces by the Egyptian government occurred in 320, soon 
 after the rout of Perdiccas by Ptolemy's general, Nicanor, who 
 took the Syrian satrap Laomedon prisoner, established his foot- 
 ing in the whole of Syria, and placed garrisons in the Phoenician 
 cities. In 314 it was again lost to Antigonus, after his return 
 out of Upper Asia, and the siege of Tyre. Ptolemy having 
 defeated Demetrius at Gaza, 312, repossessed himself of those 
 countries, but soon after evacuated them on the appearance of 
 Antigonus, to whom they were ceded by the peace of 31 1. At 
 the conclusion of the last grand league against Antigonus, 303, 
 Ptolemy once more occupied them : but alarmed at a false re- 
 port, that Antigonus had gained a victory, he retreated into 
 Egypt, leaving nevertheless troops in the cities. After the bat- 
 tle of Ipsus, 301, those countries were made over to him, and 
 continued in the hands of the Ptolemies until they were lost at 
 the second invasion of Antiochus the Great, 203. 
 
 Cyprus, (see p. 124,) like most other islands, acknowledged 
 submission to those who possessed the sovereignty of the sea, 
 and therefore could not escape the dominion of the Ptolemies. 
 It was taken possession of by Ptolemy as early as 313. Still 
 the separate cities of the islands preserved their kings, among 
 whom Nicocles of Paphos, having entered into a secret league 
 with Antigonus, was put to death, 310. After the great sea- 
 tight, 307, Cyprus fell into the hands of Antigonus and Deme- 
 trius. Subsequently to the battle of Ipsus, 301, it remained in- 
 deed at first in the power of Demetrius ; but that prince being 
 gone over to Macedonia, Ptolemy, 294, seized an opportunity of 
 recovering it, and the island from that time remained under the 
 dominion of Egypt. Availing themselves of their naval strength, 
 the Egyptian kings frequently exerted sovereign power over 
 the coasts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia, Caria, and Pamphy- 
 lia, which appear to have absolutely formed a part of their terri- 
 tory under the second Ptolemy. It is, however, hardly possible
 
 ya an- 
 ed to 
 
 PEUiOD III.] II. PTOLEMIES. 201 
 
 to define with accuracy wliat were tlieir real possessions in Third 
 tliose quarters. Period. 
 
 3. Ptolemy likewise extends his territory within cyreneand 
 Africa, by the capture of Cyrene ; in consequence ^^^.^'', 
 of which Libya, or the neighbouring countries be- Egypt. 
 twixt Cyrene and Egypt, fell under his dominion. 
 It is probable, also, that even in his reign the fron- 
 tier of the Egyptian empire was advanced into 
 Ethiopia ; but for this assertion we have no positive 
 authority. 
 
 Tlie fall of Cyrene was brought about by domestic broils : at 
 the time the place was besieged by Thimbron, a portion of the 
 exiled nobles fled to Ptolemy ; the Egyptian prince commanded 
 that they should be reinstated by his general Ophelias, who 
 took possession of the town itself, 321. An insurrection in 
 312 was quelled by Agis, Ptolemy's general : nevertheless it 
 would appear that Ophelias had almost established his inde- 
 pendence, when, by the treachery of Agathocles, with whom he 
 had entered into a league against Carthage, he perished, about 
 308. Cyrene was now seized by Ptolemy, and given to his 
 son Magas, who ruled over it fifty years. 
 
 4. With respect to the internal government of Constitu- 
 Egypt, our information is far from complete. The govem- 
 division into districts or nomes was continued ; sub- ™^"*- 
 ject perhaps, in some cases, to alterations. The 
 power of the king appears to have been unlimited ; 
 
 the extreme provinces were administered by go- 
 vernors, appointed by the sovereign ; similar officers 
 were probably placed at the head of the various 
 districts of Egypt itself; but hardly any document 
 relative to the home department of that country has 
 reached our time. High public situations, at least 
 in the capital, appear exclusively reserved to Mace- 
 donians or Greeks ; no Egyptian is ever mentioned 
 as holding office. 
 
 There were four magistrates at Alexandria : the Exegetes, 
 whose office was to provide for the wants of the city ; the Chief 
 Judge ; the Ilypomnematographus — (Registrar of the archives ?) 
 — and the ^-pari^yuQ wi^rtpiroQ, no doubt, the supervisor of the 
 police, whose duty it was to watch over the peace of the city at 
 night. We have the express testimony of Strabo, that these 
 offices, whicli continued under the Romans, had already existed 
 under the kin-iS ; whether their establishment cr.n be dated as
 
 202 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 The priest- 
 caste and 
 reliiriou re- 
 
 Tiimn far back as the time of Ptolemy I. is a question that does not 
 
 Peuiod. admit of a solution. — The number of the districts or nomes ap- 
 
 pears to have been augmented ; probably with a political view, 
 
 in order that no governor or monarch should be invested with 
 
 too great a share of power. 
 
 5. Be that as it may, it is an undoubted fact, that 
 the ancient national constitution and administration 
 were not entirely obliterated. The caste of priests, 
 together with the national religion, continued to 
 exist ; and though the influence of the former was 
 considerably diminished, it did not entirely cease. 
 A certain sort of worship was, by appointed priests, 
 paid to the kings, both in their lifetime and after 
 their death. Memphis, though not the usual resi- 
 dence of the court, remained the capital of the 
 kingdom ; there the ceremony of coronation was 
 performed ; and its temple of Phtha was still the 
 head sanctuary. What influence had not the reli- 
 gion of the Egyptians upon that of the Greeks ! It 
 were difficult to say which nation borrowed most 
 from the other. 
 
 6. The regeneration of Egypt from the state of 
 ofthePto- general ruin into which she had been plunged, and 
 lemies. ^}^g permanent tranquillity she enjoyed during nearly 
 
 thirty years, the duration of the reign of Ptolemy I., 
 — at a time when the rest of the world was harassed 
 by continual wars, — must have heightened her pros- 
 perity under so mild and beneficent a ruler. But 
 Ptolemy was certainly the only prince who could 
 have taken advantage of these favourable circum- 
 stances. Though a soldier by profession, he was 
 highly accomplished, was himself a writer, and had a 
 genius for all the arts of peace, which he fostered 
 with the openhanded liberality of a king ; while 
 amidst all the brilliant splendour of his court, he led 
 himself the life of a private individual. 
 
 Increase of Alexandria by the importation of vast numbers of 
 colonists ; especially Jews. — Erection of several superb build- 
 ings, more particularly the Serapeum. — Measures taken for the 
 extension of trade and navigation. — The twofold harbour on 
 the sea, and on the lake Mareotis. — The Pharus built. 
 
 encouraged. 7. But what morc than any thing else distin- 
 
 Character 
 of the first
 
 PERIOD III.] IL PTOLEMIES. 203 
 
 guished Ptolemy from his contemporaries was his Third 
 reo-ard for the interests of science. The idea of [ 
 
 founding the Museum sprung out of the necessities 
 of the age, and was suited to the monarchical form 
 of government now prevalent. Where in those days 
 of destruction and revolution could the sciences have 
 found a shelter, if not under the protection of a 
 prince ? But under Ptolemy they found more than 
 a shelter, they found a rallying point. Here, accord- 
 ingly, the exact sciences were perfected : and although 
 the critic's art which now grew up could not form a 
 Homer or a Sophocles, should we, had it not been 
 for the Alexandrines, be at present able to read either 
 Homer or Sophocles 1 
 
 Foundation of the Museum, (Society of the learned,) and of 
 the first library in Brucliium, (afterwards removed to the Sera- 
 peum,) probably under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus. 
 A proper estimation of the services rendered by the Museum is 
 yet wanting : Avhat academy in modern Europe, however, has 
 done so much ? 
 
 Heyne, De genio Sceculi PtolemcBorum. In Opuscul. t. i. 
 
 ]\Iatter, Essai historique siir Vecole (TAIexandrie. 1820. 
 
 8. Ptolemy H., surnamed Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy 
 Berenice, the second wife of his father, had ascended ,,üs^ ^ " 
 the throne in 286 as joint king. His reign, which b.c. 284— 
 lasted thirty-eight years, was more peaceful even ~ 
 than that of his predecessor, whose spirit seemed to 
 inspire him in every thing, save that he was not a 
 warrior : but, by that very reason, the arts of peace, 
 trade, and science were promoted with the greater 
 energy. In his reign Egypt was the first power by 
 sea, and one of the first by land, in the world ; and 
 even though the account given by Theocritus of its 
 thirty-three thousand cities may be regarded as the 
 exaggeration of a poet, it is very certain that Egypt 
 was in those days the most flourishing country in 
 existence. 
 
 The commerce of Alexandria was divided into three main 
 branches; 1. The land-trade over Asia and Africa. 2. The 
 sea-trade on the Mediterranean. 3. Tlie sea-trade on the Ara- 
 bian Gulf and Indian Ocean. With regard to the land-trade 
 of Asia, especially that of India carried on by caravans, Alex- 
 andria was obliged to share it with various cities and countries :
 
 204 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third since one of its chief routes traversed the Oxus, and Caspian, 
 Period, to the Bhick Sea ; while the caravans travelling through Syria 
 ■ and Mesopotamia, spread for the most ])art among the sea-ports 
 of Phtenicia and Asia Minor. — The trade over Africa extended 
 far west, and still farther south. Westward it was secured by 
 the close connexion between Cyrene and Alexandria ; and no 
 doubt followed tlie same roads as in earlier times : of far greater 
 importance was that carried on with the southern countries, or 
 Ethiopia, into the interior of which they now penetrated, prin- 
 cipally for the purpose of procuring elephants. The navigation 
 on the Arabian and Indian Seas had likewise for its immediate 
 object the Ethiopian trade, rather than the Indian. — The mea- 
 sures taken by Ptolemy with this view, consisted partly in the 
 building of hai'bours (Berenice, j\Iyos-Hormos) on the Arabian 
 Gulf ; partly in establishing a caravan from Berenice to Coptos 
 on the Nile, down which latter the goods were further trans- 
 mitted to their destination ; for the canal connecting the Red 
 Sea with the Nile, although, perhaps, completed at this time, 
 was nevertheless but little used. The grand deposit for these 
 wares was the lesser harbour of Alexandria, united by a canal 
 with the lake INIareotis, which in its turn communicated by an- 
 other canal with the Nile ; so that the account we receive of the 
 lesser harbour being more thronged and full of bustle than the 
 larger one, need not excite our surprise. "With regard to the 
 trade on the Mediterranean, it was shared between Alexandria, 
 Rhodes, Corinth, and Carthage. The chief manufactories ap- 
 pear to have been those of cotton stuffs, established in or near 
 the temples. 
 
 The best inquiry into the trade of Alexandria wnll be found 
 in J. C. D. De Schmidt, Opuscula, res maxime Aegyptiorum 
 illustrantia, 1765, 8vo. 
 
 Revenue of 9. It would be important to know what, in a state 
 ^^ ' like Egypt, was the system of imposts, which, under 
 Philadelphus, produced 14,800 silver talents, (four 
 millions sterling,) without taking into account the 
 toll paid in grain. In the extreme provinces, such 
 as Palestine, the taxes were annually farmed to the 
 highest bidder, a mode of levy attended with great 
 oppression to the people. The case appears to have 
 been very different with regard to Egypt itself; the 
 customs, however, constituted the main branch of 
 the revenue. 
 
 Events of ]Q 'y\-^q ^ars wagcd by Ptolemy II. were limited 
 
 the reign ot , . A"iTTr»ci- ^ "V/T 
 
 Phiiadei- to those agamst Antiochus 11. ot oyria, and IVJagas 
 
 phus. Qf Cyi-ene, half-brother to the Egyptian king ; the 
 
 former sprung out of the latter. Luckily for Egypt 
 
 Ptolemy II. was of a v/eak constitution, and by his
 
 PERIOD in. 
 
 II. PTOLEMIES. 205 
 
 state of health was incapacitated from commandino- Third 
 his armies in person. — Under his reign the first ^"'°"' 
 foundation was laid, by means of reciprocal embas- 
 sies, of that connexion with Rome which afterwards 
 decided the fate of Egypt. 
 
 Magas had, after the defeat of Ophelias, received Cjrene, 
 308. He had married Apame, daughter of Antiochus I., and 
 in 266 had raised the standard of rebellion with the intention of 
 invading Egypt itself, when an insurrection in Marmarica com- 
 pelled him to retreat ; he contrived, notwithstanding, to prevail 
 upon his father-in-law to undertake an expedition against 
 Egypt, which, however, was frustrated by Philadelphus, 264. 
 To terminate this contest, IMagas was about to unite his daugh- 
 ter Berenice with the eldest son of Philadelphus ; Apame, wish- 
 ing to thwart the negotiation, fled over to her brother, Antiochus 
 II., whom, after her husband's death, 258, she excited to a war 
 against Egypt, which closed in 252. — The embassy to Rome 
 originated in the victory won by the Romans over PyiThus, 
 273 ; it was answered by another from the Romans, 272. 
 
 11. The son inherited from his father all but the Chararter 
 simplicity of domestic life : under the reign of Phila- rhiiläJu ^ 
 delphus, the court w^as first thrown open to that p^^s. 
 effeminate luxury, which soon wrought the destruc- 
 tion of the Ptolemies, as it had previously done that 
 
 of the Seleucidas ; at the same time was introduced 
 the pernicious practice of intermarriages in the same 
 family, by which the royal blood was more foully 
 contaminated here even than in Syria. Philadelphus 
 set the first example, by repudiating Arsinoe the 
 daughter of Lysimachus, and then marrying his own 
 sister, likewise named Arsinoe ; this princess pre- 
 served her infliuence over the king as long as she 
 lived, although she did not bring him an heir, but 
 adopted the children of her predecessor. 
 
 12. Ptolemy III., surnamed Evergetes. Under Ptoiemy 
 him, Egypt, from being merely mercantile, assumed b'c.*''lm(!^ 
 the character of a conquering state ; notwithstanding --'i- 
 
 his warlike spirit, he was not uninspii-ed with that 
 genius for the arts of peace peculiar to his family. 
 His conquests were directed partly against Asia in 
 the war with Seleucus II., and extended as far as the 
 borders of Bactria ; and partly, it is probable, against 
 the interior of Ethiopia, and the western coast of
 
 206 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv, 
 
 Third Arabia. Countries so wealthy, and with which com- 
 ^EKioD.^ merce had made men so well acquainted, could hardly- 
 escape the arms of such a formidable power as Egypt ; 
 yet she seems to have made scarcely any other use of 
 this extension of territory, than to insure the safety 
 of her commercial routes. 
 
 The main source of the history of Ptolemy Evergetes, is the 
 inscription on the monument erected by that prince at Adule 
 in Ethiopia : it contains a chronological list of his conquests, a 
 copy of which has been preserved to us by Cosmas Indico- 
 pleustes ; modern researches, however, have shown the proba- 
 bility of its having consisted of two inscriptions, one referring 
 to Evergetes, the other to a later king of Abyssinia. — Accord- 
 ing to this monument, Ptolemy inherited from his father, be- 
 sides Egypt itself, Libya, that is to say, western Africa as far 
 as Cyrene, Coele- Syria, Phoenicia, Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and 
 the Cyclades. — War with Seleucus Callinicus caused by the 
 murder of Berenice, (see above, p. 190,) lasted until the ten 
 years' truce, 246 — 240. Dui'ing this Avar he conquered the 
 whole of Syria as far as the Euphrates, and most of the mari- 
 time countries in Asia Minor, from Cilicia to the Hellespont : 
 an easy prey to a naval power. Whether the conquest of the 
 countries beyond the Euphrates, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Per- 
 sis, Susiana, and Media as far as Bactria, was effected in these 
 four 3'ears, or not till between 240 and 230, is a question which 
 cannot be determined with certainty. If we may judge by the 
 booty brought back, this campaign was rather a foray than a 
 regular expedition for conquest, though Ptolemy, indeed, ap- 
 pointed governors in Cilicia and Babylonia ; yet the peculiar 
 situation of affairs in Asia at the time, Seleucus being at war 
 with his brother Antiochus Hierax, and the Parthian and Bac- 
 trian kingdoms being also in a state of infant feebleness, af- 
 forded unusual opportunities for an expedition of this sort. 
 
 The southern conquests, so far as they may be referred to 
 Evergetes, were effected during the last period of his reign, in 
 a separate war. They comprised: 1st, The greatest part of 
 modern Abyssinia, — for as the catalogue of nations commences 
 with that of Abyssinia, it necessarily follows that Nubia had 
 already been subjected to Egypt. — The mountain range along 
 the Arabian Gulf, the plain of Sennaar as far as modern Dar- 
 fur, the lofty chain of mountains to the south, beyond the foun- 
 tains of the Nile. All these conquests were made by the king 
 in person ; and from those distant lands to Egypt, commercial 
 roads were opened. 2nd, The western coast of Ai'abia, from 
 Leuke Kome to the southern point of Arabia Felix, was con- 
 quered by his generals and admirals : here, likewise, the secur- 
 ity of the commercial roads was established. 
 
 Mo7ii{me?i(i(m AduUtanum, published in Fabricius, B. GrcBC. 
 t. ii.
 
 PF.ition in.] II. TTOLEMIES. 207 
 
 MoNTFAUCON, Coll. Putr. t. i., and in CmsHULL, Ant'updt. Third 
 Asiaticce. Pekiod. 
 
 The assertion that the monument bc'ars two different inscrip- ' 
 
 tions is made by vSalt, in tlie narrative of his travels contained 
 in the Travels of Lord Volentia. 
 
 13. Egypt was singularly blessed in having three 
 great kings, whose reigns filled one whole century. 
 A change now ensued ; but that change was brought 
 about by the natural course of events ; in fact, it 
 could scarcely be expected tliat the court should re- 
 main untainted by such luxury as must have pre- 
 vailed in a city, which was the main seat of trade, and 
 the deposit of the treasures of the richest countries. 
 
 14. Ptolemy IV., surnamed Philopator. A de- Ptoicmy 
 bauchee and a tyrant, who, during the greater por- ^'"("j" 'o-liL 
 tion of his reign, remained under the tutelage of the ~^^- 
 crafty Sosibius, and, after the decease of that indi- 
 vidual, fell into the yet more infamous hands of Aga- 
 thocles and his sister Agathoclea. Philopator being- 
 contemporary with Antiochus the Great, the dangers 
 
 that threatened Egypt under such a reign seemed to 
 be doubled ; they were, however, averted by the ill- 
 deserved victory of Raphia (see above, p. 191). 
 
 15. Agathocles and his sister would fain have Ptolemy 
 taken into their own hands the guardianship of his ^04— imT* 
 son Ptolemy V., surnamed Epiphanes, a child only 
 
 five years old ; but the people having risen up and 
 made a terrible example of them, the office of 
 guardian was confided to the younger Sosibius and 
 to Tlepolemus. The reckless prodigality of the 
 former soon gave rise to a feud between him and his 
 colleague, who was at least cunning enough to keep 
 up appearances. Meanwhile the critical posture in 
 which the kingdom was placed, by the attack of the 
 enleagued kings of Syria and Macedonia, compelled b.c. 203. 
 the nation to defer the regency to Rome and the; 
 senate, who had hitherto carefully cherished an ami- 202. 
 cable connexion with Egypt. 
 
 The regency confided to JM. Lepidus, 201, who hands over 
 the administration to Aristomenes of Aoarnania. The sequel 
 will show how decidedly important tins step was for the ulte- 
 rior destinies of Egypt. By the war of the Romans against
 
 208 MACEDONIAN MONAIICHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third Philip, and their differenws with Antiochus, Egypt was, no 
 Period, doubt, lor the present extricated from her embarrassment ; but 
 neverth(;less in 198 she lost her Syrian possessions, notwith- 
 standing Antiochus III. had promised to give them as a dowry 
 to Cleopatra, the affianced bride, and subsequently the consort 
 of the young king of Egypt. 
 
 To this time, or about 197, belongs the celebrated inscrip- 
 tion on the Rosetta stone, erected by the caste of priests as a 
 tribute of gratitude for past benefits, after the consecration of 
 the king at Memphis upon his coming of age : a monument im- 
 portant alike for palasography, and for the knowledge of Egyp- 
 tian administration. 
 
 Ameilhon, Eclaircissemens sur V inscriptio Grecque du mo- 
 nument trouve a Rosette. Paris, 1803. 
 
 Heyne, Cojnmentatio de inscriptlone Grceca ex Aegypto Lon- 
 dinum apportata, in the Commentat. Societ. Gotl'mg. vol. xv. 
 
 characferof 16- The hopes conceived of Epiplianes, were 
 Epiphaues. gnevouslj disappointed as he grew up to manhood. 
 184. His guardian Aristomenes fell a victim to his ty- 
 ranny ; nay, his cruelty drove even the patient 
 Egyptians to rebel, although the insurrections were 
 B. c. 183. stilled by his counsellor and general, Polycrates. 
 His reign happened during the period in which 
 Rome crushed the power of Macedonia and Syria ; 
 and notwithstanding the close alliance between Epi- 
 phanes and Antiochus HI., the Romans succeeded in 
 holding the Egyptian king in dependence ; he was, 
 however, in the twenty-eighth year of his age, brought 
 to an early grave by intemperance and debauchery. 
 Ptolemy 17. Of his two SOUS, the elder, a child five years 
 
 piiiiometor. o](j^ y^^s his immediate successor ; this prince, by 
 the title of Ptolemy VI., surnamed Philometor, 
 ascended the throne under the guardianship of his 
 mother Cleopatra, who fulfilled the duties of her 
 office to the satisfaction of all, until 173. But after 
 her death, the regency having fallen into the hands 
 of Euleeus an eunuch, and Lenseus, these individuals, 
 asserting their claims to Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, 
 engaged with Antiochus Epiphanes in a war exceed- 
 ingly detrimental to Egypt, until Rome commanded 
 peace to be made. 
 
 Antiochus, after the victory of Pelusium, B. C. 171, and the 
 treacherous surrender of Cyprus, having possessed himself of 
 Egypt as far as Alexandria, a faction arose in the city ; Philo-
 
 PERIOD in] II. PTOLEMIES. 209 
 
 metor was expelled, and his younger brother Physcon seated on Third 
 the throne, 170. — Tlie exile Philometor fell into the power of Pekiod. 
 Antiochus, who compelled the fugitive to sign a separate peace, • 
 
 highly injurious to the interests of Egypt. The articles were 
 not, however, ratified ; Philometor secretly entering into an 
 agreement with his bi-other that they should both rule in com- 
 mon, 169. Antiochus having in consequence again made an 
 inroad into Egypt, the two kings adcb-essed themselves for as- 
 sistance to the Achajans and to the Romans ; the latter forth- 
 with despatched an embassy to Antiochus, commanding him to 
 evacuate the territory of their allies, which happened accord- 
 ingly, 1G8. 
 
 18. In the contest, which soon afterwards ensued Disputes 
 between the two brothers, the younger was driven sons of'iji! 
 out, and sought a refuge at Rome ; when a partition ptanes. 
 
 of the kingdom between the princes was determined 
 upon : the senate, however, after due consideration, 
 refused to confirm the decision, so that the disputes 
 between the two kings were rekindled and protracted, 
 until the younger fell into the power of the elder. 
 
 In the first division, 164, Philometor received Egypt and Cy- 
 prus : and the infamous Physcon had for his share Cyrene and 
 Libya. But, during his stay at Rome, Physcon, contrary to all 
 justice, obtained the promise of Cyprus; Philometor refusing 
 to give up that portion of his share, and Cyrene having risen 
 up against its king, Physcon ran the risk of losing the whole of 
 his dominions. In the war which, supported by Rome, he 
 waged against his brother, Physcon fell, 1 59, into the hands of 
 Philometor, who not only forgave him, but, leaving him in pos- 
 session of Cyrene and Libya, added some cities in the place of 
 Cyprus, and promised him his daughter in marriage. 
 
 19. During the last period of his reign, Philome- Philometor 
 tor was almost exclusively busied with Syrian affairs. 
 He supported Alexander Balas against Demetrius, of Syria 
 and even gave him his daughter Cleopatra. Never- 
 theless, he afterwards passed over to the side of De- 
 metrius, seated him on the throne, gave him in mar- 
 riage this same Cleopatra, who had been taken away 
 
 from Balas. But in the battle in which Balas was 
 overthrown, the Egyptian king also received his death- 
 wound. He may be regarded as one of the good b. c. 145 
 princes of the Ptolemaic dynasty, especially if com- 
 pared with his brother. 
 
 p 
 
 iiiterleres 
 in tlieaffiiirs
 
 210 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 TiiiRu 20. His younger brother Ptolemy VII., surnamed 
 Physcon, and likewise Evergetes II., a monster both 
 
 Ptolemy in a moral and a physical sense, who had hitherto 
 B. caTö— been king of Cyrene, now possessed himself of the 
 ^^'^' throne of Egypt by marrying his predecessor's widow 
 
 and sister, Cleopatra, whom, however, after having 
 murdered her son, he repudiated for her daughter of 
 the same name. This prince, accordingly, once more 
 united the divided kingdom ; but at the same time 
 that he was purchasing the sanction of Rome by vile 
 adulation, he maintained himself at Alexandria by 
 means of military law, which soon converted the city 
 into a desert, and obliged him to attract foreign colo- 
 130. nists by large promises. Another bloody massacre, 
 however, produced an insurrection in the town, which 
 compelled the king to flee to Cyprus, the Alexan- 
 drines, meanwhile, raising to the throne his repudi- 
 ated wife Cleopatra. Physcon, nevertheless, with the 
 assistance of his mercenaries, recovered the sceptre, 
 and wielded it to the day of his death. 
 
 That a prince of sucla a character should nevertheless be a 
 friend to science, and himself an author, must ever be regax-ded 
 as a singular phenomenon ; yet his exaction of manusci'ipts, and 
 his treatment of the learned, whole crowds of whom he expelled, 
 betray the despot. 
 
 Ptolemy 21. His widow, the younger Cleopatra, to gratify 
 
 i^ie— sr' ^^^^ Alexandrines, was obliged to place on the throne 
 
 the elder of her two sons, Ptolemy VIII., surnamed 
 
 Lathyrus, who was living in a sort of banishment at 
 
 116. Cyprus : to the younger, Ptolemy Alexander I., who 
 
 was her favourite, she accordingly gave the island of 
 
 Cyprus. But Lathyrus not choosing to obey her in 
 
 every thing, she compelled him to exchange Egypt 
 
 107. for Cyprus, and gave the former to her younger son. 
 
 But neither was the new king able to brook the 
 
 tyranny of his mother : as she threatened even his 
 
 life, he saw no other means of escape than to antici- 
 
 89- pate her design ; but failing in his project, he was 
 
 obliged to take to flight, and, after a vain attempt to 
 
 8?. recover the throne, perished. The Alexandrines 
 
 then reinstated in the government his elder brother
 
 rznioD HI.] II. PTOLEMIES. Sil 
 
 Lathyrus, who ruled till the year 81, possessing both '''hird 
 Egypt and Cyprus. !. 
 
 Eevolt and three years' siege of Thebes in Upper Egypt, still 
 one of the most wealthy cities even in those days, but after its 
 capture almost levelled to the earth ; about 86. — Complete se- 
 paration of Cyrenaica from Egypt : this province had been 
 bequeathed by Physcon as a separate branch-state to his illegiti- 
 mate son, Apion, 117 ; that prince, after a tranquil reign, be- 
 queathed it, in his turn, to the Romans, 96, who at first allowed 
 it to retain its independence. 
 
 22. Lathyrus left one daughter born in wedlock, obscure 
 Berenice, and two illegitimate sons, Ptolemy of Cy- ETiiltory. 
 prus and Ptolemy Auletes. Besides the above, there si— er, 
 was a lawful son of Alexander I., of the same name 
 as his father, and at that time residing at Rome with 
 the dictator Sylla. The following history is obscured 
 by clouds, which, amid the contradiction of accounts, 
 cannot be entirely dispelled. Generally speaking, 
 Egypt was now a tool in the hands of powerful in- 
 dividuals at Rome, who regarded it but as a financial 
 speculation whether they actually supported a pre- 
 tender to the Egyptian crown, or fed him with vain 
 hopes. All now saw that Egypt presented a ripe 
 harvest ; but they could not yet agree by whom that 
 harvest should be reaped. 
 
 The first successor of Lathyrus in Egypt was his legitimate 
 daughter Cleopatra Berenice, 81 : at the end of six months, 
 however, vSylla, then dictator at Rome, sent his client Alexan- 
 der II. to Egypt, 80 ; that prince married Berenice, and with 
 her ascended the throne. Nineteen days after Alexander mur- 
 dered his consort, and, according to Appian, was himself about 
 the same time cut oiF by the Alexandrines, on account of his 
 tyranny. We afterwards hear, notwithstanding, of a king 
 Alexander, who reigned until 73, oi-, according to others, until 
 66 ; when, being driven out of Egypt, he fled to Tyi-e, and 
 called upon the Romans for that aid, which probably, through 
 Caesar's intercession, would have been granted, had not the sup- 
 plicant soon after died at the place of his refuge. He is said to 
 have bequeathed by will his kingdom to Rome ; and although 
 the senate did not accept the legacy, it does not appear to have 
 formally rejected the offer ; in consequence of which, frequent 
 attempts were made at Rome for effecting the occupation. — 
 Either, therefore, Appian's account must be false, and this per- 
 son was the same Alexander II., or he was some otlier person 
 bearing that name, and beloi ging to the royal house. — Be this 
 as it may, afler the dcatii of Latliyrus the kingdom was dismcm- 
 
 p 2
 
 212 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY, [book iv. 
 
 Tmnn Ijere^l : and one of liis illegitimate sons, Ptolemy, had received 
 Peiiiod. Cyprus, but that island was taken from him, 57, and converted 
 
 : into a Roman province : the other, Ptolemy Auletes, seems to 
 
 have kept his footing either in a part of Egypt, or in Cyrene, 
 and was probably the cause of Alexander's expulsion, at whose 
 decease he ascended the throne ; although the Syrian queen 
 Selene, sister to Lathyrus, asserted her son's claims at Rome, as 
 legitimate heir to the throne of Egypt. With Cfesar's assist- 
 ance, Auletes, however, succeeded in obtaining the formal ac- 
 knowledgment of his right at Rome, 59. But the measures 
 taken by the Romans with regard to Cyprus, gave rise to a se- 
 dition at Alexandria, 57, in consequence of which Auletes, being 
 compelled to flee, passed over into Italy : or, perhaps, he was 
 ordered to take this step by the intrigues of some Roman gran- 
 dees, anxious of an opportunity to reinstate him. Pompey's 
 attempts, with this view, are thwarted by Cato, 56. Meanwhile 
 the Alexandrines placed Berenice, the eldest daughter of Au- 
 letes, on the throne ; she married first Seleucus Cybiosactes, as 
 being the lawful heir ; and after putting that prince to death, 
 united herself to Archelaus, 57. — Actual restoration of Auletes 
 by the purchased assistance of Gabini us, the Roman governor 
 of Syria : and execution of Berenice, whose husband had fallen 
 in the war, 54. Not long after, this miserable prince, no less 
 effeminate than tyrannical, died, 51. 
 
 J. R. Förster, Commentatio de successoribus Ptolemcei VII. 
 Inserted in Comment. Soc. Gottiug. vol. iii. 
 
 Cleopatra, 23. Auletcs endeavourecl by his last testament to 
 3{ ■ ^^~ insure the kingdom to his posterity, nominating as 
 his successor, under the superintendence of the Roman 
 nation, his two elder children, Ptolemy Dionysos, 
 then thirteen years old, and Cleopatra, seventeen, 
 who were to be united in wedlock : his two younger 
 children, Ptolemy Neoteros and Arsinoe, he recom- 
 mended to the Roman senate. Notwithstanding 
 these measures, Egypt would not have escaped her 
 fate upwards of twenty years longer, had not the im- 
 pending calamities been diverted by the internal pos- 
 ture of affairs at Rome, and still more by the charms 
 and policy of Cleopatra, who through her alhance 
 with Caesar and Antony not only preserved but even 
 aggrandized her kingdom. From this time, however, 
 the history of Egypt is most closely implicated with 
 that of Rome. 
 
 Feuds between Cleopatra and her brother, excited and fo- 
 mented by the eunuch Pothinus, in whose hands the adminis- 
 tration was : they lead to open wai* : Cleopatra, di'iven out,
 
 TERiOD III.] II. PTOLEMIES. 213 
 
 flees to Syria, where she levies troops : Cfesar in pursuit of the Thip.d 
 conquered Pompey arrives at Alexandria, and in the name of Period. 
 Rome, assumes the part of arbitrator between the king and 
 queen, but suffers himself to be guided by the artifices of Cleo- 
 patra, 48. Violent sedition in Alexandria, and CiBsar besieged 
 in Bruchium, the malcontent Pothinus having brought Achillas, 
 the commander of the royal troops, into the city. The hard 
 struggle in which Coesar was now engaged, demonstrates not 
 only the bitterness of the long rankling grudge of the Alex- 
 andrines against Rome, but shows also how decisive, to the 
 whole of Egypt, were the revolutions of the capital. Ptolemy 
 Dionysos having fallen in the war, and C»sar being victorious, 
 the crown fell to Cleopatra, 47, upon condition of marrying her 
 brother, when he should be of age : but as soon as the prince 
 grew to manhood, and had been crowned at Memphis, she re- 
 moved him by poison, 44. 
 
 24. During the life of Caesar, Cleopatra remained E^^vpt be- 
 under liis protection, and consequently in a state of ßo"^!^^'' 
 dependence. Not only was a Roman garrison sta- proviucc. 
 tioned in the capital city, but the queen herself, to- 
 gether with her brother, were obliged to visit him at 
 Rome. After the assassination of Caesar, she took 
 tlie side of the triumviri, not without endangering 
 Egypt, tlu'eatened by Cassius who commanded in 
 Syria ; and after the death of her brother, succeeded 
 in getting them to acknowledge as king, Ptolemy 
 Caesarion, a son whom she pretended to have had by 
 Caesar. — But the ardent passion conceived by Antony 
 for her person, soon after the discomfiture of the re- 
 publican party, now attached her inseparably to his 
 fortunes ; which, after vainly attempting to win over 
 the victorious Octavius, she at last shared. 
 
 The chronology of the ten years in which Cleopatra lived, for 
 the most part, with Antony, is not without difficulty, but, ac- 
 cording to the most probable authorities, may be arranged in 
 the following manner. Summoned before his tribunal on ac- 
 count of the pretended support afforded by some of her generals 
 to Cassius, she appears in his presence at Tarsus, in the attire, 
 and with the parade, of Venus, 41 : he follows her into P^gypt. 
 In tlie year 40, Antony, called back to Italy by the breaking 
 out of tlie Perusine war, is there induced, by j)olitical motives, 
 to espouse Octavia ; meanwhile Cleopatra abides in Egypt. In 
 the autumn of 37, she goes to meet him in Syria, where he was 
 making ready for the war against the Pai'tliiaus, until tlien pro- 
 secuted by his lieutenants ; here she obtained at his hands Phoe- 
 nicia, — Tyre and Sidon excepted, — together with Cyrene and
 
 gl4 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Flourisliinj 
 state of 
 Egypt. 
 
 Cyprus ; and in 36 went back to Alexandria, where she re- 
 mained during the campaicrn. Tlie expedition ended, Antony 
 returned into Efrypt and resided at Alexandria. From thence 
 it was his intention to attack Armenia in 35 ; this design, how- 
 ever, he did not eflfect until 34, when, after taking the king pri- 
 soner, he returned in triumph to Alexandria, and presented to 
 Cleopatra, or to his three children by her, all the countries of 
 Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus, already conquered 
 or to be conquered. Preparing then to renew, in conjunction 
 with the king of Media, his attack on the Parthians, he is pre- 
 vailed upon by Cleopatra to break with Octavia, who was to 
 bi-ing over troops to him, 38. A war between him and Octa- 
 vius being now unavoidable, the Parthian campaign already 
 opened is suspended, and Cleopatra accompanies Antony to 
 Samos, 32, where he formally repudiated Octavia. From hence 
 she followed him in his expedition against Octavius, which was 
 decided by the battle of Actium, fought September 2, 31. — Octa- 
 vius having pursued his enemy into Egyjit, Alexandria was be- 
 sieged, 30, and after Antony had laid violent hands on himself, 
 the place surrendered ; and Cleopatra, not brooking to be drag- 
 ged a prisoner to Eome, followed the example of her lover, and 
 procured her own death. 
 
 ; 25. Even in this last period, Egypt appears to 
 have been the seat of unbounded wealth and effe- 
 minacy. The line of infamous princes who had 
 succeeded to the third Ptolemy were unable to de- 
 stroy her prosperity. Strange, however, as this 
 seems, it may be easily accounted for when we con- 
 sider that the political revolutions scarcely ever over- 
 stepped the walls of the capital, and that an almost 
 perpetual peace ruled in the country : that Egypt 
 was the only great theatre of trade : and that that 
 trade must have increased in the same proportion as 
 the spirit of luxury increased in Rome, and in the 
 Roman empire. The powerful effects wrought on 
 Egypt by the growth of Roman luxury, are most 
 convincingly demonstrated by the state of tliat coun- 
 try when it had become a Roman province ; so far 
 from the trade of Alexandria decreasing in that pe- 
 riod, — though the city suffered in the first days after 
 the conquest, — it subsequently attained an extraordi- 
 nary and gigantic bulk.
 
 PERIOD HI.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 215 
 
 Third 
 III. History of Macedonia and of Greece in general, Tekiod. 
 fi'om Ihe death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, 
 B. a 323— 146. ■ 
 
 The sources for this history are the same as have been quoted 
 above : see p. 186. Until the battle of Ipsus, 301, Diodorus is 
 still our grand authority. But in the period extending from 
 301 to 224, we meet with some chasms ; here ahnost our only 
 sources are the fragments of Diodorus, a few of Plutarch's Lives, 
 and the inaccurate accounts of Justin. From the year 224, 
 our main historian is Polybius ; and even in those parts where 
 we do not possess liis work in its complete form, the fragments 
 that have been preserved must always be the first authorities 
 consulted. Livy, and other writers on Roman history, should 
 accompany Polybius. 
 
 Among modern books, besides the general works mentioned 
 above, p. 1, we may hei'e in particular quote, 
 
 John Gast, D. D. The History of Greece, from the acces- 
 sion of Alexander of Macedon, till the final subjection to the 
 Roman power, in eight boohs. London, 1782, 4to. Although 
 not a masterpiece of composition, yet too important to be passed 
 over in silence. 
 
 1. Of the three main kinG:(loms that arose out of Extent of 
 Alexander's monarchy, Macedonia was the most in- ''^^^ ^^'^' 
 significant, not only in extent, — particularly as till 
 
 B. C. 286 Thrace remained a separate and inde- 
 pendent province, — but likewise in population and 
 wealth. Yet, being, as it were, the head country of 
 the monarchy, it was considered to hold the first 
 rank ; and here at first resided the power which, 
 nominally at least, extended over the whole. As 
 early, however, as the year 311, upon the total ex- 
 termination of Alexander's family, it became a com- 
 pletely separate kingdom. From that time its sphere 
 of external operation was for the most part confined 
 to Greece, the history of whicli, consequently, is 
 closely interwoven with that of Macedonia. 
 
 Posture of afHiirs in Greece at Alexander's decease ; Thebes 
 in ruins : Corinth occupied by a Älacedonian garrison : Sparta 
 humiliated by the defeat she had suffered at the hands of Anti- 
 pater in her attempt at a revolt against Macedonia, under Agis 
 II., 333 — 331 : Athens on tiie other hand flourishing, and al- 
 though confined to her own boundaries, still by her fame, and 
 her naval powei-, the fii'st state in Greece. 
 
 2. Although at the first division of the provinces, Anti[iater.
 
 216 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Lamian 
 
 war, 
 
 B. C. 323. 
 
 Olympias 
 retires to 
 Epirus. 
 
 Cratems, as civil governor, was united with Anti- 
 pater, the hitter had the management of affairs. And 
 the termination, as arduous as it was successful, of the 
 Lamian war, — kindled immediately after the death of 
 Alexander, by the Greeks, enthusiastic in the cause 
 of freedom, — enabled him to rivet the chains of 
 Greece more firmly than they had ever been before. 
 
 The Lamian war — the sparks of which had been kindled by- 
 Alexander's edict, granting leave to all the Grecian emigrants, 
 twenty thousand in numbei", nearly the whole of whom were in 
 the Macedonian interest, to return to their native countries — 
 was fanned to a flame by the democratic party at Athens. 
 Urged by Demosthenes and Hj^erides, almost all the states of 
 central and northern Greece, Bceotia excepted, took up arms in 
 the cause ; and their example was quickly followed by most of 
 those in Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Argos, 
 Corinth, and the Achteans. Not even the Persian war pro- 
 duced such general unanimity ! The gallant Leosthenes headed 
 the league. — Defeat of Antipater, who is shut up in Lamia ; 
 Leosthenes, however, falls in the siege of that place, B. C. 323, 
 and although Leonatus — who, with the A'iew of ascending the 
 throne by his marriage with Cleopatra, had come to the assist- 
 ance of the Macedonians — was beaten and slain, 322, the Greeks 
 were finally overwhelmed by the reinforcements, brought to 
 Antipater out of Asia, by Ci'aterus. And Antipater having 
 fully succeeded in breaking the league, and negotiating Avith 
 each separate nation, was enabled to dictate the terms. Most 
 of the cities opened their gates to INIacedonian troops ; besides 
 this, Athens was obliged to purchase peace through the medi- 
 ation of Phocion and Demades, by an alteration in her constitu- 
 tion, — the poorer citizens being excluded from all share in the 
 government, and for the most part translated into Thrace, — and 
 by a pledge to deliver up Demosthenes and Hyperides ; whose 
 place Phocion occupied at the head of the state. — The ^tolians, 
 the last against whom the Macedonian wars were directed, ob- 
 tained better terms than they had ventured to expect, Antipater 
 and Craterus being obliged to hurry over to Asia in order to 
 oppose Perdiccas. 
 
 8. That hatred which, even in the lifetime of Alex- 
 ander, had sprung up between Antipater and Olym- 
 pias, in consequence of his not permitting the dowager 
 queen to rule, induced her to withdraw to Epirus ; 
 her rankling envy being still more imbittered by the 
 influence of the young queen Eurydice. See above, 
 p. 180. Antipater, dying shortly after his expedition 
 against Perdiccas, in which his colleague Craterus
 
 PERIOD III.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 217 
 
 had feilen, and he himself had been appointed regent, Third 
 nominates his friend, the aged Polysperchon, to suc- 
 
 ceed him as regent and head guardian, to the exclu- Amipater 
 sion of his own son Cassander. Hence arose a series „am'es"po- 
 of quarrels between the two, in which, unfortunately i.vsperchon 
 for themselves, the royal family were implicated and sor/"^*^^*' 
 finally exterminated, Cassander obtaining the sove- ^- <^- ^^o— 
 reignty of Macedonia. 
 
 Cassander having secured the interest of Antigonus and 
 Ptolemy, makes his escape to the former, 319: he had pre- 
 viously endeavoui'ed also to raise a party in ]\Iacedoiiia and 
 Greece, particularly by getting his friend Nicanor to be com- 
 mander at Athens. — Measures taken by Polysperchon to oppose 
 him ; in the first place, he recalls Olympias out of Epirus, but 
 the princess dares not come without an army ; in the next place, 
 he nominates Eumenes commander of the royal troops in Asia 
 (see above, p. 181) ; he likewise endeavours to gain the Grecian 
 cities, by recalling the IMacedonian garrisons, and changing the 
 governors set over them by Antipater. These latter, however, 
 were in most of the cities too firmly estabhshed to suffer them- 
 selves thus to be deposed ; and even the expedition into Pelo- 
 ponnesus, undertaken by Polysperchon to enforce his injunction.s, 
 was attended but with partial success. — In the same year occurs 
 a twofold revolution in Athens, Avhither Poljsperclion had sent 
 his son Alexander, nominally for the purpose of driving out 
 Nicanor, but virtually to get possession of that important city. 
 In the first place, Alexander and Nicanor appearing to unite 
 both for the attainment of one and the same object, the demo- 
 cratic party rise up, and overthrow the rulers, hitherto taken 
 from Antipater's party, and headed by Phocion, who is com- 
 pelled to swallow poison : soon after, however, Cassander occu- 
 pies the city, excludes from the administration all that possess 
 less than ten mines, and places at the head of affairs Demetrius 
 Phalereus, who, from 318 to 307, ruled with great prudence. — 
 Not long after, Olympias returns with an army from Epirus ; 
 the Macedonian troops of Philip and Eurydice having passed 
 over to her side, she wreaks her revenge on the I'oyal couple, 
 and on the brother of Cassander, all of whom she puts to death, 
 317. Cassander, nevertheless, having obtained reinforcements 
 in Peloponnesus, takes the field against her ; she is besieged in 
 Pydiia, where, disappointed in the hope of being relieved either 
 by Polysperchon or by ^Eacidas of Epirus, both of whom were 
 forsaken by their men^ she is obliged to surrender, 316. Cas- 
 sander, liaving caused her to be condemned by the IMacedonian 
 people, has her put to death. 
 
 4. Cassander being now master, and, from 302, cassander. 
 king of Macedonia, confirmed his dominion by a
 
 218 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Tiiini) marriage witli Tlicssalonice, half-sister to Alexander, 
 '''"'""' and at the same time endeavoured to corroborate as 
 
 far as possible his authority in Greece. Polysper- 
 chon and his son Alexander, it is true, still made 
 head in Peloponnesus ; but the states without the 
 peninsula, iEtolia excepted, were all either allies of 
 Cassander, or occupied by Macedonian troops. Aft 3r 
 B. c. 314. the defeat of the league against Antigonus, in whicii 
 Cassander had borne a part, general peace was con- 
 cluded, with the proviso, that the Grecian cities should 
 be free, and that the young Alexander, when of age, 
 should be raised to the throne of Macedonia : this 
 
 311. induced Cassander to rid himself both of the young 
 prince and his mother Roxana by murder : but he 
 thereby exposed himself to an attack from Polysper- 
 chon, who, availing himself of the discontent of the 
 Macedonians, brought back Hercules, the only re- 
 maining illegitimate son of Alexander. Cassander 
 diverted the storm by a new crime, instigating Po- 
 lysperchon to murder the young Hercules, under 
 promise of sharing the government : Polysperchon, 
 however, unable to possess himself of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, which had been promised him, appears to have 
 preserved but little influence. Cassander met like- 
 wise with formidable opponents in the persons of 
 Antigonus and his son ; and although delivered by 
 
 308. the breaking out of the war with Ptolemy from the 
 danger of the first invasion of Greece by Demetrius, 
 his situation was more embarrassing at the second 
 
 307. irruption ; from which, however, he was extricated 
 by the circumstance of Antigonus being obliged to 
 recall his son, on account of the newly-formed league 
 (see above, p. 185). 
 
 Antigonus, on his return from Upper Asia, declares loudly 
 against Cassander, B. C. 314 ; despatches his general Aristode- 
 mus to Peloponnesus, and frames a league with Polysperchon 
 and his son Alexander ; the latter, however, Cassander succeeds 
 in winning over by a promise of the command in Peloponnesus. 
 Alexander was soon after murdered, but his wife Cratesipolis 
 succeeded him, and commanded with the spirit of a man. Mean- 
 while, Cassander carried war against the vEtolians, who sided 
 with Antigonus, 313 ; but Antigonus, 312, having sent his ge-
 
 PERIOD III.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 219 
 
 neral Ptolemy into Greece with a fleet and army, Cassander lost Third 
 his supremacy. In the peace of 311, the freedom of all the Period. 
 
 Grecian cities was stipulated ; but this very condition became 
 
 the pretext of various and permanent feuds ; and Cassander hav- 
 ing murdered the young king, together with his mother, drew 
 upon himself the arms of Polysperchon, who wished to place 
 Ilercules on the throne, 310 ; but the pretender was removed in 
 the manner above described, 309. — Cassander now endeavour- 
 ing to re-establish his power over Greece, Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 was by his father sent into that country, in order to anticipate 
 Ptolemy of Egypt, in the enforcement of the decree for the free- 
 dom of the Greeks, 308 ; the result at Athens was the restora- 
 tion of democracy, and the expulsion of Demetrius Phalereus. 
 — From any further attack of Demetrius, Cassander was de- 
 livei'ed by the war which broke out between Antigonus and 
 Ptolemy, (see above, p. 184,) and had the leisure once more to 
 strengthen his power in Greece, until 302, when Demetrius ar- 
 rived a second time, and, as generalissimo of liberated Greece, 
 pressed forward to the borders of Macedonia ; Demetrius was, 
 however, recalled by his father into Asia, and at the battle of 
 Ipsus, 301, lost all his dominions in that quarter of the Avorld. 
 Yet although Athens closed her harbours against him, he still 
 maintained his possessions in Peloponnesus, and even endea- 
 voured to extend them ; from thence, in 297, lie sallied fortli, 
 and once more took possession of his beloved Athens, and after 
 driving out the usurper Lachares, forgave her ingratitude. 
 
 5. Cassander survived the establishment of his c^assander 
 throne by tlie battle of Ipsus only three years ; and ||!^,^4g^?,^ 
 bequeathed Macedonia as an inheritance to his three throne to 
 sons, the eldest of whom, Philip, shortly after followed ^'^ ^""^* 
 his father to the grave. 
 
 6. The two remaining sons, Antipater and Alex- Antipater 
 ander, soon worked their own destruction. Anti- ^"'! ^'^^' 
 
 1 • 111- • ander. 
 
 pater having murdered his own mother Thessalonice, 
 on account of the favour she showed his brother, was 
 obliged to flee; he applied for help to his father-in- 
 law, Lysimachus of Thrace, where he soon after died. 
 Meanwhile Alexander, fancying that he likewise 
 stood in need of foreign assistance, addressed himself 
 to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and to Demetrius Po- 
 liorcetes, both of whom obeyed the call only with 
 the expectation of being paid. After various snares 
 reciprocally laid for each other, the king of Macedonia 
 was murdered by Demetrius, and with him the race 
 of Antipater became extinct. ^' ^' ~^''" 
 
 7. The army proclaimed ]j)emetrius king ; and in 294—287.^'
 
 220 jMACEDONIAN monarchy. [uook IV. 
 
 Third his person the house of Antigonus ascended the 
 ^''''"'""' throne of Macedonia, and, after many vicissitudes, 
 
 estabhshed their power. His seven years' reign, in 
 which one project succeeded the other, was a con- 
 stant series of wars ; and as he never could learn 
 how to bear with good fortune, his ambition was at 
 last his ruin. 
 
 The kingdom of Demetrius comprised Macedonia, Thessaly, 
 and the greatest part of the Peloponnesus ; he was also master 
 of Megara and Athens. — Twofold capture of Thebes, which had 
 been rebuilt by Cassander, 293, and 291 ; unsuccessful attempt 
 upon Thrace, 292. His war with Pyrrhus, 290, in whom men 
 fancied they beheld another Alexander, had already alienated 
 the affections of the Macedonians ; but his grand project for the 
 recovery of Asia induced his enemies to get the start of him ; 
 and the hatred of his subjects compelled him secretly to escape 
 to Peloponnesus, to his son Antigonus, 287. Athens, taking 
 advantage of his misfortunes, drove out the ISEacedonian garri- 
 son, and, by the election of archons, re-established her ancient 
 constitution ; although Demetrius laid siege to the town, he 
 allowed himself to be pacified by Crates. Having once more 
 attempted to prosecute his plans against Asia, he was obliged, 
 286, to surrender to Seleucus his father-in-law, who, out of 
 Charit}', kept him till the day of his death, 284. 
 
 Pyniius of 8. Two claimants to the vacant throne now arose, 
 
 b' c"287 ^'^'^- Pyi^rhiis of Epirus and Lysimachus of Thrace ; 
 
 280. but although Pyrrhus w'as first proclaimed king, with. 
 
 the cession of half the dominions, he could not, being 
 
 a foreigner, support his power any longer than the 
 
 year 286, when he was deposed by Lysimachus. 
 
 The sovereigns of Epirus, belonging to the family of the 
 JEacidfe, were properly kings of the Molossi. See above, p. 
 121. They did not become lords of all Epirus, nor conse- 
 quently of any historical importance, until the time of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. After that period Epirus was governed by 
 Alcetas I. about 384, who pretended to be the sixteenth de- 
 scendant from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles ; Neoptolemus, 
 father to Olympias, by whose marriage with Philip, 358, the 
 kings of Epirus became intimately connected with Macedonia, 
 d. 352 ; Arymbas, his brother, d. 342 ; Alexander I., son of 
 Neoptolemus, and brother-in-law to Alexander the Great ; he 
 was ambitious to be as great a conqueror in the west as his 
 kinsman was in the east, but he fell in Lucania, 332. .^Eacides, 
 son of Arymbas, d. 312. Pyrrhus II., his son, the Ajax of his 
 time, and, we might almost say, rather an adventurer than a 
 king. After uninterrupted wars waged in Macedonia, Greece, 
 Italy, and Sicily, he fell at last at the storming of Argos, 272.
 
 PERIOD ni ] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 221 
 
 lie was followed by his son Alexander II., in the person of Third 
 whose successor, Pyrrhus III., 219, the male line became ex- Teriod. 
 tinct. Although the daughter of this last prince, Deidamia, 
 succeeded to the throne, tlie Epirots were not long before they 
 established a democratic government, which endured till such 
 time as they were, together with JNIacedonia and the rest of 
 Greece, brought under the Roman yoke, 146. 
 
 9. In consequence of the accession of Lysimachus, Lysima- 
 Thrace, and for a short time even Asia Minor, were '^^"*' 
 annexed to the Macedonian kingdom. But rankling g q 082, 
 hatred and family relations soon afterwards involved 
 Lysimachus in a war with Seleucus Nicator, in 
 w^hich, at the battle of Curopedion, he lost both his 
 throne and his life. 
 
 Execution of the gallant Agathocles, eldest son of Lysima- 
 chus, at the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe : his widow 
 Lysandra and her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had already 
 been driven out of Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, go over, 
 followed by a large party, to Seleucus, whom they excite to war. 
 
 10. The victorious Seleucus, already lord of Asia, sdeucus. 
 now causing himself to be proclaimed likewise king 
 
 of Macedonia, it seemed as if that country was again 
 about to become the head seat of the whole monarchy. 
 But shortly after he had crossed over into Europe, 
 Seleucus fell by the murderous hand of Ptolemy Ce- b. c. 28i. 
 raunus, who, availing himself of the treasures of his 
 victim, and of the yet remaining troops of Lysima- 
 chus, took possession of the throne ; by another act 
 of treachery he avenged himself of Arsinoe, his half- 
 sister ; but just as he conceived himself securely 
 established, he lost both his crown and his life by the 
 irruption of the Gauls into Macedonia. 
 
 The irruption of the Gauls, threatening desolation not only 
 to Macedonia, but to the whole of Greece, took place in three 
 successive expeditions. The iirst under Cainbaules, (probably 
 280,) advanced no further than Thrace, the invaders not being 
 sufficiently numerous. The second in three bodies ; against 
 Thrace, under Ceretrius ; against Pa^onia, luider Brennus and 
 Acichorins ; against Macedonia and Illyria, under Belgius, 279. 
 By the last-mentioned chiei'tain Ptolemy was defeated ; lie fell 
 in the contest. In consequence, Meleagcr first, and Antipater 
 subsequently, Avere appointed kings of jMacedonia ; but both, on 
 account of incapacity, being soon afterwards deposed, a Älace- 
 donian noble, Sosthenes, assumed the command, and this time 
 liberated his country. But the year 278 brought with it the
 
 222 IMACKÜÜNIAN MONARCHY. Idook iy. 
 
 Tuiiu) iiiaiu storm, which spent its fury principally on Greece : Sos- 
 Piiiuoi). thencs Avas deleated and slain : and although the Greeks 
 
 ■ brought all their united forces into the field, Brennus and Aci- 
 
 chorius burst into Greece on two different sides, and pushed 
 on to Delphi, the object of their expedition ; from hence, how- 
 ever, they were compelled to retreat ; and most of them were 
 cut off by hunger, cold, or the sword. Nevertheless a portion 
 of those barbarians stood their ground in the interior of Thrace, 
 which, consequently, was for the most part lost to Macedonia ; 
 another portion, consisting of various hordes, the Tectosaga?, 
 Tolistobii, and Trocmi, crossed over to Asia JNIinor, where they 
 established themselves in the country called after them Galatia 
 (see above, p. 236). Although there can be no doubt tliat the 
 TectosagiB must have come fi'om the innermost parts of Gaul, 
 the mode of attack demonstrates that the main tide of invaders 
 consisted of the neighbouring races ; and, in fact, in those days 
 the countries from the Danube to the Mediterranean and Adri- 
 atic were mostly occupied by Gauls. — Greece, though she 
 strained every nerve, and with the exception of Peloponnesus, 
 was united in one league, could scarcely bring forward more 
 than 20,000 men to stem the torrent. 
 
 Antigonus H- Antigonus of Gonni, son to Demetrius, now 
 
 Gonnatas. gß^ted liimself on the vacant throne of desolated Ma- 
 
 cedon ; he bought off his competitor, Antiochus I., 
 
 named Soter, by treaty and marriage. Successfully 
 
 as he opposed the new irruption of the Gauls, he was 
 
 B. c. 274. dethroned by Pyrrhus, who, on his return from Italy, 
 
 was a second time proclaimed king of Macedonia. 
 
 That prince, however, having formed the design of 
 
 conquering the Peloponnesus, and, after an ineffect- 
 
 272. ual attack on Sparta, which was repelled with heroic 
 
 gallantry, wishing to take possession of Argos, fell at 
 
 the storming of the latter place. 
 
 Extraordinary as these frequent revolutions appear, they may 
 be easily accounted for by the mode of warfare in those days. 
 Every thing depended on the armies ; and these were composed 
 of mercenaries, ever willing to fight against him they had de- 
 fended the day before, if they fancied his rival to be a more 
 valiant or fortunate leader. Since the death of Alexander, the 
 ]\Iacedonian phalanx was no longer dependent on its captains, 
 but they on their men. The impoverishment of the countries, 
 in consequence of war, was such, that the soldier's was almost 
 the only profitable trade ; and none prosecuted that trade more 
 ardently than the Gauls, whose services were ever ready for 
 any one who chose to pay for them. 
 
 1'2. After the death of Pyrrhus, Antigonus Gon-
 
 PERIOD in.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 223 
 
 natas recovered the Macedonian throne, of which he Third 
 and his descendants kept uninterrupted possession, ^^'^'°°' 
 yet not till after a violent contest with Alexander, 
 the son and successor of Pyrrhus. But no sooner 
 were they secure from foreign rivals, than the Ma- 
 cedonian policy was again directed against Greece, 
 and the capture of Corinth seemed to insure the de- 
 pendence of the whole country, when the formation 
 of the iEtolian, and the yet more important Achaean, 
 league, gave rise to relations entirely new, and of the 
 highest interest, even for the universal history of the 
 world. After so many storms, the sun of Greece was 
 about to set in all his splendour ! 
 
 The ancient confederacy of the twelve Achasan cities (see 
 above, p. 117) had subsisted until the death of Alexander, but 
 was dissolved in the subsequent commotions ; particularly when, 
 after the battle of Ipsus, 301, Demetrius and his son made Pe- 
 loponnesus the principal seat of their power. Some of these 
 cities were now garrisoned by those princes, while in others 
 arose tyrants, generally favourable to their interests. In 281, 
 four asserted their freedom and renewed the ancient federation ; 
 which, five years afterwards, Avas gradually joined by the rest, 
 Antigonus being busied elsewhere, in consequence of his occu- 
 pation of the INIacedonian throne. But the league did not be- 
 come formidable till the accession of foreign states. This took 
 place, in the first instance, with Sicyon, through the exertions 
 of the liberator of tliat town, Aratus, who now became the 
 animating spirit of the federation ; and in 243 brought over 
 Corinth, after the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison, and 
 Megara. Afterwards the league gradually acquired strength, 
 by the junction of several Grecian cities, Athens among others, 
 229 ; and thereby excited the jealousy of the rest. And as 
 Aratus, who was more of a statesman than a general, and pos- 
 sessed but little independence, had in the very outset joined tlie 
 party of Ptolemy II., the league soon became involved in the 
 disputes of the great powers, and was too often but a mere tool 
 in their hands. The main principles on whicli it was founded 
 were the following : 1. Complete political equality of all the 
 federate cities : in this respect it essentially diiiered from all tlie 
 earlier federations in Greece. 2. Unconditional preservation 
 of the domestic government in every one of the cities. 3. The 
 meeting twice a year of deputies from all the cities, at ^gium, 
 and afterwards at Corinth ; for transacting all business of com- 
 mon interest, particularly foreign affairs, and also for the pur- 
 pose of electing the strategus, or military leader and head of 
 the union, and the ten demiurgi, or supreme magistrates. — But 
 what more than all contributed to exalt this league, founded on
 
 224 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [kook iv. 
 
 Third pure liberty, was the virtue of Aratus, 213, Philopoemen, ISS, 
 Peiuou. and Lycortas, 170 ; men who breathed into it the spirit of union, 
 until, enfeebled by Roman policy, it was overthrown. 
 
 f BuEiTENBAUCii, History of the Aehceans and their League, 
 1782. 
 
 The -3i^tolian league Avas formed about 284, in con.sequence 
 of the oppressions of the Macedonian kings. The ^tolians 
 had likewise a yearly congress, panaetolium, at Thermus ; where 
 they chose a strategus and the apocleti, who constituted the 
 state council. They had, besides, their secretary, ■Ypufif.iarevg ; 
 and supervisors, tfopoi, whose particular functions are, however, 
 matter of doubt. This federation did not increase like the 
 Acha3an, none but ^tolians being admitted. The more un- 
 polished this piratical nation remained, the more frequently it 
 was used as the tool of foreign, and particularly of Roman, 
 policy. 
 
 Demetrius 13. Antigonus, in the latter part of his reign, had 
 243—233 i*ecourse to various means, and more especially to an 
 alliance with the iEtolians, for the purpose of coun- 
 terpoising the Achseans. He died in his eightieth 
 year, and was succeeded by his son, Demetrius IL, 
 who waged war upon the ^tolians, now, however, 
 supported by the Achseans ; and endeavoured to re- 
 press the growth of the latter, by favouring the ty- 
 rants of particular cities. The remainder of the 
 reign of this prince is little more than a chasm in 
 history. 
 
 The vulgar assertion that this prince conquered Cyrene and 
 Libya, originates in a confusion of names ; his uncle Demetrius, 
 son of Poliorcetes of Ptolemais, being mentioned by Plutarch 
 as king of Cyrene. The history of that town, from 258 to 142, 
 is enveloped in almost total darkness : of. Prolog. Trogi, 1. xxvi. 
 ad calcem Justiui. 
 
 Antigonus 14. Dcmetrius's son Philip was passed over ; his 
 B.°c.'^233 brother s son, Antigonus II., surnamed Doson, being 
 —221. raised to the throne. This king was occupied the 
 most of his time by the events in Greece, where a 
 very remarkable revolution at Sparta, as we learn 
 from Plutarch, had raised up a formidable enemy 
 against the Achseans ; and so completely altered the 
 relative position of affairs, that the Macedonians, 
 from having been opponents, became allies of the 
 Achaeans.
 
 PERIOD in.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 225 
 
 Sketch of the situation of Spartan affairs at this period : the Third 
 ancient constitution still continued to exist in form ; but the Period. 
 plundei- of foreign countries, and particularly the permission to 
 transfer landed estates, obtained by Epitadeus, had produced 
 great inequality of property. The restoi'ation of Lycurgus's 
 constitution had, therefore, a twofold object ; to favour the poor 
 by a new agrarian law and release from debts, and to increase 
 the power of the kings by repressing that of the ephori. — First 
 attempt at reform, 244, by King Agis III. ; attended in the be- 
 ginning with partial success, but eventually frustrated by the 
 other king, Leonidas, and terminating in the extinction of Agis 
 and his family, 241. Leonidas, however, was succeeded, 236, 
 by his son Cleomenes, who victoriously defeated the plans of 
 Aratus to force Sparta to accede to the Achaean league, 227 : 
 this king, by a forcible revolution, overthrew the ephori, and 
 accomplished the project of Agis, at the same time increasing 
 the Spartans by the admission of a number of periaeci ; and en- 
 forcing the laws of Lycin-gus referring to private life ; but as 
 in a small republic a revolution cannot be confirmed Avithout 
 some external war, he attacked the Achasans as early as 224 ; 
 these being defeated, implored, through Aratus, the help of An- 
 tigonus ; Cleomenes in consequence was, at the battle of Sellasia, 
 222, obliged to yield to superior force, and with difficulty escaped 
 over to Egypt; while Sparta was compelled to acknowledge 
 her independence as a gift at the hands of Antigonus. Such 
 was the miserable success of this attempt made by a few great 
 men on a nation already degenerate. The quarrels between 
 the ephori and King Lycurgus and his successor IMachanidas, 
 placed Sparta in a state of anarchy, which ended, 207, in the 
 usurpation of the sovereign power by one Nabis, who destroyed 
 the ancient form of government. Let him who would study 
 great revolutions commence with that just described ; insignifi- 
 cant as it is, none perhaps furnishes more instructive lessons. 
 
 Plutarchi Agis et Cleomenes. The information in which is 
 principally drawn from the Commentaries of Aratus. 
 
 15. Philip II., son of Demetrius. He ascended rhiUp ii. 
 the throne at the early age of sixteen, endowed with "^l-^^' ^^^~ 
 many qualities, such as might, under favourable cir- 
 cumstances, have formed a great prince. Macedonia 
 had recruited her strength during a long peace ; and 
 her grand political aim, the supremacy of Greece, 
 secured by the connexion of Antigonus with the 
 Achaeans, and by the victory of Sellasia, seemed to 
 be already within her grasp. But Philip lived in a 
 time when Rome was pursuing her formidable plans 
 of aggrandizement ; the more vigorous and prompt his 
 efforts were to withstand that power, the more deeply 
 
 Q
 
 226 MACED(>NIAN MOxMARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third was hc entangled in the new maze of events, which 
 ^'''^'"°°' imbittered the rest of his Hfe, and at last brought 
 him to the grave with a broken heart, converted by- 
 misfortune into a despot. 
 War of the 16. The first five years of Philip were occupied 
 B 'c''?n— by bis participation in the war between the Achseans 
 217." " and iEtolians, called the "wjar of the two leagues ; 
 notwithstanding the treachery of his minister Apellas 
 and his dependents, the prince was enabled to dictate 
 the conditions of peace, according to which both par- 
 ties were to remain in possession of what they then 
 had. The conclusion of this peace was hastened by 
 the news of Hannibal's victory at Thrasymenus, Phi- 
 lip being then instigated to form more extensive pro- 
 jects by Demetrius of Pharus, who had fled before 
 the Romans, and soon acquired unlimited influence 
 with the Macedonian king. 
 
 The war of the two leagues arose out of the piracies of the 
 ^tolians on the Messenians, the latter of whom the Acha^ans 
 undertook to protect, 221. The errors committed by Aratus 
 compelled the Acha^ans to have recourse to Philip, 220 ; whose 
 progress, however, was for a long time impeded by the artifices 
 of Apellas's faction, who wished to overthrow Aratus. The 
 Acarnanians, Epirots, Messenians, and Scerdilaidas of lUyi-ia, 
 (who, however, soon after declared against Macedonia,) com- 
 bined with Philip and the Achteans ; the ^tolians, on the other 
 hand, commanded by their own general, Scopas, had for their 
 allies the Spartans and Eleans. — The most important conse- 
 quence of this war for Macedonia was, that she began again to 
 be a naval power. — About the same time a war broke out be- 
 tween the two trading republics of Byzantium and Rhodes, (the 
 latter supported by Prusias I. of Bithynia,) insignificant in it- 
 self, but which, as a commercial war, originating in the duties 
 imposed by the Byzantines, was the only one of its kind in this 
 age, 222. The Rhodians, so powerful in those days by sea, 
 compelled their adversai'ies to submit, 
 
 Negotia- • 17. The negotiations between Philip and Hanni- 
 twcen^piii- bal concluded with an alliance, in which reciprocal 
 lip and help was promiscd towards annihilating Rome, But 
 214?"' ^ ' Rome contrived to excite so many foes against Philip 
 on the borders of his own kingdom, and availed her- 
 self so skilfully of her naval power, that the execution 
 of this plan was prevented until it became possible to 
 attack the Macedonian king in Greece; where he
 
 PERIOD III.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 227 
 
 had made himself many enemies, by the domineering Third 
 
 tone he had assumed towards his alhes at the time L 
 
 that, sensible of his power, he was about to enter 
 upon a wider sphere of action. 
 
 Commencement of hostilities by Rome, against Philip : imme- 
 diately that the alliance of Philip and Hannibal was known, a 
 squadron with troops on board was stationed off the coast of 
 Macedonia, by which the king himself was defeated at ApoUo- 
 nia, 214. — AUiance of Rome Avith the ^tolians, joined likewise 
 hy Sparta and Elis, Attains king of Pergamus, and Scerdilaidas 
 and Pleuratus, kings of Blyria, 211. On Philip's side were the 
 Acha^ans, with whom Philopoemen more than supplied the loss 
 of Aratus, occasioned, 213, by the IMacedonian king; to them 
 were joined the Acarnanians and Boeotians. — Attacked on every 
 side, Philip successfully extricated himself from his difficulties ; 
 in the first place, he compelled the -3^^tolians, who had been 
 abandoned by Attains and Rome, to accept separate terms, 
 which, shortly after, Rome, consulting her own convenience, 
 converted into a general peace, inclusive of the allies on either 
 side, 204. 
 
 18. New war of Philip against Attalus and the war with 
 Rhodians, carried on for the most part in Asia Minor ; ^^^'"203- 
 and his impolitic alliance with Antiochus III. to at- 200. 
 tack Egypt. But can Philip be blamed for his en- 
 deavours to disarm the military servants of the 
 Romans ? Rome, however, did not grant him time 
 
 to effect his designs ; the Macedonian king was taught 
 at Chios, by woeful experience, that his navy had not 202. 
 increased proportionably with that of the Rhodians. 
 
 19. The war with Rome suddenly hurled the War with 
 Macedonian power from its lofty pitch ; and by lay- ^00-197. 
 ing the foundation of Roman dominion in the East, 
 wrought a change in almost all the political relations 
 
 of that quarter. The first two years of the war 
 showed pretty evidently, that mere force could 
 scarcely overturn the Macedonian throne. But T. 
 Quintius Flaminius stepped forward ; with the magic ms. 
 spell of freedom he intoxicated the Greeks ; Philip 
 was stripped of his allies ; and the battle of Cynosce- i97. 
 phal'tC decided every thing. The articles of the peace 
 were : 1 . That all Grecian cities in Europe and Asia 
 should be independent, and Piiilip should withdraw 
 his garrisons. 2. That he should surrender the whole 
 
 Q 2
 
 MACEDONIAN MONAIIGIIY. [hook iv. 
 
 Third of his navy, and never afterwards keep more than 
 ^ 500 armed men on foot. 3. That he should not, 
 
 without previously informing Rome, undertake any 
 war out of Macedonia. 4. That he should pay 1000 
 talents by instalments, and deliver up his younger 
 son Demetrius as an hostage. 
 
 The Roman allies in this wai* were : the ^tolians, Athenians, 
 Rhodians, the kings of the Athamanes, Dardanians, and Perga- 
 nius. — The Achoeans at the beginning sided with Philip, hut 
 were subsequently gained over by Flaminius. Sec below, in the 
 Roman history. 
 
 20. Soon after, the freedom of Greece was solemn- 
 B. c. 196. ly proclaimed at the Isthmian games by Flaminius : 
 but loud as the Greeks were in their exultations, this 
 measure served merely to transfer the supremacy of 
 their country from Macedonia to Rome : and Grecian 
 history, as well as the Macedonian, is now interwoven 
 with that of the Romans. To foster quarrels between 
 the Greek states with the especial view of hindering 
 the Aclvaeans from growing too formidable, now be- 
 came a fundamental principle at Rome ; and Ro- 
 man and anti-Roman parties having quickly arisen 
 in every city, this political game was easily played. 
 
 Flaminius even took care that the Achteans sliould have an 
 opponent in the person of Nabis, although under the necessity 
 of waging war against him previous to his return into Italy, 194. 
 — In 192, war between Nabis and the Achajans ; followed after 
 the murder of Nabis, at the hands of the ^tolians, by the acces- 
 sion of Sparta to the Achtean league. — But about the same time 
 Greece once more became the theatre of foreign war ; Antio- 
 chus having firmly seated himself in the country, and enleagued 
 himself with several tribes, but more particularly the -3i^tolians, 
 inspired with bitter and long-standing hatred against the Ro- 
 mans. These last, however, after the expulsion of Antiochus 
 fi'om Greece, 191, paid dearly for their secession ; nor was peace 
 granted them by Rome till after long and unsuccessful suppli- 
 cations, 189. 
 
 Fate of 21. While war was pending between the Romans 
 
 Phihp. ^^^ Antiochus, Phihp, in the character of one of the 
 numerous allies of Rome, ventured to increase his 
 territorj^ at the expease of the Athamanes, Thracians, 
 and Thessalians. To keep him in good humour he 
 was permitted to effect those conquests; but after
 
 ri-RioD ni.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 229 
 
 the termination of the war, tlie oppression of Rome Third 
 became so galhng, that it could not be otherwise than ^''''"'°"- 
 
 that all his thoughts should centre in revenge, and b.c. lyo. 
 all his exertions be directed towards the recovery of 
 power. Meanwhile the violent measures adopted 
 for repeopling his exhausted kingdom — such is the 
 punishment of ambition which usually awaits even 
 the victorious ! — the transplantation of the inhabitants 
 of whole cities and countries, and the consequent 
 and unavoidable oppression of several of his neigh- 
 bours, excited universal complaints ; and where was 
 the accuser of Philip to whom Rome would not now 
 lend a ready ear ? — His younger son, Demetrius, the 
 pupil of Rome, and by her intended, it is probable, 
 to succeed to the crown, alone diverted the impend- 
 ing fate of Macedonia. But after the return of that isa. 
 prince from his embassy, the envy of his elder and 
 bastard brother, Perseus, grew into an inveterate ran- 
 cour, such as could not be quenched but by the death 
 of the younger. The lot of Philip was indeed hard, isi. 
 compelled as a father to judge between his two sons ; 
 but the measure of human woe was filled, when after 
 the death of his favourite child he discovered that he 
 was innocent ; are we to wonder that sorrow should i79. 
 soon have hurried him to a premature grave? 
 
 22. The same policy which was observed by the Roman po- 
 Romans towards Philip, they pursued towards the thJlcha'an 
 Achasans, with whom, since the termination of the war ' g^|"^- 
 with Antiochus, they had assumed a loftier tone ; and 
 this artful game was facilitated by the continual quar- 
 rels among the Greeks themselves. Yet the great 
 Philopocmen, worthy of a better age, maintained the 
 dignity of the league at the very time that the Ro- 
 mans presumed to speak as arbitrators. After his 
 decease they found it easy to raise a party among the 
 Achseans themselves, the venal Callicrates offering is3. 
 his services for that purpose. 
 
 The Achaeans were continually embroiled either with Sparta 
 or with Messene : the grounds of difFerence were, that in both 
 of those states there were factions headed by persons who, out 
 of personal motives, and for the most i)art hatred to Philopcc- 
 mea, wished to secede from the league ; on the other hand, the
 
 230 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 TlIIKD 
 I'UUIOD. 
 
 Perseus, 
 B. C. 179 
 
 — 16S. 
 
 Defeat of 
 Perseus at 
 Pydiia. 
 
 prevailing idea among the Ache-cans was, that this league ought 
 to comprise the whole of the Peloponnesus. In the war against 
 the Messenians, 183, Philopocmen, at the age of seventy, was 
 taken prisoner by the enemy and put to death. 
 
 Plutarchi, Philopcemen. Nearly the whole of which is 
 compiled from the lost biography of Polybius. 
 
 23. The last Macedonian king, Perseus, had in- 
 herited his father's perfect hatred of the Romans, 
 together with talents, if not equal, at least but little 
 inferior. He entered into the speculations of his 
 predecessor, and the first seven years of his reign 
 was occupied in constant exertions to muster forces 
 against Rome ; with this view he called the Bastarnae 
 out of the north, in order to settle them in the terri- 
 tories of his enemies the Dardanians ; he endeavoured 
 to form alliances with the kings of Illyria, Thrace, 
 Syria, and Bithynia ; above all, he strove by nego- 
 tiations and promises to re-establish the ancient in- 
 fluence of Macedonia in Greece. 
 
 The settlement of the Bastarnae (probably a German race, 
 resident beyond the Danube) in Thrace and Dardania, in order 
 with them to carry war against the Romans, was one of the 
 plans traced out by Philip, and now partially executed by Per- 
 seus. — In Greece the Macedonian party, which Perseus formed 
 chiefly out of the great number of impoverished citizens in the 
 country, would probably have gained the upper hand, had not 
 the fear inspired by Rome, and the active vigilance of that 
 power, interposed an effectual bar. Hence the Achasans, ap- 
 parently at least, remained on the Roman side ; the -^tolians, 
 by domestic factions, had worked their own destruction ; the 
 case was the same with the Acarnanians ; and the federation of 
 the Bojotians had been completely dissolved by the Romans, 
 171. On the other hand, in Epirus the Macedonian party was 
 superior ; Thessaly was occupied by Perseus ; several of the 
 Thracian tribes were friendly to him ; and in King Gentius he 
 found an ally who might have been highly useful, had not the 
 Macedonian prince, by an ill-timed avarice, deprived himself of 
 his assistance. 
 
 24. The commencement of open hostilities was 
 hastened by the bitter hatred existing between Per- 
 seus and Eumenes, and by the intrigues of the latter 
 at Rome. Neglect of the favourable moment for 
 taking the field, and the defensive system, skilfully 
 in other respects as it was planned, caused the ruin 
 of Perseus, as it had done that of Antiochus. Never-
 
 r-iiiiioD m.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 231 
 
 theless he protracted the war to the fourth year, Tiurd 
 when the battle of Pydna decided the fate both of 
 
 himself and his kinp;dom. b. c. 172 
 
 . . —168. 
 
 Miserable condition of Perseus until his capture at Samo- 
 
 thrace ; and afterwards until bis death at Rome, 166. 
 
 " 25. According to the system at that period fol- 
 lowed by Rome, the conquered kingdom of Mace- 
 donia was not immediately converted into a pro- 
 vince ; it was first deprived of all offensive power, 
 by being republicanized and divided into four dis- 
 tricts, wholly distinct from one another, and bound 
 to pay Rome half the tribute they were before wont 
 to furnish to their kings. 
 
 26. It was in the natural order of things that the FiiUoftiie 
 independence of Greece, and more especially that of ^^i'ue.'^ 
 the Achaean league, should fall with Perseus. The 
 political inquisition of the Roman commissaries not 
 
 only visited with punishment the declared partisans 
 of Macedonia ; but even to have stood neutral was a 
 crime that incurred suspicion. Rome, however, 
 amid the rising hatred, did not deem herself secure 
 until by one blow she had rid herself of all opponents 
 of any importance. Above a thousand of the most 
 eminent of the Achaeans were summoned to Rome 
 to justify themselves, and there detained seventeen 
 years in prison without a hearino;. While at the Caiiicrates, 
 head of the leag-ue stood the man who had delivered "~ "^ • 
 them up, Calhcrates, {d. 150,) a wretch who could, 
 unmoved, hear " the very boys in the streets taunt 
 him with treachery." — A more tranquil period, it is 
 true, now ensued for Greece, but it was the result of 
 very bbvious causes. 
 
 27. The ultimate lot both of Macedon and Greece Greece be- 
 was decided by the system now adopted at Rome, Roman^ 
 that of converting the previous dependence of na- P'^ince, 
 tions into formal subjection. The insurrection of 
 Andriscus in Macedonia, an individual who pretended 
 
 to be the son of Perseus, was quelled by Metellus, 
 the country being constituted a Roman province ; 
 two years afterwards, at the sack of Corinth, vanished 
 the last glimmer of Grecian freedom.
 
 ISll 
 
 ma(;kdünian monarchy. 
 
 Tiuiii) 
 Period. 
 
 The last war of tlie Aclia^ans arose out of certain quarrels 
 with Sparta, 150, fomented by DiiEus, Critolaus, and Damocritus, 
 who had returned bitterly enraged from the Roman prison ; in 
 tliese disputes Rome interfered, with the design of wholly dis- 
 solving the Achfcan league. The first pretext that offered for 
 executing this scheme was the ill-treatment of the Roman am- 
 bassadors at Corinth, 148 ; war, however, still raging with 
 Carthage and Andriscus, the Romans preserved for the present 
 a peaceful tone. But the party of Dia^us and Critolaus would 
 have war ; the plenipotentiaries of Metellus were again insult- 
 ed ; and the Acha^ans declared war against Sparta and Rome. 
 In the very same year they were routed by Metellus, and their 
 leader Critolaus fell in the engagement ; Metellus was replaced 
 in the command by Mummius, who defeated DiiBus the suc- 
 cessor of Critolaus, took Corinth and razed it to the ground, 
 146. The consequence was, that Greece, under the name of 
 Achaia, became a Roman province, although to a few cities, 
 such as Athens, for instance, some shadow of freedom was still 
 left. 
 
 lY, History of some smaller or more distant Kingdoms 
 and States erected out of the Macedotiiati monarchy. 
 
 Sources. Besides the writers enumerated above, (see p. 186,) 
 Memnon, an historian of Heraclea in Pontus, deserves particu- 
 lar mention in this place (see p. 131): some extracts from hi? 
 work have been preserved to us by Photius, Cod. 224. In 
 some individual portions, as, for instance, in the Parthian his- 
 tory, Justin ' is our main authority ; as are likewise Ammianus 
 Marcellinus, and the extracts from Ai'rian's Parthica, found in 
 Photius. The coins of the kings are also of great importance ; 
 but unfortunately Vaillant's Essay shows, that even with their 
 assistance the chronology still remains in a very unsettled 
 state. For the Jewish history, Josephus (see p. 29) is the 
 grand writer ; of the Books of the Old Testament, those of 
 Ezra and Nehemiah, together with the Maccabees, although the 
 last are not always to be depended upon. 
 
 The modern writers are enumerated below, under the heads 
 of the different kingdoms. Much information is likewise scat- 
 tered about in the works on ancient numismatics. 
 
 Smaller 1. Besides the three main empires into which the 
 
 ouro/Aiex- monarchy of Alexander was divided, there Hkewise 
 ander's em- arose in those extensive regions several branch king- 
 
 pire. 
 
 ' As Justin did no more than extract from Trogus Pompeius, a 
 question presents itself of great consequence to various portions of 
 ancient history ; what authorities did Trogus Pompeius follow ? The 
 answer will be found in two treatises by A. H. L. Heeren : Defon- 
 tihns et auctoritate Tror/i Pojnpeii, cjusque epitomatoris Justini, insert- 
 ed in Comment. Soc. Gott. vol. xv.
 
 PERIOD 111.] IV. PERGAMUS, ETC. 233 
 
 doms, one of which even grew in time to be among Third 
 the most powerfiil in the world. To these belong '_ 
 
 the kingdoms of, 1. Pergamus. 2. Bithynia. 3. 
 Paphlagonia. 4. Pontus. 5. Cappadocia. 6. Great 
 Armenia. 7. Little Armenia. 8. Parthia. 9. Bac- 
 tria. 10. Jewish state subsequent to the Mac- 
 cabees. 
 
 We are acquainted with the history of these kingdoms, the 
 Jewish state alone excepted, only so fai' forth as they were im- 
 plicated in the concerns of the greater empires ; of their internal 
 history we know little, often nothing. With respect to many 
 of them, therefore, little more can be produced than a series of 
 chronological data, indispensable, notwithstanding, to the gene- 
 ral historian. 
 
 2. The kingdom of Pergamus, in Mysia, arose Kingdom of 
 during the w^ar between Seleucus and Lysimachus. b!c!283* 
 It owed its origin on the one hand to the prudence — i»^- 
 of its rulers, the wisest of whom luckily reigned the 
 longest ; and, on the other, to the weakness of the 
 Seleucidse : for its progressive increase it was indebt- 
 ed to the Romans, who in aggrandizing the power 
 of Pergamus acted with a view to their own interest. 
 History exhibits scarcely one subordinate kingdom 
 whose princes took such skilful advantage of the 
 political circumstances of the times ; and yet they 
 earned still greater renown by the anxiety they show- 
 ed in rivalling the Ptolemies, to foster the arts of 
 peace, industry, science, architecture, sculpture, and 
 painting. How dazzling the splendour with which 
 the small state of Pergamus outshines many a mighty 
 empire ! 
 
 Philetoerus, lieutenant of Lysimachus, in Pergamus, asserts 
 his independence ; and maintains possession of the citadel and 
 town, 283—263. His nephew, Eumencs I., 263—241, defeats 
 Antiochus I. at Sardes, 263, and becomes master of iEolis and 
 the circumjacent country. His nephew, Attalus I., 241 — 197, 
 alter his victory over the Galatians, 239, becomes king of Per- 
 gamus : a noble pi'ince, and one whose genius and activity em 
 braced every thing. His wars against Achieus brought him in 
 alliance with Antiochus HI., 216. Commencement of nn alii 
 ance with Rome, arising out of his partici[)ation in tlie -ZEtolian 
 league against Macedon, 211, in order to thwart Pliilip's project 
 of conquest. Hence, after Philip's irruption into Asia, 203,
 
 234 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book :v. 
 
 Third participation on tlie side of Rome, in the Macedonian war. His 
 Period, son Euraenes 11., tlie inheritor of all his father's great qualities, 
 
 succeeds him, 197 — 158. As a reward for his assistance against 
 
 Antiochus the Great, the Romans presented him with almost 
 all the territories possessed by the vanquished king in Asia JMi- 
 nor, (Phrygia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Ionia, and a part of Ca- 
 rla,) which thereafter constituted the kingdom of Pergamus ; 
 this prince extended liis frontiei's, but lost his independence. 
 In the war with Perseus he was scarce able to preserve the good 
 will of the senate, and thercAvith his kingdom. His brother 
 Attains II., 158 — 138, a more faithful dependent of Rome, took 
 part in nearly all the concerns of Asia Minor, more especially 
 Bithynia. His nephew, Attains III., 138 — 133, a prince of 
 unsound mind, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who, 
 after vanquishing the lawful heir, Aristonicus, 130, took pos- 
 session of it, annexing it to their empire, under the shape of a 
 province called Asia. — Great discoveries and vast establishments 
 made at Pergamus. Rich library ; subsequently transferred by 
 Antony to Alexandria, as a present for Cleopatra. IMuseum. 
 Discovery of parchment an invaluable auxiliary to the preserv- 
 ation of works of literature. 
 
 Choiseull Gouffier, Voyage j^ittoresque de la Grece, vol. 
 ii. 1809. Containing excellent observations, both on the mo- 
 numents and history of Pergamus, as well as on those of all the 
 neighbouring coasts and islands. 
 
 Sevin, Recherches sur les rois de Pergame, inserted in the 
 Mem. de VAcad. des Inscript. vol. xii. 
 
 From the fall of Tyre and the unsuccessful attempt of De- 
 metrius, B. C. 307, to the establishment of Roman dominion in 
 the East, 300 — 200, was the brilliant period of Rhodes ; alike 
 important for political wisdom, naval power, and extensive 
 trade. At the head of the senate (ßovXi)) were presidents, 
 (Trpvrape'iQ,) who went out of office every half year, and were 
 honoured with precedence in the meetings of the commons. 
 Friendship with all, alliance with none, was the fundamental 
 maxim of Rhodian policy, until subverted by Rome. Thus was 
 preserved the dignity of the state, together with its independ- 
 ence and political activity — where do we not meet with Rhodian 
 embassies ? — and permanent splendour, resulting from the cul- 
 tivation of arts and sciences. What proofs of general com- 
 miseration did not Rhodes enjoy after that dreadful earthquake, 
 which threw down even the famous Colossus ! 227. Long 
 did her squadrons command the vEgean ; over that sea, the 
 Euxine, and the western parts of the Mediterranean as far as 
 Sicily, her commei'ce extended, consisting in the rich exchange 
 of commodities between the three quarters of the globe. Her 
 revenue proceeded from the customs, and was abundant ; until, 
 blinded by avarice, she sought to obtain at Perasa a territory on 
 the mainland ; an ambition of which the Romans availed them- 
 selves to her detriment, by presenting her with Lycia and Ca- 
 rla, 190. And yet did this republic outlive that of Rome !
 
 PERIOD III. I IV. PERGAMUS, ETC. 235 
 
 Great, indeed, is the chai^m left in general history by the loss Third 
 of tlie internal history of this island I Period. 
 
 P. D. Cii. Paulsen, Cotnmentatio cxhibens Rliodi dcscrip- 
 
 tionem Macedonica cBtate, Got.t'mgce, 1818. A prize essay. 
 
 3. The other small kingxloms of Asia Minor are 
 fragments rather of the Persian than of the Macedo- 
 nian monarchy ; for Alexander's march following 
 another direction, they were not formally subjugated 
 by that conqueror. The lines of their kings are ge- 
 nerally traced back to an early period of the Persian 
 age ; but properly speaking, their rulers in those days 
 were nothing more than viceroys : selected indeed, 
 for the most part, from the royal family, they bore 
 the title of princes, and, in the gradual decline of the 
 empire, not unfrequently threw up their allegiance. 
 Nevertheless these kingdoms do not appear as really 
 independent until after the time of Alexander. Con- 
 nected with the Grecian republics Heraclea, Sinope, 
 Byzantium, etc., they formed, both in the Macedonian 
 and Roman ages, a system of small states, often dis- 
 tracted by internal wars, and still oftener mere tools 
 in the hands of the more powerful. 
 
 1. Bithynia. As early as the Persian period, mention is 
 made of two kings in Bithynia, Dydalsus and Botyras. The 
 son of the latter, Bias, B. C. 378 — 328, made head against Ca- 
 ranus, one of Alexander's generals ; as did also his son Zipoctas, 
 d. 281, against Lysimachus. — Nicomedes I., d. 248. lie called 
 the Gauls over from Thrace, 278, and with their assistance de- 
 posed his brotlier Zipoetas ; the Gauls in consequence kept their 
 footing in Galatia, and were for a long time an object of terror 
 to Asia Minor. Zelas, d. about 232 ; established his dominion 
 after a war with his half-brothers. Prusias I., son-in-law and 
 ally of Philip II. of Maccdon, d. 192. He sided with the Rho- 
 diaus in the commercial war against Byzantium, 222, (see above, 
 p. 226,) and directed his arms, 196, against Heraclea, a Gre- 
 cian city in Bithynia, with a respectable territory along shore. 
 Prusias II., waged war against Eumenes II., at the instigation 
 of Hannibal, who had fled to his court, 184 ; he was subse- 
 quently about to deliver up the fugitive to the Romans, had 
 not Hannibal put a period to his existence, 183 : this king like- 
 wise waged war against Attains II., 153 ; in both these contests 
 Rome acted as mediator. Prusias, who had the meanness to 
 style himself a freedman of the Romans, was dethroned by his 
 own son, Nicomedes II., d. 92 ; a confederate of IMithridates 
 the Great, with whom, nevertheless, he afterwards fell out 
 concerning the appropriation of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia.
 
 236 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv, 
 
 TuiuD Nicomedes was murdered by his son Socrates, who was, how- 
 Period. ever, compelled to flee ; in consequence of wliich IS'icomedes 
 III. succeeded to the crown. Deposed by jMithridates, who 
 supported his half-brother Socrates, he was reinstated by Rome, 
 90. Ilavinpr, however, at the instigation of the Romans, 89, 
 attacked Mithridates, he was defeated and expelled in the first 
 Mithridatic war, now kindled ; but in the peace of 85, he was 
 again reinstated by Siüla. At his death, 75, he bequeathed 
 Bithynia to the Romans ; and this legacy gave rise to the third 
 ]\Iithridatic war. 
 
 Vaillant, Imperium Arsacidariim, vol. ii. See below. 
 SEvax, Rechcrches sui- le rois de Bithynie ; inserted in the 
 Mem. de VAcadanie des Inscrlpt. vol. xii. 
 
 2. Paphlagonia. Even in the Persian age the rulers of this 
 country were but nominally subject. After Alexander's death, 
 B. C. 323, it fell into the hands of the kings of Pontus ; it was, 
 however, subsequently, again ruled by its own monarchs ; among 
 Avhom we hear of Morzes, about 179 ; Pyla^raenes I., about 131 ; 
 Avho assisted the Romans in the war against Aristonicus of Per- 
 gamus. — Pyliemenes II., d. before 121 ; who is said to have be- 
 queathed his kingdom to INIithridates V. of Pontus. Hence 
 Paphlagonia came to be implicated in the fortunes of Pontus, 
 (see just below,) until, after the fall of Mithridates the Great, 
 63, that kingdom was converted into a province, with the ex- 
 ception of one of the southern districts, to which the Romans 
 left some shadow of freedom. 
 
 3. Pontus. The later kings of this country derived their 
 origin from the family of the Acha^menidae, or house of Persia. 
 In the Persian age they remained dependent or tributary 
 princes : and as such we must consider Artabazes, son of Hys- 
 taspes, d. 480, Mithridates I., d. 368, and Ariobarzanes, d. 337, 
 mentioned as the earliest kings of Pontus. Mithridates IL, sur- 
 named Ctistes, d. 302, was one of the first to acknowledge sub- 
 jection to Alexander ; after the death of the conqueror he sided 
 with Antigonus, who ti'eacherously caused him to be murdered. 
 His son, Mitlu'idates III., d. 266, (the Ariobarzanes of Mem- 
 non,) not only maintained himself after the battle of Ipsus 
 against Lysimachus, but likcwase possessed himself of Cappado- 
 cia and Paphlagonia. Mithridates IV., father-in-law to Anti- 
 ochus the Great, waged an unsuccessful wai* against Sinope ; 
 the year of his death is undetermined. Pharnaces, d. about 156. 
 He conquered Sinope, 183 ; and that town then became the 
 royal residence. War Avith Eumenes IL, whom Rome had 
 made so powerful, and with his allies ; terminated by a treaty, 
 according to which Pharnaces ceded Paphlagonia, B. C. 179. 
 jNIithridates V., d. about 121. He was an ally of the Romans, 
 from whom, after the defeat of Aristonicus of Phrygia, he con- 
 trived to obtain Great Phrygia. Mithridates VI., sui-named 
 Eupator, about 121 — 64. He bore the title of Great, an epi- 
 thet to which he was as fully entitled as Peter I., in modern 
 history ; indeed he resembled the Russian prince in almost
 
 PERIOD III.] IV. PONTUS, ETC. 2S7 
 
 every thing except in good fortune. His reign, although of tlie Third 
 higliest importance to general history, i.s, particularly in the por- Period. 
 tion previous to the wars with Rome, replete with chronological 
 difficulties. — At the age of twelve years he inherits from his 
 father not only Pontus, but likewise Phrygia, and a reversion- 
 ary title to the throne of Paphlagonia, vacated by the death of 
 Pyla^menes II. — During his nonage, 121 — 1 12, while by volun- 
 tarily inuring himself to hardships, he contrived to elude the 
 treacherous hostility of his guardians, Rome deprived him of 
 Phrygia. His conquests in Colchis and on the eastern side of 
 the Black Sea, 112 — 110. — Commencement of the Scythian 
 wars. Called by the Greeks of Crimea to their assistance, he 
 expelled the Scythians ; subjected several insignificant Scythian 
 princes on the mainland ; and entered into alliances with the 
 Sarmatic and even Germanic races as far as the Danube, 108 — 
 105, having already a view to the invasion of Italy from the 
 north. — This war ended, he travels over Asia, (Asia Minor ?) 
 about 104 — 103. — At his return, after punishing with death 
 his ftiithless sister and wife, Laodice, he makes good his preten- 
 sions to Paphlagonia, which he divides with Nicoraedes II., 102. 
 The Roman senate demanding the restoration of that province, 
 Mithridates not only refuses to accede, but likewise takes pos- 
 session of Galatia ; meanwhile Nicomedes places on the throne 
 of Piiphlagonia one of his own sons, whom he gives out to be a 
 son of Pylaimenes IL, and denominates Pylnsmenes III. — Rup- 
 ture with Nicomedes II., 101 ; the subject of dispute, Cappado- 
 cia, which, after removing the king, Ariarathes VII., his bro- 
 ther-in-law, with the assistance of Gordius, Mithridates himself 
 now wislied to possess ; he is anticipated, however, by Nico- 
 medes II., who marries Laodice, Ariaratlies's widow. — Mithri- 
 dates, notwithstanding, expels his rival, under pretence of holding 
 the kingdom for his sister's son, Ariarathes VIIL, whom at the 
 end of a few months he puts to death at a private conference, 
 94 ; he defeats the brother of the murdered prince, Ai-iarathes 
 IX., and then places on the throne, under the name of Ariara- 
 thes X., his own son, M'ho is given out to be a third son of 
 Ariarathes VII. ; in opposition to whom Nicomedes sets up an- 
 other pretended Ai'iarathes. The Roman senate, meauAvhile, 
 declare botli Paphlagonia and Cappadocia free, B. C. 92 ; at- 
 tending, however, to the desires of the Cappadocians, they sanc- 
 tion the election of Ariobarzanes to the crown ; and he is put 
 in possession of the kingdom by Sylla, as propraetor of Cilicia, 
 likewise in 92. — Mithridates, on the other hand, forms an alli- 
 ance with the king of Armenia, Tigranes, to whom he gives his 
 daughter in marriage ; and employs him in expelling Ariobar- 
 zanes. — He himself, after the death of Nicomedes IL, 92, sup- 
 ports tlie claims of the deceased king's exiled son, Socrates 
 Chrestus, against the bastard Nicomedes III., and in the mean 
 time takes possession of Paphlagonia. Nicomedes and Ariobar- 
 zanes are reinstated by a Roman embas.sy, 90, jNIithridates, in 
 order to gain time against Rome, causing Socrates to be put to
 
 238 MACEDONIAN MONAKCHV. [book iv. 
 
 Third death. The hostilities of Nicomedes, instituted by Rome, gave 
 Period, j.jgg ^^ ^jjg ßj.^^ Roman war, 89 — 85, carried on in Asia and 
 ' Greece, and brought to a conclusion by Sylla. By the peace of 
 85, Mithridates restores Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Paphlago- 
 nia. — War with the revolted Colchians and Bosporans, 84. — 
 Second war with Rome brought about by the Roman governor, 
 Murena, 83 — 81. Mithridates hereupon appoints his son. Ma- 
 chares, king of Bosporus, (Crimea,) whom he afterwards him- 
 self causes to be put to death, 66 : he was likewise, in all pro- 
 babihty, the instigator of the migration of the Sarmata; out of 
 Asia into Europe, in order to maintain his conquests in that 
 quarter, about 80. Fresh disputes with Rome about Cappado 
 cia, of which Tigranes takes possession, and third war with Rome, 
 75 — 64. The contest ended in the downfal of Mithridates, 
 caused by the treachery of his son Pharnaces ; Pontus became 
 a Roman province ; although the Romans, in the sequel, ap- 
 pointed over a portion of the country princes from the royal 
 house, Darius, Polemo I., Polemo II., until Nero reduced it 
 again wholly to the state of a province. 
 
 Vaillant, Imperium Achoemenidarum in his Imperium Arsa- 
 cidarum, tom. ii. With the assistance of the coins. 
 
 For the history of Mithridates the Great, previously treated 
 without sufficient chronological accuracy, see De Brosses, H'ls- 
 toire de la Rtp. Romaine ; and more especially 
 
 Joan. Ernst. Woltersdorf^ Commentatio vitam Mithridatis 
 Magni, per annos digestam, sistens; prcemio ornata ah A. Phil. 
 Ord. GottingcB, A. 1812. 
 
 4. Cappadocia. Until the time of Alexander this country 
 remained a province of the Persian empire, although the govern- 
 ors occasionally made attempts at insurrection. The ruling 
 family was here likewise a branch of the royal house ; Ariara- 
 thes I. was particularly distinguished about B. C. 354. The 
 pi'ince contemporary with Alexander was Ariarathes IL, who, 
 being attacked by Perdiccas and Eumenes, fell in the contest, 
 322. Nevertheless, his sou, Ariarathes III., supported by the 
 Armenians, recovered the sceptre about 312. The son of this 
 king, Ariaramnes, formed a matrimonial connexion with the 
 Seleucidte, uniting his son Ariarathes IV. with the daughter of 
 Antiochus Qsoq. Ariarathes IV., during his life-time, associated 
 in the government his son Ariarathes V., d. 162, who married 
 Antiochis, daughter to Antiochus the Great : this princess find- 
 ing herself at lirst barren, procured two supposititious sons, one 
 of whom, Orophernes, subsequently wrested the sceptre from 
 the legitimate and later bora son, Ariarathes VI., but w^as after- 
 wards expelled by the rightful heir, 157. In the war against 
 Aristonicus of Pergamus, 131, he fell, as an ally of the Romans, 
 leaving behind him six sons; five of whom were cut oiF by his 
 ambitious relict Laodice ; the sixth, however, Ariarathes \J1., 
 ascended the throne, and was married to Laodice, sister of Mith- 
 ridates the Great, at whose instigation he was murdered by 
 Gordius, under pretence of placing on the throne his sister's
 
 PERIOD in.] IV. PARTHIA, ETC. 239 
 
 son, Ariarathes VIII. ; this last prince was soon after trencher- Third 
 ously put to death by Mithridates, 94, and his brother Ai'ia- Period. 
 I'athes IX. defeated, 93, died of broken heart ; Mithridates then 
 placed on the throne his own son, Ariarathes X., a lad eight 
 years old. The independence of Cappadocia having meanwhile 
 been proclaimed at Rome, the inhabitants of the countiy, in 
 order to preclude domestic broils, themselves elect a king, ap- 
 pointing to tliat dignity Ariobarzanes I., who was installed by 
 Sylla, 92, and, backed by the Romans, kept his footing in the 
 Älithridatic wars. In 63 he made the crown over to his son, 
 Ariobarzanes II., who was slain by the army of Brutus and Cas- 
 sius, 43, as was his brother Ariobarzanes III., 34, by Mark An- 
 tony ; Antony then appointed Archelaus to be king, who, enticed 
 to Rome by Tiberius, A. D. 17, was there assassinated; and 
 Cappadocia then became a Roman province. 
 
 5. Armenia was a province of the Syrian empire until the de- 
 feat of Antiochus the Great by Rome, 190. That defeat was 
 followed by the secession of Antiochus's lieutenants, Artaxias 
 and Zariadras ; and now arose the two kingdoms of Armenia 
 Major and Armenia Minor (the latter on the west bank of the 
 Upper Euphrates). In Armenia Major the family of Artaxias 
 kept possession of the throne, under eight (according to others 
 ten) consecutive kings, until B. C. 5. — The only remai'kable 
 prince of this line was Tigranes I., 95 — 60, son-in-law and ally 
 of Mithridates the Great, and lord of Armenia Minor, Cappa- ' 
 docia, and Syria. He was, however, at the peace of 63, obliged 
 to give up all, so that Armenia was dependent on the Romans, 
 and remained so until B. C. 5, when it became the object of 
 contention between the Romans and Parthians, being ruled at 
 intervals by kings appointed by both parties, who endeavoured 
 thereby to protect their own provinces. Finally, in A. D. 412, 
 Armenia became a province of the new Persian empire. — In 
 Armenia Minor the descendants of Zariadras ruled dependently 
 on Rome ; after its defection under Älithridates the Great it 
 usually formed part of some one of the neighbouring kingdoms, 
 until in the reign of Vespasian it was converted into a province 
 of tlie Roman empii'e. 
 
 Vaillant, ElenchtLS regnum Armenice Majoris, in liis Hist. 
 Imp. Arsacidarum. 
 
 4. Besides the above small kingdoms, two mighty Bactrian 
 empires arose in Inner iVsia, both out of Alexander s [""ian^e^n". 
 monarchy, and at the same time ; these were the pires. 
 Parthian and the Bactrian ; each having previously 
 constituted a part of the empire of the Selcucida?, 
 from which they seceded under Antiochus II. The 
 Parthian kingdom, or that of the Arsacidte, B. C. 256 
 — A. D. 226, at the maximum of its extension, com- 
 prised the countries between the Euphrates and Indus.
 
 240 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third Its history, SO far as we are acquainted with it, is di- 
 ^'^'""' vided into four periods (see below) ; but unfortunately 
 our information is so imperfect respecting all that 
 relates to the Parthians, except their wars, that even 
 the most important particulars are beyond the reach 
 of conjecture. 
 
 Main facts in the history and constitution of the Parthian 
 kingdom, n. Like the ancient Persian empire, the Parthian 
 arose out of the conquests made by a rude mountain race of 
 Central Asia, whose Scythian (probably Tartarian) origin be- 
 trayed itself even in later times by their speech and mode of 
 life : their conquests, however, were not effected with the same 
 rapidity as those of the Persians, b. This empire increased at 
 the expense of the Syrian in the west, and of the Bactrian in the 
 east ; but its dominion was never permanently established be- 
 yond the Euplirates, Indus, and Oxus. c. The wars with Rome, 
 commencing in B. C. 53, and springing out of disputes for the 
 possession of the Armenian throne, were for a long time unfor- 
 tunate for the Romans. Success did not accompany the arms 
 of Rome until she had discovered the art of raising her own 
 parties within the kingdom itself, by lending her support to 
 pretenders, an art rendered comparatively easy by the unfa- 
 vourable situation of the Parthian capital Seleucia and the 
 neighbouring town of Ctesiplion, the real head-quarters of the 
 court, d. The empire was indeed divided into satrapies, eigh- 
 teen of which are enumerated ; nevertheless it comprised like- 
 wise several small kingdoms, which preserved their own rulers, 
 only that they were tributary, such, for instance, as Persis, etc. 
 The Grteco-Macedonian settlements were also in possession of 
 great privileges, and of their own civic governments ; Seleucia 
 more especially, where the coins of the Parthian sovereigns were 
 struck, e. The constitution was monarchal-aristocratic, some- 
 thing like that of the Poles, in the period of the Jagellons. At 
 the king's side sat a supreme state council, (setiatus, in all pro- 
 bability what was called the megistanes,) who had the power 
 of deposing the king, and the privilege, it is supposed, of con- 
 firming his accession previous to the ceremony of coronation, 
 performed by the field-marshals (surenas). The right of suc- 
 cession was only so far determined as belonging to the house of 
 the Arsacidfe ; the many pretenders to which this uncertainty 
 gave rise, produced factions and domestic wars, doubly injuri- 
 ous to the empire when fomented and shared by foreigners, f. 
 With regard to Asiatic commerce, the Parthian supremacy was 
 of importance, inasmuch as it interrupted the direct intercourse 
 between the western and eastern countries : it being a maxim 
 of the Parthians not to grant a passage through their country 
 to any stranger. This destruction of the trade occurs in the 
 third period of the empire, being a natural result of the many 
 wars with Rome, and the distrust thence ensuing. The East
 
 PERIOD III.] IV. PARTIIIA, ETC. 241 
 
 India trade, in consequence, took another road though Palmyra Third 
 and Alexandria, which were indebted to it for their splendour Teriod. 
 and prosperity, g. It is probable that this was the reason why 
 excessive luxury took a less hold on the Parthians than on the 
 other ruling nations of Asia, notwitlistanding their predilection 
 for Grecian manners and literature, at that time generally pre- 
 valent throughout the East. 
 
 Line of the kings. I. Syrian period ; that of reiterated wars 
 with the Seleucidai, until 130. Arsaces I., 256 — 253, founder 
 of the Parthian independence, by procuring the death of the 
 Syrian viceroy, Agathocles, to which he was instigated by the 
 insult offered to his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II., (Tiridates 
 I.,) brother of the foregoing, d. 216. He possessed himself of 
 Hyrcania about 244, confirmed the Parthian power by a victory 
 over Seleucus Callinicus, 238, whom he took prisoner, 236. 
 Arsaces III., (Artabanus I.,) d. 196. In his reign occurred the 
 unsuccessful attempt of Antiochus III., who, in the treaty of 
 210, was obliged to renounce all claims on Parthia and Hyrcania, 
 in return for which Arsaces lent his assistance to Antiochus 
 in the war against Bactria. Arsaces IV., (Priapatius,) d. about 
 181. Arsaces V., (Phraates I.,) d. about 144: he conquered 
 the jNIardians on the Caspian. His brother, Arsaces VI,, 
 (Mithi-idates I.,) d. 136. He raised the hitherto confined king- 
 dom of Parthia to the rank of a mighty empire, having, after 
 the decease of Antiochus Epiphanes, 164, by the capture of 
 ]Media, Persis, Babylonia, and other countries, extended the 
 frontiers westward to the Euphrates, and eastward to the Hy- 
 daspes, beyond the Indus. The invasion of Demetrius II. of 
 Syria, supported by an insurrection of the conquered races, 
 ended, 140, in the capture of the aggressor. Arsaces VII., 
 (Phraates II.,) d. about 127. Invasion of Antiochus Sidetes, 
 132, Avho was at first successful, but being soon afterwards cut 
 off together with his whole army, 131, the Parthian empire was 
 for ever freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings. 
 
 II. Period of the eastern nomad wars ; from 130 — 53. After 
 the fall of the Bactrian empire, which had hitherto formed the 
 eastern rampart of the Parthians, violent Avars took place Avith 
 the nomad tribes of Central Asia, (Scythaj, Dalian, Tochari, etc.,) 
 in which Arsaces VII. was slain. Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus 
 II.) shared the same fate about 124. Arsaces IX. (Mithri- 
 dates II.) d. 87. This prince appears to have restored tran- 
 quillity to the East after bloody wars ; he met, however, with a 
 powerfid rival in Tigranes I., of Armenia. In his reign oc- 
 curred the first transactions between the Parthians and Romans, 
 92, Sylla being jjropra^tor of Cilicia. Arsaces X., (iNInasciras,) d. 
 about 76, waged a long war for the succession with his follower 
 on the throne, the septuagenarian, Arsaces XL, (Sinatroces,) d. 
 about 68. Unsuccessful war with Tigranes I. In consequence 
 of civil wars, and ofthat with Tigranes, together with the formid- 
 able power of Mithridates the Great, the Parthian empire was 
 now greatly weakened. Arsaces XII., (Phraates III.,) d. 60, 
 
 R
 
 242 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [hook. iv. 
 
 Third contemporary witli the third Mithridatic war. Altliougli both 
 Period, parties eagerly courted his alliance, and he himself was engaged 
 
 in the contest with Tigranes, he, notwithstanding, observed an 
 
 armed neuti-ality, and made the Parthian empire continue to be 
 respected as far as the Euphrates. Neither Lucullus nor Pom- 
 pey durst attack him. The fall of Mithridates and of his em- 
 pire, 64, constitutes, however, an epoch in the Parthian history, 
 the Romans and Parthians having now become immediate neigh- 
 bours. — Arsaces XIII., (Mithridates II.,) d. 54, deposed, after 
 several wars, by his younger brother Orodes, and at last put 
 to death, after the capture of Babylonia, where he had taken 
 refuge. 
 
 III. Roman period ; from B. C. 53, to A. D. 226 ; compris- 
 ing the wars with Rome. Arsaces XIV., (Orodes I.,) d. 36. In 
 his reign the first war with Rome, caused by the invasion of 
 Crassus ; it ends in the annihilation of the invading army and 
 general, 53. In consequence of this victory the Parthians ac- 
 quiz'ed such preponderance, that during the civil wars they 
 were frequently masters on this side of the Euphrates, and in 
 52 — 51 proceeded to attack Syria. — In the war between Pom- 
 pey and Caesar they sided with the former, and thus furnished 
 the latter with a pretext for his Parthian expedition, which, 
 however, was prevented by his murder in 44 ; again, in the war 
 between the triumviri and Brutus and Cassius, 42, they took 
 the republican side. After the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, 
 the Parthians, at the instigation of the Roman general and am- 
 bassador Labienus, and commanded by him and Pacorus, (eldest 
 son to Arsaces,) spread over the whole of Syria and Asia Mi- 
 nor, 40 ; but, after violent exertions, were driven back by Ven- 
 tidius, Antony's general, 39, 38 ; Pacorus lost his life, and his 
 father died of grief. Arsaces XV., (Phraates IV.,) d. A. D. 4, 
 contemporary of Augustus. He confirmed his power by mur- 
 dering his bi'others and their dependents ; his views were like- 
 wise furthered by the failure of Antony's expedition, B. C. 36, 
 which ended pretty nearly in the same manner as that of Cras- 
 sus. The remainder of his reign was disturbed by a pretender 
 to the throne, Tiridates, who, after his defeat, 25, found an 
 asylum at the court of Augustus. The threatened attack of 
 Augustus was diverted by Phraates's restoration of the stand- 
 ards taken from Crassus, 20 ; a dispute, however, subsequently 
 arose respecting the possession of the Ai-menian throne, A. D. 
 2, on which account Caius Cajsar was despatched into Asia, and 
 accommodated matters by a treaty. The ultimate fate both of 
 the king and the empire was principally decided by a female 
 slave, Thermusa, sent as a present from Augustus ; this woman, 
 wishing to insure the succession to her own son, prevailed upon 
 the king to send his four sons to Rome as hostages, under the 
 pretext of anticipating domestic troubles, 18. — A practice which 
 from that time became frequent, the Parthian kings thinking it 
 a convenient mode of ridding themselves of dangerous competi- 
 tors, while the Romans knew how to make the proper use of
 
 PERIOD III.] IV. PARTHIA, ETC. 248 
 
 them. — Thermusa's son having grown up, she removed the Third 
 king, and seated Phraataces on the throne, under the name of Period. 
 
 Arsaces XVI. ; he was, however, put to death by the Parthi- 
 
 ans, A. D. 4 ; and the crown given to one of the Arsacidae, 
 Orodes II., (Arsaces XVII.,) who was, however, immediately 
 afterwards slain by reason of his cruelty. In consequence, 
 Vonones I., the eldest of the sons of Phraates sent to Rome, was 
 called back and placed on the throne (Arsaces XVIII.) ; but 
 that prince having brought with him Roman customs and lux- 
 ury, was expelled, A. D. 1-i, with the assistance of the northern 
 nomads, by Artabanus III., (Arsaces XIX.,) d. 44, a distant i-e- 
 latiou : the fugitive took possession of the vacant throne of Ar- 
 menia, but was soon after driven from thence likewise by his 
 rival. Tiberius took advantage of the consequent disorders, to 
 send Germanicus into the East, A. D. 17, from whence he was 
 never to return. The remainder of the reign of Artabanus was 
 very stormy ; Tiberius on the one hand taking advantage of the 
 factions between the nobles to support pretenders to the crown, 
 the revolts of the satraps, on the other hand, giving proof of the 
 declension of the Parthian power. After his death Avar raged 
 between his sons ; the second, Vardanes, (Ai-saces XX.,) d. 47, 
 made good his pretensions to the crown, and took North IMedia 
 (Atropatene) ; he was succeeded by liis elder brother Gotarzes, 
 (Arsaces XXI.,) d. 50, to whom Claudius unsuccessfully op- 
 posed Meherdates, educated as an hostage at Rome. Arsaces 
 XXIL, (Vonones II.,) succeeded, after a reign of a few months, 
 by Ai-saces XXIII., (Vologeses I.,) d. 90. The possession of 
 the Armenian tlu-one, given by this prince to his brother Tiri- 
 dates, by the Romans to Tigranes, grandson of Herod the Great, 
 excited a series of disputes, which began so early as the reign 
 of Claudius, A. D. 52, and under Nero broke out into open war, 
 waged with some success on the Roman side by Corbulo, 56 — 
 64, and closed by Tiridates going, after the death of Tigranes, 
 to Rome, and there accepting the crown of Armenia as a gift 
 at the hands of Nero, 65. Arsaces XXIV., (Pacorus,) d. 107, 
 contemporary with Domitian. All that we know of him is, 
 that he embellished the city of Ctesiphon. Arsaces XXV., 
 (Cosroes,) d. about 121. The claims to the throne of Armenia 
 implicated him in a war with Trajan, 114, during which Ar- 
 menia, together with iMesopotamia and Assyria, were convert<?d 
 into Roman provinces. Trajan's consequent and .successful in- 
 road into the interior parts of the Parti li an dominions, 115 — 
 
 116, followed by the capture of Ctesiphon, and the apj)ointinent 
 of Parthamaspates as king, appears to have been iacilitated by 
 the domestic commotions and civil wars which had for a long 
 time harassed the empire. Nevertheless, in the following year, 
 
 117, Hadrian was compelled to give up all the conquered 
 country ; the Euphrates was again acknowledged as the bound- 
 ary ; Parthamaspates was appointed king of Armenia; and 
 Cosroes, avIio had taken refuge in the upper satrapies, was rein- 
 stated on the throne, of which he seems ever after to have kept 
 
 R 2
 
 244 MACEDONIAN MüNAHCIlY. [hook iv. 
 
 Third quiet possession. Arsaces XXVI., (Vologeses II.,) c?. 149. Par- 
 Period. tiijji under his reign, and Rome under that of Antoninus Pius, 
 remained on good terms. Arsaces XXVII., (Vologeses III.,) 
 d. 191. Under the reign of this king, the contemporary of 
 Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus, the war with Rome was again 
 kindled, 161, by Verus, and carried on in Armenia and Syria ; 
 Cassius, the legate of Verus, at last got possession of Seleucia, 
 and demolished that city, 16o. — Arsaces XXVIII., (Ardawan 
 or Vologeses IV.,) d. 207. This king having taken the part 
 of Pescenninus Niger, in the war between him and Sep- 
 timius Severus, was, after the defeat of his friend, 194, routed 
 in a war with Septimius Severus, 197, and the chief towns of 
 Parthia were sacked by the invaders. He is, Avithout authority, 
 represented as succeeded by a Pacorus, who took the name of 
 Arsaces XXIX. : his real successor, however, appears to have 
 been Arsaces XXIX., (Vologeses V.,) d. 216. Domestic wars 
 among his sons, fomented by Caracalla. Arsaces XXX. (Ar- 
 tabanus IV.) At the beginning of his reign, this prince like- 
 wise was contemporary with Caracalla, who, in order to pick a 
 quarrel, demanded his daughter in marriage ; according to some, 
 Arsaces refused her, in consequence of which the Roman empe- 
 ror undertook a campaign into Armenia ; according to others, 
 Arsaces having assented, and escorted his daughter to Caracalla, 
 was, by an abominable stroke of treachery, cut off, together 
 with all his train, A. D. 216. Caracalla having been murdered, 
 217, his successor, Macrinus, signed a peace with the Parthians. 
 But Arsaces subsequently I'aised his brother Tiridates to the 
 throne of Armenia ; this act spurred the Persian Artaxerxes, 
 son of Sassan, to rebellion ; the Parthian king, defeated in three 
 battles, fell in the last, thus putting a period to the family and 
 dominion of the Ai'sacidoe, 226, and Artaxerxes became the 
 founder of the new Persian kingdom, or that of the Sassanidfe. 
 The revolution was accompanied not only with a change of dy- 
 nasty, but with a total subversion of the constitution. 
 
 Vaillant, ImjJerhmi Arsucidarum et Achcemenidarum, Paris, 
 1725, 2 vols. 4to. The first part comprises the Ai'sacidaj ; the 
 second the kings of Bithynia, Pontus, and Bosporus. It is an 
 attempt, not altogether faultless, to arrange the series of kings, 
 by the assistance of coins. 
 
 \ C. F. RiCHTEK, Historico-critical essay upon the dynasties 
 of the ArsacidcB and SassanidcB, according to the Persian, Gre- 
 cian, and Roman authorities. A prize essay. Leipzic, 1804. 
 A comparative research into the eastern and western sources. 
 The chronology in the above sketch has been corrected by this 
 work, in conjunction with 
 
 Tri. Chr. Tychsen, Commentationes de Nummis Persarum 
 et Arsacidariim ; inserted in Commentat. Nov. Soc. Sc. Got- 
 ting. vol. i. iii. 
 
 Bactria. 5. The Bacti'iaii kingdom arose nearly at the same 
 
 time as the Parthian, 254 ; its origin, however, was
 
 PERIOD III.] IV. PARTHIA, ETC. S45 
 
 of a different nature, — the independence of this state Third 
 being asserted by the Grecian governor, who was '^"'°'^' 
 consequently succeeded by Greeks; — its duration 
 Hkewise was much shorter, extending only from B. C. 
 254 to B. C. 126. Scarce any fragments have been 
 preserved of the history of this empire, the borders 
 of which appear at one time to have extended to the 
 banks of the Ganges, and the frontiers of China. 
 
 Founder of the empire, Diodatus or Theodotus I., B. C. 254 ; 
 he threw off his allegiance to tlie Syrian king, under Antiochus 
 IL He appears to have been master not only of Bactria, but 
 also of Sogdiana. He likewise threatened the Parthians ; after 
 his decease, 243, his son and successor, Theodotus II., signed a 
 treaty and alliance with Arsaces II., but was nevertheless de- 
 prived of his crown by Euthydemus of Magnesia, about 221. 
 Antiochus the Great, at the conclusion of the Parthian war, 
 directed his arms against Euthydemus, 209 — 206 ; the contest 
 ended in a peace, by which Euthydemus, after delivei'ing up his 
 elephants, was not only left in possession of the crown, but was 
 aUied to the Syrian family by the marriage of his son Deme- 
 trius with a daughter of Antiochus. Demetrius, though a great 
 conqueror, does not seem to have been king of Bactria ; his do- 
 minions comprised, it is probable. North India and Malabar, 
 whose history now becomes closely connected with that of Bac- 
 tria, altliough consisting only of mere fragments. The throne 
 of Bactria fell to ApoUodotus, and after him to JMenander, who 
 extended his conquests as far as Serica, while Demetrius was 
 establishing his dominion in India, [as sovereign of which coun- 
 try he is represented in a medal lately discovered,] and where, 
 about this time, several Greek states appear to have existed, 
 perhaps ever since the expedition of Antiochus HI., 205. Me- 
 nander was succeeded, about 181, by Eucratidas, under whose 
 reign the Bactrian empire attained its gi'eatest extension ; after 
 defeating the Indian king, Demetrius, who had been the ag- 
 gressor, he, with the assistance of the Parthian conqueror, 
 Mithridates, (Arsaces VI.,) annexed India to his own empire, 
 148. On his return, he was murdered by his son ; the same, 
 probably, that is mentioned afterwards by the name of Eucrati- 
 das II. He was the ally of Demetrius II. of Syria, and the 
 main instigator of his expedition against the Parthians, 142 ; 
 Demetrius being defeated by Arsaces VI., Eucratidas was, in 
 consequence, deiu-ived of a portion of his territory ; overpowered 
 soon after by the nomad races of Central Asia, the Bactrian 
 empire fell to the ground, and Bactria itself, together with the 
 other countries on this side of the Oxus, became a prey to the 
 Parthians. 
 
 Th. Sieg. Bayer, Historia regni GrcBcorum Bactriani. Pe- 
 tropol. 1738, 4to. The few remaining fragments are in this 
 work collected with industry and arranged with skill.
 
 246 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv 
 
 Third [Toi>, Accoiml of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu Medals, in 
 
 Period. Transactions of the R. Asiatic Society, vol. i. part ii. p. 316. 
 
 Tychsen, De Nummis Grcecis et Barbaris in Bochara nuper 
 retectis, in Comment. Nov. Soc. So. Gotting. vol. vi.] 
 
 Kingdom of 6- The restorcd kingdom of the Jgws was likewisc 
 the Jews. ^ fragment of the Macedonian monarchy ; and al- 
 though it ranked only with the smaller states, its his- 
 tory in various respects deserves our attention, few- 
 nations having had so powerful an influence on the 
 progress of human civilization. The foundation of 
 the independence of the Jews was not, it is true, laid 
 before the year 167 ; yet their domestic constitution 
 had previously assumed its main features, and their 
 history, reckoning from the return of the Babylonian 
 captivity, accordingly divides itself into four periods : 
 1. Under the Persian supremacy, 536 — 323. 2. 
 Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidse, 323 — 167. 3. 
 Under the Maccabees, 167 — 39. 4. Under the 
 Herodians and Romans, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. 
 
 First period under the Persians. By permission from Cyrus, 
 a colony of Jews belonging to the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, 
 and Levi, returned to the land of their forefathers, 536 : this 
 colony, headed by Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and 
 the high priest Joshua, consisted of about 42,000 souls ; the 
 far more important and wealthy portion of the nation preferred 
 to remain on the other side of the Euphrates, where they had 
 been settled for seventy years, and continued to be a numerous 
 people. The new settlers found it difficult to keep their foot- 
 ing, principally in consequence of diiferenees, produced by the 
 intolerance they themselves evinced at the building of the tem- 
 ple, with their neighbours and kinsmen the Samaritans, to whom 
 the colony was only a cause of expense. The Samaritans sub- 
 sequently, having erected a separate temple at Garizim, near 
 Sichem, about 336, not only separated completely, but laid the 
 foundation of an inveterate hatred between the two nations. 
 Hence the prohibition to rebuild the city and temple, brought 
 about by their means, under Cambyses, 529, and Smerdis, 522, 
 and not taken off until 520, in the reign of Darius Hystaspes. 
 The new colony did not receive a permanent internal constitu- 
 tion till the time of Ezra and Nehemiah ; both brought in fresh 
 colonists, the former in 478, the latter in 445. The country 
 was under the dominion of the satraps of Syria ; but in the in- 
 creasing domestic declension of the Pei'sian empire, the high 
 priests gradually became the virtual rulers of the nation. Ne- 
 vertheless, even at the time of Alexander's conquest, 332, the 
 Jews seem to have manifested proofs of fidelity to the Persians. 
 
 Second period under the Ptolemies and Seleucidae, 323 — 167.
 
 TERIOD III] IV. JUD^A. 247 
 
 After the death of Alexander, Palestine, in consequence of its Third 
 situation, generally shared the fate of Phoenicia and Coele- Syria, Period. 
 (see above, p. 200,) being annexed to Syria. — Capture of Je- 
 rusalem, and transplantation of a vast colony of Jev^^s to Alex- 
 andria by Ptolemy I., 312 ; from tlience they spread to Cyrene, 
 and gradually over the whole of North Africa, and even into 
 Ethiopia. From 311 — 301 the Jews remained, however, sub- 
 ject to Antigonus. After the overthrow of his empire, they 
 remained, 301 — 203, under the dominion of the Ptolemies ; the 
 most conspicuous of their high priests during this interval were 
 Simon the Just, d. 291, and afterwards his son, Onias I., d. 
 218, who, by withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy III., ex- 
 posed Judaea to imminent danger. — Li the second war of Anti- 
 ochus the Gi-eat against Egypt, 203, the Jews of their own free 
 will acknowledged themselves his subjects, and assisted in 
 driving out the Egyptian troops, who, under their general, Sco- 
 pas, had again possessed themselves of the country, and the 
 citadel of Jerusalem, 198. Antiochus confirmed the Jews in 
 the possession of all their privileges ; and although he promised 
 their country, together with Ccele- Syria and Phoenicia, to Pto- 
 lemy Epiphanes, as the future dowry of his daughter, Juda3a 
 still remained under the Syrian supremacy ; except that the 
 revenue was for a time divided between the Syi'ian and Egyp- 
 tian kings. — The high priests and self-chosen ethnarchs or ala- 
 barchs were at the head of the people ; and we now find men- 
 tion made for the first time of a senate, or the sanhedrim. But 
 the rout of Antiochus the Great by the Romans was also the 
 remote cause of the subsequent misfortunes of the Jews. The 
 consequent dearth of money in which the Syrian kings found 
 themselves, and the riches of the temple treasures, the accumu- 
 lation of the sacred income and gifts, made the office of high 
 priest an object of purchase under Antiochus Epiphanes : hence 
 arose quarrels between the pontifical families, and out of those 
 sprung tactions, which Antiochus Epiphanes was desirous to 
 turn to his own account, by the introduction of Grecian insti- 
 tutions among the Jews, in order thereby to promote tlie sub- 
 jection of that peojile, now raised by its privileges almost to the 
 rank of a state within that of Syria. Deposition of tlie high 
 priest, Onias III., 175 ; his brother Jason having obtained the 
 mitre by purchase, and the introduction of Grecian customs : 
 Jason, liowever, was in his turn supplanted by his brother Me- 
 nelaus, 172. During the civil war arising out of these events, 
 Antioclius Epiphanes, at that time conqueror in Egypt, (see 
 above, p. 193,) takes possession of Jerusalem, 170, being pro- 
 voked ])y the behaviour of the Jews to IMenclaus, the high priest 
 of his own appointment : the consequent oppression of the 
 JcAvs, who noAv were to be Ilellenized by main force, soon oc- 
 casioned the rise under the Maccabees. 
 
 Third period under the Maccabees, 167 — 39. Commence- 
 ment of the rebellion against Antiochus IV., brought about by 
 the priest Mattathias, 167, who was almost immediately sue-
 
 248 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third cccdcd, 166 — 161, by his son Judas Maccabaeus. Supported 
 Period, \)y i\^q fanatacisin of his party, Judas defeats in several battles 
 the generals of Antiochus, who was absent in Upper Asia, where 
 he died, 164 ; the Jewish leader is even said to have been fa- 
 voured by Rome. The primary object of the insurrection was 
 not, howevei', political independence ; they fought only for re- 
 ligious freedom. Under Antiochus V. the sedition continued 
 successful, both against the Syrian king and the high priest 
 Alcimus, his creature, 163 ; Judas having died soon after his 
 defeat by Demetrius I., was succeeded by his brother Jonathan, 
 161 — 143. The death of the high priest, Alcimus, 160, opened 
 the path of Jonathan to that office, which he received in the 
 ensuing war between Demetrius I. and Alexander Balas, 143, 
 (see above, p. 195, 196,) both rivals courting his alliance : Jona- 
 than sided with Balas, and consequently, from being merely the 
 leader of a party, came to be head of the nation, which still, ne- 
 vertheless, continued to pay tribute to the kings. Notwithstand- 
 ing the favour he had shown to Balas, after the overthrow of that 
 pretender, he was confirmed in his high dignity by Demeti'ius 
 I., 145 ; to Avhose assistance he marched at the subsequent great 
 revolt in Antioch. Jonathan, however, in 144, passed over to 
 the side of the usurper, Antiochus, the son of Balas, (see above, 
 p. 196,) and was by embassy presented with the friendship of 
 the liomans in the same year, but by the treachery of Tryphon 
 was taken and put to death, 143. His brother and successor, 
 Simon, 143 — 135, having declared against Tryphon, was by 
 Demetrius II. not only confirmed in his dignity, but excused 
 from paying tribute ; he likewise received the title of prince, 
 (ethnarch,) and appears to have struck coins. After the cap- 
 ture of Demetrius, Antiochus Sidetes allowed Simon to remain 
 in possession of those privileges so long as he stood in need of 
 his assistance against Tiyphon ; but after the death of that 
 usurper, he caused him, 1 30, to be attacked by Cendeba^us, who 
 was defeated by the sons of Simon. Simon having been mur- 
 dered by his son-in-law, Ptolemajus, w'ho aspired to the govern- 
 ment, 135, was succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus, 
 135 — 107, who was compelled again to acknowledge submis- 
 sion to Antiochus Sidetes ; but after the defeat and death of 
 that prince by the Parthians, 130, he asserted his entire inde- 
 pendence. The deep decline of the Syrian kingdom, the con- 
 stant civil wars by which it was distracted, and the renewed 
 league with the Romans, not only enabled HjTcanus easily to 
 maintain his independence, but likewise to increase his territory, 
 by the conquest of the Samaritans and Iduma^ans. But with 
 him ended the heroic line. Scarcely was he delivered from 
 foreign oppi-ession, when domestic broils arose ; the Pharisees 
 and Sadducees had hitherto been mere religious sects, but were 
 converted into political factions by Hyrcanus, who, offended 
 with the Pharisees, probably in consequence of their wash to 
 separate the pontifical and princely offices, went over to the 
 Sadducees ; the former sect, the orthodox, were as usual sup-
 
 rEUiOD HI.] IV. JUD^A. 249 
 
 ported by the many ; the latter, the innovators, in consequence Third 
 of the laxity of their principles, were favoured by the wealthy. Pehiod. 
 Ilyrcanus's t-ldest son, the cruel Aristobulus, 107, assumed the 
 royal title, but soon after dying, 106, was succeeded by his 
 younger brother Alexander Janniuus, 106 — 79. His reign was 
 an almost unbroken sei'ies of insignificant wars with his neigh- 
 bours, this prince Avishing to play the conqueror ; and having 
 likewise had the impudence to irritate the powerful party of 
 the Pharisees, these made him the object of public insult, and 
 excited a tumult, 92, which was followed by a bloody civil war, 
 which lasted six years. Jannasus, it is true, maintained himself 
 dui'ing the struggle ; but the opposite party was so far from 
 being annihilated, that, at his death, when passing over his 
 sons, the feeble Hyrcanus, (who possessed the pontifical dig- 
 nity,) and the ambitious Aristobulus, he bequeathed the crown 
 to his widow Alexandra, it was with the understanding that 
 she should join the party of the Pharisees : during her reign, 
 therefore, 79 — 71, the Pharisees held the reins of government, 
 and left her only the name. Provoked at this, Aristobulus, 
 shortly before the death of the queen, endeavoured to obtain 
 possession of the throne, and ultimately obtained his ends, not- 
 withstanding Alexandra nominated Hyrcanus to be her suc- 
 cessor. Hyrcanus, at the instigation of his confidant, the Idu- 
 ma^an Antipater, who was the progenitor of tlie Herodians, and 
 assisted by the Arabian prince Aretas, waged war against his 
 brothel", 65, and shut him up in Jerusalem : but the Romans 
 were arbitrators, and Pompey, then all-powerful in Asia, decided 
 for Hyrcanus, 64 ; the party of Aristobulus, however, refusing 
 to accede, the Roman general took possession of Jerusalem ; 
 made Hyrcanus high priest and prince, under condition tliat he 
 should pay tribute ; and took as prisoners to Rome Aristobulus 
 and his sons, who, however, subsequently escaped and caused 
 great disturbances. The Jewish state being now dependent on 
 Rome, remained so, and the yoke was confirmed by the policy 
 of Antipater and his sons, who followed the general maxim of 
 entire devotion to Rome, in order thereby to succeed in wholly 
 removing the reigning family. As early as 48, Antipater was 
 appointed procurator of Judaea by Caesar, whom he hacl support- 
 ed at Alexandria, and his second son Herod, governor in Galilee, 
 soon became sufficiently powerful to threaten Hyrcanus and 
 tlie sanhedrim, 45. He gained the favour of Antony, and thus 
 maintained himself amid the tempest Avhich, after the assassina- 
 tion of Cajsar, 44, shook the Roman world, powerful as the 
 party opposed to him were : that party however, at last, in lieu 
 of tlie ill-fated Hyrcanus, the only surviving son of Ai-istobulus, 
 placed Antigonus at their head, and, assisted by the Parthians, 
 then flourishing in power, seated him on the throne, 39. Herod 
 having fled to Rome, not only met with a gracious reception at 
 the hands of the triumviri, but was by them appointed king. 
 
 Fourth period, under the Herodians, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. 
 Herod the Great, B. C. 39 to A. 1). 1, put himself in possession
 
 250 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv 
 
 Third of Jerusalem and all Judea, B. C. 37, and confirmed his power 
 Period. \yy marrying Mariamne of the house of the Maccabees. Not- 
 Avithstanding his severity shown to the party of Antigonus, and 
 tlie house of the INIaccabees, the total extinction of which Ilerod 
 deemed necessary for his own safety ; yet so greatly did the 
 wasted coinitry stand in need of peace, that for that very reason 
 his reign may be said to have been a happy one. Availing 
 himself of tlie liberality of Augustus, whose favour he contrived 
 to obtain after the defeat of Antony, B. C. 31, Herod gradually 
 increased the extent of his kingdom, which at last comprised 
 Judaea, Samaria, Galilee, and beyond the Jordan, Peroea, Itu- 
 raia, and Trachonitis, (that is to say, the whole of Palestine,) 
 together witli Idumaea ; from these countries he derived his in- 
 come without being obliged to pay any tribute. The deference 
 consequently shown by Herod to Rome, was but the effect of a 
 natural policy, and his conduct in that respect could be objected 
 to him only by bigoted Jews. To his whole family, rather than 
 to himself individually, are to be attributed the executions which 
 took place among its members ; happy had it been if the sword 
 had smitten none but the guilty and spared the innocent. In 
 the last year but one of his reign is placed the birth of Christ 
 (according to the usually adopted computation, made in the 
 sixth century by Dionysius Exiguus. But the more accurate 
 calculations of modern chronologists show that the real date of 
 the Saviour's birth was probably four years earlier). — Accord- 
 ing to his will, with some few alterations made by Augustus, 
 his kingdom was divided among his three surviving sons ; Ar- 
 chelaus, as ethnarch, receiving the greater moiety, Judjea, Sa- 
 maria, and Iduma^a ; the two others, as tetrarchs, Philip a part 
 of Galilee and Trachonitis, Antipas the other part of Galilee, 
 and Perasa, together with Itura^a ; subsequently to which divi- 
 sion, tlie various parts did not, in consequence, all share the 
 same fate. — Archelaus, by misgovernment, soon lost his por- 
 tion, A. D. 6 ; Judaea and Samaria were consequently annexed 
 as a Roman province to Syria, and placed under procurators 
 subordinate to the Sp'ian governors ; among these procurators, 
 the most famous is Pontius Pilate, about A. D. 27 — 36, under 
 whom the founder of our religion appeared and suifered, not as 
 a political — although accused of being so — but as a moral re- 
 former. On the other hand, Philip retained his tetrarchy until 
 the day of his death, A. D. 34, when his country had the same 
 lot with Judasa and Samaria. Soon after, that is to say, in 
 A. D. 37, it was, however, given by Caligula, with the title of 
 king, to Agrippa, (grandson of Herod by Aristobulus,) as a re- 
 compence for his attachment to the family of Germanicus ; and 
 when Antipas, who wished to procure a similar favour for him- 
 self, but instead of it Avas deposed, 39, Agrippa received his 
 tetrarchy also, 40, and soon afterwards, by the possession of the 
 territory which had belonged to Archelaus, became master oi 
 the whole of Palestine. Agrippa having died in A. D. 44, the 
 whole country being appended to Syria, became a Roman pro-
 
 rEiuoD III.] IV. JUD^A. 251 
 
 vince. and received procurators, although Chalcis, 49, and sub- Third 
 sequently also, 53, Philip's tetrarchy, were restored as a kingdom I^eriod. 
 to his son Agrippa IL, d. 90. The oppression of the procur- 
 ators, and of Gessius Florus in particular, who obtained the 
 office, A. D. 64, excited the Jews to rebellion, which, 70, ended 
 in the capture and destruction of their city and temple by Titus. 
 The spread of the Jews over the whole civilized world of that 
 time, although previously commenced, was by this event still 
 further increased ; and at the same time the extension of Chris- 
 tianity was prepared and fiicilitated. Even after the conquest, 
 Jerusalem not only continued to exist as a city, but was also 
 still considered by the nation as a point of union ; and the at- 
 tempt, under Adrian, to establish a Koman colony there, pro- 
 duced a fearful sedition. 
 
 Basxage, Histoire des Juifs depuis J. C. jusqu' a present. 
 La Haye, 1716, 15 vols. 12mo. The first two parts only, pro- 
 perly speaking, belong to this period ; but the others likewise 
 contain several very valuable historical researches. 
 
 Prideaux, The Old and Neto Testament connected in the 
 history of the Jeios and their neiyJthouring natio7is. Loud. 1714, 
 2 vols. This work, together Avith that above quoted, have al- 
 ways been esteemed the grand books on the subject. The 
 French translation of Prideaux's Connexion is, by its arrange- 
 ment, more convenient for use than the original : this transla- 
 tion was published at Amsterdam, 1722, 5 vols. 8vo, under the 
 title of Prideaux, Histoire des Juifs et des peiiples voisins de- 
 puis la decadence des Royaumes d" Israel et de Juda, jusqu' a la 
 mort de J. C. 
 
 f J. Ü. ]\IiCHAELis, Translation of the Books of Esdras, Ne- 
 hemiali, and Maccabees, contains in the ob.servations several 
 historic discussions of high importance. 
 
 ■j" J. Remond, Essay towards a history of the spread of Ju- 
 daism, from Cyrus to the total decline of the Jewish state. 
 Leipzig, 1789. The industrious work of a young scholar. 
 
 To the works enumerated, p. 29, must be added, for the 
 more ancient history of the Jews, 
 
 J. L. Bauer, Manual of the history of the Hehrexo nation, 
 from its rise to the destruction of its state. Nuremberg, 1800, 
 2 parts, 8vo. As yet the best critical introduction, not only to 
 the history, but also to the antiquities of the nation. 
 
 f In the works of J. J. Hess, belonging to this subject, 
 namely. History of Moses; History of Joshua ; History of the 
 Rulers of Judall, 2 parts ; History of the Kings of Judah end 
 Israel: the history is throughout considei'ed in a theocratic point 
 of view.
 
 FIFTH BOOK. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE, 
 
 Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy. 
 
 General Italy constitutes a peninsula, boiincled on the 
 
 itaiy"'^ " north by the Alps, on the west and south by the 
 Mediterranean, and on the east by the Adriatic Sea. 
 Its greatest length from north to south is 600 geogr. 
 miles ; its greatest breadth, taken at the foot of the 
 Alps, is 320 geogr. miles ; but that of the peninsula, 
 properly so called, is not more than 120 geogr. miles. 
 Superficial contents, 81,920 sq. geogr. miles. The 
 principal mountain range is that of the Apennines, 
 which diverging occasionally to the west, or east, 
 stretch from north to south throuo;h Central and 
 Lower Italy. In the earlier times of Rome, these 
 mountains were covered with thick forests. Main 
 streams : the Padus (Po) and the Athesis, (Adige,) 
 both of which discharge their waters in the Adriatic; 
 and the Tiberis, (Tiber,) which falls into the Medi- 
 terranean. The soil, particularly in the plains, is one 
 of the most fertile in Europe ; on the other hand, 
 many of the mountain tracts admit but of little culti- 
 vation. In that period when the Mediterranean was 
 the grand theatre of trade, Italy, by her situation, 
 seemed destined to become the principal mart of Eu- 
 rope ; but she never in ancient times availed herself 
 sufficiently of this advantage. 
 Divisions of It is divided into Upper Italy, from the Alps to 
 ^"^ ^ ■ the small rivers of Rubicon and Macra ; (this part, 
 
 however, of Italy, until presented with the right of 
 citizenship under Caesar, was, according to the Ro- 
 man political geography, considered as a province ;) 
 into Central Italy, from the Rubicon and the Macra
 
 BOOK v.] GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ITALY. 253 
 
 down to the Silarus and Frento ; and into Lower 
 Italy, from those rivers to the southern land's end. 
 
 I. Upper Italy comprises the two countries, Gallia 
 Cisalpina and Lignria. 
 
 1. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, in contradistinction cisaipim 
 to Gallia Transalpina. It bears the name of Gallia, ^^"'• 
 in consequence of being- for the most part occupied 
 
 by Gallic races. This country is one continuous 
 plain, divided by the Padus into two parts, the north- 
 ernmost of which is therefore denominated Gallia 
 Transpadana, (inhabited by the Taurini, Insubres, 
 and Cenomani,) w^hile the southern part (inhabited 
 by the Boii, Senones, and Lingones) is known by the 
 name of Gallia Cispadana. Various streams contri- 
 bute to swell the Padus ; from the north the Duria, 
 (Durance,) the Ticinus, (Tessino,) the Addua, (Ad- 
 da,) the Ollius, (Oglio,) the Mintius, (Minzio,) and 
 several less important rivers ; from the south, the Ta- 
 narus, (Tanaro,)the Trebia, etc. The Athesis, (Adige,) 
 the Plavis, (Piave,) and a number of smaller mountain 
 streams, roll their waters directly into the Adriatic. 
 
 The cities in Gallia Cisalpina were, generally 
 speaking, Roman colonies ; and most of them have 
 preserved to this day their ancient names. Among 
 these are reckoned in Gallia Transpadana, principally, 
 Tergeste, Aquileia, Patavium, (Padua,) Vincentia, 
 Verona, all east of the Athesis ; Mantua, Cremona, 
 Brixia, (Brescia,) Mediolanum, (Milan,) Ticinum, 
 (Pavia,) and Augusta Taurinorum, (Turin,) all west 
 of the Athesis. In Gallia Cispadana we meet with 
 Ravenna, Bononia, (Bologna,) Mutina, (Modena,) 
 Parma, Placentia (Piacenza). Several of the above 
 places received municipal rights from the Romans. 
 
 2. Liguria. This country deduced its name from Liguria. 
 the Ligures, one of the old Italic tribes : it extended 
 from the river Varus, by which it was divided from 
 Gallia Transalpina, down to the river Macra ; north- 
 ward it extended to the Padus, and comprised the 
 modern territory of Genoa. — Cities : Genua, an ex-
 
 254 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 tremely ancient place ; Niceea, (Nice,) a colony of 
 Massilia ; and Asta (Asti). 
 
 II. Central Italy comprises six countries; Etruria, La- 
 tium, and Campania on the west; Umhria, Picenum, 
 and Samnium on the east. 
 
 Etruria. 1. Etruuia, Tuscia, or Tyrrnenia, was bounded 
 
 north by the Macra, which divided it from Liguria ; 
 south and east by the Tiberis, which separated it 
 from Latium and Umbria. Main river, the Arnus 
 (Arno). It is for the most part a mountainous 
 country ; the seashore only is level. This country 
 derives its name from the Etrusci, a very ancient 
 people, composed, it is probable, of an amalgamation 
 of several races, and even some early Grecian colo- 
 nies, to which latter they were indebted, not indeed 
 for all their arts, but for that of writing ; to com- 
 merce and navigation the Etrusci were indebted for 
 their opulence and consequent splendour. Cities : 
 between the Macra and Arnus, Pisse, (Pisa,) FIo- 
 rentia, Fsesulae ; between the Arnus and Tiberis, 
 Vollaterrse, (Volterra,) Volsinii, (Bolsena,) on the 
 Lacus Volsiniensis, (Lago di Bolsena,) Clusium, 
 (Chiusi,) Arretium, (Arrezzo,) Cortona, Perusia, 
 (Perugia,) in the neighbourhood of which is the La- 
 cus Thrasimenus, (Lago di Perugia,) Falerii, (Falari,) 
 and the wealthy city of Veii. Each of the above 
 twelve cities had its own individual ruler, lucumo ; 
 although frequent associations were formed among 
 them, yet no firm and lasting bond seems to have 
 united the nation into one. 
 
 Latium. 2. Latium, properly the residence of the Latini, 
 
 from the Tiberis north, to the promontory of Circeii, 
 south ; hence that country was likewise denominated 
 Latium Vetus. Subsequently, under the name of 
 Latium was likewise reckoned the country from Cir- 
 ceii down to the river Liris (Latium Novum) ; so 
 that the boundaries came to be, north, the Tiberis, 
 south, the Liris : the seat of the Latins, properly 
 speaking, was in the fraitful plain extending from
 
 BOOK v.] GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ITALY. 255 
 
 the Tiber to Circeii ; around them, however, dwelt 
 various small tribes, some eastward, in the Apen- 
 nines, such as the Hernici, Sabini, iEqui, and Marsi ; 
 others southward, sucli as the Volsci, Rutuli, and 
 Aurunci. — Rivers : the Anio (Teverone) and Allia, 
 which fall into the Tiber, and the Liris, (Garigliano,) 
 which empties itself into the Mediterranean. Cities 
 in Latium Vetus : Rome, Tiber, Tusculum, Alba 
 Longa, Ostia, Lavinium, Antium, Gabii, Velitras, the 
 capital of the Volsci, and several smaller places. In 
 Latium Novum : Fundi, Terracina, or Anxur, Ar- 
 pinum, Minturnse, Formise. 
 
 3. Campania. The country lying between the Campania. 
 Liris, north, and the Silarus, south. One of the 
 most fruitful plains in the world, but at the same time 
 greatly exposed to volcanic eruptions. Rivers : the 
 Liris, the Vulturnus, (Voltorno,) the Silarus (Selo). 
 Mountain : Vesuvius. Campania derived its name 
 from the race of the Campani. Cities : Capua the 
 principal one ; and also Linternum, Cumse, Neapo- 
 lis, Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabige, Nola, Surren- 
 tum, Salernum, etc. 
 
 The three eastern countries of Central Italy are as follows: 
 
 1. Umbria. It is bounded, north, by the river Umbna. 
 Rubico ; south, by the river ^sis, (Gesano,) dividing 
 
 it from Picenum, and by the Nar, (Nera,) dividing it 
 from the Sabine territory. It is for the most part 
 plain. The Umbrian race had in early times spread 
 over a much larger portion of Italy. Cities : Ari- 
 minium, (Rimini,) Spoletium, (Spoleto,) Narnia, 
 (Narni,) and Ocriculum (Otriculi). 
 
 2. Picenum. Bounded, north, by tlie iEsis; south, picenum. 
 by the Atarnus (Pescara). The people are called 
 Picentes. This country consists in a fertile plain. 
 Cities : Ancona and Asculum Picenum (Ascoli). 
 
 3. Samnium, the name of a mountain tract ex- Samnium. 
 tending from the Atarnus, north, to the Frento, 
 
 south ; although that country reckoned among its in- 
 habitants, not only the rude and powerful Samnites,
 
 256 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 but also several less numerous races ; for instance, 
 the Marrucini and Peligni in the north, the Frentani 
 in the east, and the Hirpini in the south. Rivers : 
 the SagTus and the Tifernus. Cities : Alifae, Bene- 
 ventuin, and Caudium. 
 
 III. Lower Italy, or Magna Grcccia, comprised four 
 countries ; Lucania and Bruttium on the western side, 
 Apulia and Calabria on the eastern. 
 
 Lucauia. 1. Lucauia. Boundaries: north, the Silarus; south, 
 
 the Laus. For the most part a mountain tract. It 
 derived its name from the race of the Lucani, a 
 branch of the Ausones, or chief nation of Lower 
 Italy. Cities : Psestum, or Posidonia, still renowned 
 for its ruins, and Hslia, or Velia. 
 
 Bruttium. 2. Bruttium, (the modern Calabria,) or the west- 
 ern tongue of land from the river Laus to the south- 
 ern land's end at Rhegium. The river Brandanus 
 constitutes the eastern frontier. A mountainous 
 country, deriving its name from the Bruttii, (a half 
 savage branch of the Ausones,) who dwelt in the 
 mountains, while the sea-shores were occupied by 
 Grecian settlements. Cities : Consentia, (Cosenza,) 
 Pandosia, Mamertum, and Petilia. (Concerning the 
 Greek colonies, see above, p. 125.) 
 
 Apulia. 3. Apulia. The country ranging along the eastern 
 
 coast, from the river Frento to the commencement of 
 the eastern tongue of land ; an extremely fertile 
 plain, and particularly adapted to grazing cattle. 
 Rivers : the Aufidus (Ofanto) and the Cerbalus. 
 This country is divided into two parts by the Aufidus, 
 the northern called Apulia Daunia, the southern 
 called Apulia Peucetia. Cities : in Apulia Daunia ; 
 Sipontum and Luceria : in Apulia Peucetia ; Bari- 
 um, Cannse, and Venusia. 
 
 Calabria. 4. Calabria or Messapia, the smaller eastern tongue 
 
 of land, which terminates in the promontory of 
 lapygium. Cities : Brundusium (Brindisi) and Cal- 
 lipolis (Gallipoli). Concerning Tarentum and other 
 Grecian colonies, see above, p. 125.
 
 TERiOD I.] TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 257 
 
 Three large islands are likewise reckoned as ap- 
 pertaining to Italy : they are Sicily, Sardinia, and 
 Corsica. According to the political geography of 
 the Romans they were, however, considered as pro- 
 vinces. Although the above islands were, along the 
 coasts, occupied by aliens, the aboriginals, under their 
 own kings, maintained a footing in the inland parts ; 
 among these the Siculi, said to have migrated from 
 Italy, were the most celebrated ; tliey remained in 
 Sicily, and gave their name to the whole island. Con- 
 cerning the cities, the more important of which were, 
 some of Phoenician, but the most part of Grecian, 
 origin, see above, p. 25, and p. 125, sqq. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From the foundation of Rome to the conquest '>/' Itabj and 
 the commencement of the icars with Carthage, B. C 
 75-1—264, or A. U. C. 1—490. 
 
 Sources. The most copious author, and, if we except his First 
 system of deducing every thing connected with Rome from Period. 
 Greece, the most critical of all those who have written on the 
 earlier histoiy of Rome and Italy, is Dionysius Halicarnassensis, 
 in his Archaologia: of this work only the first eleven books, 
 reaching down to the year 443, have been preserved ; to these, 
 however, must be added the fragments of the nine following 
 books, xii. — XX., discovered in 1816, and published by the 
 Abbate Mai of Milan. Next to Dionysius is Livy, who, as far 
 as lib. iv. c. 1 8, is our main authority, till B. C. 292. Of the 
 Lives of Plutarch the following belong to this period, Romulus, 
 Numa, Coriolanus, Poplicola, and Camillus ; which for tlie 
 knov/ledge and criticism they disi)lay, are perhaps more import- 
 ant even than Livy and Dionysius, see A. H. L. Heerkn, De 
 fontibus et auctoritute vitarum Plutarchi, inserted in Co/nmrnt 
 Recentiorcs Sac. Sclent. Gott. Comment. I. II. G?'ceci, III. 
 IV. Romani ; reprinted also as an appendix to the editions of 
 Plutarch by Rciske and Ilutten, Gottingcn, 1821,(7/^. Dieterich. 
 The sources of the most ancient Roman history were extremely 
 various in kind. The traditions of the Fathers were preserved 
 in historical ballads ; (no mention is ever made of any grand 
 epic poem ;) and in this sense there existed a bardic history ; 
 by no means, however, wholly poetic, for even the traditions of 
 Numa's Institutes are without the characteristics of poetry. 
 
 S
 
 258 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 FiusT The ai't of writing was in Italy of earlier origin than the city 
 PuRioD. of Kome : how far, consecjuently, the j)ublic annals, such as the 
 ~~~ Libri Pontißcum, extended back in early time, remains undeter- 
 mined. Several of the memorials are, beyond a doubt, mere 
 family records, whether preserved by vocal tradition or in writ- 
 ten documents. To the above must be added monuments, not 
 only buildings and works of art, but also treaties engraved on 
 tables ; of which, nevertheless, too little use seems to have 
 been made. The Romans having learnt the art of writing from 
 the Greeks, their history was as frequently wi'itten in Greek as 
 in Latin ; and that not only by Greeks, such as, in the first 
 place. Diodes of Peparethus, but likewise by Romans, such as 
 Fabius Pictor, at an early period. From these last sources Dio- 
 nysius and Livy compiled. The more ancient Roman history 
 given by these authorities rests, therefore, in part, but by no 
 means entirely, on tradition and poetry ; still further amplified 
 by the rhetoric style, that of the Greeks more especially. At 
 what epoch the Roman history lays aside the poetic character 
 can hardly be determined with certainty ; it may be traced even 
 in some parts of the period extending from the expulsion of 
 the kings to the conquest by the Gauls. — For the purposes of 
 chronology, great importance attaches to the fasti Homani, con- 
 tained partly in inscriptions, (fasti Capitolini,) partly in manu- 
 scripts. They have been collected and restored by Pighius, 
 Noris Sigonius, etc., in Gr^vii, T/ies. A. R. vol. xi. ; likewise 
 in Almeloveen, Fast. Rom. I. II. Aiiistel. 1705, etc. 
 
 PiGHn Annales Romanorum. Antwerp, 1615, fol. 2 vols. 
 An essay towards a chronological arrangement ; it reaches 
 down to Vitellius. 
 
 The Roman history has been copiously treated of by the mo- 
 derns in many works besides those on universal ancient history 
 before enumerated (p. 2). We shall mention only the more 
 important. 
 
 RoLLm, Histoire Romaine, Depuis la foundation de Rome 
 jusqu^ ä la bataille d'Actittm. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1823, edit, 
 revue par Letronne. This history, which extends to B. C. 89, 
 has been continued and terminated by Crevier. Although the 
 critical historian might suggest much that is wanting in this 
 work, it nevertheless contributed to advance the study. 
 
 Ed. Ferguson, The History of the Progress and Termina- 
 tion of the Roman Republic. London, 1783, 4to. On the 
 whole, the best work on the history of the Roman republic ; it 
 has superseded the earlier work of Goldsmith. 
 
 P. Ch. Levesque, Histoire de la Republique Romaine, 3 vols. 
 Paris, 1807. He who would still wish to admire with blind en- 
 thusiasm the glory of ancient Rome, had better not read this 
 work. 
 
 B. G. Niebuhb, Roman History. 
 
 Rather criticism than history ; the author seems to be perpe- 
 tually endeavouring to overthrow all that has hitherto been ad- 
 mitted. The spirit of acuteness is not always that of truth ;
 
 PEUioD I.J TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 259 
 
 and men do not so lifrhtly assent to the existence of a constitn- First 
 tion which not only is contrary to the broad view of" anticjuity Period- 
 — inferences drawn from some insulated passages not being 
 sufficient to overturn what is corroborated by all the others — 
 but likewise, according to the author's own avowal, stands op- 
 posed to all analogy in history. But truth gains even where 
 criticism is wrong ; and the value of some deep researches will 
 not for that reason be overlooked. — Consult on this subject : 
 
 ■j" W. Wachsjiutii, Researches into the more Ancient History 
 of Rome. Halle, 1819. 
 
 C. F. Th. Lachmann, Commentatio de fontibus T. Livii in 
 prima Historiarum Decade. Gottinga?, 1821. A prize essay. 
 
 For the works upon the Roman constitution see below, at the 
 end of this and at the beginning of the third period. 
 
 Abundance of most important writings upon Roman antiqui- 
 ties will be found in the great collections : 
 
 Gk.evii Thesaurus Antiqidtatum Romanarum. Lugd. Batav. 
 1694, sq. 12 vols, fob, and likewise in 
 
 Salengue, Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum. Venet. 
 1732, 3 vols. fol. 
 
 Many excellent papers, particularly in 
 
 Mcmoires de V Academic des Inscriptions. 
 
 With the exception of Nakdini, Roma Vetus, inserted in 
 Gr^vii Thes. A. R. t. iv. the best work on the topography of 
 ancient Rome is 
 
 Vexuti, Descrizione Topografica delle A?itichita di Roma. 
 P. I. II. Roma, 1763 ; and especially the new edition of that 
 work by Visconti, 1803. There is also, 
 
 f S. H. L. Adler, Descriptio7i of the City of Rome. Altona, 
 1781, 4to. 
 
 The best representation of the monuments of ancient Rome 
 will be found in 
 
 PiRANESi, Antichila di Roma, 3 vols. fol. 
 
 1. In certain respects, the liistoiy of Rome is General 
 always that of one town, inasmuch as until the pe- [^I^J^^^/^ijö 
 riod of the Ceesars, the city continued mistress of man his 
 her extensive territory. The main parts of the inter- ^"'•^' 
 nal constitution of Rome were formed during- this 
 first period ; which, considered in an historical point 
 of view, can hardly be said to be void of interest. 
 Whether every fundamental institution had its origin 
 precisely at the epoch to which it is attributed, is a 
 question of little importance ; it is sufficient to ob- 
 serve, that they certainly arose in this period ; and 
 that the steps by which the constitution was develop- 
 ed are, upon the whole, determined beyond the pos- 
 sibility of a doubt. 
 
 s 2
 
 260 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 FinsT 
 Period 
 
 Romans 
 of Latin 
 origin. 
 
 Kings of 
 Rome. 
 
 2. Exacccrerated and embellished as the most an- 
 ' cient traditions of the Romans respecting their origin 
 
 may be, they all agree in this, that the Romans be- 
 longed to the race of the Latini, and that their city 
 was a colony of the neighbouring Alba Longa. 
 Long before this, the custom seems to have obtained 
 with the Latini, of extending the cultivation of their 
 country by colonies. 
 
 The primitive liistory of Rome is as difficult to reduce to 
 pure historic truth as that of Athens, or any other city of an- 
 tiquity ; this proceeds from its being principally founded ou 
 traditions, handled by poets and rhetoricians, and likewise dif- 
 fering from one another ; as may be seen in Plutarch's Romu- 
 lus. As the knowledge of those traditions, such as they are 
 found in Dionysius and Livy, attaches to so many other sub- 
 jects, it would be improper to pass them over in silence ; and 
 that they contained truths as well as poetic fictions is proved 
 most evidently by the political institutions of which they nar- 
 rate the origin, and which certainly reached back to those times. 
 To attempt to draw a line of demarcation between mythical and 
 historic times would be to mistake the real nature of mythology. 
 
 L. DE Beaufort, Sur Vincertitude des cinq premiers siecles 
 de Vhistoire Romaine, nouv. ed. ä la Haye, 1750, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Every thing that can be said against the credibility of the pri- 
 mitive Roman history has been developed by Beaufort ■vvith 
 abundant, and often with laboured, acuteness. 
 
 3. During the first two hundred and forty-five 
 years subsequent to its foundation, this city was un- 
 der the rule of governors, denominated kings ; these, 
 however, were not hereditary, still less were they in- 
 vested with unlimited power, although they exerted 
 themselves to become both perpetual and absolute. 
 On the contrary, in this period was framed a muni- 
 cipal constitution, demonstrative of the existence, 
 even at this early date, of a considerable degree of 
 political civilization ; in its principal parts this con- 
 stitution was, no doubt — as in every colony — copied 
 from that of the mother city. Its principal features 
 were : a. Establishment and internal organization of 
 the senate, b. Establishment and progress of the 
 patrician or hereditary nobility, which, supported by 
 the privilege of administering the sacred affairs, and 
 by the introduction of family names, quickly formed, 
 in opposition to the plebeians, a political party, ever
 
 PERIOD I.] TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 261 
 
 growing in power, although not, therefore, a mere i-'irst 
 sacerdotal caste, c. Organization of the people, 
 
 (populus,) and modes of popular assembly (comitia) 
 founded thereupon ; besides the original division ac- 
 cording to heads into tribus and curia', another was 
 subsequently introduced according to property into 
 classes and ceuturice, out of which, besides the more 
 ancient comitia ciiriata, arose the very artificially 
 constructed comitia centuriata. d. Religious insti- 
 tutions, {religiones,) which, being most closely con- 
 nected with the political constitution, formed a state 
 religion, by means of which every thing in the state 
 was attached to determined forms, and received a 
 higher sanction. Nor must we omit, e. the relations 
 in private life established by law, the clientship, mar- 
 riage, and especially paternal authority. In conse- 
 quence of those domestic relations, a spirit of sub- 
 ordination and discipline, from the earliest times, 
 pervaded the people ; and to that spirit the Romans 
 were indebted for the glory to which they attained. 
 
 4. Notwithstanding many little wars with their Destruction 
 immediate neighbours the Sabines, iEqui, and Volsci, Lonia! 
 together with various cities of the Etrusci, and even 
 with the Latins themselves, Rome added but little to 
 her territory : nevertheless she took the first step to- 
 wards her ao-o;randizement ; from the time of the de- 
 struction of Alba Longa, she aimed at being the head 
 of the collected cities of the Latins, and finally at- 
 tained the object of her ambition. 
 
 Line of kings. Eomulus, 754 — 717. First establishment of 
 the colony ; augmentation in tlie number of the citizens, pro- 
 duced by tlic establishment of an asylum, and a union witli part 
 of the Sabines. Numa Pompilius, d. 679. By re^^resenting 
 tliis prince as the founder of the religion of the Roman state, 
 tliat religion received the higli sanction of antiquity. Tullus 
 Ilostilius, d. 640. Tlie conquest and destruction of Alba lays 
 the foundation of Roman supremacy in Latium. Ancus Mar- 
 tins, d. 618. He extends the territory of Rome to the sea ; the 
 foundation of the port of Ostia proves that Rome already ap- 
 plied to navigation, the object of which was perliaps as yet 
 rather piracy than trade. Tarquinius Priscus, d. 578. A Gre- 
 cian by descent. Under liis conduct Rome was already able to 
 enter the field against the confederate Etrusci. Servius Tul- 
 lius, d. 534. The most remarkable in the line of Roman kings.
 
 262 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book V 
 
 Consular 
 govern- 
 ment, 
 B. C. 509 
 
 First He placed Rome at the head of the confederacy of the Latins, 
 Period, which he confirmed by commvnia sacra. On his new division 
 of the people according to property were raised the highly im- 
 portant institutions of the census and comitia centuriata. The 
 necessity of this measure is demonstrative of the great and in- 
 creasing prosperity of the Roman citizens ; there can be no 
 doubt, however, that by its adoption the frame of the republic 
 was already completed. Tarquinius Superbus, (the tyi-ant,) — 
 509. This individual, having taken forcible possession of the 
 throne as nephew to Priscus, endeavoured to confirm his power 
 by a close connexion with the Latins and Volsci ; by this, as 
 well as by his tyranny, he offended both the patrician and ple- 
 beian pai'ties. His deposition, and the consequent reformation 
 of the government, were however, properly speaking, brought 
 about by the ambition of the patricians. 
 
 Algarotti, Saggio sopra la durata de' regni de' re di Roma. 
 (Op. t. iii.) Chronological doubts. Can the raising of diffi- 
 culties deserve the name of criticism. 
 
 5. The only direct consequence to the internal 
 constitution of Rome, proceeding from the abolition 
 of royalty, was, that that power, undetermined as it 
 had been while in the hands of the kings, was trans- 
 ferred to two consuls, annually elected. Meanwhile 
 the struggle for liberty, in which the new republic 
 was engaged with the Etrusci and Latins, contributed 
 much to arouse the republican spirit, which hencefor- 
 ward was the main feature of the Roman character — 
 the evils of popular rule being in times of need reme- 
 498. died by the establishment of the dictatorship. The 
 party, however, which had deposed the ruling family, 
 took wholly into their own hands the helm of state ; 
 and the oppression of these aristocrats, shown princi- 
 pally towards their debtors, who had become their 
 slaves, (jje.ri,) — notwithstanding the lej: de provoca- 
 tione established by Valerius Poplicola, insuring to 
 the people the highest judicial power, — was so gall- 
 ing, that after the lapse of a few years it gave rise to 
 507. a sedition of the commons, (plebis,) the consequence 
 493. of which was the establishment of annually elected 
 presidents of the people {tribuni plebis). 
 
 First commercial treaty Avith Carthage, 508, in which Rome 
 appears certainly as a free state, but not yet as sovereign of all 
 Latium ; the most important monument of the authenticity of 
 the earlier Roman history. 
 
 Heyne, Fcedera Carthaginiensium cum Eomanis super navi-
 
 constilu- 
 
 PEEioD I.J TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 263 
 
 gatione et mercatura facta : contained in his Opusc. t. iii. Cf. First 
 i A, H. L. Heeren, Ideas, etc. Appendix to the second voh Period. 
 
 6. The further development of the Roman consti- Rise of the 
 tution in this period, hinges almost wholly on the ^^"' 
 struggle between the new presidents of the commons tion. 
 and the hereditary nobility ; the tribunes, instead of 
 confining themselves to defend the people from the 
 oppression of the nobles, soon began to act as ag- 
 gressors, and in a short time so widely overstepped 
 
 their power, that there remained no chance of putting 
 an end to the struggle but by a complete equalization 
 of rights. A long time elapsed ere this took place ; 
 the aristocracy finding a very powerful support both 
 in the clientship and in the religion of the state, 
 operating under the shape of auspices. 
 
 Main facts of the contest : 1 . In the trial of Coriolanus the 
 tribunes usurp the right of summoning some patricians before 
 the tribunal of the people. — Hence arise the comitia tributa ; 
 that is to say, either mere assemblies of the commons, or assem- 
 blies so organized that the commons had the prepondei'ance. 
 This institution gave the tribunes a sliare in the legislation, 
 subsequently of such high importance, those officers being al- 
 lowed to lay proposals before the commons. 2. More equitable 
 distribution among the poorer classes of the lands conquered 
 from the neighbouring nations, (the most ancient leges agrarice^ 
 suggested by the ambitious attempts of Cassius, 486. 3. Ex- 
 tension of the prerogatives of the comitia tributa, more espe- 
 cially in the election of the tribunes, brought about by Volero, 
 472. 4. Attempts at a legal limitation of the consular power 
 by Terentillus, {lex Terentilla,) 460, which, after a long strug- 
 gle, at last leads to the idea of one common written code, 452, 
 which is likewise realized in spite of the opposition at first made 
 by the patricians. 
 
 I Chk. F. Schulze, Struggle between the Democracy and 
 Aristocracg of Borne, or History of the Romans from the Ex- 
 pulsion of Tarquin to the Election of the first Plebeian Consul. 
 Altenburgh, 1802, 8vo. A most satisfactory development of 
 this portion of Roman history. 
 
 7. The code of the twelve tables confirmed the Code of the 
 ancient institutions, and was in part completed by the ^\^^]^ 
 adoption of the laws of the Greek republics, among 
 which Athens in particular is mentioned, whose coun- 
 sels were requested by a special deputation. In this, 
 however, two faults were committed ; not only were 
 
 the commissioners charged with drawing up the laws
 
 ments. 
 
 264 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 FiPST elected from the patricians alone, but they were like- 
 
 ''"'""' wise constituted sole magistrates, with dictatorial 
 
 power, (sine provocatione,) whereby a path was 
 
 opened to them for a usurpation, which could be 
 
 frustrated only by a sedition of the people. 
 
 Duration of the power of the Decemviri, 451 — 447. The 
 doubts raised as to the deputation sent to Athens are not suffi- 
 cient to invalidate the authenticity of an event so circumstan- 
 tially detailed. Athens, under Pericles, was then at the head 
 of Greece ; and, admitting the proposed design of consulting tlie 
 Greek laws, it was impossible tliat Athens should have been 
 passed over. And indeed, why should it be supposed, that a 
 state which fifty years before had signed a commercial treaty 
 with Carthage, and could not be unacquainted with the Grecian 
 colonies in Lower Italy, might not have sent an embassy into 
 Greece ? 
 
 The yet remaining fragments of the code of the twelve tables 
 are collected and illustrated in Bachii Ifist. Jurisprudenticß 
 RomancB ; and in several other works. 
 
 Its enact- g, ßy the laws of the twelve tables the leoral rela- 
 tions of the citizens were the same for all ; but as 
 that code seems to have contained very little in refer- 
 ence to any peculiar constitution of the state, the 
 government not only remained in the hands of the 
 aristocrats, who were in possession of all offices, but 
 the prohibition, according to the new laws of mar- 
 riage between patricians and plebeians, appeared to 
 have raised an insurmountable barrier between the 
 two classes. No wonder, then, that the tribunes of 
 the people should have immediately renewed their 
 attacks on the patricians ; particularly as the power 
 of those popular leaders was not only renewed, but 
 even augmented, as the only limit to their authority 
 was the necessity of their being unanimous in their 
 acts, while each had the right of a negative. 
 
 Besides the other laws made in favour of the people at the 
 renewal of the tribunicia potestas, 446, that which imported ut 
 quod tributim plebes jussisset, popidum teneret, frequently re- 
 newed in subsequent times, and meaning in modern language, 
 that the citizens constituted themselves, must, it would appear, 
 have thrown the supreme power into the hands of the people ; 
 did not the Roman histoiy, like that of other free states, afford 
 examples enough of the little authority there is to infer from the 
 enactment of a law that it will be practically enforced.
 
 PERIOD I.] TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 265 
 
 9. The main subjects of the new dissensions be- ^''"^'^ 
 tween patricians and plebeians, excited by the tribune 
 
 Canuleius, were now the connubia patrum cum pkbe. Dissensions 
 and the exclusive participation of the patricians in tHcianTami 
 the consulship, of whicli the tribunes demanded the plebeians. 
 abolition. The repeal of the former law was obtain- 
 ed as early as 445 {lex Canukia) ; the right of ad- 
 mission to the consulship was not extended to the 
 plebeians till after a struggle annually renewed for 
 eighty years ; during which, when, as usually was 
 the case, the tribunes forbade the military enrolment, 
 recourse was had to a transfer of the consular power 
 to the yearly elected commanders of the legions ; a 
 place to which plebeians were entitled to aspire {tri- 
 huni militum consulari potestate). — Establishment of Censors, 
 the office of censors, designed at first for nothing 
 more than to regulate the taking of the census, and 
 invested with no higher authority than what that re- 
 quired, but who soon after, by assuming to them- 
 selves the censura moriim, took rank among the most 
 important dignitaries of the state. 
 
 10. Meanwhile Rome was engaged in wars, in- Petty wars, 
 significant but almost uninterrupted, arising out of 
 the oppression, either real or imaginary, which she 
 exercised as head of the neighbouring federate cities, 
 {.socii,) comprising not only those of the Latins, but 
 likewise, after the victory of lake Regillus, those of 
 the other nations : the cities embraced every oppor 
 tunity of asserting their independence, and the con- 
 sequent struggles must have depopulated Rome, had 
 not that evil been diverted by the maxim of in- 
 creasing the complement of citizens by admitting the 
 freedmen, and not unfrequently even the conquered, 
 to the enjoyment of civic privileges. Little as these 
 feuds, abstractedly considered, deserve our attention, 
 they become of high interest, inasmuch as they were 
 not only the means by which the nation was trained 
 to war, but also led to the foundation of that sena- 
 torial power, whose important consequences will be 
 exhibited hereafter. 
 
 Among these wai'S attention must be directed to the last.
 
 266 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 First tliat against Veii, the ricliest city in Etruria ; the siege of that 
 Peiuod. phace, which lasted very nearly ten years, 404 — 395, gave rise 
 ■ ' ■ to the introduction among the Roman military of winter cam- 
 paigning, and of pay ; thus, on the one hand, the prosecution of 
 wars more distant and protracted became possible, while on the 
 other the consequences must have been the levy of higher taxes 
 {tributd). 
 
 Romebunit 11. Not long after, however, a tempest from the 
 Guui's! north had nearly destroyed Rome, The Sennonian 
 Gauls, pressed out of northern Italy through Etruria, 
 possessed themselves of the city, the capitol excepted, 
 and reduced it to ashes ; an event which made so 
 deep an impression on the minds of the Romans, 
 that few other occurrences in their history have been 
 more frequently the object of traditional detail. Ca- 
 millus, then the deliverer of Rome, and in every re- 
 spect one of the chief heroes of that period, laid a 
 double claim to the gratitude of his native city, by 
 overruling, after his victory, the proposal of a general 
 mio;ration to Veii. 
 Feu.is re- 12. Scarcely was Rome rebuilt ere the ancient 
 ^'^'^*^' feuds revived, springing out of the poverty of the 
 citizens, produced by an increase of taxation conse- 
 quent on the establishment of military pay, and by 
 the introduction of gross usury. The tribunes, Sex- 
 tius and Licinius, by prolonging their term of office 
 to five years, had established their power; while 
 Licinius, by an agrarian law, decreeing that no indi- 
 vidual should hold more than five XmrvdiYedijugera of 
 the national lands, had insured the popular favour ; 
 A consul so that at last they succeeded in obtaining, that one 
 111^0001-°™ of the consuls should be chosen from the commons ; 
 mons. and although the nobility, by the nomination of a 
 praetor from their own body, and of cediles curules, 
 endeavoured to compensate for the sacrifice they 
 were obliged to make, yet the plebeians having once 
 made good a claim to the consulship, their participa- 
 tion in the other magisterial offices, (the dictatorship, 
 353, the censorship, 348, the pr^torship, 334,) and 
 even the priesthood, (300,) quickly followed as a 
 matter of course. Thus at Rome the object of po- 
 litical equality between commons and nobles was at-
 
 PERIOD I.] TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 267 
 
 tained ; and although the difference between the pa- Fikst 
 trician and plebeian families still subsisted, they soon '^"'""' 
 ceased to form political parties. 
 
 A second commercial treaty entered into with Carthage, 345, 
 demonstrates that even at this time the navy of the Romans was 
 anything but contemptible ; although its principal object as yet 
 was mere piracy. Roman squadrons of war however appear 
 more than once within the next forty years. 
 
 13. Far more important than any wars in which Samnite 
 Rome had hitherto been engaged, were those soon 
 about to commence with the Samnites. In former 
 contests the object of Rome had been to establish her 
 supremacy over her immediate neighbours ; but in 
 these, during a protracted contest of fifty years, she 
 opened a way to the subjugation of Italy, and laid 
 
 the foundation of her future greatness. 
 
 Commencement of the wars against the Samnites, the Cam- 
 panians having called the Romans to their assistance against that 
 nation, 343. These wars, carried on with vigorous exertion and 
 various success, lasted, Avith but short intermissions, till 290. 
 This is tlie true heroic age of Rome, ennobled by the patriotic 
 valour of Decius Mus, (father and son both voluntary victims,) 
 Pai)irius Cursoi', Q. Fabius Maximus, etc. The consequences 
 of tliis struggle were : a. The Romans learnt the art of moun- 
 tain warfare, and thereby for the first time acquired a peculiar 
 system of military tactics ; not, however, till they had been, 321, 
 obliged to pass under the f ureas Caudinas. b. Their relations 
 were more firmly established witli their neighbours tlie Latins 
 and Etrurians, by the complete conquest of the former, 340, and 
 by repeated victories over the latter, more especially in 308. c. 
 (jreat national federations having arisen in Italy, particularly 
 during the last period of the Sam.nite wars, the Romans entered 
 into connexion with tlie more distant nations of the country ; 
 with the Lucanians and Apulians, by the first league, 323, with 
 the Umbri, from the year 308 ; and although the nature of this 
 connexion frequently varied, the different nations were per- 
 petually struggling for independence, and were consequently at 
 enmity with Rome. In this period, moreover, commenced the 
 practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon the po- 
 litical relations in which she placed the conquered with regard 
 to herself. 
 
 14. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome, AVm n-ainst 
 wishing to confirm her dominion in Lower Italy, was Jinp^/"v*iIo 
 thereby, for the first time, entangled in war with a «»e assist. a 
 foreign prince ; the Tarentines, too feeble to maintain ^ ^" '"^" 
 alone their footing against the Romans, called Pyr-
 
 268 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 First rhus of Epirus to tlicir assistance. He came, indeed, 
 
 L but not so much to further the views of the Taren- 
 
 tines as to advance his own ; but even in victory, he 
 learnt by experience that the Macedonian tactics 
 gave him but a shght preponderance, which the Ro- 
 mans soon transferred to their own side, exhibiting 
 the truth of the principle, that a good civic mihtia, 
 sooner or later, will always get the upper hand of 
 mercenary troops. 
 
 The idea of calling upon Pyrrhus for assistance was the more 
 natural, as the predecessor of that prince, Alexander I., (see 
 above, p. 220,) had endeavoured, but without success, to etfect 
 conquests in Lower Italy. In the first war with Pyrrhus, 280 
 — 278, two battles were fought, the first at Pandosia, 280, the 
 other at Asculuni, 279 ; in both of which Rome Avas unsuccess- 
 ful. But Pyrrhus, after crossing over into Sicily, 278, (see 
 above, p. 140,) once more returned into Italy, 275, when he 
 was defeated by the Romans at Beneventum, and compelled 
 to evacuate Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city, 
 however, soon afterwards, 272, fell into the hands of the Ro- 
 mans, whose dominion was consequently extended to the ex- 
 tremity of Lower Italy. 
 
 Romance- 15, 'fhe chief means to which, even from the 
 earliest times, the Romans had recourse for the found- 
 ation of their dominion over the conquered, and at 
 the same time for the prevention of the too great in- 
 crease of the needy classes of Rome, was the estab- 
 lishment of colonies of their own citizens, which, being 
 settled in the captured cities, served likewise as gar- 
 risons. Each colony had its own distinct internal 
 constitution, modelled, for the most part, upon that 
 of the mother city itself; hence to keep the colonies 
 in perfect dependence naturally became an object ot 
 Roman policy. This colonial system of the Romans 
 necessarily and spontaneously arising out of the rude 
 custom of bereaving the conquered of their lands 
 and liberty, assumed its main features in the Samnite 
 war, and gradually embraced the whole of Italy. 
 Closely connected with this system was the construc- 
 tion of military highways, {vice militares,) one of 
 which, the Appian way, was constructed so early as 
 312, and to this day remains a lasting monument of 
 the greatness of Rome at that period.
 
 PERIOD I.] TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 269 
 
 Even at the time of Hannibal's invasion, the number of Ro- First 
 man colonies amounted to 53 : but several which had been Feuiod. 
 settled returned to the mother city. 
 
 Heyne, De Romanoruin prudetitia in coloniis regendis: in- 
 serted in Opusc. vol. iii. Cf. Prolusiones de veterum colonia- 
 rumjure ejiisque causis, in his Opusc. vol. i. 
 
 16. But the relations existing between Rome and Reiat: 
 
 ons 
 
 between 
 Rome and 
 
 the Italian nations were extremely various in kind. 
 1. A few cities and nations enjoyed the full privi- the itJian 
 les^es of Roman citizenship ; in some instances, how- "^''^"^• 
 ever, without the right of voting in the comitia 
 [nniuicipia). 2. The privileges of the colonies (Jus 
 coloniarum) were of a more restricted nature ; the 
 colonists were indeed in possession of their own civic 
 government, but had no further share whatever either 
 in the comitia or magistracies of Rome. The other 
 inhabitants of Italy were either federates [socii, feeder e 
 juncti) or subjects [dedititii). The first (a) preserved 
 their internal form of government ; but on the other 
 hand [h) were obliged to furnish tribute and auxiliary 
 troops [tributis et armis juvare remjmhlicam). Their 
 further relation with Rome depended upon the terms 
 of the leag-ue. The most advantao;eous of these terms 
 were, 3. in favour of the Latins, although each of 
 their cities had its own separate league [jus Latii) ; 
 as, 4. the rest of the Italian nations had their jus 
 ItaUcum. On the other hand, 5. the subjects, dedi- 
 titii, were deprived of their internal constitutions, 
 and were governed by Roman magistrates, [prcefecti,) 
 annually renewed. 
 
 C. SiGOXius, De antlquo jure civium Romnnorum ; and his 
 treatise De antiquo jure Italice, inserted both in his Opera and 
 in Gr^:vii Thes. Ant. Rom. t. ii., contain the most learned i"e- 
 searches on the details of tliese relations. 
 
 17. The internal constitution of Rome itself, now The Roman 
 completed, bore the character of a democracy, inas- J^elnocra" 
 much as equality of rights existed both for nobles cj- 
 and commons. Yet this democracy was modified by 
 expedients so various and wonderful — the rights of 
 the people, of the senate, of the magistrates, fitted so 
 nicely into each other, and were so firmly supported 
 by the national religion connecting every thing with
 
 270 ROMAN STATE. [i;ook v 
 
 First determinate forms — that there was no reason, at that 
 
 L time, to fear the evils either of anarchy, or, what is 
 
 much more astonishing when we consider the warhke 
 character of the people, those of military despotism. 
 
 The rights of the people consisted in the legislative power, 
 so far as fundamental national principles were concerned, and 
 in the election of the magistrates. The distinction between the 
 CGmitia trihuta (as independent of the senate) and the comitia 
 centuriata (as dependent on the senate) still existed as to form, 
 but had lost all its importance, the difference between patricians 
 and plebeians being now merely nominal, and the establishment 
 of the tr'ibus urbcmce, 303, excluding the too great influence of 
 the people {forensis factio) upon the comitia tributa. The 
 rights of the senate consisted in administering and debating all 
 transitory national affairs, whether foreign relations, (war and 
 peace only excepted, in which the consent of the people was 
 requisite,) financial concerns, or matters regarding domestic 
 peace and security. But the manner in which the senate was 
 supplied must have made it the first political body at that time 
 in the world. The rights and rank of magistrates were founded 
 on the greater or lesser auspicia, no public affair being entered 
 upon except auspicato. Consequently he only who was in pos- 
 session of the former could hold the highest civic and military 
 power ; {imperium civile et militare ; suis auspiciis rem gerere ;) 
 as dictator, consul, proetor : such was not the case Avith those 
 who had only the lesser auspicia. The union of civil and 
 military power in the person of the same individual was not 
 Avithout its inconveniences, but military despotism Avas in some 
 measure guarded against by the prohibition of any magistrate 
 possessing military command Avithin Rome itself. AYe must 
 not dismiss this subject AA'ithout observing, that as the Roman 
 constitution arose merely out of practice, there never having 
 been any completely Avritten charter, we cannot expect that all 
 the details should be clearly ascertained ; to attempt, therefore, 
 in default of such authority, to describe all the minutiae AA^ould 
 be the surest Avay to fall into error. 
 
 Of the numerous AA'orks on the Roman constitution and on 
 Roman antiquities, we shall mention : 
 
 De Beaufort, La Repuhlique Romaine, oic plan generale 
 
 de Vancien gouvernement de Rome. La Haye, 1766, 2 vols. 
 
 < 4to. A most copious work, and one of the most solid in regard to 
 
 the matters discussed ; although it does not embrace the AAdiole 
 
 of the subject. 
 
 Histoire critique du gouvernement Romain; Paris, 1765. 
 Containing some acute observations. 
 
 Du Gouvernement de la republique Romaine, par A. Ad. de 
 Texier, 3 vols. 8vo. Hamburg, 1796. This contains many 
 inquiries peculiar to the writer. 
 
 Some learned researches respecting the i)riacipal points of
 
 PERIOD II. 
 
 TO THE GRACCHI. 271 
 
 the Roman constitution, as SiGOXius and Gruciiius de comitiis First 
 Jlomcmorimi, Zamocius dc Senatu Romano, etc., will be found Pkriod. 
 collected in the first two vols, of GryEvius, Antiq. Roman. 
 
 For the popular assemblies of the Romans, an antiquarian 
 essay by Clir. Fei'd. Schulze, Gotha, 1815, chiefly according to 
 Niebuhi-, may be consulted. 
 
 Among the numerous manuals of Roman antiquities, NiEU- 
 rORT, explicatio ritimm Romanorum, ed. Gesner, Berol. 1743, 
 promises at least as much as it performs. Of those wliich pro- 
 fess to treat of Roman antiquities in general, none have yet 
 risen above mediocrity. Jurisprudence, hoAvever, has been 
 much more successfully handled. We cite the two following 
 excellent compendiums : 
 
 Bachii, Historia JurisprudenticB Romance. Lips. 1754. 
 1796. 
 
 fC. Hugo, Elements of the Roman Law; 7th edit. Berlin, 
 1820. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From the Commencement of the war with Carthage to the 
 rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264 — 
 134. Year of Rome, 490—620. 
 
 Sources. The principal writer for this highly interesting Second 
 period, in which was laid the foundation of the universal domi- rERioD. 
 nion of Rome, is Polybius, as far as the year 146, not only in ' 
 tlie complete books preserved to us, which come down to 216, 
 l)ut also in the fragments. He is frequently followed by Livy, 
 lib. xxi. — xlv., 218 — 166. Appian, who comes next, does not 
 confine himself merely to the history of the war ; Florus gives 
 us only an abridgement. The Lives of Plutarch which relate 
 to this portion of history, are Fabius IVLvximus, P. ^milius, 
 ]\Iarceleus, M. Cato, and Flaminius. 
 
 Of modern writers we dare only mention one ; and who is 
 worthy to be ranked beside him ? 
 
 ÄIoNTESQUiEU, Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur 
 et de la decadence des Romains. 
 
 1. The political division of Italy laid the found- 
 ation for the dominion of Rome in that country ; 
 the want of union and political relations in the world 
 paved the way to her universal empire. The first 
 step cost her much, the succeeding followed easily 
 and rapidly ; and the history of the struggle between
 
 272 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Second Rome and Carthage only shows on a larger scale 
 wliat the history of Greece exhibits on a smaller. The 
 
 Struggle whole of the following history confirms the fact, that 
 c^'Th^^^ ^^^^ republics cannot exist near each other, without 
 andRo'me; One being destroyed or subjected ; but the vast ex- 
 its extent, tent of this struggle, the important consequences 
 which followed, together with the wonderful exertions 
 made, and the great men engaged on both sides, gave 
 it an interest which cannot be found in that of any 
 State of the Other nations. Though the power and resources of 
 two parties. ]3oth states wcrc nearly equal in appearance, they 
 were widely different in quality and circumstances. 
 Carthage, besides her dominion over the seas, had 
 also a better furnished treasury, by which she was 
 enabled to enlist into her service as many mercena- 
 ries as she pleased : Rome, on the contrary, strong 
 in herself, had all the advantages possessed by a 
 nation of warriors over one partly commercial, partly 
 military. 
 The first 2. The first war of twenty-three years between 
 
 waroftwen- ^jjg ^.^^q republics, arosc from very slight causes ; it 
 years, B. c. soou, howcver, becamc a struggle for the possession of 
 264—241. gi(,}|y^ which in the end naturally extended itself to 
 the dominion of the sea. Rome, by the aid of her 
 newly-built fleet, having obtained for some time this 
 power, was enabled to attack Africa, and succeeded 
 in driving the Carthaginians from Sicily. 
 
 The occupation of Messina by the Romans, 264, gave rise to 
 this war. The defection of Hiero king of Syracuse from the 
 side of Carthage, and his joining the Romans, first gave the lat- 
 ter the idea of expelling the Carthaginians from the island. 
 The victory near Agrigentum, and capture of that city in 262, 
 seemed to facilitate the execution of this project : it also con- 
 vinced the Romans of the necessity of their having a naval 
 power. "We shall the less wonder at their forming a fleet in 
 Italy, where wood was then plentiful, if we remember their 
 previous experience in naval aifairs ; these were not the first 
 vessels of war which they constructed, but only the first large 
 ones which they built upon a Carthaginian model. The first 
 naval victory of the Romans under Duilius, by the aid of grap- 
 pling machines, 260. The project then conceived of carrying 
 the war into Africa was one of the great ideas of the Romans, 
 and from that time it became a ruling maxim of the state, to 
 attack the enemy in his own territory. The second and very
 
 TERioD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 273 
 
 remarkable naval victory of the Romans, 257, opened the way Si-cond 
 for them to Africa, and shows their naval tactics in a very bril- 1'eiuod. 
 
 liant light : but the unfortunate issue of their expedition to 
 
 Africa, restored the equilibrium ; and the struggle for the do- 
 minion of the sea became the more obstinate, as success did not 
 altogether favour one party. The result of the contest appears 
 to have turned upon the possession of the western promontories 
 of Sicily, Drepanum and Lilyb;\;um, which were in a manner 
 the bulwarks of the Carthaginians, and seemed impregnable 
 since Hamilear Bai-ca had taken the command of them, 247, 
 The last naval victory of the Romans, however, under the con- 
 sul Lutatius, 241, having cut off the communication between 
 Sicily and Carthage, and the finances of both parties being 
 completely exhausted, a peace was concluded upon the condi- 
 tions : 1. That the Carthaginians should evacuate Sicily and 
 the small islands adjacent. 2. That they should pay to Rome, 
 by instalments in ten years, for the expenses she had been at in 
 carrying on the war, the sum of 2200 talents. 3. That they 
 should not make Avar against Hiero king of Syracuse. 
 
 3. The issue of this war placed the pohtical con- 
 nexions of Rome in a new situation, and necessarily 
 extended her influence abroad. The length of the 
 war and the manner of its conclusion had, moreover, 
 inspired a national hatred, such as is only found in 
 republics ; the conviction also that they could not 
 remain independent of one another, must have be- 
 come much more striking, as the points of contact 
 had greatly increased since the beginning of the war. 
 Who does not know the arrogance of a republic after 
 the first essay of her power has been crowned with 
 success ! Rome gave a striking example of this by 
 
 her invasion of Sardinia in the midst of peace. These Effect of 
 successes had also a sensible eflect on the Roman "'^'*'' ''"''" 
 
 cesses 1)11 
 
 constitution. For although in appearance its form the consti- 
 was not in the least changed, yet the power of the ^"''""■ 
 senate now acquired that preponderance which the 
 ruling authority of a republic never fails to do after 
 long and successful wars. 
 
 Origin and nature of the governments of the first Roman 
 provinces, in part of Sicily and in Sardinia. 
 
 4. An opportunity was soon aflbrded the Romans, chastise- 
 in the Adriatic Sea, of makino- use of their superior nf"^ "^ '!'® 
 naval power, m chastismg the pirates of Illyria under i^tVs. 
 their queen Teuta. By effecting this, tliey not only 
 
 T
 
 274 
 
 KOMAN STATE. 
 
 [book V, 
 
 Second 
 I'eriod. 
 
 Relations 
 
 with 
 
 Greece. 
 
 secured their authority over that sea, but at the same 
 time formed their first poHtical relations with the 
 Grecian states ; relations which soon afterwards be- 
 came of great importance. 
 
 Commencement of the first Illyrian war, 230, which ended 
 with the subjugation of Teuta, 226. The war, however, again 
 broke out, 222, against Demetrius of Pharus, wlio conceived 
 himself inadequately rewarded by Rome for the services he had 
 rendered her in the preceding war. The Romans found him a 
 much more dangerous adversary than had been expected, even 
 after his expulsion and flight to Philip, 220 (see above, p. 226). 
 Throughout this war, Rome appeared as the deliverer of the 
 Grecian states, which had suflered extremely from the plunder 
 of these freebooters ; Corcyi-a, ApoUonia, and other cities placed 
 themselves formally nnder her protection, while the Achreans, 
 ^tolians, and Athenians vied with each other in showing their 
 gratitude. 
 
 5. In the mean time, while Carthage endeavoured 
 to make up for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by ex- 
 tending her Spanish dominions, which the jealousy 
 of Rome restrained her from carrying beyond the 
 Ebro, (p. 68,) Rome herself had a new war to main- 
 tain ao'ainst her northern neio-hbours the Gauls, which 
 ended after a violent contest with the establishment 
 of her authority over the north of Italy. 
 
 From the first Gallic war to the burning of Rome, 390, the 
 Gauls had repeated their attacks in 360 and 348, even to the 
 conclusion of the peace in 336. But in the latter part of the 
 Samnite war, a formidable confederacy having taken place among 
 the Italian tribes, some of the Gauls enlisted as mercenaries in 
 the service of the Etruscans, while others allied themselves to 
 the Samnites. This led them to take part in these wars in 306, 
 302, and 292, until they were obliged, together with the Etrus- 
 cans, to sue for peace in 284, before which time the Romans 
 had sent a colony into their country, near Sena. This peace 
 lasted till 238, when it was disturbed by the incursion of the 
 transalpine Gauls ; without, however, their coming to any war 
 with Rome. But in 232, the proposition of Flaminius the tri- 
 bune, {lex Flaminia,) to divide the lands conquered from the 
 Senones, became the cause of new disturbances. Upon this 
 occasion, the Gauls entered into an alliance with their transal- 
 pine countrymen, the Ga^sates on the Rhone, who had been ac- 
 customed to engage as mei'cenaries. These having crossed the 
 Alps, the dreadful war of six years (226 — 220) began, in which, 
 after defeating the Gauls near Clusium, 225, the Romans pur- 
 sued them into their own territory, and encamped upon the Po, 
 223. The Gauls having been again completely overthrown
 
 PERIOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 2iD 
 
 by Marcellus, were obliged to sue for peace ; when the Roman Second 
 colonies of Phicentia and Cremona were establislied. The nura- Period. 
 ber of men capable of bearing arms in all Italy subject to the ~ 
 
 Romans during this war amounted to 800,000. 
 
 6. Before this storm was totally appeased, in whicli nunnihai 
 it is probable that Cartha2;inian policy was not alto- '^'"'* ^^^, 
 
 ■*■ , , . ~ , command. 
 
 gether inactive, Hannibal had obtained the chief in Spain, 
 command in Spain. From the reproach of having 
 first begun the war, he and his party cannot be 
 cleared ; Rome, in the situation she then was, could 
 hardly desire it ; he however who strikes the first 
 blow is not always the real aggressor. The plan of 
 Hannibal was the destruction of Rome ; and by and makes 
 making Italy the principal seat of the war, he neces- geat'ofwar 
 sarily turned the scale in his favour ; because Rome, 
 obliged to defend herself, left to him all the advan- 
 tages of attack. The preparations she made for de- 
 fence, show tliat it was not believed possible he could 
 execute his enterprise by the route which he took. 
 
 The history of this war, 218 — 201, of which no later trans- 
 action has been able to destroy the interest, is divided into three 
 parts : the history of the war in Italy ; the contemporary war 
 in Spain ; and from 203, the war in Africa. Hannibal's in- 
 vasion of Italy in the autumn, 218 — engagement near the river 
 Ticinus and the battle of Trebia, in the same year. Battle near 
 the lake Thrasymenus, in the spring, 217. Seat of tlie war 
 transferred to Lower Italy, and the defensive system of the dic- 
 tator Fabius until the end of the year. Battle of Cannae, 216, 
 followed by the conquest of Capua and the subjection of the 
 greater part of Lower Italy. The defensive mode of warfare 
 afterwards adopted by the Carthaginian, arose partly from his 
 desire to form a junction with his brother Asdrubal and the 
 Spanish army, and partly from his expectation of foreign sup- 
 port by means of alliances, with Syracuse, after the death of 
 Hiero, 215, and with Philip of Macedon, 216. Tiiese hopes, 
 however, were frustrated by the Romans. — Syracuse was be- 
 sieged and taken, 214 — 212, (see above, p. 140,) and Philip 
 kept employed in Greece (see above, p. 226). In addition to 
 this, the Romans retook Capua, notwithstanding the audacious 
 march of Hannibal towards Rome, 211, and he had now no 
 succour left except the reinforcement which Asdrubal was 
 bringing from Spain. The latter, however, was attacked im- 
 mediately upon his arrival in Italy, near Sena, by the consuls 
 Nero and Livius, and left dead on the field, 207. From this 
 time the war in Italy became only of secondary importance, as 
 Hannibal was obliged to act on the defensive in Bruttium. 
 
 T 2
 
 276 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Second Tlie Course of Jlannihal over the Alps ascertained, by J. 
 
 Period. Wiiittakkk. London, 1794, 2 vols. 8 vo. Tlie author endea- 
 vours to prove tliat the passage of Hannibal was over the great 
 St. Bernard, and criticises the opinions of other writers. 
 [We may likewise mention the learned treatise, — 
 A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps. 
 By H. L. Wickiia:m, j\I. A. and the Kev. J. A. Cramer, M. 
 A. second edition, Oxon.] 
 
 The war in Spain began nearly about the same time between 
 Asdrubal and the two brothers, Cn. and P. Cornelius Scipio, 
 and was continued with various success, till the year 216, the 
 issue depending much upon the disposition of the Spaniards 
 themselves. The plan of Carthage after the year 216, was to 
 send Asdrubal with the Spanish army into Italy, and to supply 
 its place by an army from Africa ; two victories, however, 
 gained by the Scipios near the Ebro, 216, and the Illiberis, 215, 
 prevented this from being effected, till at last both fell under 
 the superior power and cunning of the Carthaginians, 212. But 
 the arrival of the youthful P. Cornelius Scipio, who did not 
 appear merely to his own nation as an extraordinary genius, 
 entirely changed the face of affairs, and the fortunes of Rome 
 soon became attached to his name, which alone seemed to pro- 
 mise victory. During his command in Spain, 210 — 206, he 
 won over the inhabitants while he defeated the Carthaginians, 
 and for the furtherance of his great design, contracted an alli- 
 ance with Syphax in Africa, 206. He was unable, however, 
 to prevent the march of Asdrubal into Italy, 208, which never- 
 theless rendered it an easy task for him to subdue all Cartha- 
 ginian Spain as far as Gades, 206, and thus procured him the 
 consular dignity at his return, 205. 
 
 The carrying of the war into Africa by Scipio, notwithstand- 
 ing the opposition of the old Roman generals, and the desertion 
 of Syphax, who at the persuasion of Sophonisba again went 
 over to the Carthaginians, (whose loss however was well repaid 
 by Masinissa, whom Scipio had won over to his side in Spain,) 
 was followed by an important consequence ; for after he had 
 gained two victories over Asdrubal and Syphax, 203, and taken 
 the latter prisoner, the Carthaginians found it necessary to re- 
 call Hannibal from Italy, 202 ; and the battle of Zama termi- 
 nated the war, 201. The following were the conditions of 
 peace : 1 . That the Carthaginians should only retain the terri- 
 tory in Africa annexed to their government. 2. That they 
 should give up all their ships of war, except ten triremes, and 
 all their elephants. 3. That they should pay, at times specified, 
 10,000 talents. 4. That they should commence no war without 
 the consent of Rome. 5. That they should restore to ]\Iasinissa 
 all the houses, cities, and lands that had ever been possessed by 
 himself or his ancestors. — The reproach usually cast upon the 
 Cai'thaginians, of having left Hannibal unsupported in Italy, in 
 a great measure vanishes, if we remember the plan formed in 
 216, to send the Spanish army into Italy, and to replace it by
 
 PERIOD n.] TO THE GRACCHI. 277 
 
 an African one: a plan formed with much ability, and followed Second 
 with as much constancy. We may add to this, tliat the Barcine Period. 
 
 faction maintained its influence in the government even to the 
 
 end of tlie war. But wliy they, who by the treaty of peace 
 gave up tive hundred vessels of war, suffered Scipio to cross 
 over from Sicily without sending one to oppose him, is difficult 
 to explain. 
 
 7. Notwithstanding her great loss of men, and the P^^er of 
 devastation of Italy, Rome felt herself much more creased by 
 powerful at tlie end of this war than at the begin- ^^^ ^^=""- 
 ning. Her dominion was not only established over 
 Italy, but extensive foreign countries had been 
 brought under it ; her authority over the seas was 
 rendered secure by the destruction of the naval power 
 of the Carthaginians. The Konvdnform of govern- 
 ment, it is true, underwent no change, but its spirit 
 much, as the power of the senate became almost un- 
 limited ; and although the dawn of civilization had 
 broken over Rome, since her intercourse with more 
 civilized foreigners, the state still remained altogether 
 a nation of warriors. And now, for the first time, s^e be- 
 appears in the page of history the fearful phenome- mmtary re- 
 non of a great military republic; and the history of Public, 
 the next ten years, in which Rome overthrew so 
 many thrones and free states, gives a striking proof, 
 that such a power is the natural enemy to the inde- 
 pendence of all the states within the reach of her 
 arms. The causes which led Rome from this time 
 to aspire after the dominion of the world, are to be 
 found neither in her geographical situation, which 
 for a conquering power by land seemed rather un- 
 favourable, nor m the inclination of the people, who 
 were opposed to the first war against Philip ; but 
 singly and entirely in the spirit of her government. 
 The means, however, whereby she obtained her end, 
 must not be sought for merely in the excellence of 
 her armies and generals, but rather in that uniform, 
 sharp-sighted, and dexterous policy, by which slie Her policy. 
 was enabled to frustrate the powerful alliances formed 
 against her, notwithstanding the many adversaries 
 who at that time souo-ht to form new ones. But 
 where could be found such another council of state,
 
 world. 
 
 278 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Second embodying such a mass of practical political wisdom, 
 ERioix^ as the Roman senate must have been irom the very- 
 state of the nature of its organization? All this, however, would 
 rest of the ^^^^ ^,^^^ i^^^^^ Sufficient to have subjugated the world, 
 if the want of good government, the degeneracy of 
 the military art, and an extremely corrupt state of 
 morals among both rulers and people, in foreign 
 states, had not seconded the efforts of Rome. 
 
 View of the political state of the world at tliis period. In 
 the west, Sicily, (the whole island after 212,) Sardinia, and Cor- 
 sica, from the year 237, and Spain, divided into citerior and 
 ulterior, (the latter rather in name than in fact,) had become 
 Roman provinces, 206 ; the independence of Carthage had been 
 destroyed by the last peace, and her subordination secured by 
 the alliance of Rome with Masinissa ; Cisalpine Gaul, formed 
 into a province, served as a barrier against the inroads of the 
 more northern barbarians. On the other side, in the East, the 
 kingdom of IMacedonia, and the free states of Greece, forming 
 together a very complicated system, had opened a connexion 
 with Rome since the lUyrian war, 230, and Philip's alliance 
 with Hannibal, 214. Of the three powers of the first rank, 
 Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt, the two former were allied against 
 the latter, who, on her part, maintained a good understanding 
 with Rome. The states of secondary rank were, those of the 
 ^tolian league, the kings of Pergamus, and the republic of 
 Rhodes, with some smaller, such as Athens : these had allied 
 themselves to Rome since the confederacy against Phihp, 211. 
 The Achfean league, on the contrary, was in the interests of 
 Macedonia, which Rome always endeavoured to attach to her- 
 self, in order to make head against those of the first rank. 
 
 waragainst 8. A declaration of war against Phihp, notwith- 
 
 bI^c?'2üo. standing the opposition of the tribunes of tlie people, 
 
 and an attack upon Macedonia itself, according to 
 
 the constant maxim of carrying the war into the 
 
 enemy's country, immediately followed. They could 
 
 not, however, drive Philip so soon from the fastnesses 
 
 of Epirus and Thessaly, which were his bulwarks. 
 
 T. Quintius But Rouic posscsscd in T. Quintius Flaminius, who 
 
 ^^arnimub, jj^^j.(,|^g(j agaiust Philip as the deliverer of Greece, a 
 
 statesman and general exactly fitted for a period of 
 
 lays the great revolutions. By the permanency of his politi- 
 
 o*f"Rom!i°ir <^^^ influence he became indeed the true founder of 
 
 power in the Rouian power in the East. Who could better 
 
 cajole men and nations, while they were erecting 
 
 altars to him, than T. Quintius? So artfully indeed
 
 pEiUüD 11. J TO THE GRACCHI. 279 
 
 did he assume the character of a oTeat erenius, such Second 
 
 11 • 1 o • • 1 1 1 Period. 
 
 as had been given by nature to ocipio, that he has 
 
 ahnost deceived history itself. The struggle between 
 him and Philip consisted rather in a display of talents 
 in political stratagem and finesse than in feats of 
 arms : even before the battle of Cynoscephalse had i97. 
 given the finishing stroke, the Romans had already 
 turned the balance in their favour, by gaining over 
 the Achaean league. i98. 
 
 The negotiation.s between Kome and Macedonia, from the 
 year 214, give the first striking examples of the ability and ad- 
 dress of the Romans in foreign policy ; and tliey are tlie more 
 remarkable, as the treaty with the ^tolians and others, 211, 
 (see above, p. 227,) was the remote cause of the transactions 
 which afterwards took place in the East. The peculiar system 
 adopted by the Romans, of taking the lesser states under their 
 protection as allies, must always liave given them an opportunity 
 of making war on the more powerful whenever they chose. This 
 in fact happened in the present case, notwithstanding the peace 
 concluded with Philip, 204. The chief object of the Romans 
 in this war, both by sea and land, was to drive Philip completely 
 out of Greece. The allies on both sides, and the conditions of 
 peace, were similar to those concluded with Carthage (see above, 
 p. 227). The destruction of the naval power of lier conquered 
 enemies became now a maxim of Roman policy in making 
 peace ; and she thus maintained the dominion of the seas with- 
 out any great fleet, and without losing the essential character of 
 a dominant power by land. 
 
 9. The expulsion of Philip from Greece brought 
 that country into a state of dependence upon Rome ; 
 an event which could not have been better secured 
 than by the present of liberty which T. Quintius con- 
 ferred upon its inhabitants at the Isthmian games. 
 The system of surveillance, which the Romans had 
 already established in the West over Carthage and 
 Numidia, was now adopted in the East over Greece 
 and Macedonia. Roman commissioners, under the 
 name of ambassadors, were sent into the country of 
 the nations in alliance, and wei'e the principal means 
 by which this system of espionage was carried on. 
 These however did not fail to give umbrage to the 
 Greeks, particularly to the turbulent .Etolians ; more 
 especially as the Romans seemed in no hurry to with-
 
 280 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Second 
 Pekiod. 
 
 AVar with 
 
 Syria. 
 
 Dünger of a 
 formidable 
 league 
 ai^ainst 
 Rome : 
 
 which she 
 frustrates. 
 
 draw their troops from a country which they had de- 
 clared to be free. 
 
 Liberty was expressly granted to the state which had taken 
 the part of PhiHp, namely, to the Acha;ans ; to the others it was 
 naturally understood to belong. It was nevertheless three years, 
 194, before the Roman army evacuated Greece, and witlidrew 
 from the fortified places. The conduct of T. Quintius during 
 this period fully shows what he was. The Greeks indeed had 
 much want of such a guardian if they wished to remain quiet : 
 Ms conduct, however, in the war against Nabis, 195, shows that 
 he had not really at heart the tranquillity of Greece. 
 
 10. The treaty of peace with Phihp contained the 
 seeds of a new and greater war with S3a'ia ; but 
 though this seemed inevitable at that time, it did not 
 break out till six years afterwards ; and in but few 
 periods of the history of the world is so great a poli- 
 tical crisis to be found, as in this short interval. The 
 fall of Carthage and Macedonia had shown the rest 
 of the world what it had to expect from Rome ; and 
 there was no lack of great men sufficiently endowed 
 with courage and talents to resist her. The danger 
 of a formidable league between Carthage, Syria, and 
 perhaps Macedonia, was never so much to be feared, 
 as when Hannibal, now at the head of affairs, labour- 
 ed to effect it with all the zeal which his hatred of 
 Rome could inspire ; and they might calculate "with 
 certainty beforehand on the accession of many smaller 
 states. Rome, how^ever, by her equally decided and 
 artful policy procured Hannibal's banishment from 
 Carthage, amused Philip by granting him some tri- 
 fling advantages, and gained over the smaller states 
 by her ambassadors. By these means, and by taking 
 advantage of the intrigues in the court of Syria, she 
 prevented this coalition from being formed. Antio- 
 chus was therefore left without assistance in Greece, 
 except from the ^tolians, and a few other unim- 
 portant allies ; while Rome drew from hers, especially 
 the Rhodians and Eumenes, advantages of the great- 
 est consequence. 
 
 The first cause of contention betAveen Rome and Antiochus 
 was the liberty of Greece, Avhich the former wished to extend 
 to the Grecian cities of Asia, and to those in particular which
 
 PERIOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. £81 
 
 had belonged to Philip, and afterwards to Antiochus ; while Second 
 the latter contended, that Rome had no right to intermeddle Period. 
 
 with the affairs of Asia. The second cause of dispute was the 
 
 occupation of the Thracian Chersonesus by Antiochus, 196, in 
 right of some ancient pretensions ; and Rome, on her part, 
 Avould not tolerate him in Europe. This quarrel therefore 
 commenced as early as 196, but did not become serious till the 
 year 195, when, in consequence of Hannibal's flight to Anti- 
 ochus, together witli the turbulence and excitement of the JEto- 
 lians, whose olyect it was to embroil the rival powers, the poli- 
 tical horizon was completely overcast. What a fortunate thing 
 it was for Rome that such men as Hannibal and Antiochus 
 could not understand each other ! 
 
 Heyne, de foederu/n ad Romayinrum opes imminuendas iriito- 
 rum eventis eorumque causis ; in Opusc. vol. iii. 
 
 11. This war was much sooner brought to a ter- 
 mination than the Macedonian, owing to the half- 
 measures adopted by Antiochus. After having been b. c. loi. 
 driven from Greece by Glabrio, and after two naval 
 victories had opened to the Romans the way to Asia, 
 
 he felt inchned to act on the defensive ; but in the 
 battle near Magnesia at the foot of Mount Sipylus, Rnttie of 
 L. Scipio gathered the laurels which more properly lyo'f"^*'''' 
 belonged to Glabrio. The total expulsion of Antio- 
 chus from Asia Minor, even before this victory, had 
 been the chief object of the war. The conditions of Conditions 
 peace (see above, p. 227) were such, as not only weak- " ^^'^'^^' 
 ened Antiochus, but reduced him to a state of de- 
 pendence. 
 
 Dui'ing this contest in the East, a sanguinary war was going 
 on in the West ; from the year 201 in Spain, where the elder 
 Cato commanded ; and from 193 in Italy itself, against the 
 Ligurians. Whatever may be said upon the means made use 
 of by Rome to increase the number of her citizens, it will always 
 be difficult to comprehend, not only how she could support all 
 these wars without being thereby weakened, but how at the 
 same time she could found so many colonics ! 
 
 1 2. Even after the termination of this war, Rome MoHenition 
 refrained with astonishing moderation from appear- o'^^^^'"'-'- 
 ing in the light of a conqueror : it was only for the 
 liberty of Greece, and for her allies, that she had con- 
 tended ! Without keeping a foot of land for herself, 
 
 she divided, with the exception of the free Grecian 
 cities, the conquered Asia Minor between Eumenes
 
 282 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 and the Rhodians ; tlie nianner, however, in which 
 slie dealt with the TEtolians, who after a long suppli- 
 cation for peace were obliged to buy it dearly, shows 
 that she also knew how to treat unfaithful allies. The 
 War against War agaiust the Gauls in Asia Minor was not less 
 the Gauls in necessary for the preservation of tranquillity in that 
 B. c. 189. ' country, than it was injurious to the morals and mi- 
 litary discipline of the Roman army. They here 
 learned to levy contributions. 
 200—190. 13. Thus, within the short space often years, was 
 laid the foundation of the Roman authority in the 
 East, and the general state of affairs entirely changed. 
 Rome the If Romc was uot yet the ruler, she was at least the 
 the wori/^ arbitress of the world from the Atlantic to the Eu- 
 phrates. The power of the three principal states was 
 so completely humbled, that they durst not, without 
 the permission of Rome, begin any new war ; the 
 fourth, Egypt, had already, in the year 201, placed 
 herself under the guardianship of Rome ; and the 
 lesser powers followed of themselves : esteeming it 
 an honour to be called the allies of Rome. With 
 this name the nations were lulled into security, and 
 brought under the Roman yoke ; the new political 
 system of Rome was founded and strengthened, 
 partly by exciting and supporting the weaker states 
 against the stronger, however unjust the cause of the 
 former might be, and partly by factions which she 
 found means to raise in every state, even the smallest. 
 
 Although the policy of Rome extended itself every where by 
 means of her commissioners, or ambassadors, yet she kept a 
 more particular guard against Carthage by favouring Masinissa 
 at her expense, against the Achaean league by favouring the 
 Spartans, and against Philip of ^lacedon by favouring every one 
 who brought any complaint against him (see above, p. 229). 
 
 14. Although these new connexions and this in- 
 tercourse with foreign nations greatly aided the diffu- 
 sion of knowledge and science, and was followed by 
 a gradual improvement in her civilization, yet was it 
 nevertheless, in many respects, detrimental to the 
 internal state of Rome. The introduction of the 
 scandalous Bacchanalia, which were immediately dis-
 
 PERIOD 11.] TO THE GRACCHI. 283 
 
 covered and forbidden, shows how easily great vices Second 
 may creep in among a people who are only indebted ''""^°' 
 for their morality to their ignorance. Among the 
 higher classes also the spirit of intrigue manifested 
 itself to an astonishing degree ; particularly by the 
 attacks directed against the Scipios by the elder Cato, 
 whose restless activity became the instrument of his 
 malignant passions. The severity of his censorship 
 did not repair the evils caused by his immorality and 
 pernicious politics. 
 
 Voluntary exile of Scipio Africanus to Linternum, 187. He 
 dies there, 183, the same year in which Hannibal falls under 
 tlie continued persecution of Rome. His brother Scipio Asiati- 
 cus is also unable to escape a trial and condemnation, 185. One 
 would have expected a sensible effect from the exile of these 
 two great men ; but in a state where the ruling power is in the 
 hands of a body like what the Roman senate was, the change of 
 individuals is but of little consequence. 
 
 15. Fresh disputes arose as early as 185, with Newi)roii8 
 Philip of Macedon, who soon found that they had r^i*^ ^'''''^'' 
 spared him no longer than it suited their own conve- 
 nience. Although the intervention of Philip's young- 
 est son, upon whom the Romans had formed some 
 design, prevented the powers from coming to an im- 
 mediate rupture, and war was still further delayed by 
 Philip's death, yet the national hatred descended to His death, 
 his sucetssor, and continued to increase, notwith- ^'■^• 
 standing an alliance concluded with him, until the Opon war, 
 war openly broke out (see above, p. *230). 
 
 The first circumstance which gave umbrage to Philip was the 
 small i)ortion they permitted him to conquer in Athamania and 
 Thessaly during the war against Antiochus. But what sharp- 
 ened his animosity, much more than the object in dispute, was 
 the conduct of tlie Roman commissioners, before whom he, the 
 king, was called upon to defend himself as an accused party, 
 184. The exclamation of Philip, tliat "the sun of every day 
 had not yet set," showed his iiulignation, and at the same time 
 betrayed his intention. The interval })revious to the breaking 
 out of the war was any thing rather tlian a time of peace for 
 Rome ; for besides that the Spanish and Ligurian wars con- 
 tinned almost without intermission, the revolts which broke out 
 in Istria, 178, and in Sardinia and Corsica, 176, produced much 
 bloodshed.
 
 284 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Second Iß. In the seconcl jVTaccdonian war, which ended 
 with the destruction of Perseus and his kingdom, fsee 
 
 Second Ma- above, p. 231,) it required the active efforts of Ro- 
 ^var?ends "^^^ pohcy to prevcut a powerful confederacy from 
 with the being formed against her; as Perseus used all his 
 kingdom^ endeavours to stimulate, not only the Grecian states, 
 168- and Thrace and Illyria, but also Carthage and Asia, 
 
 to enter into alliance with him. Where was it that 
 Rome did not at this crisis send her ambassadors? 
 She did not, indeed, succeed so far as to leave her 
 enemy quite alone, but prepared new triumphs for 
 herself over the few allies she left him. The devas- 
 tated Epirus, and Gentius king of Illyria, suffered 
 dearly for the assistance they had lent him ; the states 
 also which had remained neuter, the Rhodians and 
 Eumenes, were made to feel severely that they were 
 the mere creatures of Rome. 
 
 Beginning of the Macedonian war, 171, before Rome was 
 prepared ; a deceitful truce, which raised the indignation even 
 of the elder senators, was the means resorted to for gaining 
 time. Notwithstanding this, the war at first, 170 and 169, was 
 favourable to Perseus ; but he wanted resolution and judgment 
 to enable him to turn his advantages to account. In 168, 
 Paulus ^milius, an old general, against the usual custom of the 
 Romans, took the command. Bloody and decisive battle near 
 Pj'dna, June 22, 168. So completely may one day overturn a 
 kingdom which has only an army for its support ! Contempo- 
 rary with this war, and highly fortunate for Rome, was the war 
 of Antiochus Epiphanes with Egypt. No wonder that Rome 
 did not, till 168, through Popilius, command peace between 
 them ! (See above, p. 209.) 
 
 Its conse- 17. The dcstructiou of the Macedonian monarchy 
 was attended with consequences equally disastrous to 
 the conquerors and the conquered. To the first it 
 soon gave the notion of becoming the masters of the 
 world, instead of its arbiters ; and it exposed the lat- 
 ter, for the next twenty years, to all the evils insepar- 
 able from such a catastrophe. The system of poli- 
 tics hitherto pursued by Rome could not last much 
 longer ; for if nations suffered themselves to be 
 brought under the yoke by force, it was not to be 
 expected that they would long be held in dependence 
 under the specious name of liberty. But the state 
 
 quences.
 
 PERIOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 285 
 
 of things after this war was such as contributed to Second 
 hasten a change in the form of the relations which 
 
 'Ö 
 
 existed between Rome and her alhes. 
 
 The republican constitution given to the already ruined and 
 devastated Macedonians (see above, p. 231) and lUp-ians, and 
 which, according to the decree of the senate, " showed to all 
 people that Rome was ready to bestow liberty upon them," was 
 granted upon such hard conditions, that the enfranchised nation 
 soon used every endeavour to procure themselves a king. Greece 
 however suffered still more tlian Macedonia. Here, during the 
 war, the spirit of faction had risen to the highest pitch ; and 
 the arrogant insolence of the Roman party, composed for the 
 most part of venal wretches, was so great, that they persecuted 
 not only those who had espoused an opposite faction, but even 
 those who had joined no faction at all. Rome nevertheless 
 could not believe herself secure, until she had destroyed, by a 
 cruel artifice, all her adversaries (see above, p. 231). 
 
 18. Entirely in the same spirit did Rome proceed 
 against the other states from whom she had any thing 
 to fear. These must be rendered defenceless ; and 
 every means of effecting that purpose was considered 
 justifiable by the senate. The quarrels between the 
 successors to the throne of Egypt were taken advan- 
 tage of to cause dissensions in that kingdom (see 
 above, p. 208) ; while Syria was retained in a state 
 of tutelage, by keeping the rightful heir to the throne 
 at Rome ; and its military power neutralized by 
 means of their ambassadors (see above, p. 195). 
 
 19. From these facts we may also conclude, that 
 the injuries now meditated against Cartilage were 
 not separate projects, but rather formed part of the 
 general system of Roman policy at this period, al- 
 though particular events at one time retarded their 
 execution, and at another hastened it. History, in 
 recounting the incredibly bad treatment which Car- 
 thage had to endure before her fall, seems to have 
 given a warning to those nations who can take it, of 
 what they may expect from the domination of a 
 powerful republic. 
 
 Cato was chief of the party which sought the destruction of 
 Carthage, both from a S])irit of envy against Scipio Nasica, 
 whom he hated for his great influence in the senate ; and be- 
 cause, when ambassador to Carthage, he thought they did not 
 treat him with sufficient respect. But Masinissa's victory, 152, 
 
 Peuiod.
 
 286 ROMAN STATE. [hook v. 
 
 Second (see above, p. 71,) and tlie defection of Utica, brought tins pro- 
 Peuiod. ject into immediate play. Beginning of the war, 150, the Car- 
 
 thao-inians having been previously inveigled out of their arms. 
 
 The city, however, was not captured and destroyed till 146, by 
 P. Scipio iEmilianus. The Carthaginian territory, under the 
 name of Africa, was then made a Roman province. 
 
 A new war 20. DuHiig tliis third war with Carthage, hostili- 
 with Mace- ^.jgg aQfain broke out in Macedonia, which brouo-lit on 
 
 (lonia and O • i /^ i • i i i i 
 
 Greece. a ncw war With Ureece, and entirely changed the 
 state of both these countries. In Macedonia, an im- 
 postor named Andriscus, who pretended to be the 
 son of Phihp, placed himself at the head of tliat 
 highly disaffected people, assumed the name of Phi- 
 lip, and became, particularly by an alliance with the 
 B. c. HS. Thracians, very formidable to the Romans, until 
 overcome by Metellus. Rome wishing to take ad- 
 vantage of this crisis to dissolve the Achaean league, 
 the Achaean war broke out (see above, p. 232). This 
 war was begun by Metellus, and terminated by 
 Terminated Muiiimius with the dcstructiou of Corinth. By rc- 
 stnlcHolrof ducing both Macedonia and Greece to the form of 
 Corinth. proviuccs, RoiTic uow gavc evident proof that no ex- 
 isting relations, nor any form of government, can 
 prevent nations from being subjugated by a warlike 
 republic, whenever circumstances render it possible. 
 
 It might have been expected, that the destruction of tlie two 
 first commercial cities in the world, in the same year, would have 
 been followed by important con-cquences to the course of trade; 
 but the trade of Carthage and Corinth had already been drawn 
 to Alexandria and Rhodes, otherwise Utica might, in some re- 
 spects, have supplied the place of Carthage. 
 
 War in 21. While Roiiic was thus destroying thrones and 
 
 Spain, Hfi. republics, she met in Spain with an antagonist — a 
 
 simple Spanish countryman named Viriathus — whom, 
 
 after six years' war, she could only rid herself of by 
 
 140. assassination. The war, nevertheless, continued after 
 
 his death against the Numantines, who would not be 
 
 subjected, but were at last destroyed by Scipio ^mi- 
 
 133. lianus. 
 
 The war iigainst the Spaniards, who of all the nations subdued 
 by the Romans defended their liberty with the greatest obsti- 
 nacy, began in the year 200, six yeai's after the total expvdsion 
 of the Carthaginians from their country, 206. It was exceed-
 
 rERiOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 287 
 
 ingly obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, Second 
 which was thickly populated, and whore every place became a I'i^riod. 
 
 fortress ; partly from the courage of the inhabitants ; but above 
 
 all, owing to tlie peculiar policy of tlie Romans, who were wont 
 to employ their allies to subdue otlier nations. This war con- 
 tinued, almost without interruption, from the year 200 to 133, 
 and was for the most part carried on at the same time in His- 
 pania Citerior, where the Celtiberi were the most formidable 
 adversaries, and in Ilispania Ulterior, Avhere the Lusitani were 
 equally powerful. Hostilities were at the highest pitch in 195, 
 under Cato, who reduced Hispania Citerior to a state of tran- 
 quillity in 185 — 179, when the Celtiberi were attacked in their 
 native territory ; and 155 — 150, when the Romans in both pro- 
 vinces were so often beaten, that nothing was more dreaded by 
 the soldiers at home than to be sent there. The extortions and 
 perfidy of Servius Galba placed Viriathus, in the year 146, at 
 the head of his nation, the Lusitani : the war, however, soon 
 extended itself to Ilispania Citerior, where many nations, parti- 
 cularly the Numantines, took up arms against Rome, 143. Vi- 
 riathus, sometimes victorious and sometimes defeated, was never 
 more formidable than in the moment of defeat ; because he 
 knew how to take advantage of his knowledge of the country, 
 and of the dispositions of his countryuien. After his murder, 
 caused by the treachery of Ciepio, 140, Lusitania was subdued; 
 but the Numantine war became still more violent, and the Nu- 
 mantines compelled the consul Mancinus to a disadvantageous 
 treaty, 137. When Scijjiü, in the year 133, put an end to this 
 war, Spain was certainly tranquil ; the northern parts, however, 
 were still unsubdued, though the Romans penetrated as far as 
 Galatia. 
 
 22. Towards the end of this period, the Romans Attains iir. 
 obtained at a much cheaper rate the possession of l^;"'"'' '"''* 
 one of their most important provinces; for the pro- theKo- 
 thgate Attahis III., king of Pergamus, bequeathing """"*• 
 them the whole of his kingdom, (on what account is 
 uncertain, see above, p. 234,) they innnediately took b. c. 133 
 possession of it, and kept it in spite of the resistance —^'^^^ 
 of the legitimate heir Aristonicus, merely ceding, as 
 a recompence, Phrygia to Mithridates V., king of 
 Pontus. .Thus, by a stroke of the pen, the largest 
 and finest part of Asia Minor became the property of 
 Rome. If this extraordinary legacy was the work of 
 Roman policy, she paid dearly enough, in the long 
 run, for this accession to her power and riches, by 
 the destruction of her morals, and the dreadful wars 
 to which this legacy gave rise under Mithridates
 
 288 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book 
 
 Second 
 Pekiod. 
 
 Roman 
 jirovinces. 
 
 How <;o 
 verned. 
 
 Roman re- 
 venue. 
 
 23. The foreij^n possessions of Rome, besides Italy, 
 comprised at this time under the name of provinces, 
 a name of much higher signification in the Latin 
 language than in any other, Hispania Citerior and 
 Ulterior, Africa, (the territory of Carthage,) Sicily, 
 Sardinia, and Corsica, Liguria, and Cisalpine Gaul, 
 in the west ; and in the east, Macedonia, Achaia, and 
 Asia (territory of Pergamus). The inhabitants of 
 these countries were entirely subject to Rome. The 
 administration of them was carried on by those who 
 had enjoyed the office of consul, and by praetors, sub- 
 ordinate to whom were the quaestors, or collectors of 
 the revenue. The highest military and civil powers 
 were united n these governors ; a principal cause of 
 that horrible oppression which was soon felt. Troops 
 were always kept up in the provinces ; and the Latin 
 language every where introduced, (except only where 
 Greek was spoken,) that the inhabitants might be 
 made as much like Romans as possible. 
 
 Till nearly the end of this period, prtetors were expressly ap- 
 pointed to each province. It was not till after the origin of the 
 qucBStiones perpetuce, that it became the custom for the prastors 
 who had vacated office, to succeed to the provinces, {proprcetores,) 
 a principal cause of the degeneracy of the Roman constitution. 
 
 C. SiGONius, de Antiquo jure provinciarum in Grcsvii Thes. 
 Antiq. Rom. vol. ii. 
 
 24. The acquisition of these rich countries natu- 
 rally had great influence in augmenting the revenue 
 of the Romans. Though Rome was not indeed 
 a state like Carthage, altogether dependent upon 
 finances, yet she kept these adjusted in a wonderful 
 manner ; a spirit of nice order being observed ni this 
 as well as in every other department of her adminis- 
 tration. If in extraordinary emergencies recourse 
 were had to native loans, to a change in the value 
 of money, or a monopoly of salt, order was soon 
 restored ; while the booty obtained from conquered 
 countries was also a great source of the public in- 
 come, so long indeed as it was reserved for the state, 
 and did not become the prey of the generals. 
 
 Sources of the Roman revenue (yectigalid) were : 1. Tribute 
 a. from the Roman citizens ; that is to say, a property-tax im-
 
 PERIOD II.] 
 
 TO THE GRACCHI. 
 
 289 
 
 posed by the senate according to the urgency of the case (which, 
 however, was remitted for a long time, after the war with Per- 
 seus, 168, being no longer necessary), b. Tribute of the aUies 
 (socii) in Italy : which seems also to have been a property-tax ; 
 differing in different places, c. Tribute of the provinces : in 
 some a heavy poll-tax, in others taxes on property ; in all, how- 
 ever, they were paid in natural productions, mostly ordinary, 
 though sometimes extraordinary, as well for the salary of the 
 governor as for the supply of the capital. 2. The revenue from 
 the national domains, {ager publictts,) both in Italy (especially 
 Campania) and in the provinces ; the tithes (decumce) of which 
 were paid by means of leases for four years, granted by the cen- 
 sors. 3. The revenue from the customs, (portoria,) collected in 
 the seaports and frontier towns. 4. The revenue arising from 
 the mines, (metalla,) particularly the Spanish silver mines ; the 
 proprietors of which were obliged to pay a duty to the state. 
 5. The duty upon enfranchised slaves {(lurum vicesimarium). 
 All receipts flowed into the national treasury, the cErarium ; all 
 outgoings were exclusively ordered by the senate ; and the peo- 
 ple were consulted as little with regard to them as they were re- 
 specting the imposts. The officers employed were the quces- 
 tores, under whom were the scribcB, divided into decurias, who, 
 though certainly subordinate, had nevertheless great influence. 
 Tlieir services, as they were not yearly changed, must have been 
 indispensable to the qucestores for the time being ; and the 
 whole management of affairs, at least in detail, must have fallen 
 into their hands. 
 
 Upon the finances of Rome, the best work at present is : — 
 
 P. BuRMANNi, Vectigalia Populi Romani. Leyden, 1734, 4to. 
 
 Two excellent treatises have since appeared in German upon 
 this subject : — 
 
 f D. H. Hegewisch, Essay upon Roman Finances, An- 
 tona, 1804, and 
 
 f R. Bosse, Sketch of the System of Finance in the Roman 
 State. Brunswick, 1803, 2 parts. Both include the periods of 
 the republic and the monai'chy. 
 
 Second 
 Period. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 From the hecjinning of the cirll broils under the Gracchi, 
 to the fail of the Republic. B. C. 134—30. Year of 
 Rome,^ 6-20—724:. 
 
 Sources. Concerning the first half of tliis important period 
 of the republic, down to the time of Cicero, we are sadly in 
 want of precise information. Not one of the contemporary 
 writers has been preserved to us, nor indeed any one of the 
 
 U 
 
 Third 
 Period.
 
 290 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Civil wars. 
 
 Power of 
 the senate 
 creates an 
 aristocracy, 
 which is 
 opposed by 
 the tribunes 
 of the 
 l)eo])le. 
 
 later historians who have compiled a history of the whole period, 
 Appian, de Bellis Civilibus ; Plutakcii, in his Lives of the 
 Gracchi; and the spirited Compendium of Vel. Patercllus, 
 are, for this portion, our principal authorities ; and even the 
 imperfect summaries of the lost books of Livy, so mastei-ly sup- 
 plied by Freinshemius, here become of importance. For the 
 times which follow, the Jugnrtha and Catiline of Sallust are 
 two excellent historical cabinet pieces, and become the more 
 valuable for the insight they at the same time give us of the 
 internal condition of Rome. His great work, however. The 
 Histories, is, with the exception of a few precious fragments, 
 unfortunately lost. For the times of C^sak and Cicero, we 
 have the Commentaries of the first, and the Orations and Let- 
 ters of the latter ; both fertile sources of information. "What is 
 left us of Dio Cassius's History, begins with the year 69 be- 
 fore Christ. Of Plutarch's Lives, besides those of the Grac- 
 chi, the following are connected with this period : C. ]\Iarius, 
 Syela, Lucullus, Crassus, Sertorius, Cato of Utica, Ci- 
 cero, Brutus, and Antonius. Upon the sources for these 
 lives, see my treatises cited above, p. 257. 
 
 Among the moderns, the greater part of this period is parti- 
 cularly treated of by : — 
 
 De Brosses, Histoire de la Repuhlique Rotnaine dans le 
 cours du VII" Siecle par Salluste, ä Dijou, 1777, 3 vols. 4to. 
 
 In German by J. C. Schleuter, 1790, etc., with remarks, 
 4 vols. The editor of this capital work had an idea of trans- 
 lating Sallust, and supplying what is lost. It contains, besides 
 a translation of Jugurtha and Catiline, the period between both, 
 of which SaUust treats in his Histories : that is, from Sylla's 
 abdication, B. C. 79 — 67 ; and is equally important for its own 
 merits and for the period to which it belongs. 
 
 Vertot, Histoire des revolutions arrivees dans le gouverne- 
 ment de la Repuhlique Romaine. Paris, 1796, 6 vols. 12mo. Al- 
 though this justly esteemed work includes the foregoing period, 
 it is particularly valuable for the present. 
 
 IMably, Observations sur les Romains. Geneve, 1751, 2 
 vols. 8vo. A survey of the internal history ; ingenious, but as 
 superficial as the Observations sur les Grecs by the same author. 
 
 1. The foregoing period is composed of the history 
 of foreign wars alone ; in this, on the contrary, Rome 
 appears in a continual state of internal commotion. 
 And if foreign hostilities interrupt this state of things 
 for a short time, it is only that it may be renewed 
 with more violence, till at last it ends in a furious 
 civil war. As the almost boundless power of the 
 senate had laid the foundation of an exceedingly hate- 
 ful family aristocracy, against which the tribunes of 
 the people arrayed themselves in the character of
 
 PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 291 
 
 powerful clemao;oQ:ues, there arose a new struGfo-le Third 
 
 between the aristocratic and democratic parties, 
 
 which almost immediately grew into two powerful 
 factions. This contest, from its extent and its con- 
 sequences, soon became much more important than 
 the ancient one between the patricians and the 
 plebeians. 
 
 This family aristocracy gradually arose from the power of the 
 magistrates, who now not only enjoyed a very high political 
 importance, but, by the government of the provinces, acquired 
 immense wealth. The present aristocracy, then, consisted of 
 the ruling families (nobiles) concentrated in the senate. The 
 struggle with the opposite party, the people, (plehs,) became so 
 much the more violent in consequence of the great abuses which 
 had crept into the administration, particularly in the division of 
 the lands of the republic ; the ruling families securing to them- 
 selves the fruits of all the victories and conquests, while the 
 power of the democracy, by the vast accumulation of people, 
 (without the means of livelihood, although voting in the comitia,) 
 especially of enfranchised slaves, who, though strangers, mostly 
 without power or projjerty, formed, nevertheless, the greater 
 part of what was then called the Roman people. 
 
 G. Al. Ruperti, Stemmata gentium Romanarum. Goett. 
 1795, 8vo. Almost indispensable for obtaining a clear insight 
 into the history of the Roman families, and of course into that 
 of the state. 
 
 2. Commencement of the disturbances under the First dis- 
 turbances 
 
 under T. S. 
 
 tribunate of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, whom former '""^ "'"^^'^^ 
 
 connexions had long: made the man of the people. Graccims. 
 His desire was to relieve the distress of the lower ' ' ." 
 orders ; and the means whereby he hoped to do this to relieve 
 was a better division of the lands of the republic, now onifetower 
 almost exclusively in the hands of the aristocracy, orders, 
 His reform, therefore, naturally led at once to a 
 struggle with that party. Tib. Gracchus however 
 soon found, by experience, that a demagogue cannot 
 stop where he would, however pure his intentions 
 may be at first ; and no sooner had he obtained a 
 prolongation of his term of office, in opposition to 
 the usual custom, than he fell a sacrifice to his un- and dies in 
 
 dertaking. theattenM.t. 
 
 The first agrarian law of Gracchus was confirmed by the 
 people, notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his colleague 
 Octavius, who was deposed ; it decreed that no person should 
 
 u 2
 
 !^92 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Third possess above five hundred acres of land, nor any cliild above 
 Period, jj^lf that quantity. This law was, in fact, only a renewal of 
 the ancient lex JJcinia ; in the condition, however, in which 
 Rome noAV was, it bore much harder upon the property u.surj)ed 
 by the great families, than it did in former times. Appoint- 
 ment of a committee for dividing the national lands, and for 
 inquiring also at the same time which were the property of 
 the state (ager publicus) and which were not. New popular 
 propositions of the elder Gracchus, especially that for the divi- 
 sion of the treasures left by king Attalus of Pergamus, with the 
 view of securing his continuance in office ; great insurrection 
 of the aristocratic party under Scipio Nasica, and murder of 
 Tiberius Gracchus, on the day of electing the new tribunes of 
 the people. 
 
 Hisfaiidoes 3. The fall of the chief of the new party, however, 
 Ws' pai?y "^ occasioned any thing rather than its destruction. Not 
 only was there no mention of an abrogation of the 
 agrarian law, but the senate was obliged to allow 
 the place in the commission, which had become va- 
 cant by the death of Gracchus, to be filled up ; and 
 Scipio Nasica himself was sent out of the way, under 
 the pretext of an embassy to Asia. The party of 
 B. c. 132. the senate did, indeed, find a powerful support for a 
 short time in the return of Scipio iEmilianus {cl. 129) 
 from Spain ; but its greatest support was found in 
 the diflBculties of the law itself, which prevented its 
 execution. 
 
 Great revolt of the slaves in Sicily under Eunus, 134 — 131. 
 This contributed not a little to keep alive the dissensions, as it 
 showed the necessity of a reform. 
 
 The tri- 4. Evident endeavours of the tribunes of the peo- 
 
 bunes en- | ^ incrcasc their power, Gracchus having now 
 
 deavour to r r ' _ • r i • i 
 
 increase awakcucd them to a sense of it. Not satisfied with 
 B.^c.^S*^' ^ seat and voice in the senate, Carbo wished that the 
 
 renewing of their dignity should be passed into a law. 
 
 By the removal, however, of the chiefs of the lower 
 
 party, upon honourable pretexts, new troubles were 
 
 put oflf for some years. 
 
 First establishment of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul 
 by M. Fulvius Flaccus, on the occasion of his being sent to the 
 assistance of Massilia, 128. Southern Gaul became a Roman 
 province as early as 122, in consequence of the defeat of the 
 Allobrogi and Averni by Q. Fabius, who had been sent against 
 them to support the ^dui, the allies of Rome. Capture of the
 
 PERIOD Hl] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 293 
 
 Balearian isles by Metellus, 123. Qugestorship of C. Gracchus Third 
 in Sicily, 128 — 125. Period. 
 
 5. These palliative remedies, however, availed c. Grac- 
 nothing after the return of C. Gracchus from Sicily *^*^"®* 
 with a full determination to tread in the footsteps of 
 
 his brother. Like him, it is true, he fell a victim to 
 his enterprise ; but the storm that he raised durino- 
 the two years of his tribunate fell so much the more 
 heavily, as the popular excitement was more general, 
 and from his possessing more of the shining talents 
 necessary to form a powerful demagogue than his 
 brother. 
 
 First tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123. Renewal of the agra- 
 rian law, and rendering its provisions more strict. Neverthe- 
 less, as he increased the fermentation by his popular measures 
 and by acting the demagogue, and obtained the renewal of the 
 tribunate for the following year, 122, he so far extended his 
 plan, as to render it not only highly dangerous to the aristocracy, 
 but even to the state itself. Establishment of distributions of 
 corn to the poor people. Plan for the formation of the knights 
 {ordo equestris) into a political body, as a counterbalance to the 
 senate, by conferring on it the right of administering justice, 
 (judicia,) which was taken from the senate. Still more im- 
 portant project of granting to the Italian allies the privileges of 
 Roman citizenship ; and also the formation of colonies, not only 
 in Campania, but also out of Italy, in Carthage. The highly 
 refined policy of the senate, however, by lessening this man of 
 the people in the eyes of his admirers, through the assistance of 
 the tribune Livius Drusius, prevented his complete triumph ; 
 and, once declining, Gracchus soon experienced the fate of every 
 demagogue, whose complete fall is then irretrievable. General 
 insurrection, and assassination of C. Gracchus, 121. 
 
 6. The victory of the aristocratic faction was this victory of 
 time not only much more certain and bloody, but cratiTfar. 
 they turned the advantages it gave them to such good tion. 
 account, that they eluded the agrarian law of Grac- 
 chus, and indeed, at last, completely abrogated it. 
 
 But the seeds of discord already disseminated, espe- 
 cially among the Italian allies, could not be so soon 
 checked, when once the subjects of these states had 
 conceived the idea that they were entitled to a share 
 in the government. How soon these party struggles 
 might be renewed, or indeed a civil war break out,
 
 294 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Thiiid depended almost entirely upon foreign circumstances, 
 L and the chance of a bolder leader being found. 
 
 Agrarian law evaded : at first by repealing an act which pro- 
 hibited the transfer of tlie national lands already divided, where- 
 by the patricians were enabled to buy them again ; — afterwards 
 by the lex Thoria ; complete stop put to all furtlier divisions, a 
 land-tax, to be distributed among the people, being instituted in 
 its stead ; but even this latter was very soon annulled. 
 
 I D. H. Hegewisch, History of the Civil Wars of the Grac- 
 chi. Altona, 1801. 
 
 •f" History of the Revolution of the Gracchi in my Miscellane- 
 ous Historical Works. 
 
 Effects of 
 this party 
 sj)irit in 
 corrupting 
 the nation. 
 
 7. Visible effects of this party spirit upon public 
 morals, which now began to decline the more rapidly 
 in proportion to the increase of foreign connexions. 
 Neither the severity of the censorship, nor the laws 
 against luxury, {leges siüiituarice,^ nor those which 
 now became necessary against celibacy, could be of 
 much service in this respect. This degeneracy was 
 not only to be found in the cupidity of the higher 
 ranks, but also in the licentiousness of the lower 
 orders. 
 
 Luxury in Rome was first displayed in the public administra- 
 tion (owing to the excessive accumulation of wealtli in the trea- 
 sury, especially during the Macedonian wars) before it infected 
 private life ; and the avarice of the great long preceded the lat- 
 ter. The sources from whence they satisfied this passion were 
 found in the extortions of the governors of provinces, their 
 great power, and the distance from Rome, rendering the leges 
 repetundarum of but little effect. Probably the endeavours of 
 the allied princes and kings to gain a party in the senate was a 
 still more fruitful source, as they could obtain their end only by 
 purchase, and so gave a new impulse to the cupidity and in- 
 triguing disposition of the members of that council. But pri- 
 vate luxury requires every where some time to ripen. It at- 
 tained its height immediately after the Mithridatic wars. 
 
 f D. Meiner, History of the Corruption of the Morals and 
 Consfittition of the Romans. Leips. 1782. 
 
 "I* Meiekotto, Morals and Manners of the Romans at differ- 
 ent periods of the Republic. Berlin, 1776. Which considers 
 the subject in several points of view. 
 
 f C. A. BoTTiGER, Sahina, or rnorning scenes at the toilette 
 of a rich Roman lady. Leips. 1806, 2 vols. A true and lively 
 description of the luxury of the Roman ladies, but principally at 
 its most brilliant period. It has been translated into French. 
 
 8. This corruption was manifested in a striking
 
 PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 295 
 
 manner in the next great war that Rome entered into, Third 
 which was in Africa, against Jugurtha of Numidia, ^^"'°"' 
 the adopted grandson of Masinissa; and soon after The African 
 against iiis ally Bocchus of Mauritania. This war, ju-'urfiri""' 
 kindled and maintained by the avarice of the Roman B-^t:- us 
 nobles, which Jugurtha had already had an oppor- ~ "*"' 
 tunity of knowing at the siege of Numantia, paved 
 the way to the aggrandizement of C. Marius, a new c. MuHus 
 demagogue, who, being also a formidable general, 
 did much more harm to the state than even the 
 Gracchi. 
 
 Commencement of the quarrel of Jugurtha with the two sons 
 of Micipsa, and assassination of Hiempsal, one of them, 118. — 
 When the other, Adherbal, arrived at Rome, 117, the party of 
 Jugurtha had already succeeded, and obtained a partition of the 
 kingdom. New attack upon Adherbal, who is besieged in Cirta, 
 and, notwithstanding the repeated embassies of Rome to Jugur- 
 tha, is compelled to surrender, and is put to death, 112. Tlie 
 tribune C. Memmius constrains the senate to declare war against 
 Jugurtha ; but Jugurtha purchases a peace of the consul Cal- 
 purnius Piso, 111. — Nevertheless Memmius hinders the ratifi- 
 cation of the peace, and Jugurtha is required to justify himself 
 at Rome. He would probably, however, have bought his ac- 
 quittal, if the murder of his kinsman Massiva, 110, by the help 
 of Bomilcar, had not rendered it impossible. The war is re- 
 newed under the consul Sp. Albinus and his brother Aulus, 
 1 10, but with very little success, until the incorruptible Q. Me- 
 tellus took the command, 109, who would have put an end to 
 it, notwithstanding the great talents now displayed as a general 
 by Jugurtha, and his alliance with Bocchus, 108, had he not 
 been supplanted by ]\Iarius, who obtains the consulship by his 
 popularity, 107. Älarius is obliged to have recourse to perfidy 
 to get Jugurtha into his hands, who is betrayed by Bocchus, 
 106. Numidia is divided between Bocchus and two grandsons 
 of Masinissa, Hiempsal and Hiarbas. 
 
 9. The elevation of Marius to the consulate not obtains the 
 only humbled the power of the aristocracy, but also *^""^" "^ * 
 showed, for the first time, that the way was open to a 
 man of low birth (Jiomo noviis) to the highest offices ; 
 the method, however, wdiich he had taken to form his 
 army, entirely against the Roman custom, that is, of 
 composing it of the lower orders {cap'ite ccfisis) must 
 have rendered him doubly formidable. Nevertheless, 
 he would scarcely have eft'ected so great a change in 
 the constitution, if a new and terrible war had not
 
 296 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 buys his 
 sixth con- 
 sulate. 
 
 rendered his services indispensable : — this was the 
 threatened invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones, the 
 most powerful nations of the north, during which a 
 new and violent rebellion of the slaves was raging in 
 Sicily : — for after the defeat of so many Roman 
 armies, the people believed that no one but the con- 
 queror of Jugurtha could save Italy ; and Marius 
 knew so well how to turn this to account, that he re- 
 mained consul during four successive years. 
 
 The Cimbri, or Cimmerians, probably a nation of German 
 origin, from beyond the Black Sea, originated a popular migra- 
 tion which extended from thence as far as Spain. Their march 
 was perhaps occasioned, or accelerated, by the Scythian war of 
 Mithridates ; and their course, like that of most nomad races, 
 was from east to west along the Danube. They had already, 
 in 113, defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, near Noreia in Sty- 
 ria. In their progress towards the west they were joined by 
 German, Celtic, and Helvetic tribes (the Teutones, Ambrones, 
 and Tigurians). — Attack Roman Gaul, 109, where they de- 
 mand settlements, and defeat Junius Silanus the consul. — De- 
 feat of L. Cassius Longinus and M. Aurelius Scaurus, 107. — 
 Great defeat of the Romans in Gaul, 105, occasioned by the 
 disagreement of their generals, the consuls, Cn. Manlius and Q. 
 Servius Caspio. Marius obtains the command, and remains 
 consul from 104 — 101. The migrations of the Cimbri — a part 
 of whom reach the Pyrenees, but are di-iven back by the Celti- 
 berians, 103 — give Marius time to complete his army. In 102, 
 after dividing themselves, they first attempted to penetrate into 
 Italy : the Teutones through Provence, and the Cimbri by Ty- 
 rol. — Great defeat and slaughter of the Teutones by Marius, 
 near Aix, 102. — The Cimbri, on the contrary, effect an invasion 
 and make progress till Marius comes to the help of Catulus. 
 Great battle and defeat of the Cimbri near the Po, July 30, 101. 
 
 J. Müller, Bellum Cimbricum. Tigur, 1772. A youthful 
 essay of that celebrated historian. Compare 
 
 f ]\Iannert, Geography, etc., part iii. 
 
 10. Although during this war the power of the 
 popular party had sensibly increased, yet the storm 
 did not break out until Marius bought his sixth con- 
 sulate. Now, even in Rome itself, he wished to 
 avenge himself upon his enemies ; and what could 
 the senate do, when it had at its head a demagogue 
 m the consul himself? — His league with the tribune 
 Saturnius, and the praetor Glaucias, forming already 
 a true triumvirate, would have overthrown the re-
 
 PERIOD in.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 297 
 
 public, after the expulsion of Metellus, if the un- t«hrd 
 bridled licentiousness of the rabble connected with ^'"""' 
 his allies had not obliged him to break with them, 
 lest he should sacrifice the whole of his popularity. 
 
 The measures of this cabal, who wished to appear as if tread- 
 ing in the steps of the Gracchi, were principally directed 
 against Q. Metellus, the chief of the party of the senate, and 
 who, since the African Avar, had been the mortal foe of ]\Iarius. 
 After the exile of iVIetellus, occasioned by his opposition to a 
 new agrarian law, this faction usurped the rights of the people, 
 and lorded it in the committees ; until, at a new election of con- 
 suls, a general revolt, favoured by Marl us himself, took place 
 of all the well-disposed citizens against them ; Saturnius and 
 Glaucias Avere besieged in the capitol, forced to surrender, and 
 executed. The return of Metellus from his voluntary exile 
 soon followed, 99, much against the will of Marius, who was 
 obliged to retire into Asia. 
 
 11. The few years of tranquillity which Rome b. c. 98- 
 now enjoyed, brought to maturity many benefits and ^^' 
 many evils, the seeds of which had been already 
 sown. On one hand the rising eloquence of Anto- 
 nius, Crassus, and others, was employed with effect 
 against the oppressors of the provinces in the state 
 trials [questiones] ; and some generous spirits used 
 all their endeavours to heal the wounds of Sicily, 
 Asia, and other provinces, by a better administration ; 
 while, on the other hand, the power of the or do 
 eqiiestris became a source of much abuse : for be- 
 sides their right to sit in the tribunals, [judiciis,) which 
 C. Gracchus had conferred upon them, they had also 
 obtained the farming of the leases, and thereby the 
 collection of the revenue in the provinces; by which 
 means they were enabled not only to oppose every 
 reform tliat was attempted in the latter, but even at 
 Rome to hold the senate in a state of dependence. 
 The struggle which now arose between them and the 
 senate respecting the judic'm (or right to preside in 
 the tribunal) was one of the most fatal to the repub- 
 lic, as this right was abused by them for the purpose 
 of satisfying their personal rancour, and oppressing 
 the greatest men. The tribune M. Livius Driisus 
 the younger, it is true, wrested from them half their 
 power; but, alas! the manner in which h.e did it
 
 298 ROMAN STATE. [hook v. 
 
 Third kindled into a flame the fire which had been smoulder- 
 '''"°"' ing from the time of the Gracchi. 
 
 Acquisition of Cyrene by the testament of King Apion, 97 ; 
 notwithstanding which it maintained its independence, although 
 probably by paying a tril)ute. Adjustment of the differences 
 between the kings of Asia Minor by the praetor Sylla, 92 (see 
 above, p. 235). 
 
 War of the 12. Revolt of the Itahan tribes, who desire to ob- 
 gi'üös^' ^' tain the right of Roman citizens ; whereupon the 
 bloody mar of the allies ensues. Although the op- 
 pression of Rome had been preparing this war for a 
 long time, yet it was an immediate consequence of 
 the intrigues of the Roman demagogues, who, since 
 the law of the younger Gracchus, had, with the view 
 of making themselves popular, continually flattered 
 the allies with the hope of sharing the privileges of 
 Roman citizenship. It was however soon seen that 
 the allies were not at a loss among themselves for 
 leaders, capable of forming great plans and executing 
 them with vigour. Italy was about to become a re- 
 public, with Corfinium for its capital instead of Rome. 
 Neither could Rome have saved herself from such an 
 event, but by gradually permitting the allies to enjoy 
 the complete freedom of the city. 
 
 After the civil wars of the Gracchi, large bands of the allies 
 were continually flocking to Eome, These were in the pay of 
 the demagogues, whom the lex Licinia, 95, had banished from 
 Rome, and thereby laid the foundation of the revolt. From 
 that time the conspiracy among these tribes began, and attained 
 vi^ithout interruption such a degree of maturity, that the care- 
 lessness of Rome can only be accounted for from the party fury 
 which then existed, and which the lex Varia, 91, enacted 
 against the promoters of rebellion, served only to inflame the 
 more. The murder of the tribune Livius Drusus, 91, a very 
 ambiguous character, brought the affair to an open rupture. In 
 this alliance were the Älarsi, Picentes, Pehgni, Marrucini, 
 Frentani, the Samnites, who played a principal part, the Hir- 
 pini, Apuli, and the Lucani. In this war, which was so much 
 the more bloody, as it was mostly composed of separate contests 
 and sieges, especially of the Roman colonies, Cn. Pompeius the 
 elder, L. Cato, Mai'ius, and, above all, Sylla, particularly dis- 
 tinguished themselves on the side of the Romans : and among 
 the generals of the allies Pompadias, C. Papius, etc. — Con- 
 cession of the freedom of the city, first to such allies as remained 
 faithful, the Latins, Umbrians, etc., by the lex Julia, 91 ; after-
 
 PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 299 
 
 wards, by degrees, to the remainder by the lex Plotia. Some, Third 
 nevertheless, still continued in arms. 1'kkiod. 
 Heyne, de Belli Socialis causis et eventu, in Opusc. t. iii. 
 
 13. The war now just ended, essentially changed 
 the constitution of Rome, as she no longer remained, 
 as hitherto, the exclusive head of the whole state ; 
 and although the new citizens were only formed into 
 eight tribes, yet their influence must soon have been 
 felt in the committees, on account of the readiness 
 with which they promoted factions. Besides this, 
 the long-cherished private hatred between Marius 
 and Sylla was greatly strengthened by this war, as 
 Sylla's fame was considerably raised thereby, while 
 that of Marius was proportionably diminished. An 
 opportunity was only wanted, like that which the first 
 Pontine war soon furnished, to stir up a new civil 
 war, which threatened to destro}^ the liberty of Rome. 
 
 14. Alliance of Marius with the tribune Sulpicius, Alliance of 
 with the view of wresting from Sylla the command sulpidus"^ 
 of the forces against Mithridates, already conferred a^iiust 
 upon him by the senate. The ease with wliich Sylla, -q, c.'ss. 
 at the head of an army on which he could depend, 
 expelled the chiefs of this party, seems to have left 
 
 him ignorant of the fact, that the party itself was not 
 thereby destroyed. However judicious may have 
 been his other measures, the elevation of Cinna to 
 the consulship was an error in policy of which Italy 
 had still more reason to repent than himself How 
 much blood might have been spared if Sylla had not 
 unseasonably wished to become popular ! 
 
 Proposition of Sulpicius for an indiscriminate distribution of 
 the new citizens and freemen among all the tribes of Italy, that 
 he might thereby gain a strong partj' in his favour, which, by a 
 violent assembly of the people, transfers the command from Sylla 
 to iNIarius. ]\Iai"ch of Sylla upon Kome, and expulsion of ^la- 
 rius, who, by a series of adventures almost surpassing belief, 
 escapes to Africa, and is proscribed, with his son and ten of his 
 partisans. Ke-establishment of the power of the senate, wliose 
 number is made up by three hundred knights. Sylla, after 
 having caused his friend C. Octavius and his enemy L. Cinna 
 to be elected consuls, hastens back to Greece. 
 
 15. First war against Mithridates the Great. Sylla ^'"'' 7\V
 
 300 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [hook 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 thridates, 
 89—8.5. 
 His great 
 power : 
 
 that of 
 Rome di- 
 lided. 
 
 gains several victories over that kings generals in 
 Greece ; wrests from him all his conquests, and re- 
 stricts him to his hereditary dominions. Rome since 
 the time of Hannibal had met with no such powerful 
 opponent as the king of Pontus, who in a few months 
 had become master of all Asia Minor, Macedonia, 
 and Greece, and threatened even Italy itself; we must 
 besides consider, that the war on the side of Rome 
 was carried on in a manner altogether different from 
 that of any previous one ; as Sylla, after the victory 
 of the opposite party, being himself proscribed in 
 Rome, was obliged to continue it with his own army, 
 and his own private resources. The unfortunate 
 countries which were the theatre of this war, felt as 
 many calamities during the struggle, as Italy was 
 doomed to suffer after its close. 
 
 Commencement of the war by Mithridates before the termina- 
 tion of that of the allies, 89, by taking possession of Cappadocia 
 and Paphlagonia. He was not less formidable by his alliance 
 with the tribes along the Danube, and his na\y, than by his land 
 forces ; and the irritation of the people of Asia against Rome 
 rendered his enterprise still more easy. Double victory over 
 Nicomedes king of Bithynia and the Roman general M. Aqui- 
 lius, followed by the conquest of all Asia Minor except the isle 
 of Rhodes. Massacre of all the Roman citizens in the states of 
 Asia Minor. Expedition of the king's army into Greece, under 
 the command of his general Archelaus, who makes Athens the 
 theatre of the war, 88. Siege and capture of that unfortunate 
 town by Sylla, 1st March, 87. Repeated great defeats of Mith- 
 ridates's army under the command of Archelaus, near Chalcis, 
 and afterwards near Orchoraenus, by Sylla, 86, whose general 
 plan was formed upon the entire destruction of his enemies. 
 Negotiations for peace commenced by Archelaus, and finally 
 settled at a personal conference between Sylla and Mithridates. 
 The adverse party in Rome, however, had in the mean time 
 sent a new army into Asia Minor, to act as well against Sylla 
 as against Mithridates, under the command of L. Valerius Flac- 
 cus, who, however, is assassinated by his lieutenant Fimbria. 
 The latter gains some advantages over the king, but being shut 
 up by Sylla, kills himself. Owing to the licentiousness of his 
 army, which Sylla dared not restrain ; and the heavy contribu- 
 tions exacted by him in Asia Minor after the peace, in order to 
 carry on the war in Italy, 84 ; together with the bodies of pi- 
 rates formed out of the fleet disbanded by Mithridates, these 
 unfortunate countries were almost ruined ; the opulent cities 
 more especially.
 
 PERIOD in J TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 301 
 
 16, But during this war a new revolution took Third 
 place in Rome, which not only overthrew the order ^'^'°°' 
 re-established by Sylla, but also, by the victory of the New revo- 
 democratic faction under Cinna and Marius, gave rise rq^" '^ 
 to a wild anarchy of the people, and which the death «niier Cin- 
 of Marius, alas, too late for Rome ! only rendered Maruls. 
 more destructive ; as the leaders themselves could no 
 longer restrain the savao-e hordes of their own party. 
 However dreadful the prospect of the return of Sylla 
 might seem, it was nevertheless the only hope that 
 remained for all those who had not joined the popular 
 fliction, or had not some connexion with its leaders. 
 
 Revolt of Cinna, brought on by the proscriptions, soon after 
 the departure of Sylla ; Cinna, by distributing the new citizens 
 into all the tribes, hoped to raise himself a party ; but C. Octa- 
 vius, at the head of the senate and ancient citizens, drove him 
 from Rome, and forced him to give up the consulship, 87. He, 
 however, soon raised a powerful army in Campania, and recalled 
 Marius fi'om exile. Capture and pillage of Rome, already weak- 
 ened by famine, and horrible massacre of the iidiabitants ; after 
 which Marius and Cinna name themselves consuls and banish 
 Sylla. Death of jVIarius, 13th Jan., 86. C. Papirius Carbo 
 succeeds him in the consulship. The mediation of the senate 
 is useless, as the chiefs of both parties can only hope for secur- 
 ity by the annihilation of their adversaries. The murder of 
 Cinna by his own soldiers, 84, entirely deprives the dominant 
 faction of a competent leader. Neither the cowardly Carbo, 
 altliough he remained consul alone, nor the stupid Norbanus, 
 nor the youth C. Marius, (the son,) had sufficient personal au- 
 tliority for that purpose ; and Sertorius leaves Italy in good 
 time to kindle a new flame in Spain. 
 
 17. Return of Sylla to Italy, and a terrible civil Syiiu-s re- 
 war, which ends only with the extermination of the hloody't-ivii 
 democratic faction, and his own elevation to the per- 
 petual dictatorship. Although his enemies had so 
 much advantage over him in point of numbers, yet 
 their party was so little consolidated, that he with his 
 veterans could not fail to obtain an easy victory. 
 The slaughter during this war fell for the most part 
 upon the Italian tribes, who had joined the party of 
 Marius, and this afforded Sylla the means of giving 
 settlements to his own soldiers ; but most of the hor- 
 rors of this revolution which fell to the share of Rome, 
 were reserved till the day of victory was past. Sylla's 
 
 war, B. C. 
 83.
 
 50^ 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Sylla's pro- 
 scri])tioii. 
 
 Reform in 
 the consti- 
 tution : 
 B. C. 81— 
 79. 
 
 Power of 
 the senate 
 restored. 
 Sylla's ab- 
 dication, 79. 
 
 proscription, which should only have punished his 
 personal enemies, was the signal for a general mas- 
 sacre, as every one took that opportunity to rid him- 
 self of his private foes : and avarice did as much as 
 vengeance. Who in these days, so terrible to Italy, 
 was sure of his life or property ? And yet, when we 
 consider the dreadful circumstances which attended 
 the foregoing dominion of the people, deduct all that 
 was done without Sylla's knowledge, and consider 
 how much he was obliged to do in order to satisfy 
 his army, we shall find it difficult to say how far he 
 deserves the reproach of wanton cruelty. 
 
 Sylla's arrival ; victory over Norbanus immediately after, and 
 seduction of the army of the consul Scipio, 82. After this al- 
 most every person of distinction declared in his favour, and the 
 young Pompey having brought to him an army which he had 
 himself raised, his party acquired more consideration, and him- 
 self more power. Victory over the younger JNIarius, near Sa- 
 criportum, who throws himself into Proäneste, where he is 
 besieged. But the great and decisive battle gained before the 
 gates of Rome, over the Samnites under the command of Teli- 
 sinus, is followed by the fall of Pra?neste and the capture of 
 Rome. After the proscription which immediately ensued, Sylla 
 is created perpetual dictator, and secures his power in Rome by 
 the emancipation of ten thousand .slaves, whose masters he had 
 proscribed ; and in Italy by colonies of his veterans, whom he 
 establishes at the expense of his enemies. 
 
 18. Great reform in the constitution during the 
 two years' dictatorship of Sylla. The aristocracy of 
 the senate, which he filled up with knights, was not 
 only re-established, but he also stopped the sources 
 from which the great disorders of the democracy had 
 hitherto proceeded. It seems probable that his na- 
 tural indolence, which led him to prefer a life of lux- 
 urious ease to one of laborious activity, when he was 
 no longer spurred to the latter by his passions, was 
 the chief cause of his voluntaiy abdication. He had, 
 however, the great advantage over Marius, of not 
 being the sport of his own feelings. The conduct of 
 Sylla, indeed, was so consistent throughout, that it 
 satisfactorily shows he knew very well what was his 
 ultimate aim — which Marius never did. 
 
 Internal regulations of Sylla by the leges Cornelice. 1. Law
 
 FERioD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 303 
 
 to restrain the influence of the tribunes, by taking from them Third 
 their legishitive power. 2. Law respecting the succession to I'^Riou- 
 the magistracy ; the number of praetors fixed to eight, and tlie 
 quaestors to twenty. 3. Lex de inajestate, especially to limit 
 tlie power of the governoi's of provinces, and to abolish their 
 exactions. 4. Lex de judiciis, whereby the judicia were again 
 restored to the senate. 5. Several police regulations, de sicariis, 
 de veneßciis, etc., for the preservation and tranquillity of Kome, 
 upon which every thing depended. 6. The lex de civitnte, 
 taking from the Latins and several Italian cities and tril^es the 
 privileges of Roman citizen.s, upon which they set so much store, 
 although we scarcely know in what they consisted. Foreign 
 tvars : war in Africa against the leaders of the democratic fac- 
 tion, Cn. Domitius and King Hiarbas, which is ended by a tri- 
 umph to Pompey, 80. Second war against Mithridates begun 
 by Murena, in hopes of obtaining a triumph, to whom Archelaus 
 came over ; but which, under the command of Sylla, terminates 
 in an accommodation. 
 
 19. Nevertheless it was impossible that the enact- a state like 
 ments of Sylla should be long observed ; as the evil posü"<no^' 
 lay too deep to be eradicated by laws. A free state *'""^"i- 
 like that of Rome, with no middle class, must, from 
 its nature, be exposed to continual convulsions, and 
 th(?se will be more or less violent in proportion to its 
 gi-eatness. Besides, as in the last revolution almost 
 all property had changed hands, there was spread 
 over all Italy a powerful party, who desired nothing Counter- 
 so much as a counter-revolution. And to this we Ji^^sir"«!' by 
 may add, that there were many young men, such as manj. 
 Lucullus, Crassus, and above all Pompey, who had 
 opened to themselves a career during the late trou- 
 bles, which they would scarcely yet wish to bring to 
 a close. It will not then appear strange, that imme- 
 diately after the death of Sylla, (I" 88,) a consul, M. .i:rniiiii3 
 iEmilius Lepidus, should form the design of becom- ^•^i"^"»- 
 ing a second Marius ; a design which could only be 
 frustrated by the courage and activity of sucli a pa- 
 triotic citizen as Q. Lutatius Catulus, his colleague. 
 
 Attempt of Lepidus to rescind the acts of Sylla, 78. Defeat- 
 ed, first before Rome and again in Etruria, by Catulus and 
 Pompey, 77, after which he dies in Sardinia. 
 
 20. But much more dangerous for Rome might cmi war of 
 liave been the civil war kindled by Sertorius in spain. "" "
 
 304 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 Third Spain, if the plan of tliat exalted republican to invade 
 Italy had succeeded. Even Pompey himself, after a 
 
 B. c. 77— six years' struggle, would hardly have prevented it, had 
 it not been for the worthlessness of the Roman vaga- 
 bonds who surrounded him, and his assassination by 
 Perpenna. The rapid termination of the war after 
 the fall of its conductor, is a circumstance much 
 more creditable to Sertorius than to the conqueror 
 Pompey. 
 
 The forces of Sertorius in Spain, consisted not only of the 
 party of Marius whicli he had collected, but more essentially of 
 the Spaniards, particularly the Lusitanians, whom he had in- 
 spired with an unbounded confidence in himself. Very variable 
 success of the war against Metellus and Pompey, who receive 
 but very little support from Rome, 77 — 75. Negotiation of 
 Sertorius with Mithridates the Great, and interchange of em- 
 bassies without any important result, 75. Sertorius assassinated 
 by Perpenna, 72. 
 
 The third 91. Bcforc, howcvcr, the flame of war was totally 
 war -com- extinguished in the West, Mithridates kindled a new 
 billed with ^jjj much fiercer one in the East ; at the same time 
 
 tlic scrvilö • . • * ■ 
 
 war, and a war of slavcs and gladiators was raging with terri- 
 ble fury in Italy itself; and whole fleets of pirates 
 not only ravaged the Italian coasts, but threatened 
 Rome herself with a famine, and obliged her to have 
 recourse to a mode of naval warfare altogether pecu- 
 liar. All these enemies were not without intelli- 
 gence with one another ; and colossal as was the 
 power of the republic at that time, and rich as Rome 
 was in distinguished men, it seems probable that the 
 storm which beat on every side between 75 — 71, 
 
 of Rore!*''^ would have razed her to the ground, if a stricter alli- 
 ance could have been formed between Sertorius, 
 Spartacus, and Mithridates. But the great difficulty 
 of communication which at that time existed, and 
 without which probably a republic such as the Ro- 
 man never could have been formed, proved of more 
 assistance at this crisis than at any other. 
 
 The third Mithridatic war, occasioned by the will of Nico- 
 medes king of Bithynia, who had bequeathed his kingdom to 
 Rome, (see above, p. 236,) was carried on in Asia Minor, first 
 by LucuUus, 74 — 67, and afterwards by Pompey, 66 — 64. 
 
 that of the 
 pirates, 
 
 threatens
 
 PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 305 
 
 ]\Iithridate3, being better prepared, had already concluded an Third 
 alliance with Sertorius in Spain, 75. But the deliverance of I'kkiod. 
 
 Cyzicus by.Lucullus, 73, and the defeat of the king's fleet, in- " — 
 
 tended to act against Italy, not only frustrated all his original 
 plans, but were followed by the occupation of his own dominions, 
 72 and 71, by the enemy, notwithstanding a new army which 
 Mithridates collected, mostly from the nomad hordes of Northern 
 Asia. Flight of INIithridates to Tigranes, 71, who positively 
 refused to deliver him up, and formed an alliance with him, 70 ; 
 while the Partluan, Ai'saces XII., held both parties in suspense 
 by negotiations. Victory of Lucullus over the allied sovereigns, 
 near Tigranocerta, 69, and Artaxata, 68 ; but the mutinies 
 which now broke out among his troops not only hindered him 
 from following up these advantages, but turned the scale so 
 much in Mithridates's favour, that in 68 and 67 he quickly re- 
 gained almost all his dominions, even while the Roman commis- 
 sioners were on their route to take possession of them. Lu- 
 cullus, by his reform in the finances of Asia Minor, raises a 
 powerful party against himself in Rome, and thereby loses his 
 command. 
 
 22. The war of the slaves and gladiators, which The soniie 
 happened nearly at the same time, was, from the the- --i^-^l'}' 
 atre of action beino- in its neighbourhood, equally- 
 dangerous to Rome ; it became still more terrible 
 from the violence with which these outrao;ed beino-s 
 sought to revenge their wrongs, and more formidable 
 from the talents of their leader, Spartacus ; and the 
 conclusion of this struggle seemed, therefore, of so 
 much importance to Rome, that it gave M. Crassus tpiminated 
 a much higher influence in the state than he could ^^ ^'•*s'*"s- 
 ever have obtained by his riches alone. 
 
 Commencement of this war by a number of runaway gladia- 
 tors, who, being strengthened by an almost general revolt of 
 the slaves in Campania, 73, soon became very formidable. Tiie 
 defeat of four generals, one after the other, throws open to Spar- 
 tacus the road to tiie Alps, and enables liim to leave Italy ; l)ut 
 the greediness of booty manifested by his hordes, who wishetl to 
 plunder Rome, obliged him to return. Crassus takes the cf)!!!- 
 mand and rescues Rome, 72 ; upon wliicii Spartacus retires into 
 Lower Italy, hoping to form a junction with the pirates, and 
 to carry the war into Sicily, but is deceived by them, 71. His 
 complete overtlirow near tlie Silarus, 71. Pompey then return- 
 ing from Spain, finds means to seize a sprig of the laurel chap- 
 let which by right should have adorned only the brow of Cras- 
 sus ; hence arises a misunderstanding between these two 
 commanders, during their consulate, 70, which threatened tu 
 be dangerous to the state. 
 
 X
 
 306 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 TniDD 
 
 I'lilUOD. 
 
 The war 
 
 against the 
 pirates 
 
 23. The war against the pirates of Sicily and Isau- 
 ria was not only very important in itself, but still 
 more so in its consequences. It procured for Pom- 
 pey a le^-al power such as no Roman general had 
 ever before enjoyed ; and the quick and glorious 
 manner in which he brought it to a close, opened for 
 
 the 
 
 terminated - . « i • i • • 
 
 bjPompey. him the way to the great object of his ambition 
 conduct of the war in Asia against Mithridates. 
 
 Fall of Mi- 
 thridates. 
 
 The extraordinary power acquired by these pirates was owing 
 partly to the great negligence of the Romans in sea affairs, (see 
 page 272,) partly to the war against Mithridates, who had taken 
 the pirates into his pay, and partly also to the Roman oppres- 
 sions in Asia Minor. War had been undertaken against them 
 as early as 75, by P. Servilius ; but his victories, though they 
 procured him the title of Isauricus, did them but little harm. 
 They were to be dreaded, not only for their piracies, but be- 
 cause they also offered an easy means of communication between 
 the other enemies of Rome from Spain to Asia. The new at- 
 tack of the praetor M. Antonius upon Crete, proved a complete 
 failure ; but it was the cause of that hitherto independent island 
 being again attacked, 68, by Metellus, and reduced to a Roman 
 province, 67. Pompey takes the command against the pirates 
 wth extraordinary privileges, obtained for him by Gabinius, 
 and finishes the war in forty days, 67. 
 
 24. After these triumphs over so many enemies, 
 Mithridates was the only one which now remained ; 
 and Pompey had here again the good fortune to 
 conclude a struggle already near its end ; for not- 
 withstanding his late success, Mithridates had never 
 been able completely to recover himself. His fall 
 undoubtedly raised the power of Rome in Asia Mi- 
 nor to its highest pitch ; but it brought her, at the 
 same time, into contact with the Parthians. 
 
 Pompey obtains the conduct of the war against Mithridates, 
 with very extensive privileges, procured for him by the tribune 
 Manilius, (lex Manilia,) notwitlistanding the opposition of Ca- 
 tulus, 67. His victory by night, near the Euphrates, 66. 
 Subjection of Tigranes, while ]\Iithridates flies into the Crimea, 
 65, whence he endeavours to renew the war. Campaign of 
 Pompey in the countries about the Caucasus, 65 ; he marches 
 thence into Syria, 64. Mithridates kills himself in consequence 
 of the defection of his son Phraates, 63. Settlement of Asiatic 
 affairs by Pompey : besides the ancient province of Asia, the 
 maritime countries of Bithynia, neatly all Paphlagonia and 
 Pontus, are formed into a Roman province, under the name of 
 Bithynia ; while on tlie southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia
 
 PERIOD III] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 307 
 
 form another under the name of Cilicia ; Phoenicia and Syria Tmno 
 compose a third, under the name of Syria. On tiie other hand, !'• «'"d- 
 Great Armenia is left to Tigranes ; Cappadocia to Arioharzanes : ' 
 the Bosphorus to Pharnaces ; Judaea to Hyrcanus (see pa^e 
 249) ; and some other small states are also given to petty 
 princes, all of whom remain dependent on Rome. The tribes 
 inhabiting Thrace during the Älithridatic war, were first de- 
 feated by Sylla, 85, and their power was afterwards nearly de- 
 stroyed by the proconsuls of Macedonia : as by Appius, in 77 ; 
 by Curio, who drove them to the Danube, 75 — 73 ; and espe- 
 cially by M. Lucullus, while his brother was engaged in Asia. 
 Not only the security of Macedonia, but the daring plans of 
 Mithridates rendered this necessary. 
 
 25. The füll of Mithridcites raised the republic to state of 
 the highest pitch of her power: there was no long;er ^"^""^^ 
 any foreign foe of whom she could be afraid. Out 
 
 her internal administration had undergone great 
 changes during these wars. Sylla's aristocratic con- oiianges in 
 stitution was shaken by Pompey, in a most essential lutbTi"*"" 
 point, by the re-establishment of the power of the '!"" restora- 
 tribunes, which was done because neither he nor any powJ^^ofthe 
 leading men could obtain their ends without their tribunes. 
 assistance. It was by their means that Pompey had 
 procured such unlimited power in his two late expe- 
 ditions, that the existence of the republic was thereby 
 endangered. It was, however, a fortunate circum- 
 stance for Rome, that Pompey's vanity was suf- 
 ficiently gratified by his being at the head of affairs, 
 where he avoided the appearance of an oppressor. 
 
 Reiterated attempts of the tribune Sicinius to annul the con- 
 stitution of Sylla defeatetl by the senate, 76. But as early as 
 75 Opimius obtained that the tribunes should not be excliidtnl 
 from honourable otHces, and that tlie judgments (Jialiria) should 
 be restored to the kniglits (eqitites). The attemjits of Liciiiius 
 Macer, 72, to restore the tribunes to all tlieir former powers, 
 encountered but a short opposition ; and their complete re- 
 establishment was eifected by Pompey and Crassus during their 
 consulate, in 70. 
 
 26. This victory of the democratic foction, how- This victor)- 
 ever, in consequence of the use made of it by some ^Vcrats^" 
 leading men, necessarily led the way to an oligarchy, ica.is t« ;m 
 which after the consuUite of Pompey and Crassus !Jo!'''''-^ 
 became very oppressive. Catiline s conspiracy, which Catiline's 
 was not matured till after several attempts, w^uld '^'*"'''^"''"">' 
 
 X 2
 
 308 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [POOK V, 
 
 Third 
 Purno». 
 
 Cicero. 
 
 Effects of 
 the Asiatic 
 war on the 
 Roman 
 tiianneis. 
 
 Great men 
 of this ]ie- 
 riod : Calo. 
 
 Pompey. 
 
 have broken up this confined aristocracy, and placed 
 the helm of state in the hands of" another and still 
 more dangerous faction ; a faction composed in part 
 of needy profligates and criminals dreading the pun- 
 ishment of their crimes, and partly of ambitious no- 
 bles. It occasioned a short civil war ; but procured 
 Cicero a place in the administration. With what 
 pleasure do we forgive the little weaknesses and fail- 
 ings of one so gifted with talents and great virtues ! 
 of one who first taught Rome, in so many ways, what 
 it was to be great in the robe of peace ! 
 
 Catiline's first conspiracy, in which Ca?sar and Crassus secra 
 to have been implicated, 66, as well as in the second, 65 : failure 
 of the former by chance — of the latter through Piso's death. 
 The third broke out in 64, as well in Rome, where the conspi- 
 rators, having no armed force, were soon suppressed by the 
 vigilance and activity of Cicero, 63, as in Etruria, where a vic- 
 tory of the proconsul Antonius over Catiline, who was left dead 
 on the field, concluded it, 62. 
 
 27. The suppression of tliis conspiracy, however, 
 did not stay the effect which the recently concluded 
 Asiatic war had upon Roman manners. The luxury 
 of the East, though united with Grecian taste, which 
 had been introduced among the great by Lucullus ; the 
 immense riches poured into the treasury by Pompey; 
 the tempting examples of unlimited power, which 
 single citizens had already exercised ; the purchase 
 of the magistracy by individuals, in order, like Verres, 
 after the squandering of millions, to enrich themselves 
 again in the provinces ; the demands of the soldiers 
 upon their generals ; and the ease with which an army 
 might be raised by him who had only money enough 
 to pay it ; all these circumstances must have foreboded 
 new and approaching convulsions, even if the preced- 
 ing storms in this colossal republic, in which we must 
 now judge of virtues and vices, as well as of riches and 
 power, by a very magnified standard, had not formed 
 men of that gigantic character they did : — men like 
 Cato, who struggled alone to stem the impetuous tor- 
 rent of the revolution, and wa^ sufficiently powerful to 
 retard its progress for a time ; or, like Pompey, who by 
 good fortune and the art of acquiring influence, arose
 
 ri£RiOD III.] TÜ THE FALL OF THE KEI'UBLIC. 309 
 
 to a degree of authority and power never before attain- Tmno 
 ed by any citizen of a free state; or, like Crassus, "wlio ^^'"^"'""•^ 
 only considered him as rich that could maintain an Cmssus. 
 army by his own private means," founding their pre- 
 tensions on wealth ; or, finally, like the aspiring and 
 now powerful Csesar, whose boundless ambition could Ca.sar. 
 only be surpassed by his talents and courage, " who 
 would rather be the first in a village than the second 
 in Rome." The return of Pompey from Asia, threat- 
 ening the senate with a new dictator, appeared an 
 eventful moment. 
 
 Attempt of Pompey, through the tribune Metellus Nepos, to 
 be allowed to return to Rome at the head of his army, frustrated 
 by the firmness of Cato, 02. 
 
 28. The arrival of Pompey in Rome renewed the Pompej's 
 struoo-le between the senate and that powerful oeneral, ■'«'""■■''■•'- 
 
 ^0 I ^. . vivfs the 
 
 although he had disbanded his army on landing in struir-ie be- 
 Italy. The ratification of his management of affairs anTthe'«" 
 in Asia, which was the chief point of contention, was "a'*-, i^- *■'■ 
 opposed by the leadinu: men of the senate, Cato, the 
 two Metelli, and Lucullus, which induced Pompey 
 to attach himself entirely to the popular party, by 
 whose means he hoped to obtain his end ; Ctesar's Cwsar's le- 
 return, however, from his province of Lusitania, en- *""'.''<"" 
 
 1 , lie !• ,1- ■ Lusiiaiiia, 
 
 tu'eiy changed the lace ot arian's. ai. 
 
 29. Close union between Caesar, Pompey, and Triumvi- 
 Crassus ; that is, a secret alliance, formed by the in- "'»^ »/ ^'»:- 
 
 " Stir loni" 
 
 terposition of Caesar. That which formed the height pey. »■"' 
 of the ambition of Pompey and Crassus w as only re- ^'■**^"*' ^'^• 
 garded by Caesar as the means by which he might be 
 able to efi'ect his. His consulate — a kind of dictator- Ca-sar's 
 ship under the mask of great popularity — necessarily co"»"''»'^. 
 paved the way to his future career, as by giving him obtains iiim 
 the government of the two Gauls and lUyria tor five |„e,a"lf ',",e 
 years, it opened a wide field for conquest, and gave t"" <^':'i'is 
 him an opportunity of forming an army devoted to forHvL'"' 
 liis will. )''«••'*■ 
 
 Cfesar's abode and campaign in Gaid from the spring of ö8 
 till the end of the year 50. By arresting the enn'gration of tli»* 
 Helvetians, and by the expulsion of the Germans, under Ario- 
 vistus, from Gaul, 58, Caesar gained an ooportunity of inter-
 
 310 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 TiiiuD ni(!(klling in the internal affairs of that country, and afterwards 
 Pehiod. q{' subduing it, which was completed by his victory over the 
 BelgfB, 57, and the Aquitani, 56 ; so that Ciesar was at liberty 
 to undertake his several expeditions, as well in Britain, 55 and 
 54, as in Germany, 54 and 53. But the repeated revolts of the 
 Gauls, 53 — 51, especially under Vercingetorix, 52, occasioned 
 a war no less obstinate than their first conquest. Roman policy 
 continued the same throughout. The Gauls were subdued, by 
 the Romans appearing as their deliverers ; and in the country 
 they found allies in the ^dui, AUobroges, etc. 
 
 30. The triumvirate, in order to establish their 
 power upon a solid foundation, took care, by the 
 management of the tribune Clodius, to get rid of the 
 leaders of the senate, Cato and Cicero, before the de- 
 parture of Csesar ; and this they did by giving the 
 former a kingdom to govern, and by procuring the 
 banishment of the latter. They must, however, soon 
 have discovered, that so bold a demagogue as Clodius 
 could not be used as a mere machine. And, indeed, 
 after Caesar's departure he raised himself so much 
 above the triumvirs, that Pompey was soon obliged, 
 for his own preservation, to permit Cicero to return 
 from exile, which could only be effected by the most 
 violent efforts of the tribune Milo. The power of 
 Clodius, however, w^as but little injured thereby, al- 
 though Pompey, to put a stop to the source of these 
 disorders, and revive his own popularity, procured 
 the nomination of himself as prcrfectus annonce, or 
 superintendent of provisions. 
 
 Exile of Cicero, the greater part of which he spent in Mace- 
 donia, fi'om April, 58, till 4th Sept., 57. Ptolemy king of Cy- 
 prus deposed, and that island reduced to a Roman province by 
 Cato, on the proposition of Clodius, 57 (see page 212). The 
 personal dislike of Clodius and the riches of the king were the 
 causes that brought upon him this misfortune. 
 
 Middleton's Life of Cicero, 2 vols. 8vo. This work is al- 
 most a complete history of Rome during the age of Cicero ; for 
 whom the writer discovers an undue partiality. 
 
 f M. TuLLius Cicero, all his Letters tra?islated, in chrono- 
 logical order, and illustrated with notes, by C. AI. Wieland. 
 Zurich, 1808. With a preliminary view of the life of Cicero. 
 Of all Germans the writings of Wieland, whether original or 
 translations, (and to which can we give the preference ?) afford 
 the most lively insight into Greek and Roman antiquity at vari- 
 ous periods. What writer has so truly seized its spirit, and
 
 PERIOD HI.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 311 
 
 placed it so faithfully and elegantly before his readers ? His Third 
 
 labours on the Letters of Cicero (whose foibles he exposes with Period. 
 
 a rigorous and unflinching hand) serve to make us much better 
 
 acquainted with Rome, as it then was, than any Roman history. 
 
 31. A jealousy arises between the triumvirate, as Jealousy of 
 Caesar, thouoli absent, still found means to keep un ''.'^ *'''"™' 
 
 I- T^ • 1 ipi ..r^r Tirate. 
 
 his party at Home in such watchtul activity, that 
 Pompey and Crassus considered it impossible to main- 
 tain their own influence, except by procuring such 
 concessions as had been made to him. Harmony 
 once more restored by an accommodation at Lucca, 
 as the parties found it necessary to preserve a good 
 understanding with each other. 
 
 The terms of this accommodation were ; that Caesar should 
 have his government prolonged for another five years ; and that 
 Pompey and Crassus should enjoy the consulship for the ensuing 
 year, the former receiving the provinces of Spain and Africa, 
 and the latter that of Syria, for tlie purpose of carrying on a war 
 against the Parthians. In proportion as these conditions were 
 kept secret, there remained less secrecy respecting the alliance 
 itself. 
 
 32. Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus. It Secomi 
 was only amidst violent storms that thev could effect EO"''"''"««^ 
 
 1 ■ -1 1 • I Pompey 
 
 their purposes ; as it depended upon which faction ami c:r!is- 
 should first gain or keep possession of the forum. 55*' ^' ^' 
 The resistance they met with from the inflexible dis- 
 position of Cato, who in his austere virtue alone found 
 means to secure himself a powerful party, shows hou^ 
 unfairly those judge who consider the power of the 
 triumvirate as unlimited, and the nation as entirely 
 corrupted. 
 
 Campaign of Crassus against the Parthians, undertaken at his 
 own expense, 54. Instead, however, of gathering laurels like 
 Ciesar, he and his whole army were completely overthrown in 
 ]\Iesopotamia, 53 ; and tlie Parthians from tliis time maintain a 
 powerful preponderance in Asia (see above, p. 242). 
 
 33. As the triumvirate by this failure of Crassus Pompcy 
 was reduced to a duumvirate, Pompey, (who remain- »spires to 
 ed in Rome, and governed his provinces by licute- head of the 
 nants,) in the midst of continual domestic broils, '"^'1'"'^''^; 
 which he cunningly took care to foment, was evident- 
 ly aiming to become the acknowledged head of the
 
 312 ROMAN STATE. [hook v. 
 
 Third senate and republic. The idea that a dictator was 
 ^^ER^D^ necessary prevailed more and more during an anarchy 
 B. c. 53. of eight months, in which no appointment of a con- 
 sul could take place ; and notwithstanding the oppo- 
 sition of Cato, Pompey succeeded, after a violent 
 commotion, in which Clodius was murdered by Milo, 
 is appointed in gettiuo- himsclf nominated sole consul; a power 
 
 sole consul, ^^^.^^ ^^ -,^^^ ^f dictatOr. 
 
 Consulate of Pompey, 52, in which, at the end of seven months, 
 he took as colleague his father-in-law, Metellus Scipio. The 
 government of his provinces, which afterwards became the chief 
 seat of the republicans, is prolonged for live years. 
 
 Cmi war g^ From this time civil war became inevitable : 
 
 inevitable. i i i • • i i • 
 
 for not only thi chiefs of the parties, but also their 
 adherents desired it. The approach of the time when 
 Csesar s command would expire, necessarily hastened 
 the crisis. Could it be supposed that the conqueror 
 of Gaul would return to a private life, and leave his 
 rival at the head of the republic ? The steps taken 
 on both sides towards an accommodation were only 
 made to escape the odium which would attach to him 
 who struck the first blow. But Pompey, unfortunate- 
 ly, could never understand his opponent, who did all 
 himself, all completely, and all alone. The brilliant 
 light in which Pompey now appeared, as defender of 
 the republic, delighted him so much, that it made 
 him forget what belonged to its defence ; while Caesar 
 avoided, with the greatest care, every appearance of 
 usurpation. The friend, the protector of the people 
 against the usurpations of their enemies, was the cha- 
 racter which he now chose to assume. 
 
 Commencement of the contest upon CiEsar's demand to be 
 allowed to hold the consulship while absent, 52. Cajsar, by the 
 most lavish corruption, had increased his adherents in Rome, 
 gained the tribunes, and among them especially the powerful 
 speaker C. Curio (whom he did not think too dearly purchased 
 at the price of about half a million sterling) ; by this man it was 
 suggested to Caesar that he should give up his command, and 
 leave a successor to be appointed in his place, 51, if Pompey 
 would do the same: a proposition which created a prejudice 
 much in his favour. Repeated, but insincere oifers of both 
 parties for an accommodation, 50, till at last a decree of the 
 senate was passed, Jan. 7, 49, by which Caesar Avas commanded
 
 PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 313 
 
 "to disband his army under the penalty of being declared an Third 
 enemy to the republic," without regard to the intercessions of kisiod. 
 the tribunes, whose flight to him gave an appearance of jtopu- 
 larity to his party. Caesar crosses tlie Rubicon, the boundary 
 of his province. 
 
 35. The civil war now about to break out, seemed Civii war 
 likely to spread over nearly all tlie countries of the cssarrnd 
 Roman empire ; as Pompey, finding it impossible to Pompej. 
 maintain liimself in Italy, had chosen Greece for the 
 principal theatre of the war ; while his lieutenants, 
 
 with the armies under their command, occupied Spain 
 and Africa. Caesar, b}?' the able disposition of his 
 legions, was every where present, without exciting be- 
 forehand any suspicion of his movements. A com- 
 bination of circumstances, however, carried the war 
 into Alexandria, and even as far as Pontus ; indeed it 
 might be called rather a series of six successive wars 
 than merely one, all of which Caesar, by flying with 
 his legions from one quarter of the world to the 
 other, ended, within five years, victoriously and in 
 person. 
 
 Rapid occupation of Italy in sixty days, (when the troops un- 
 der Domitius surrendered at Corfinus,) which, as well as Sicily 
 and Sardinia, were subdued by Ca'sar almost without opposi- 
 tion ; Pompey, with his troops and adherents, having crossed 
 over to Greece. Cesar's first campaign in Spain against Pom- 
 pey's generals, Afianius and Petreius, wliom he forces to sur- 
 render ; this, hoAvever, is counterbalanced by the loss of the 
 legions under Curio in Africa. In December, 49, however, 
 Ca3sar is again in Italy, and named dictator, which he exchanges 
 for the consulate. Spirited expedition into Greece with the 
 ships he had been previously collecting together, Jan. 4, 48. 
 Unfortunate engagement at Dyrracliium. Removal of the war 
 into Tiiessaly, and decisive battle of Pharsalia, July 20, 48, 
 after wliich Pompey flies to Alexandria, where he is killed on 
 his landing. Caesar arrives three days after him at Alexandria. 
 
 36. Caesar, after the victory of Pharsalia, again Ca.-s;.rat:ain 
 nomuiated dictator, witii great privileges. 1 Ik; cleatli 
 
 of Pompey, however, does not destroy his i)arty ; 
 and the six months' war of Alexandria, as well as the 
 expedition into Pontus against Pharnaces, gave them 
 time to rally their forces both in Africa under Cato, 
 and in Spain under the sons of Pompey.
 
 •314: ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Thihd During tlie Alexandrine war (see above, p. 213) and tlie ex - 
 
 Period, pedition against Pliai'naces, tlie son of Mithridates, — who had 
 obtained the kingdom of liis father, but was slain by Caesar im- 
 mediately after his arrival, 47, — great disorders had broken out 
 in Rome, caused by the tribune Dolabella's flattering the jjoople 
 with the abolition of debts, {novce tabuloi,) notwithstanding the 
 military power of M. Antony, whom Cfesar had sent to Rome as 
 master of the horse, {magister ecpiitum,) as this abandoned sen- 
 sualist at first actually favoured the projects of the tribune. 
 Cajsar's return to Rome, December, 47, put an end, it is true, to 
 these disorders ; but the increase of the opposite party in Africa, 
 and an insurrection among his soldiers, obhged him to set out 
 for Africa immediately, January, 46. Victory near Thapsus 
 over Scipio and Juba ; after which Cato kills himself at Utica. 
 Numidia, the kingdom of Juba, becomes a Roman province. 
 Caesar after his return to Rome in June, is only able to stay 
 there four months, as, before the end of the year, he is obliged 
 to set out for Spain to crush the dangerous efforts of Pompey's 
 two sons. Bloody battle at Munda, March, 45, after which 
 Cneius is kiUed, but Sextus escapes to the Celtiberians. 
 
 Inquiry 37. Notliiiig secms more evident than that Caesar 
 
 viewfof ^^^ "^*' ^^^^ Sylla, overthrow the repubhc for the 
 Cffisar. purpose of re-establishing it ; and it is perhaps im- 
 possible to say what could be the final views of a 
 childless usurper, who throughout his whole career, 
 seemed only to be guided by an inordinate ambition, 
 springing from a consciousness of superior powers, 
 and to satisfy which, no means seemed to him diffi- 
 cult or unlawful. The period of his dictatorship was 
 so short, and so much interrupted by war, that his ulti- 
 mate plans had not time for their development. He 
 endeavoured to establish his dominion by popular 
 measures ; and although his army must still have 
 been his main support, yet no proscription was grant- 
 ed to satisfy it. The re-establishment of order in 
 the distracted country of Italy, and particularly in the 
 capital, was his first care ; and he proposed to follow 
 that by an expedition against the powerful Parthian 
 empire. His attempts, however, to obtain the 
 diadem, seemed to place it beyond a doubt that he 
 wished to introduce a formal monarchy. But the 
 destruction of the form of the republic was shown to 
 be more dangerous than the overthrow of the re- 
 public itself
 
 TEUioD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 315 
 
 The following were the honour.s and privilege.s granted to Tmno 
 Ccesar by the .senate. After the battle of Pliar.salia, 48, he was Period. 
 nominated dictator for one year, and consul for five years ; and 
 obtained the potestas trihunicia, as well as the right of making 
 war and peace, the exclusive right of the committees, with the 
 exception of the tribunes, and the possession of the provinces. 
 The dictatorship was renewed to him, 47, for ten years, as well 
 as the prcrfectura morum, and was at last, 45, conferi-ed upon 
 liim for ever, with the title of imperator. Although Caesar 
 tlius became absolute master of the republic, it appears to have 
 been done without laying aside the republican forms. 
 
 38. Conspiracy against Caesar, formed by Brutus Conspiracy 
 and Cassius, and terininatino- in tlie death of Ca3sar. !°''"!'"!, > 
 Men so exalted as were the chiefs of this plot, easily b- c. 44, 
 understand one another; and it was quite in accord- cassius',"^c. 
 ance with their character not to meditate upon the 
 consequences of their deed. Caesar's death was a His death, 
 great misfortune for Rome. Experience soon showed ^^^^'^^ ^^• 
 that the republic could not be re-established thereby ; 
 
 and his life might probably have spared the state 
 some of those calamities which now, by its change to 
 a monarchy, became unavoidable. 
 
 We still want a discriminating life of Caesar, who in modern 
 times has been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been 
 unjustly censured. As generals and conquerors, both were 
 equally great — and little ; as a man, however, the Macedonian, 
 in the brilliant period of his life, to which Caisar never attained, 
 was superior ; to the great political ideas which developed them- 
 selves in Alexander, we know of none corresponding in Cajsar ; 
 who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little of 
 preserving it. 
 
 lUstoire de la Vie de Jules Cccsar, par AI. de Bury, Paris, 
 1758, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 f Life of C. Jidins Caesar, by A. G. Meissner, continued by 
 J. Ch. L. Ilaken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best. 
 
 Cains JhUks Ccesar, from oricjinal sources, by Professor 
 SÖLTL. A short biography, judiciously executed. 
 
 39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared, Amnesty 
 the funeral obsequies of Caesar soon showed, that IjI^ ',\",' :,'p. 
 peace was of all things the least desired by his proved by 
 generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus, now become Lepidüs. 
 the head of his party ; and the arrival of Ccesar's 
 nephew, C. Octavius, (afterwards C-tüsar Octaviaiuis,) 
 
 whom he had adopted in his will, rendered afiiiirs 
 still more complicated, as every one strove for him-
 
 316 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Antony en- 
 deavours to 
 establish 
 himself in 
 Cisalpine 
 Gaul. 
 
 self; Antony's particular object being to raise him- 
 self into Caesar's place. However earnestly they 
 sought to gain the people, it was in fact the legions 
 who decided, and the command of them depended, 
 for the most part, upon the possession of the pro- 
 vinces. We cannot therefore wonder, that while 
 they sought to revenge the murder of Csesar, this 
 became the chief cause of the struggle, and in a few 
 months led to a civil war. 
 
 At the time of Caesar's death, M. Antonius was actual con- 
 sul and Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus, magister equitiim 
 (master of the horse); M. Brutus and Cassius, prajtors (the 
 first, prcetor nrbanus). Cfesar had given to the former the 
 province of INIacedonia, and to the latter that of Sja'ia, which 
 had been confirmed to them by the senate. M. Lepidus had 
 been nominated to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to Cisalpine 
 Gaul. But soon after the murder of Ciesar, Antony obtained, 
 by a decree of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for 
 his colleague Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close con- 
 nexion ; instead of which the senate decreed to Cassius, Cyrene, 
 and to Brutus, who now had the important charge of supplying 
 Rome with provisions, Crete. But soon after, (June 1, 44,) 
 Antony desired, by a new change, to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for 
 himself, and Macedonia for his brother C. Antony, both of 
 which he procured from the people. 
 
 40. As M. Antony sought by force to establish 
 himself in Cisalpine Gaul, and D. Brutus refused to 
 give it up to him, and retired into Mutina, a short, 
 indeed, but very bloody civil war arose (bellum 
 mutinense). The eloquence of Cicero had caused 
 Antony to be declared an enemy of the republic ; 
 and the two new consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, to- 
 gether with Caesar Octavianus, were sent against 
 him. The defeat of Antony compelled him to seek 
 refuge beyond the Alps with Lepidus ; but the two 
 consuls being slain, Octavianus at the head of his 
 legions was too important to be refused the consul- 
 ship, and soon convinced the defenceless senate, how 
 impossible it was to re-establish the commonwealth 
 by their powerless decrees. The employment, more- 
 over, of the magistratus sujfecti, which soon after 
 arose, was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now 
 no more than the shadow of what it had formerly been.
 
 PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL 01- THE HEl'UBLIC. 817 
 
 The Miitine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the Third 
 defeat of Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains i'tmoD. 
 the consulate, Sept. 22. 
 
 41. Octavianus, deserting the party of the senate, Formation 
 enters into a secret neo-otiation with Antony and Le- "^* ""'.""'/ 
 
 . , , (• 1 • 1 • • virale by C 
 
 pidus ; the consequence or which is a meeting of the ociavianus 
 parties at Bononia, and the formation of a new trium- juki^Lcw"^ 
 virate. They declare themselves the chiefs of the dus. 
 republic for five years, under the title of triumviri 
 rtipubliae constituauJce ; and dividing- the provinces 
 among themselves according to their own pleasure, 
 they make the destruction of the republican party 
 their principal object. A new proscription in ]{ome 
 itself, and a declaration of war against the murderers 
 of Caesar, were the means by which they proposed to 
 effect it. 
 
 The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43, 
 after which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the 
 signal for the massacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all 
 over Italy, and in which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause 
 of tliis new proscription was not party hatred alone, but was as 
 much, perhaps more, owing on the one hand to the want of 
 money for carrying on the war they had undertaken, and on the 
 other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent demands of the le- 
 gions. Where is to be found a time so full of terror as this, 
 when even tears were forbidden ? 
 
 42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking chii war 
 out, may be considered therefore as a war between oiVjarciV '"^ 
 the oligarchy and the defenders of the republic. anJ rcpub- 
 The Roman world was, as it Avere, divided between 
 
 the two ; and although the former had possession of 
 Italy, and the western provinces, that advantage 
 seemed counterbalanced to tiie chiefs of the opposite 
 party by the possession of the eastern countries, and 
 the naval power of Sextus Pompey, which seemed to 
 assure them the dominion of the sea. 
 
 M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia 
 as early as the autumn of 44 ; while Cassius, on the contrary, 
 had to contend for that of Syria with Dolabella, wlio by the 
 murder of the proconsul Trul)onius had possessed himself of 
 Asia. Being, however, for this ott'ence, declared an enemy by 
 the senate, and shut up in Laodicea by Cassius, he killed him- 
 self, June 5, 43. From this time Brutus and Cassius were 
 masters of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense they
 
 318 
 
 liOMAN STATE. 
 
 'I'liiun 
 Pi; HI OD. 
 
 Its seat in 
 Macedonia. 
 
 Quarrels of 
 the oligar- 
 chy among 
 themselves. 
 
 Fulvia 
 causes a 
 civil war 
 
 maintained their troops, though not without much oppression. 
 8. Pompey, after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted 
 himself in Spain, and afterwards become a chief of free- 
 booters, had grown very powerful ; when the senate, after 
 Cajsar's assassination, having made him commander of the sea- 
 forces, he with them took j)ossos.sion of Spain, and, after the 
 conclusion of the triumvirate, of Sicily, and then, very soon 
 after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was a great tiling for the tri- 
 umvirate, that C. Pompey did not know how to reap half the 
 profit he might have done from his power and good fortune. 
 
 43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new 
 civil war, and together with the goodness of their 
 cause, superior talents, and greater power both by- 
 land and sea, seemed combined to insure the victory 
 to Brutus and Cassius. But in the decisive battle at 
 Philippi, fortune played one of her most capricious 
 tricks, and with the two chiefs fell the last supporters 
 of the republic. 
 
 Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42 ; 
 voluntary death of Cassius after the first, and of Brutus after 
 the second engagement. 
 
 Plutakchi Vita Bruti ; from the narratives of eyewitnesses. 
 
 44. The history of the eleven years intervening 
 between the battle of Philippi and that of Actium, is 
 little more than an account of the quarrels of the 
 oligarchy among themselves. The most subtle was, 
 in the end, victorious ; for M. Antony possessed all 
 the sensuality of Caesar without his genius ; and the 
 insignificant Lepidus soon fell a sacrifice to liis own 
 vanity and weakness. While Antony went into Asia 
 to arrange the affairs of the eastern provinces, and 
 from thence with Cleopatra to Alexandria, Octavi- 
 anus returned to Rome. But the famine which then 
 reigned in that city through Pompey's blockade of 
 the sea-coast ; the misery spread throughout Italy by 
 the wresting of patrimonial lands from the proprie- 
 tors to distribute among the veterans ; and the insa- 
 tiable covetousness of the latter, rendered his situa- 
 tion as dangerous now as it had been before the war. 
 Besides all this, the hatred of the enraged consort of 
 Antony, who had entered into an alliance with her 
 brother-in-law, the consul L. Antony, brought on, 
 towards the end of the vear, a civil war, which ended
 
 PEKioD III. J TO THE FALL OF THE UEPUBLIC. 319 
 
 with the surrender and burning of Perusium, in which Thikd 
 L. Antony had shut himself up, and wliich was al- ^''^"'""" 
 ready much weakened by famine. 
 
 The bellum Perusinum lasted from tlie end of the year 4 1 till 
 April, 40. 
 
 45. This war, however, had nearly led to one still 
 greater ; for M. Antony, as the enemy of Octavianus, 
 had cortie to Italy in order to assist his brother, and 
 
 with the intention of forming an alliance with 8. b. c. 40. 
 Pompey against the former. But fortunately for the 
 world, not only was harmony restored between the 
 triumvirs, but on account of the great famine which 
 prevailed at Rome, a peace was also concluded with 
 Pompey, although it lasted but a very short time. 
 
 The principal object of the peace between the triumvirs was 
 a new division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra, in 
 lUyria, was fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all 
 the eastern provinces ; Octavianus all the western ; and Lepi- 
 dus Africa. Italy remained in common to them all. The mar- 
 riage of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being dead, was intended 
 to cement this agreement. In the peace concluded with S. 
 Pompey at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, 
 and Coröi(;a, and the promise of Achaia. 
 
 46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding pomppy re- 
 that an alliance between him and the triumvirs would commeiues 
 only end in his own destruction ; and the war which 
 
 he soon commenced, and which Octavianus could 
 not bring to a close but with the assistance of Agrip- «iiich 
 pa, was of so much the more importance, as it not '^'»"'"'^ ''.'^ 
 
 i ^ 1 ' clostruction, 
 
 only decided the fate of Pompey, but by leading to ;w ; an.i 
 dissensions, and the expulsion of Lepidus, reduced ^^'^i'"'"''"'' 
 
 / I . r ' expulsion, 
 
 the triumvirate to a duumvirate. aa. 
 
 After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation 
 of a new fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same 
 time ; Lepidus coming from Africa, and Antony sending also 
 some ships. Final overthrow of Pompey, wlio Hies to Asia and 
 there perishes. — Lepidus wishing to take possession of Sicily, 
 Octavianus gains over his troops, and obliges him to retire from 
 the triumvirate. 
 
 47. The foreign wars in which Octavianus as well Foni-h 
 
 as Antony were engaged in the following ye;rs, pre- vi^7wus- 
 vented for some time their mutual jealousy from lusati.i.vn
 
 320 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Thikd comln^^ to an open rupture. Octavianus, to tame 
 
 ^\°_^ his unruly legions, employed them with some success 
 
 tony from against the nations of Dalmatia and Pannonia; whilst 
 
 an o'pe^/° Autony uudcrtook an expedition against the power- 
 
 ni|)tuie._ ful Parthians and their neighbours. But in offend- 
 
 ;53_ ' ^~ ing Rome by his conduct in these wars, he only 
 
 Antony of- armed his opponent against himself; and his formal 
 
 and separation from Octavia, loosened the only tie which 
 
 «livoices \y^^(\ hitherto held together the two masters of tlie 
 
 Octavia, :i2. , , ^ 
 
 world. 
 
 After his first staj in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to 
 Italy, 40, and then, having made peace with Octavianus, he car- 
 ried his new wife Octavia with him into Greece, where he re- 
 mained till the year 37. Although his lieutenant Ventidius 
 had fought with success against the Parthians, who had invaded 
 Syria, (see above, p. 242,) Antony determined to undertake an 
 expedition against them himself, 36. But although in alliance 
 with Artavasdes, king of Armenia, (whom he soon after accused 
 of treachery,) in seeking to effect an entrance into Parthia, by 
 passing through Armenia and Media, a different route from that 
 taken by Crassus, he was very nearly meeting with the same 
 fate, and the expedition completely failed. He then revenged 
 himself upon Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh ex- 
 pedition which he made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom. 
 After his triumphal entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant 
 of this as well as other countries to Cleopatra and her children. 
 (See above, p. 214.) In 33, he intended to renew his expedi- 
 tion against the Parthians, in alliance with the king of Media; 
 but having, at the instigation of Cleopatra, ordered Octavia to 
 return home, when she had already come as far as Athens on 
 her way to meet him, Octavianus and Antony reciprocally ac- 
 cused each other before the senate, and war was declared at 
 Rome, though only against Cleopatra. 
 
 Greece the 48. Grcecc bccame again the theatre of War ; and 
 
 seat of war althouo-h the forccs of Antony were most consider- 
 between ~ 
 
 Antony and ablc, yet Octaviauus had the advantage of having, at 
 Octavianus. ]ggg|- [y^ appearauce, the better cause. The naval 
 
 Antony de- . ,. * • i • i i r» /~v • i i i 
 
 feated at victory 01 ActRmi decided tor Octavianus, who could 
 Se'^T's'i'^ scarcely believe it, till he found that Antony had for- 
 saken h s fleet and army, the latter of which sur- 
 rendered without striking a blow. The capture of 
 Egypt followed, (see above, p. 214,) and that coun- 
 .30, Wves try was reduced to a Roman province; the death of 
 Octavianus Autouy and Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octa- 
 vianus absolute master of the republic. 
 
 without a 
 riva
 
 TEiuoD IV.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 321 
 
 The history of the last daj-s of Antony, principally after his Third 
 decline, having been written under the rule of his enemies, must Period. 
 be received with that mistrust which all such histories require. 
 It has furnished abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote. 
 The history of Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her 
 physician Olympus, of which Plutarch made use. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE 
 
 OVERTHROW OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. B. C. 30 
 
 A. C. 47Ö. 
 
 Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and 
 pr&vinces, and other countries connected with it by war 
 or commerce. 
 
 The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, Boundaries 
 which, however, it sometimes exceeded, were in "^''''^ ^°- 
 hurope the two great rivers of the Rhine and Da- pire. 
 nube ; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy desert 
 of Syria ; in Africa hkewise, the sandy regions. It 
 thus included the fairest portions of the earth, sur- 
 rounding the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 European Countries : I. Spain (Hispania). European 
 Boundaries : on the east the Pyrenees ; on the south, s"""^"^^' 
 north, and west, the sea. Principal rivers : the Mi- 
 nius, (Minho,) Durius, (Douro,) Tagus, (Tejo,) Anas, 
 (Guadiana,) Bsetis, (Guadalquiver,) which flow into 
 the Atlantic ; and the Iberus, (Ebro,) which falls into 
 the Mediterranean. Mountains : besides the Pyre- 
 nees, the Idubeda along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra 
 Morena). Divided into three provinces. 1. Lusi- Lusitania. 
 tania : northern boundary the Durius ; southern, the 
 Anas. Principal tribes : Lusitani, Turdetani. Prin- 
 cipal town : Augusta Emerita. 2. Bictica : bound- Bxtica. 
 aries on the north and west the Anas, on the east the 
 mountains of Orospeda. Principal tribes: Turduli, 
 Bastuli. Principal towns: Corduba, (Cordova,) Ilis- 
 palis, (Seville,) Gades, (Cadiz,) Munda. 3. Tarra- Tanaco- 
 conensis, all the remainder of Spain. Principal 
 
 Y 
 
 nt'ii
 
 ROMAN STATE. [hook v. 
 
 tribes : Callseci, Astures, Cantabri, Vascones, in the 
 north ; Celtiberi, Carpetani, Ilergetes, in the inte- 
 rior ; Indigetes, Cosetani, etc., on the Mediterranean. 
 Chief towns : Tarraco, (Tarragona,) Cartago Nova, 
 (Carthagena,) Toletum, (Toledo,) llerda (Lerida) ; 
 Saguntum and Numantia (Soria) were ah-eady de- 
 
 Baieaiic stroyed. The Balearic Isles, Major, (Majorca,) and 
 Minor, (Minorca,) were considered as belonging to 
 Spain. 
 
 Transalpine 1 1. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries : on the west 
 ^^^ ' the Pyrenees ; on the east the Rhine, and a line 
 drawn from its source to the little river Varus, toge- 
 ther with that river itself; on the north and south 
 the sea. Principal rivers : the Garumna, (Garonne,) 
 Liger, (Loire,) Sequana, (Seine,) and Scaldis, 
 (Scheldt,) which empty themselves into the ocean ; 
 the Rhodanus, (Rhone,) which is increased by the 
 Arar, (Saone,) and falls into the Mediterranean ; and 
 the Mosella (Moselle) and Mosa, (Meuse,) which flow 
 into the Rhine. Mountains : besides the Alps, the 
 Jura, Vogesus, (Vosge,) and Cebenna (Cevennes). 
 
 Gallia Nar- Divided into four provinces. 1 . Gallia Narbonensis, 
 
 bonensis. ^^, Braccata. Boundaries : on the west the Pyrenees, 
 on the east the Varus, on the north the Cevennian 
 mountains. Principal tribes : Allobroges, Volcee, 
 Calyes. Principal towns : Narbo, (Narbonne,) To- 
 losa, (Toulouse,) Nemausus, (Nimes,) Massilia, (Mar- 
 
 Gaiiia Gel- scillcs,) Vienna. 2. Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. 
 
 ^'*^^' Boundaries : to the south and west the Liger, (Loire,) 
 
 to the north the Sequana, to the east the Arar, 
 Principal tribes : ^Edui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, 
 etc., all of Celtic origin. Principal towns : Lugdu- 
 num, (Lyons,) Lutetia Parisiorum, (Paris,) Alesia 
 
 Gallia (Ahse). 3. Galha Aquitanica. Boundaries : the 
 
 Aquitamca. ]3yj,gj-^ggg q^ j-j^g south, tlic Ligcr on the north and 
 east. Principal tribes : Aquitani, (of Iberian origin,) 
 Pictones, Averni, etc., of Celtic descent. Principal 
 
 Gallia Cci- towns I CHmberis, Burdegala (Bourdeaux). 4. Gal- 
 
 ^"^^' lia Belgica. Boundaries : on the north and east the 
 
 Rhine, on the west the Arar, on the south the Rho- 
 danus as far as Lugdunum, so that it comprised at
 
 n.RiOD IV.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. o23 
 
 first the countries bordering on the Rhine and Hel- 
 vetia. The latter, however, were afterwards separated 
 from it under the names of Germania Inferior and 
 Superior. Principal tribes : Nervii, Bellovaci, etc., 
 in the north, of Belgic origin ; Treviri, Ubii, of Ger- 
 man origin ; Sequani, Helvetii, in the interior, of 
 Celtic origin. Principal towns : Vesentio, (Besan- 
 ^on,) Verodunum, (Verdun,) etc. Along the Rhine 
 in Germania Inferior : Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). 
 In Germania Superior : Mogontiacum, (Mayence, or 
 Mentz,) and Argentoratum (Strasburg). 
 
 III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy, see cisaipiue 
 above, p. 253). But as from the time of Cajsar the ^^"^• 
 inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges of Roman citi- 
 zens, it may be reckoned as forming part of Italy. 
 
 IV. Sicilia : divided into Syracuse and Lilybseum. Siciiy. 
 
 V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 257. Sardinia, 
 
 VI. The Insulaä Britannicse (British islands) ; but BriTis'ir 
 of these, only England and the southern part of »siands. 
 Scotland were reduced into a Roman province in the 
 time of Nero, under the name of Britannia Romana. 
 Principal rivers : Tamesis (Thames) and Sabrina 
 (Severn). Cities : Eboracum (York) in the north, 
 Londinum (London) in the south. Into Scotland, 
 Britannia Barbaria, or Caledonia, the Romans often 
 penetrated, but without being able completely to 
 conquer it ; and as for Hibernia, lerne, (Ireland,) it 
 
 was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Ro- 
 man legions. 
 
 VII. The countries south of the Danube, which Countries 
 were subdued under Augustus and formed into the ]')."'„ i"/ .'*'*" 
 following provinces : 1. Vindelicia. Boundaries; on vindL-Ucia. 
 the north the Danube, on the east the ^nus, (Inn,) 
 
 on the west Helvetia, on the south Rhaetia. Principal 
 tribes : Vindelici, Brigantii, etc. Principal towns : 
 Augusta Vindelicorum, (Augsburg,) Brigantia (Bre- 
 genz). 2. Rhastia. Boundaries : on the north Vin- Riwiia. 
 delicia, on the east the Inn and the Salza, on the 
 south the chain of the Alps from Lacus Verbanus 
 (Lago Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia. 
 Principal tribe : Rhseti. Principal towns : Curin, 
 
 Y 2
 
 324 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [liOOK V. 
 
 (Chiir,) Veklidena, (Wilden,) Tridentum (Trent). 
 
 Noiicurn. 3. Noricum. Boundaries : on the north the Danube, 
 on the west the jEnus, on the east the mountain 
 Cetius, (Kahlenberg,) and on the south the Juhan 
 Alps and the Savus (Save). Principal tribes : Boii, 
 Cities : Jovavum, (Salzburg,) Boiodurum (Passau). 
 4. Pannonia Superior. Boundaries : on the north 
 and east the Danube, on the south the Arrabo, 
 (Raab,) on the west the mountain Cetius. Cities : 
 Vindobona, (Vienna,) Caruntum. 5. Pannonia In- 
 ferior. Boundaries : on the north the Arrabo, on 
 the east the Danube, on the south the Savus. Cities : 
 Taurunum, (Belgrade,) Mursa, (Esseg,) and Sir- 
 mium. 6. Moesia Superior. Boundaries : on the 
 north the Danube, on the south Mount Scardus, or 
 Scodrus, on the west Pannonia, on the east the river 
 Cebrus (Ischia). Cities : Singidunum, (Semlin,) and 
 Naissus (Nissa). 7. Moesia Inferior. Boundaries : 
 on the north the Danube, on the west the Cebrus, on 
 the south Mount Haemus, (the Balkan,) and on the 
 east the Pontus Euxinus. Cities : Odessus, (Varna,) 
 Tomi (Tomisvar). 
 
 VIII. Illyricum, in its most extensive signification, 
 comprised all the provinces south of the Danube, 
 together with Rheetia and Dalmatia : but Illyricum 
 Proper comprehends only the lands along the coast 
 of the Adriatic, from Rhaetia in Italy to the river 
 Drinus, and easterly to the Savus. Principal towns : 
 Salona, Epidaurus, (near the present Ragusa,) Scodra 
 (Scutari). 
 
 Macedonia. IX. Macedonia. Boundaries : on the north Mount 
 Scodrus, on the south the Cambunian mountains, on 
 the west the Adriatic, and on the east the ^gean 
 Sea. Rivers : the Nestus, Strymon, and Halyacmon, 
 which fall into the Mgean Sea, and the Apsus and 
 AÖUS, which fall into the Adriatic. Principal tribes : 
 Pseones in the north, Pieres and Mygdones in the 
 south. Principal towns : Pydna, Pella, Thessalonica, 
 Philippi, with other Greek colonies (see above, p. 
 132). Dyracchium and Apollonia on the western 
 coast. 
 
 Pamionia 
 Superior. 
 
 Pannonia 
 Inlerior. 
 
 Moesia 
 S uperior. 
 
 Moesia 
 Inferior. 
 
 Illyricum,
 
 piiuiOD IV.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 325 
 
 X. Thrace had for some time kings of lier own, Thrace, 
 though dependent on Rome, and was first reduced to 
 
 a Roman province under Claudius. Boundaries : on 
 the north Mount Hsemus, on the west the Nestus, on 
 the south and east the sea. River : Hebrus. Princi- 
 pal tribes : Triballi, Bessi, and Odrysae. Cities : 
 Byzantium, Apollonia, Bercea. 
 
 XI. Achaia, (Greece,) see above, p. 106. Achaia. 
 
 XII. To the north of the Danube tlie province of Dacia. 
 Dacia was brought under the Roman empire by 
 Trajan. Boundaries : on the south the Danube, 
 
 on the west the Tibiscus, (Theiss,) on the east the 
 Hierasus, (Pruth,) on the nortli the Carpathian moun- 
 tains. Principal tribe : Daci. Chief cities : Ulpia 
 Trajana and Tibiscum. 
 
 Asiatic Provinces : I. Asia Minor contained the Asiatic 
 provinces: 1. Asia (see above, p. 235.) 2. Bitliy- ^""g^^'JiY,'^^ 
 nia, together with Paphlagonia and part of Pontiis. 
 3. Cilicia, with Pisidia (see above, p. 15.) II. Syria Syria. 
 and Phoenicia. III. The isle of Cyprus. Several isie of Cj- 
 other states, likewise dependent, still preserved their '""'*■ 
 kings : as, Judaea, (became a Roman province, A. D. 
 44,) Commagene, (province A. D. 70, and, together 
 with Judaea, added to Syria,) Cappadocia, (province 
 A. D. 17,) Pontus (completely a province under 
 Nero). Free states at this time : Rhodes, Samos, Free states, 
 (provinces A. D. 70,) and Lycia (province A. D. 
 43). Beyond the Euphrates, Armenia and Mesopo- 
 tamia were reduced to provinces by Trajan, but, as 
 early as the time of Adrian, were abandoned. 
 
 African Provinces. I. Egypt. II. Cyrenaica, African 
 with the isle of Crete. III. Africa, Num'idia (see l^;;;;'"'" 
 above, p. 39). Mauritania still had its separate king, Cynnaica. 
 but he was set aside, A. D. 41, and the country di- Mauritania. 
 vided into two provinces : 1. Mauritania Caesariensis. 
 Boundaries : on the east the river Ampsaga, on 
 tiie west the Mulucha. Principal places : Igilgilis 
 and Caesaria. 2. Mauritania Tingitana, from the 
 river Mulucha to the Atlantic Ocean. Capital : 
 Tingis. ^, 
 
 Principal states on the borders of the empire : I. !i,cboniirs
 
 326 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Germany. Germania. Boundaries : on the south the Danube, 
 on the north the sea, on the west the Rhine, on the 
 east undetermined, though the Vistula is generally- 
 regarded as such. Principal rivers : the Danubius, 
 Rhenus, (Rhine,) Albis, (Elbe,) Visurgis, (Weser,) 
 Viadrus, (Oder,) and the Vistula ; the Lupias (Lippe) 
 and Amisia (Ems) are likewise frequently mentioned. 
 Mountains and forests : the Hercynian forest, a ge- 
 neral name for the forest mountains, particularly of 
 eastern Germany ; Melibocus, (the Hartz,) Sudetus 
 (the Thuringian forest) ; the forest of Teutoburg, to 
 the south of Westphalia, etc. It would be useless to 
 seek for a general political division, or for the cities 
 of ancient Germany : we can only point out the 
 situation of the principal tribes. It is necessary, 
 however, to precede this by two observations : 1. 
 The same territory, in the tide of forcible emigration 
 and conquest, and particularly after the second cen- 
 tury, often changed its inhabitants. 2. The names 
 of some of the principal tribes often became that of 
 a confederacy. The principal tribes in the period 
 of Augustus were, in northern Germany ; the Batavi 
 in Holland ; the Frisii in Friesland ; the Bructeri 
 in Westphalia ; the lesser and larger Chauci in Old- 
 enburg and Bremen ; the Cherusci, likewise the 
 name of a confederation, in Brunswick ; the Catti in 
 Hesse. In southern (central) Germany ; the Her- 
 munduri in Franconia ; the Marcomanni in Bohemia. 
 
 Aiemanni. Xhc Alcmauni, uot the name of a single tribe, but 
 of a confederation, are first mentioned in the third 
 century : in the period of Augustus these tribes, and 
 the principal of those of eastern Germany, which 
 gradually became known, were included under the 
 general name of Suevi. 
 
 The northernmost countries of Europe were con- 
 sidered as isles of the German Ocean, and therefore 
 regarded as belonging to Germany. They were 
 Scandinavia, or Scandia, (southern Sweden,) Neri- 
 gon, (Norway,) and Eningia, or probably Finningia 
 (Finland). The northernmost island was called 
 Thule. 
 
 Suevi. 
 
 Scandi- 
 navia.
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM CiESAR TO COMMODUS. 327 
 
 The nortli of Europe, from the Vistula to the 
 Tanais, (Don,) was comprised under the general 
 name of Sarmatia : but beyond the territory about S;irn.ati 
 the Danube, and especially Dacia, (see above, p. 
 325,) they were only in a slight degree acquainted 
 with the coast of the Baltic, by the amber trade. 
 
 In Asia the Roman empire was bounded by Great 
 Armenia, (see above, p. 16, and 240,) the Parthian Parthia 
 empire from the Euphrates to the Indus, (see above, 
 p. 16 — 19,) and the peninsula of Arabia (see above, 
 p. 16). 
 
 Eastern Asia, or India, became known to the Ro- India. 
 mans by a commercial intercourse carried on between 
 them, and which began soon after the conquest of 
 Egypt. It was divided into India on this side the Gan- 
 ges, that is, 1. The territory between the Indus and 
 Ganges ; 2. The peninsula on this side, the western 
 coast of which in particular, (Malabar,) was very 
 well known ; and, 3. The island of Taprobana, (Cey- 
 lon,) and India beyond the Ganges, to which also the 
 distant Serica belonged : but of all these countries 
 they had but a very imperfect knowledge. 
 
 The boundaries of Africa were Ethiopia above Africa. 
 Egypt, and Geetulia and the great sandy desert of 
 Libya above the other provinces. 
 
 FIRST SECTION. 
 
 From Augustus Caesar io ihe death of Commodus, B. C. 
 SO— A. a 193." 
 
 Sources. For the wliole of this period Dion Cassius, lib. rorum 
 11. — Ixxx., is oui- historian ; though of his last twenty books we Period. 
 have only the abridgement of Xiphilinus. For the history of 
 the emperors from Tiberius to the beginning of Vesi^asian's 
 reign, tlie principal writer is TACrrus, in his A7wa1s, A. C. 14 
 — 63 ; (of which, however, part of the history of Tiberius, 32 
 — 34, all of Caligula, and the first six years of Claudius, 37 — 
 47, as well as the last year and a half of Nero, are unfortunately 
 lost :) and in his History, of which scarcely the first three years, 
 69 — 71, are come down to us. Suetonius's Lives of the Ccc-
 
 328 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth sars, down to Domitian, are so much the more valuable, be- 
 Peiuod. cause in a state like the Roman it becomes of importance to 
 " know the character and domestic life of the ruling men. For 
 
 the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius tlie History of Velleius 
 Pateucülüs is not of less consequence, although written in a 
 court-like tone. The sources for the history of the separate 
 Ca3sars will be given as we come to them. 
 
 The following are the labours of modern writers : 
 
 Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont rcgne 
 dans les six premiers siccles de VEglise, par M. Lexain de 
 TiLLEMONT. ä Bruxelle, 1 707, 5 vols. 8vo. (An earlier edition 
 in 4to, 1700, 4 vols.) The work of Tillemont has some worth 
 as a laborious compilation, but is superseded in its execution by 
 the following : 
 
 Histoire des Empereurs Romains, depids Auguste jusqu'' a 
 Constantin, par M. Crevier. Paris, 1749, 12 vols. 8vo. 
 [Translated into English.] A continuation of Rollin's Roman 
 History, (see above, p. 258,) quite in the spirit of that writer, 
 and by one of his school. 
 
 Dr. Goldsmith's Roman History, from the foundation of 
 the city of Rome to the destruction of the loestern empire. Lon- 
 don, 1774, 2 vols. 8vo. Rather a sketch than a detailed his- 
 tory (see above, p. 257, sqq.). 
 
 \ History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contem- 
 porary nations, hy M. D. G. H. Hubler. Fryburg, 1803, 3 
 parts. Continuation of the work cited p. 2 : it reaches down 
 to Constantine. 
 
 Augustus 1. Octavianus Caesar, on whom the senate con- 
 
 B^c'so— f^^i'^d the honourable title of Augustus, which they 
 A. c. 14. periodically renewed, and which descended to his 
 successors, possessed the sole dominion of the em- 
 pire during- forty-four years. The government, not- 
 withstanding the great revolutions by which the re- 
 public had been converted into a monarchy, was not 
 yet, either in fact or in form, altogether a despotic 
 one. The private interest of the ruler required that 
 the republican form should be preserved to the ut- 
 most, as without that he could not make an entire 
 change ; and the rest of his history sufficiently shows, 
 that the cruelty with which he may be reproached in 
 the early part of his career, was rather owing to cir- 
 cumstances than to his natural disposition. But 
 during a reign so long, so tranquil, and so fortunate, 
 could it be otherwise than that the republican spirit, 
 which at the beginning existed only in a iew indi- 
 viduals, should evaporate of itself!
 
 PERIOD iv.] FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. 329 
 
 The forms under which Augustus held the different brandies Fourth 
 of supreme power (dictatorship excepted) were ; — the consuhvte, 1'ekiod. 
 
 which, till B. C. 21, was annually renewed ; and the pofestas 
 
 consularis, which, in B. C. 19, was settled on him for ever ; — 
 the iribu icia potestas, which was, 30, granted him for ever, 
 rendered his person sacred, (sacrosmicta,) and prepared the way 
 to the Judicia majestatis (accusations of high treason). As Im- 
 perator, 31, he continued commander of all the forces and ol)- 
 tained the imperium proconsulare (proconsular power) in all 
 the provinces. He assumed the magistrafiira morum, (censor- 
 ship,) 19 ; and became pontifex maximus, (high priest.) 13. 
 To avoid all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first ac- 
 cepted the sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards 
 had it renewed from time to time, for ten or five years, which, 
 at a later period, gave rise to the sacra decennalia. 
 
 2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent The senate. 
 council of state, and Augustus himself endeavoured 
 to increase its authority by more than one purifica- 
 tion (/ec^/'o) ; but the connexion between him and 
 that assembly seemed of a very fragile nature, as it 
 vv^as undetermined, and could not at this time be 
 settled, whether Augustus was over the senate, or the 
 senate over Augustus. All matters of state could not 
 be brought before the senate, as even the most im- 
 portant often required secrecy. It naturally followed, 
 that a prince, as yet without a court, and who had no 
 proper minister, but only his friends and freedmen, 
 should consult with those whom he thought most 
 worthy his confidence, a Maecenas, or an Agrippa, 
 &c. Hence afterwards was formed the secret coun- 
 cil of state {concUmm secretum principis). Among 
 the republican magistrates tlie highest lost most ; 
 and as so much now depended upon the preservation 
 of peace in the capital, the offices of praefect of the 
 city (prcefectus urhis) and praefect of provisions 
 {prwfectus annonce) were not only made permanent, 
 but became, especially the former, the principal 
 oflfices in the state. 
 
 The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in 
 its strict distinction of raulvs; hence, therefore, the magistrates, 
 especially the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-con- 
 tinued custom of nominating under-consuls, {cniisulcs sitffcch,) 
 which in time became merely a formal assumption of the onin- 
 menta consularia et triumphalia (consular ami triumphal oriia-
 
 330 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [eook 
 
 Fourth 
 Peiuod. 
 
 Introduc- 
 tion of 
 standing 
 armies. 
 
 The pro- 
 vinces di- 
 vided be- 
 tween the 
 emperor 
 and the 
 senate. 
 
 Finances ; 
 
 ments). Other offices were created for the purpose of rcwtu'ding 
 friends and dependents. 
 
 3. The introduction of standinf^ armies, already 
 long prepared, naturally followed a dominion acquired 
 by war ; and became, indeed, necessary to guard the 
 frontiers and preserve the newly-made conquests ; 
 the establishment of the guards and militia of the 
 city (cohortes jircetorianw and cohortes urhance) were 
 measures equally necessary for the security of the 
 capital and the throne. The creation of txüo praeto- 
 rian prsefects, however, instead of owe, diminished 
 for the present the great importance of that office. 
 
 Distribution of the legions over the provinces in castra sta- 
 tlva, (fixed camps,) which soon grew into cities, especially along 
 the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates (Jegiones GermaniccB, 
 lUyric(e, et Syriacce). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum 
 and Ravenna. 
 
 4. The government, as well as the administration 
 and revenue of the provinces, Augustus willingly 
 divided with the senate ; keeping to himself those 
 on the frontiers, {provincice principis,) in which the 
 legions were quartered, and leaving to that assembly 
 the others {provincice senatiis). Hence his deputies 
 {legati, lieutenants) exercised both civil and military 
 authority in his name ; while those of the senate, on 
 the contrary, {proconsides,) only administered in 
 civil affairs. Both were, in general, attended by 
 commissioners {^procurator es et qiicestores). The 
 provinces were unquestionably gainers by this new 
 arrangement, not only because their governors were 
 more carefully looked after, but because they were 
 paid by the state. 
 
 The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great de- 
 gree, upon the disposition of the emi^eror and governor ; but 
 there was also an essential difference between the provinces of 
 the emperor and those of the senate {provincicB pr'mcipis et 
 Senat fis) : in the latter there was no military oppression as there 
 was in the former ; and to that may be asiribed the flourishing 
 state of Gaul, Spain, Africa, etc. 
 
 5. There is little doubt but that the finances of 
 the treasury remained, upon the whole, much the 
 same as before : but in its internal administration
 
 TERioD IV.] FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. 331 
 
 Augustus made many alterations, of wliich we have Fourth 
 but a very imperfect knowledge. Of course there ^'^"'°"' 
 would be at first an obvious difference between the the private 
 privy and military chest of the emperor, (ßscus,) cherof 'th? 
 which was at his immediate disposal, and the state emperor; 
 chest, {cerarium,) which he disposed of indirectly ches't''^^ 
 through the senate, though it must afterwards follow 
 as a natural consequence of increasing despotism, swallowed 
 that the latter should progressively become merged f^r^er^''^ 
 in the former. 
 
 The great disorder into which the treasury had been thrown 
 during the civil wars, and especially by giving away the state 
 lands in Italy to the soldiers, together with the heavy sums re- 
 quired for the maintenance of the standing army now established, 
 must have rendered it much more difficult for Augustus to ac- 
 complish the reform he so happily executed ; and in which it 
 seems to have been his chief aim to place every thing, as far as 
 possible, upon a solid and lasting foundation. The principal 
 changes which he made in the old system of taxation seem to 
 have been : 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in the provinces ' 
 
 should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each indi- 
 vidual. 2. The customs, partly by re-establishing former ones, 
 and partly by imposing new ones as well as an excise, {centesbna 
 rerutn venalium,) were rendered more productive. The posses- 
 sion of Egypt, which was the depot of nearly all the commerce 
 of the East, rendei-ed the customs at this time of great import- 
 ance to Rome. 3. All the state lands in the provinces were, 
 by degrees, changed into crown lands. Of the new taxes the 
 most considerable were the vk/esima hereditatum, (the twentieth 
 of inheritances,) though with important restrictions; and the 
 fines upon celibacy by the lex Julia Pojypaa. — The greater part 
 of these state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first, 
 into the ßscus : that is, the whole revenues of the proi'bicue 
 principis, as well as of those parts of the proi^incicc senattls 
 which were appropriated to the maintenance of the troo})« ; the 
 revenues arising from the crown domains ; the vigcsiina, etc. 
 To the fPrarium (now under three prafectl <prarii) remained a 
 ])art of the revenues of the provincuc senatus, the customs and 
 the fines. Thus it aj^pears that Augustus was master of the 
 finances, of tlie legions, and thereby of the empire. 
 
 See above, p. 289, the writings of IIkgewiscii and Bossk. 
 
 6. The extension of the Roman empire under Extension 
 Augustus was very considerable ; being generally of "l^'J'.*-" """ 
 such a nature as conduced to the security of the 
 interior, and to the safeguard of the frontiers. Tlie Spain nn.i 
 complete subjugation of northern Spain, and western ^■'"'' *'•
 
 332 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth Gaul, securecl the frontiers on that side ; as did the 
 threatened but never executed expedition against 
 
 20. the Parthians, and the one actually undertaken against 
 
 Coimtries Armenia, A. C. 2. But the most important con- 
 
 Drnub'e ^ quest in this quarter was that of the countries south 
 
 15—35. of the Danube, viz. Rhsetia, Vindelicia, and Noricum, 
 
 29. as M^ell as Pannonia, and afterwards Moesia. To 
 
 counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia 
 
 24. Felix completely failed : and that against Ethiopia 
 
 was of no further consequence than to strengtlien the 
 
 frontiers. 
 
 Unsuccess- 7. All thcsc conqucsts together, however, did not 
 
 fui attempt ^Qg^- ^j^^ Romaus SO much as their fruitless attempt 
 
 to subclue p 1 1 • 1 ^ 
 
 Germany, to subjugatc Germany, hrst, by the sons-m-law of 
 Augustus, Drusus and Tiberius Nero, and afterwards 
 by the son of the former, Drusus Germanicus. Whe- 
 ther or not this undertaking was a political fault, 
 must always remain a problem, as it is now impossi- 
 ble to say how far the security of the frontiers could 
 be preserved without it. 
 
 Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under 
 the command of Drusus, B. C. 12 ; Lower Germany (West- 
 phalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse) being in general the theatre 
 of the war ; while the Lower Rhine was attacked both by sea 
 and land at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, 
 on account of the great assistance afforded the Romans by their 
 alliance with the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and 
 Chauci. The intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, 
 penetrated as far as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, 
 but died on his return. His successors in the command, (Tibe- 
 rius, 9 — 7, Domitius, ^Enobarbus, 7 — 2, M. Vinicius, 2 — A. C. 
 2, then again Tiberius, A. C. 2 — 4, who was followed by 
 Quintilius Varus, A. C. 5 — 9,) endeavoured to build on the 
 foundation laid by Drusus, and, by erecting forts and intro- 
 ducing the Roman language and laws, gradually to reduce into a 
 province the part of Germany they had ah-eady subdued ; but 
 the craftily organized revolt of the young Arminius, (Hermann,) 
 a prince of the Cherusci, son of Siegmar, and son-in-law of 
 Segestes, a friend of the Romans, together with the defeat of 
 Varus and his army in the Teutobui-g wald, or forest, near 
 Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany from slavery, and its 
 language from annihilation. It moreover taught the conquerors 
 (what they never forgot) that the legions were not invincible. 
 Augustus immediately despatched Tiberius, who had just quell- 
 ed a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together with Germani-
 
 PEr.ioD IV.] FROM CAESAR TO COMMODUS. 333 
 
 cus, to the Rhine ; but these confined themselves to simple FounTir 
 incursions, till Gernianicus, A. C. 14 — 16, again carried his 1'euiod. 
 
 arms further into the country, and certainly penetrated as lar 
 
 as the Weser. Yet, notwithstaudinir his victory near Idista- 
 visus, (Minden,) the loss of liis fleet and part of his army by a 
 tempest on his return, and tlie jealousy of 'J'iberius at liis vic- 
 tory, obliged him to give up his command. From this time the 
 Germans were left at rest in this quarter. 
 
 f Mannert, Geography of the Greeks and Romans, part iii. 
 
 8. The long and, for Italy itself, peaceable reign Rei;-'n of 
 of Augustus, has generally been considered a fortunate bi"i'iu"uit' ' * 
 and brilliant period of Roman history ; and, when I'^^^iod for 
 compared with the times which preceded and fol- 
 lowed, it certainly was so. Security of person and 
 property were re-established ; the arts of peace flour- 
 ished under the benign patronage of Augustus and 
 
 his favourite Maecenas ; and we may add, that, as 
 the formal restoration of the republic would only 
 have been the signal for new commotions, the go- 
 vernment of Augustus, if not the very best, was, at 
 least, the best that Rome could then bear. Should it 
 be said his private life was not blameless, it may be 
 replied, that he inflexibly maintained an outward 
 decency, to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only 
 daughter ; and if laws could have bettered the pub- 
 lic morals, there was no lack of decrees for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Among his most important laws to tliis end are, the lex Julia 
 de adidteriis and the lex Papia Poppcea against celibacy. The 
 latter excited many murmurs. 
 
 9. Nearly all that remains of the history of Au- Au-ustuss 
 gustus, is an account of his domestic troubles ; the '""''•" 
 most unhappy family being that of the emperor. 
 
 The influence of Livia, his second wife, was very Livin. 
 great, but does not seem to have been perverted to 
 any worse purpose than raising her sons, Tiberius 
 and Drusus, to the throne. The naturally unsettled 
 state of the succession in a government such as that 
 of Rome now was, became much increased by cir- 
 cumstances. After the untimely death of his neph(!w b. e. 2^. 
 and son-in-law Marccllus, whom he had adopte«!, his 
 widow Julia, the only child of Augustus by hi^; wile ru-.i to
 
 334 ROMAN STATE. [nooK r. 
 
 FouniH Scribonia, was married to Ag'rippa. The two eldest 
 ^'"°°' sons of this marriage, C. and L. Caäsar, were adopted, 
 Agiippa, upon the death of their father, by the emperor, who 
 ■ ^" ^^'12. showed so much fondness towards them as they grew 
 6— A. c. 9. up, that Tiberius, who in the mean time had married 
 A. c. 2. their mother, Juha, — afterwards banished by Augustus 
 for her hcentious conduct, — left the court in disgust. 
 2—4. The death of the two young princes, however, again 
 Tiberius rcvivcd the hopes of Tiberius, who was adopted by 
 Aucl^ustus^ Augustus upon the condition that he should also 
 4- adopt Drusus Germanicus, the son of his deceased 
 
 brother Drusus ; after which Augustus, with the con- 
 sent of the senate, formally associated him with him- 
 self in the government, making him an equal partner 
 in the imperial privileges : called by his successors, 
 le.v regia. 
 
 Marmor Ancyranum ; or inscriptions in the temple of Au- 
 gustus at Ancyra. A copy of the account given of his govern- 
 ment, wliich Augustus latterly caused to be set up at Rome as 
 a public memorial : unfortunately much mutilated. It is to be 
 found in Chishull, Antiq. Asiatic. 
 
 Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, by Thojias Blackwell. 
 London, 1760, 3 vols. 4to, divided into fifteen books. The last 
 vol. was published after the death of the author, by ]\Ir. Mills. 
 The last two books of this prolix work contain a description of 
 the contemporary affairs of Augustus ; the others go back to 
 earlier times. A just appreciation of Augustus requires a pre- 
 vious critical examination of the sources from which Suetonius 
 has drawn the materials for his biography. 
 
 Histoire des triumvirats augmentee de Vhistoire d' Auguste, 
 par Larry. Trevoux, 1741, 4 parts, 8vo. The last pai't of 
 this simple nai'rative contains the history of Augustus from the 
 death of Catiline. 
 
 August 14, 10. The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as 
 16,^7!^"^'^ he was called after his adoption, Augustus Tiberius 
 Ca3sar, from his fifty-sixth to his seventy-eighth year, 
 changed rather the spirit than the form of the Roman 
 Changes in Constitution. He succeeded quietly to the vacant 
 tution"* ' throne at Rome, although the legions in Pannonia, 
 and still more in Germany, felt that they could make 
 power of emperors. Under him the comitia, or assemblies of 
 reducTiV tlic people, wcrc reduced to a mere shadow ; as he 
 transferred their duties to the senate, which also be- 
 came the highest tribunal for the state crimes of its
 
 PEx-iiOD IV.] FROM CyESAII TO COMMODUS. 335 
 
 own members : this assembly, however, had now been folkth 
 so much accustomed to obey the will of the prince, ^'^"'°"' 
 that every thing depended on his personal character. 
 Tiberius founded his despotism upon the J lalicia ma- despotism 
 Jestatis, or accusations of high treason, now become |""y'"^"*^'' 
 an engine of terror, the senate also sharing his guilt (Hda majes- 
 with a pusillanimity and servility which knew no fCptraded 
 bounds. This degraded assembly, indeed, from the character of 
 moment that it ceased to be the ruling authority of a '^^ ^^"*^^- 
 free state, necessarily became the passive instrument 
 of the most brutal tyranny. Notwithstanding the 
 military talents and many good qualities of Tiberius, 
 his despotic character had been formed long before 
 his fifty-sixth year, w^hen he mounted the throne ; al- 
 though exterior circumstances prevented him from 
 entirely throwing off the mask which he had hitherto 
 worn. 
 
 The foundation of the judicia majestatis, which soon became 
 so terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during 
 the reign of Augustus by the lex Julia de majestate, and the 
 cognitiones extraordinarice, or commissioners appointed to take 
 cognizance of certain crimes : it was, however, the abuse of them 
 by Tiberius and his successors, which rendered them so dreadful. 
 
 12. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion, Rnin of 
 and therefore of his hate, was Germanicus, a man cu's'ami'his 
 almost adored by the army and the people. This f^imiiy. 
 brave general he soon recalled from Germany, and 
 
 sent into Syria to quell the disorders of the East. 
 After having successfully put an end to the commo- 
 tions which called him there, he was poisoned by the A.c. lo. 
 contrivances of Cn. Piso and his wife ; and even that 
 did not shelter the numerous family which he left be- 
 hind, with his widow Agrippina, from persecution 
 and ruin. 
 
 The expeditions of Germanicus in the East not only gave a 
 king to Armenia, but also reduced Cappadocia and Commagcne 
 to Roman provinces, A. C. 17. 
 
 Histoire de CcBsar Gerinanicus, par M. L. D. B[EAUFOltT]. 
 ä Leyden, 1741. An unpretending chronological narrative. 
 
 13. Rome, however, soon experienced to her cost l. -i:iiMs 
 the powerful ascendency which L. /Elius Sejanus, the |]|'p''"ru'!i 
 prsefect of the praetorian guard, had acquired over minister oi
 
 336 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [dook V, 
 
 Fourth 
 
 PiilUOD. 
 
 Tiberius ; 
 23—31. 
 
 Tiberius re- 
 tires to Ca- 
 preae, 26. 
 
 Fall of 
 Sejanus 
 attended 
 with <^reat 
 carnage, 31. 
 Tiberius 
 becomes a 
 despotic 
 monster. 
 
 (!!aligula, 
 Murcli 16, 
 37_Jan. 
 24, 41. 
 
 Claudius, 
 Jan. 24, 2 
 — Oct. 13, 
 54, 
 
 the weak 
 tool of his 
 Avives and 
 freed men. 
 
 the mind of Tiberius, Xvhose unlimited confidence he 
 possessed the more, as he enjoyed it without a rival. 
 The eight years of his authority were rendered terri- 
 ble not only by the cantonment of his troops in bar- 
 racks near the city, {castra iprcEtoriana^ but (having- 
 first persuaded Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that 
 he might more securely play the tyrant in the isle of 
 Capreae) by his endeavouring to open a way for him- 
 self to the throne by villanies and crimes without 
 number, and by his cruel persecution of the family 
 of Germanicus. The despotism he had introduced 
 became still more dreadful by his own fall, in which 
 not only his whole party, but every one that could be 
 considered as connected with it, became involved. The 
 picture of the atrocious despotism of Tiberius is ren- 
 dered doubly disgusting by the horrid and unnatural 
 lust which he joined to it in his old age. 
 
 Tiberius's misfortune was, that he came too late to the throne. 
 His early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties. 
 It is properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose 
 flattery of Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily 
 justified than his praisj of Sejanus. 
 
 14. At the age of twenty-five Caius Csesar Caligula, 
 the only remaining son of Germanicus, ascended the 
 throne ; but the hopes which had been formed of 
 this young prince were soon woefully disappointed. 
 His previous sickness and debaucheries had so dis- 
 torted his understanding, that his short reign was one 
 tissue of disorder and crime. Yet he did still more 
 harm to the state by his besotted profusion than by 
 his tiger-like cruelty. At length, after a career of 
 nearly four years, he was assassinated by Cassius 
 Chserea and Cornehus Sabinus, two officers of his 
 guard. 
 
 15. His uncle Tiberius Claudius Caesar, who, at 
 the age of fifty, succeeded him, was the first emperor 
 raised to the throne by the guards ; a favour which 
 he rewarded by granting them a donative. Too weak 
 to rule of himself, almost imbecile from former neg- 
 lect, profligate, and cruel from fear, he became the 
 tool of the licentiousness of his wives and freedmen.
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM CESAR TO COMMODUS. 337 
 
 Coupled with the names of Messalina and Agrippina, Foueth 
 we now hear, for the first time in Roman history, of ^'"°"- 
 
 Claudius, 
 54. 
 
 a Pallas and a Narcissus. The dominion of Messa- MessaUna; 
 lina was still more hurtful to the state by her rapa- 
 cious cupidity, to which every thing gave way, than 
 by her dissolute life ; and the blow which at last 
 punished her unexampled wantonness, left a still 
 more dangerous woman to supply her place. This Agrippina 
 was Agrippina, her niece, widow of L. Domitius, who fhronrfor'^ 
 joined to the vices of her predecessor a boundless her son, 
 ambition, unknown to the former. Her chief aim Tistance^of ' 
 was to procure the succession for Domitius Nero, her Buirhus, 
 son by a former marriage — who liad been adopted 
 by Claudius, and married to his daughter Octavia — .50. 
 by setting aside Britanniens, the son of Claudius ; 
 and this she hoped to effect, by poisoning Claudius, poisons 
 having already gained Burrhus, by making him sole 
 prsefect of the praetorian guard. Notwithstanding 
 the contentions with the Germans and Parthians (see 
 above, p. 243) were only on the frontiers, the 
 boundaries of the Roman empire were in many coun- 
 tries extended. 
 
 Commencement of the Roman conquests in Britain (whither 
 Claudius himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C. 
 43. Under the same general, Mauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43, 
 Judasa, 44, (see above, p. 250,) and Tliraee, 47, were reduced 
 to Roman provinces. He also abolished the prasfectures which 
 had hitlierto existed in Italy. 
 
 16. Nero Claudius Csesar, supported by Agrip- Noo, Oct. 
 pina and tlie praetorian guard, succeeded Claudius at Ju',le^T 
 the age of seventeen. Brought up in the midst of"«- 
 the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted education, tionand'^''' 
 formed rather for a professor of music and the fine character, 
 arts than for an emperor, he ascended the throne like 
 a youth eager for enjoyment ; and throughout his 
 whole reign his cruelty appears subordinate to his 
 fondness for debaucheries and revelry. The unset- 
 tled state of the succession first called into action his 
 savage disposition ; and after the murder of Britanni- Destroys 
 cus the sword fell in regular order upon all those ^nd airihe* 
 who were even remotely connected with the Julian Julian fa- 
 
 z
 
 338 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth family. His vanity as a performer and composer ex- 
 LR^u^ cited in an equal degree his cruelty ; and, us among 
 miiy: his all tyrants, every execution gives occasion for others, 
 ma'kE him "^^ need not wonder at his putting to death every 
 cruel: one that excelled him. His connexion, however, in 
 the early part of his reign, with Agrippina, Burrhus, 
 and Seneca, during which he introduced some useful 
 regulations into the treasury, kept him within the 
 bounds of decency. But Poppeea Sabina having 
 murders his driven him on to the murder of his mother and his 
 mSher? wifc Octavia, and Tigellinus being made his confi- 
 dant, he felt no longer restrained by the fear of pub- 
 lic opinion. The executions of individuals, nearly all 
 of which history has recorded, was not, perhaps, upon 
 plunders the whole, the greatest evil ; the plunder of the pro- 
 Scerto vinces, not only to support his own loose and eife- 
 supiwrt his minate pleasures, but also to maintain the people in 
 pio igacy. ^ continual state of intoxication, had nearly caused 
 the dissolution of the empire. The last years of Nero 
 were marked by a striking and undoubted insanit}', 
 which displayed itself in his theatrical performances, 
 A. c. 68. and even in the history of his fall. It appears that 
 both around and upon a throne like that of Rome, 
 heroes were formed for vice as well as virtue ! 
 
 Discovery of the conspiracy of Piso, 65, and the revolt of Ju- 
 lius Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in 
 Spain, who is there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in 
 Lusitania. Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in 
 Upper Germany by the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these in- 
 surrections seemed quelled, when the prtetoi'ian guard, instigated 
 thereto by Nymphidius, broke out into rebellion in Rome itself. 
 Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68. Foreign wars during 
 his reign : in Britain, (occasioned by the revolt of Boadicea.) 
 great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman pro- 
 vince, by Suetonius Paulinus ; in Armenia, under the command 
 of the valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians (see above, p. 
 243) ; and in Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in 
 Rome, 64, which gives rise to the first persecution against the 
 Christians. 
 
 The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his pre- 
 decessors was so tamely submitted to by the nation, may un- 
 doubtedly be found in the fact, that the greater part of it was 
 fed by the emperors. To the monthly distributions of corn 
 were now added the extraordinary congiaria and viscerationes
 
 I'ERioi) i\.] FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. 339 
 
 (supplies of wine and meat). The periods of tyranny were very Folutii 
 likely the golden days of the people. Pekiod. 
 
 17. By the death of Nero the house of Csesar be- Extinction 
 came extinct, and this o"ave rise to so many commo- ".*^^'^': "'^"r 
 tions, tliat HI somewhat less than two years, iour causes 
 emperors by violence obtained possession of the ^les? " " 
 throne. The rio:ht of the senate to name, or at least 
 
 to confirm, the successors to the throne, was still in- 
 deed acknowledged ; but as the armies had found out 
 that they could create emperors, the power of the 
 senate dwindled into an empty ceremony. Servius oaiba, 
 Sulpicius Galba, now seventy-two years of age, hav- ^"^ ^'' ^^ 
 ing been already proclaimed emperor by the legions 69, 
 in Spain, and acknowledged by the senate, gained 
 possession of Rome without striking a blow, the at- 
 tempt of Nymphidius having completely failed, and 
 Virginius Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. Oai- 
 ba, however, having given offence both to the prseto- kiued by 
 rian o-uard and the German leo-ions, was dethroned *'.''-' p^xw- 
 
 1 1 1 1 • • • /• 1 • 1' (• • 1 »"»an guard. 
 
 by the guards, at the mstigation ot his former friend 
 Otho, at the very time when he thought he had se- 
 cured his throne by adopting the young Licinius 
 Piso, and had frustrated the hopes of Otho. 
 
 18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed ac- otho, Jan., 
 knowledged emperor by the senate, but wanted the ^j|— ^i""'' 
 sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming 
 
 their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded Italy. 
 Otho marches against him, but after the loss of the 
 battle of Bedriacum kills himself — whether from fear 
 or patriotism, remains uncertain. 
 
 The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are 
 their Lives by Plutakcii. 
 
 19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was ac- vitciiius, 
 knowledged emperor not only by the senate, but uJ!'.'''>ü''c't 
 likewise in the provinces ; his debaucheries and 
 cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness of 
 
 his troops, having rendered him odious at Rome, the 
 Syrian legions rebelled and prochumed their general, 
 T. Flavins Vespasian, empei'or, who, at the solicita- Vespasian 
 tion of the powerful Mutianus, governor of Syria, {'"'"^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 accepted the imperial diadem. The troops on the 
 
 z 2
 
 340 ROMAN STATi:. [book v 
 
 Fourth Danube declaring for him shortly after, and marching 
 '_ '_ into Italy under their general Antonius Primus, de- 
 
 feated the army of Vitellius at Cremona, A^itellius 
 was immediately hurled fi-om the throne, though not 
 till after some blood had been spilt by the commo- 
 tions that took place at Rome, in which Flavius 
 Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian, was slain, and the 
 capitol burnt. 
 "Vespasian, 90. Flavius Vcspasian ascended the throne in his 
 —June 24, fifty-ninth year, and became thereby the founder of a 
 '^*'^- dynasty which gave three emperors to Rome. The 
 
 state, almost ruined by profusion, civil war, and suc- 
 cessive revolutions, found in Vespasian a monarch 
 Fixes the ^ycll suitcd to its uuhappy condition. He endeavoured, 
 se°rate° ^s far as he could, to determine the relations between 
 himself and the senate, while, by a decree, he restored 
 to it all the rights and privileges which had been 
 conferred upon it by his predecessors of the family 
 of Csesar, and settled and added some others [lex 
 regia). He made a thorough reform in the corn- 
 improves pletely-exhausted treasury, which he recruited in 
 lur/^'^'^ part by reducing the countries Nero had made free, 
 together with some others, into provinces; partly by 
 restoring the ancient customs, by increasing others, 
 and by imposing new ones ; without this it would 
 have been impossible for him to have re-established 
 founds pub- the discipline of the army. His liberality in the 
 in<rs"and fouudatiou of public buildings, as well in Rome as in 
 j.iomotes other cities, and the care with which he promoted 
 uca 1 n , g(^|ygr^|JQj^^ l^y gi'anting salaries to public teachers, 
 are sufficient to free him from the reproach of avarice ; 
 and although, on account of their dangerous opinions, 
 banishes he bauishcd the Stoics, (who since the time of Nero 
 the Stoics; J^aj becomc very numcrous, and retained nearly all 
 the principles of republicanism,) the annulling of the 
 and annuls jndicia mcijestatis and the i-estoration of the authority 
 \najes'tatü. ^f the scnatc show how far he was from being a 
 despot. 
 
 Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Comma- 
 gene, were brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. 
 Foreign wars : that against the Jews, which ended with the de-
 
 rEuioD IV.] FROM C.-ESAR TO COMMODUS. 341 
 
 struction of Jerusalem, A. C. 70 ; and a much greater war Fourtu 
 against the Batavians and their allies under Civilis, who, durin'j- I^ukiod. 
 the late civil wars, sought to shake oft' the Roman yoke, 69; 
 but were reduced to an accommodation by Cerealis, 70. Ex- 
 peditions of Agricola in Britain, 78 — 85, who not only subdued 
 all England, and introduced the Roman manners and customs, 
 but also attacked and sailed round Scotland. 
 
 D. Vespasifums, sive de vita et legislatio7ie T. Flavii Vespa- 
 siani Imp. commentarius, mictore A. G. Cramer. Jenre, 1785. 
 An excellent inquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of tlie 
 lex regia. The second part, de leg is fa done, contains a learned 
 commentary upon the senatus considta, during his i-eign. 
 
 21. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, who Titus, _ 
 in the year 70 had been created Caesar, and rei^'ned 79-!l'sei'.t. 
 from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second year, gives ^•^' '^^• 
 us the rare example of a prince becoming better on 
 
 the throne. His short and benevolent reio'n was, 
 indeed, only remarkable for its public calamities : an 
 eruption of Mount Vesuvius, overwhelming several 
 cities, was followed by a destructive fire, and a dread- 
 ful plague at Rome. His early death secured him Dreadful 
 the reputation of being, if not the happiest, at least p[u4e|'7i) 
 the best of princes. 
 
 22. His younger brother and successor, L. Flavius Domiiiun, 
 Domitian, who reigned from his thirtieth to his forty- ^'slpt'^is^ 
 fifth year, gives an example quite opposite to that of 'J^J; 
 Titus; beginning with justice and severity, he soon 
 degenerated into the completest despot that ever a complete 
 swayed the Roman sceptre. His cruelty, joined to de^por'*"^ 
 an equal degree of pride, and nourished by suspicion 
 
 and jealousy, made liim the enemy of all who excelled 
 him by their exploits, their riches, or their talents. 
 The mortifications to which his pride must have unsnccess- 
 been subjected in consequence of his unsuccessful*"''""""' 
 wars against the Catti, and more particularly the 
 Daci, increased his bad disposition. His despttism 
 was founded upon his armies, whose pay he aug- 
 mented one fourth ; and that he might not thereby raises the 
 diminish the treasury, as he had too much done at ""''''"■''■*' 
 fii'st, he multiplied the judicia inajestatis, rendering 
 it still more terrible by the employment of secret in- employs in- 
 formers, {(klatot^en,) in order, by confiscations, to 
 augment the wealth of his private treasury (Jiscus).
 
 342 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth By confiniiig his cruelty chiefly to the capital, and 
 ' by a strict superintendence over the governors of 
 
 provinces, Domitian prevented any such general 
 disorganization of the empire as took place under 
 Nero. His fall confirmed the general truth, that 
 tyrants have little to fear from the people, but much 
 from individuals who may think their lives in danger. 
 
 The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy 
 of remark by being the first in which the barbarians attacked 
 the empire with success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition 
 against the Catti, 82, gave the first proof of liis boundless va- 
 nity ; as did the recall of the victorious Agricola, 85, from 
 Britain, of his jealousy. His most important war was that 
 against the Daci, or Getae, who, under their brave king Derce- 
 bal, had attacked the Roman frontiers : this again occasioned 
 another with their neighbours, the Marcomanni, Quadi, and 
 Jazygi, 86 — 90, which turned out so unfortunate for Rome, 
 that Domitian Avas obliged to purchase a peace of the Daci by 
 paying them an annual tribute. 
 
 Nerva, 23. M. Cocccius Ncrva, aged about seventy years, 
 
 Jan. 24, 96 ^yrjg raised to the throne by the murderers of Domi- 
 98. ' ' tian ; and now^, at last, seemed to break forth the 
 His reign f]awn of a more happy period for the empire. The 
 
 tlie dawn of . ..'^^'^ ^ ^, 
 
 a happy prcccdmg reign ot terror completely ceased at once ; 
 period. ^^^^ jjg endeavoured to impart fresh vigour to indus- 
 try, not only by diminishing the taxes, but also by 
 distributing lands to the poor. The insurrection of 
 the guards certainly cost the murderers of Domitian 
 their lives ; but it was at the same time the cause of 
 Nerva s securing the prosperity of the empire after 
 his death, by the adoption of Trajan. 
 Trnjan, 24. M. Ulpius Trajan, (after his adoption, Nerva 
 
 — Au^!'ii Trajan,) a Spaniard by birth, governed the empire 
 11''. from his forty-second to his sixty-second year. He 
 
 tiie Roman was the first foreigner who ascended the Roman 
 mouarchs. throuc, and at the same time the first of their mon- 
 archs who was equally great as a ruler, a general, and 
 a man. After completely abolishing the J udicia ma- 
 Jestatis, he made the restoration of the free Roman 
 Restores coustitutiou, SO far as it was compatible with a mon- 
 consüti^^" archical form, his peculiar care. He restored the 
 tion; elective power to the comitia, complete liberty of 
 
 speech to the senate, and to the magistrates their
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM C^SAll TO COMMODUS. 343 
 
 former authority ; and yet he exercised the art of Fourth 
 ruling to a degree and in a detail which few princes _^ '''"'""'. 
 have equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was ne- his frugality 
 vertheless splendidly liberal to every useful institu- aufv'-'' "^' 
 tion, whether in Rome or the provinces, as well as in 
 the foundation of military roads, public monuments, 
 and schools for the instruction of poor children. By 
 his wars he extended the dominion of Rome beyond 
 its former boundaries; subduing, in his contests with 
 the Daci, their countr}^, and reducing it to a Roman conquers 
 province ; as he likewise did, in his wars against the ■^'"'"'' 
 Armenians and Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, >ieTo"'^a- 
 and part of Arabia. Why was so great a character mi:i. ^"'i 
 disfigured by an ambition of conquest ? Arabia. 
 
 The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute 
 was withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, hasted Irora 
 101 — 103. But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was re- 
 newed in 105, and brought to a close in 106, Avhen Dacia was 
 reduced to a Roman province, and many Roman colonies estab- 
 lished therein. The war with the Parthians arose from a dis- 
 pute respecting the possession of the throne of Armenia, (see 
 above, p. 243,) 114 — 116 : but although Rome was victorious, 
 she gained no permanent advantage thereby. 
 
 The especial source for the history of Traj an is the Panegyricus 
 of Pliny tue Younger : the correspondence, however, of the 
 same writer, while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor, af- 
 fords us a much deeper insight into the spirit of his government : 
 Plinii Epist. lib. x. Who can read it without admiring the 
 royal statesman ? 
 
 RiTTERSHUSii Trajanvs in lucem reproductus. Ambegoe, 
 1608. A mere collection of passages occurring in ancient authors 
 respecting Trajan. 
 
 Res Trajani Imperatoris od Damibium Gestae, auciore Con- 
 rad Mannert. Norimb. 1793 ; and 
 
 Jon. Christ. Engel, Commentatio de Expeditionibiis Tra- 
 jani ad Danid)ium, et origine Valachortim. Vindob. 1794. — 
 Both learned dissertations, written for the prize offered by the 
 Royal Society of Gottingen ; the first of which obtained the 
 prize, and the other the accessit, i. e. was declared second best. 
 
 25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife, Tra- A.i.iui. 
 jan was succeeded by his cousin and pupil, whom he 
 is said also to have adopted, P. iElius Adrian, who 
 reigned from his forty-second to his sixty-third year. 
 He was acknowledged at once by the army of Asia,
 
 344 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 FouuTH y/\\\i which he then was, and the sanction of the 
 
 L senate followed immediately after. He differed from 
 
 his predecessor in that his chief aim was the preserv- 
 ation of peace ; on which account he gave up, (rare 
 moderation !) directly after his accession, the newly 
 conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria, and 
 Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Parthian war 
 (see above, p. 243). He retained, though with some 
 unwillingness, that of Dacia, because otherwise the 
 Roman colonies would have become exposed. He 
 well made up for his pacific disposition, however, in 
 seeking, by a general and vigorous reform in the in- 
 ternal administration, and by restoring the discipline 
 of the army, to give greater solidity to the empire. 
 For that purpose he visited successively all the pro- 
 vinces of the Roman empire ; first the eastern, and 
 afterwards the western ; making useful regulations 
 and establishing order wherever he came. He im- 
 proved the Roman jurisprudence by the introduction 
 of the edictum perpetuimi. Passionately fond of and 
 well instructed in literature and the fine arts, he gave 
 them his liberal protection, and thus called forth an- 
 other Augustan age. Upon the whole, his reign was 
 certainly a salutary one for the empire ; and for any 
 single acts of injustice of which he may be accused, he 
 fully compensated by his choice of a successor. After 
 having first adopted L. Aurelius Verus, (afterwards 
 ./Elius Verus,) who fell a sacrifice to his debaucheries, 
 he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus, (afterwards 
 T. ^lius Aclrianus Antoninus Pius,) upon condition 
 that he should again adopt M. Aurelius Verus, (af- 
 terwards M. Aurelius Antoninus,) and L. Cesonius 
 Commodus, (afterwards L. Verus,) the son of iElius 
 Verus. 
 
 During his reign a great revolt broke out in Judtea, under 
 Barcochab, 132 — 135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan 
 worship into the Roman colony of ^lia Capitolina (the ancient 
 Jerusalem). 
 
 The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his Life and 
 that of jEHus Verus by ^Lius Spaetiai^us in Script. Hist. 
 Aug. Elinor es, already quoted.
 
 PERIOD IV. J FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. 345 
 
 26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his forty- Fourth 
 seventh to his seventieth year, was without doubt the '^'^'"°" 
 
 happiest period of the Roman empire. He found Antoninus 
 every thing already in excellent order ; and those Tö"*!;}«!!!:^ 
 ministers which Adrian had appointed, he continued ^larch 7, 
 in their places. His quiet activity furnishes but 
 little matter for history ; and yet he was, perhaps, 
 the most noble character that ever sat upon a throne. 
 Although a prince, his life was that of the most 
 blameless individual ; while he administered the 
 affairs of the empire as though they were his own. 
 He honoured the senate ; and the provinces flourish- 
 ed under him, not only because he kept a watchful 
 eye over the conduct of the governors, but because 
 he made it a maxim of his government to continue in 
 their places all those whose probity he had sufliciently 
 proved. He observed rigid order in the finances, 
 and yet without sparing where it could be of service 
 in the foundation or improvement of useful institu- 
 tions ; as his erection of many buildings, establish- 
 ment of public teachers with salaries in all the pro- 
 vinces, and other examples, fully show. He carried 
 on no war himself; on the contrary, several foreign 
 nations made choice of him to arbitrate their difter- 
 ences. Some rebellions which bi'oke out in Britain 
 and Egypt, and some frontier wars excited by the 
 Germans, the Daci, the Moors, and the Alani, were 
 quelled by his lieutenants. 
 
 The principal and almost the only source for the history of 
 Antoninus Pius, Dion Cassius's history of tliis period being lost, 
 is his Life by Julius Capitolinus in tlic Script. Jlist. August 
 And even this refers to his private character rather than his 
 public history. Compare the excellent Reflections of ÄIaucus 
 AuRKLius, i. 16, upon this prince. 
 
 Vie des £mpereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele, par M. 
 Gautier de Sibert, Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on 
 the lives of the two Antonines. 
 
 27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Anto- Mamis 
 ninus, the philosopher, (aged 40 — 59 years,) who y^,Zhil 
 immediately associated with himself, under the title i"i— 
 of Augustus, L. Verus, (aged 30 — 40 years, f 169,) {^T' '' 
 to whom he gave his daughter in marriage. Not-
 
 346 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 161— IGfi. 
 
 The north- 
 ern nations 
 begin to 
 press for- 
 ■\vard. 
 
 Avidius 
 
 Cassius's 
 
 rebellion, 
 
 and death, 
 175. 
 
 withstanding the differences of their character, the 
 most cordial union existed between them during the 
 whole of their common reign ; L, Verus, indeed, be- 
 ing almost always absent in the wars, took but a very- 
 small share in the government. The reign of M. 
 Aurelius was marked by several great calamities : a 
 dreadful pestilence, a famine, and almost continual 
 wars. Nothing short of a prince like Aurelius, who 
 exhibited to the world the image of wisdom seated 
 on a throne, could have made so much misery toler- 
 able. Soon after his accession, the Catti made an 
 irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians in Asia. 
 L. Verus was sent against them. But the wars on 
 the Danube with the Marcomanni and their allies in 
 Pannonia, and other northern nations, who now be- 
 gan to press forward with great force upon Dacia, 
 were of much greater consequence. They occupied 
 M. Aurelius from the year 167, with but little inter- 
 mission, to the end of his reign. He succeeded, in- 
 deed, in maintaining the boundaries of the empire ; 
 but then he was the first who settled any of the bar- 
 barians within it, or took them into the Roman ser- 
 vice. In the internal administration of affairs he 
 closely followed the steps of his predecessor, except 
 that he was rather too much influenced by his freed- 
 men and family. The only rebellion which broke 
 out against him, was that of Avidius Cassius, his lieu- 
 tenant in Syria, occasioned by a false report of his 
 death ; but it was quelled by the destruction of that 
 general, as soon as the truth was made known. 
 
 The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 244) was in- 
 deed brought to a successful issue by Yerus, the principal cities 
 of the Parthians falling into the hands of the Eomans ; Verus 
 left them, however, to be carried on by his lieutenants, while 
 he rioted in debaucheries at Antioch. The first war against the 
 Marcomanni, carried on in the beginning and until the death of 
 Verus, by the two emperors together, was highly dangerous for 
 Rome, as many other nations had joined the Marcomanni, par- 
 ticularly the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and penetrated as far 
 as Aquileia. M. Aurelius ended this war by a glorious peace, 
 174, as he found it necessary to stop the progress of Cassius's 
 rebellion ; in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced 
 hostilities, and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium.
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. 347 
 
 Contemporary with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any Fourth 
 connexion with tliem, were the attacks of other nations upon ^'ei^io''- 
 Dacia, the Bastarnas, Alani, etc., who poured in from the north, 
 probably pressed forward by the advance of the Goths. This 
 was the first symptom of the great migration of nations now 
 beginning. 
 
 The especial sources for the history of ]\r. Aurelius, are the 
 Biographies of him and L. Verus, written by Julius Capitoli- 
 Nus, as well as that of Avidius Cassius, by Vulcatids Galli- 
 CANUS in Script. Hist. August. The letters discovered in JNIilan, 
 among and together with the writings of Fronto, are of no 
 historical service. — His principles are best learnt from his 
 Meditations on himself. 
 
 Ch. Meiners de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et 
 scriptis, in Cotnmentat. Soc. Gotting. vol. vi. 
 
 28. By means of adoption the Roman empire had t. Commo- 
 been blessed, during the last eighty years, with a 17 ^vX"—*^ 
 succession of rulers such as have not often fell to the Dec. 31, 
 lot of any kingdom. But in T. Commodus, the son ^'■^"* 
 of M, Aurelius, (probably the offspring of a gladia- 
 tor,) who reigned from his nineteenth to his thirty- 
 first year, there ascended the throne a monster of 
 cruelty, insolence, and lewdness. At the commence- 
 ment of his reign he bought a peace of the Marco- 
 manni that he might return to Rome. Being himself 
 unable to support the burden of government, the 
 helm of state was placed in the hands of the stern 
 and cruel Perennis, praefect of the prsetorian guard ; Percnnis, 
 but who, being murdered by the discontented sol- ■*" '**^- 
 diers, was succeeded by the freed man Oleander, who cieander, 
 put up all for sale, till he fell a sacrifice to his own ^ ^^^' 
 insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the people caused by 
 their w^ant of provisions. The extravagant propen- 
 sity of Commodus for the diversions of the amphi- 
 theatres, and the combats of wild beasts and gladi- 
 ators, wherein he himself usually took a part in the 
 character of Hercules, became a chief cause of his 
 dissipation, and thereby of his cruelty ; till at last he 
 was killed at the instigation of his concubine Marcia, 
 Leetus the praefect of the prtetorian guard, and Elec- 
 tus. The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in i^-'— is4. 
 Dacia, and especially in Britain, were successfully 
 carried on by his lieutenants, generals who belonged 
 to the school of his fatlier.
 
 348 ROMAN STATE. [hook v. 
 
 FounTH The especial source for the history of Commodiis is his ))ri- 
 
 Peiuod. vate life by JEh. Lampkidius, in the Script. Hist. August. — 
 The history of Ilerodian begins with his reign. 
 
 empire at "^ 29. The disastei's under M. Aurelius, and the ex- 
 this period, ti'avagances of Commodus, had injured the empire, 
 but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of the pe- 
 riod of the Antonines it still retained its pristine 
 vigour. If wise regulations, internal peace, mode- 
 rate taxes, a certain degree of political, and unre- 
 strained civil liberty, are sufficient to form the happi- 
 ness of a commonwealth, it must have been found in 
 the Roman. What a number of advantages did it 
 possess over every other, simply from its situation ! 
 Proofs of it appear on every side. A vigorous popu- 
 lation, rich provinces, flourishing and splendid cities, 
 and a lively internal and foreign trade. But the most 
 solid foundation of the happiness of a nation consists 
 in its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in 
 vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily have 
 suffered itself to be brought under the yoke of Com- 
 modus by praetorian cohorts and the legions. But 
 what best shows the strength which the empire still 
 retained, is the opposition it continued to make, for 
 two hundred years longer, to the formidable attacks 
 from without. 
 
 D. H. Hegewtsch upon the Epochs in Roman History most 
 favourable to Humanity. Hamburg, 1800 — 8. 
 
 Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this jieriod, could only 
 be carried on, to any extent, with the East — mostly with India 
 — as the Roman empire spread over all the West. This trade 
 continued to be carried on througli Egypt, and also through Pal- 
 myra and Syria. Information thereupon Avill be found in 
 
 W. Robertson's Disquisition concerning the Knowledge 
 tvhich the Ancients had of India. London, 1791, 4to. Often 
 reprinted. And particularly upon Egypt, in 
 
 W. Vincent, the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. London, 
 1802, 4to, 2 vols. A very instructive work. 
 
 Heeren, Commentationes de Grtecorum et Romanorum de 
 India notitia, et cum Indis comnierciis : in Commentat. Soc. 
 Gott. vol. X. xi.
 
 PERIOD IV ] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. "A9 
 
 SECOND SECTION. 
 
 From the death of Commodns to Diocletian , 
 A.C. 193—284. 
 
 Sources. The Extracts of Xiphilinus from Dion Cassius, Fouhth 
 lib. Ixxiii. — Ixxx., though often imperfect, reach clown as low as I'ükiod. 
 
 the consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229. — 
 
 Herodiam Hist, lihri viii. comprise the period from Commodus 
 to Gordian, ISO — 238. — The Scriptures TJistorice AugnsüE JMi- 
 nores contain the private lives of the emperors down to Diocle- 
 tian, by Julius Capitolinus, Flavtus Vopiscus, etc. — The 
 Breviaria Historice Bomance of Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, 
 and S. RuFUS, are particularl}-- important for this period. — Fi- 
 nally, the important information that may be derived from the 
 study of medals and coins, not only for this section, but for the 
 whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by consulting 
 the writers upon those subjects : J. Vaillant, Numismata Au- 
 gustornm et Cccsnrum, cnra J. F. Baldino. Rome, 1743, 3 vols. 
 The Medallic Historij of Imperial Bome, by W. Cooke. Lon- 
 don, 1781, 2 vols. — But above all, the volumes belonging to 
 this period in Eckhel, Doctrina Nummorum Veteruni. 
 
 AVith the period of the Antonines begins the great work of 
 the British historian, 
 
 T/ie History of the Decline and Fall of the Boman Empire, 
 by Edavard Gibbon. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth 
 and extent this work is superior to all others. It embraces the 
 whole period of the middle ages ; but only the first part belongs 
 to this period. 
 
 1. The extinction of the race of the Antonines by Pertin:ix. 
 the death of Commodus, was attended with conviil- yl^^Jl^^ 
 sions similar to those Mdiich took phice when the i^-*- 
 house of Caesar became extinct at the death of Nero. 
 It is true that P. Helvius Pertinax, aged sixty-seven, 
 prsefect of the city, was raised to the throne by tlie 
 murderers of Commodus ; and that he was acknow- 
 ledged, first by the guards, and afterwards by the 
 senate. But the reform which he was obliged to 
 make at the beginning of his reign in the finances, 
 rendered him so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, 
 that a revolt of the first, excited by Laetus, cost him 
 his life before he had reigned quite three months. 
 This was the first commencement of that dreadful 
 military despotism which forms the ruling chai'acter
 
 •350 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [ BOOK 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 Didias 
 Juliauus. 
 
 Feptimius 
 
 Severus, 
 
 Pescenuius 
 
 Niger, 
 
 Albinus. 
 
 Albinu-3 
 kills him- 
 self, Feb. 
 19, 197. 
 
 of this period ; and to none did it become so terrible 
 as to those who wished to make it the main support 
 of their absolute power. 
 
 The insolence of the prajtorian guard had risen very higli 
 dnring the reign of Comraodus ; but it liad never, even in the 
 time of the Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only 
 by large donatives that their consent could V)e purchased, their 
 caprice satisfied, and their good humour maintained ; especially 
 at every new adoption. One of the greatest reproaches to the 
 age of the Antonines is, that those great princes, who seem to 
 have had the means so much in their power, did not free them- 
 selves from so annoying a dependence. 
 
 Jul. Capitolini Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich and 
 profligate M. Didius Juhanus, aged fifty-seven, had 
 outbid, to the great scandal of the people, all his 
 competitors for the empire, and purchased it of the 
 praetorian guard, an insurrection of the legions, who 
 were better able to create emperors, very naturally 
 followed. But as the army of Illyria proclaimed 
 their general Septimius Severus, the army of Syria, 
 Pescennius Niger, and the army of Britain, Albinus, 
 nothing less than a series of civil wars could decide 
 who should maintain himself on the throne. 
 
 JEiL. Spartiani Didius Julianus, in Script. HiM. Aug. 
 
 3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49 — QQ^ was 
 the first who got possession of Rome, and, after the 
 execution of Didius Julianus, he was acknowledged 
 by the senate. He dismissed, it is true, the old prae- 
 torian guard, but immediately chose, from his own 
 army, one four times more numerous in its stead. 
 And after he had provisionally declared Albinus em- 
 peror, he marched his army against Pescennius Ni- 
 ger, already master of the East, whom, after several 
 contests near the Issus, he defeated and slew. Never- 
 theless, having first taken and destroyed the strong 
 city of Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, 
 whom the perfidious Severus had already attempted 
 to remove by assassination. After a bloody defeat 
 near Lyons, Albinus kills himself. These civil wars 
 were followed by hostilities against the Parthians, 
 who had taken the part of Pescennius, and whicli
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. 351 
 
 ended with the plundering of their principal cities roLnni 
 (see above, p. 244). Severus possessed most of the ''"^°"' 
 virtues of a soldier ; but the insatiable avarice of liis 
 minister Plautianus, the formidable captain of tlie 
 praetorian guard, robbed the empire even of those 
 advantages which may be enjoyed under a military 
 government, until he was put to death at the instiga- 204. 
 tion of Caracalla. To keep his legions employed, 
 Severus undertook an expedition into Britain, where, 
 after extending the boundaries of the euipire, he died 
 at York, (^El)oracum,) leaving his son the maxim, " to 
 enrich the soldiers, and hold the rest for nothing." 
 
 Agricola had ah-eady erected a line of fortresses, pi'obably 
 between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Fortli. The.se 
 were changed by Adrian into a wall along the present bound- 
 aries of Scotland. Severus again extended the frontiers, re- 
 established the fortresses of Agricola, and afterwards built a 
 wall from sea to sea ; his son, however, gave up the conquered 
 country, and the wall of Adrian again became the boundary of 
 the empire. 
 
 -ä^L. Spartiani Septimius Severus et Pescennius Niger. 
 
 Jul. Capitolini Claudius Albinus in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 4. The deadly hatred which reigned between tlie Caracaiia, 
 two sons of Severus, M. Aurelius Antoninus Bassi- ^''|'-^j*j';j'^ 
 anus Caracalla, aged 23 — 29, and his young step- 217. 
 brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a dreadful 
 catastrophe ; for at their return to Rome, and after a 
 fruitless proposition had been made for a division of 
 the empire, Geta was assassinated in the arms of his Geta mur- 
 mother Julia Domna, too'ether with all those who '1'^''''.''', 
 were considered as his friends. The restless spirit 2rj. 
 of Caracalla, however, soon drew him from Rome, 
 and in traversing first the provinces along the Danube, 
 and tlien those of the East, he ruined them all by his 
 exactions and cruelty, to which lie was driven for 
 money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace of 
 his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity 
 led him to grant the right of citizenship to all the 
 provinces, that he might thereby gain the duty of 
 the vicesima hered'itatum et mauinitisvoinim, (twenti- 
 eth upon inheritances and enfranchisements,) which 
 he very soon afterwards changed into a tenth {dec'imn).
 
 352 ROMAN STATE. [uook v. 
 
 FoTinTu — With respect to his foreign wars, his first was 
 1. against the Catti and Alemanni, among whom he re- 
 mained a long time, sometimes as a friend, and some- 
 
 215. times as an enemy. But his principal efforts, after 
 having previously ordered a dreadful massacre of the 
 inhabitants of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel ra- 
 
 216. pacity, were directed against the Partliians (see 
 above, p. 244) ; and in his wars against them he was 
 assassinated by Macrinus, the prsefect of the prseto- 
 rian guard. 
 
 The praefect, or captain, of the praetorian guard became, from 
 the time of Severus, the most important officer in the state. Be- 
 sides the command of the guards, the finances were also under 
 his control, together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A 
 natural consequence of the continually increasing despotism. 
 
 ^L. Spartiani Antoninus Caraculla et A?it. Geta, in 
 Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 Maciinus, 5. His mui'dcrer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged 
 2i7"-jL,ne fifty-thrcc, was recognised as emperor by the soldiers, 
 «, 218. and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. He 
 immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, 
 aged nine years, Caesar, and gave him the name of 
 Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated the war 
 against the Partliians by purcliasing a peace, and 
 changed the decima (tenth) of Caracalla again into 
 the vicesima (twentieth). However, while he still 
 remained in Asia, Bassianus Heliogabalus, grand- 
 nephew of Julia Domna, and high priest in the 
 temple of the Sun at Emesa, whom his mother gave 
 out for a son of Caracalla, was proclaimed emperor 
 by the legions, and after a combat with the guards, 
 subsequently to which Macrinus and his son lost 
 their lives, they raised him to the throne. 
 
 Maesa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both 
 widows ; Soaerais, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, 
 and Mammjea, the youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus. 
 
 Jul. Capitolini Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 Heiio-aba- 6. Hcliogabalus, aged 14 — 18, who assumed the 
 June 8. additional name of M. Aurelius Antoninus, brought 
 2iH— with him from Syria the superstitions and volup- 
 222.'' ' tuousness of that country. He introduced the wor- 
 ship of his god Heliogabal in Rome, and wallowed
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. 353 
 
 openly in such brutal and infamous debaucheries, Fourth 
 that, history can scarcely find a parallel to his disso- '''"°°' 
 lute, shameless, and scandalous conduct. How low 
 must the morality of that age have been sunk, in 
 which a boy could so early have ripened into a 
 monster ! — The debasement of the senate, and of all 
 important offices, which he filled with the degraded 
 companions of his own lusts and vices, was system- 
 atically planned by him ; and he deserves no credit 
 even for the adoption of his cousin, the virtuous 
 Alexander Severus, as he shortly after endeavoured 
 to take away his life, but was himself for that reason 
 assassinated by the praetorian guards. 
 
 JEl. Lampridii A?it. Ileliogahalus, in Script. Hist. Attg. 
 
 7. His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius Alexander 
 Alexander Severus, ao'ed 14 — 27, who had been ,^'^7^', 
 
 1111- • • JNIarch 11, 
 
 carefully educated under the dn'ection of his mother 222— 
 Mammeea, proved one of the best princes in an age ^'^^°'' ~''^" 
 and upon a throne where virtues were more dangerous 
 than vices. Under favour of his youth he endeavoured 
 to effect a reform, in which he was supported by the 
 co-operation of the guards, who had elevated him to 
 the throne. He restored the authority of the senate, 
 from among whom he chose, with rigid justice, his 
 privy council of state, banishing the creatures of 
 Heliogabalus from their places. The revolution in war against 
 the Parthian empire, out of which was now formed ^'•■'■^'•*' --'''■ 
 the new Persian, was of so much importance to 
 Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a war 
 against Artaxerxes, in which he was probably vie- 231—233. 
 torious. But while marching in haste to protect the 
 frontiers against the advance of the Germans upon 
 the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated at the severity of 
 his discipline, and incited by the Thracian Maximin, 
 murdered him in his own tent. His praefect of the 233. 
 praetorian guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same 222. 
 cause, fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, 
 which was not checked even by the immediate pre- 
 sence of the emperor himself 
 
 The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire 
 was formed, (see above, p. 244,) became a source of almost per- 
 
 2 A
 
 554 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 Maximinus. 
 Aug., 235— 
 May, 238. 
 
 236. 
 237. 
 
 April, 238. 
 
 The Gor- 
 tlians. 
 
 Balbinus 
 and Pupie- 
 nus. 
 
 Gordian 
 111., July, 
 238— Feb., 
 244. 
 
 petual war to Rome ; Artaxerxes I,, and hi.s succe.ssors, the 
 Sassanides, claiming to be descendants of the ancient kings of 
 Persia, formed pretensions to the possession of all the A.siatic 
 provinces of the Roman empire. 
 
 ^LH Lampridii Alexander Severus, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 Heyne de Alexandro Severo Judicium, Comment, i. ii., in 
 Opuscula Academica, vol. vi. 
 
 8. The death of A. Severus raised military despot- 
 ism to the highest pitch, as it placed on the throne 
 the half savage C. Julius Maximinus, by birth a 
 Thracian peasant. At first he continued the war 
 against the Germans with great success, repulsing 
 them beyond the Rhine ; and resolved, by crossing 
 Pannonia, to carry the war even among the Sarma- 
 tians. But his insatiable rapacity, which spared nei- 
 ther the capital nor the provinces, made him hateful 
 to all ; and Gordian, proconsul of Africa, in his 
 eightieth year, was, together with his son of the same 
 name, proclaimed Augustus by the people, and im- 
 mediately acknowledged by the senate. Upon this, 
 Maximinus, eager to take vengeance on the senate, 
 marched directly from Sirmium towards Italy. In 
 the mean time, the legions of the almost defenceless 
 Gordians were defeated in Africa, and themselves 
 slain by Capellianus the governor of Numidia. Not- 
 withstanding this, as the senate could expect no 
 mercy, they chose as co-emperors the praefect of the 
 city, Maximus Pupienus, and Clodius Balbinus, who, 
 in conformity with the wishes of the people, created 
 the young Gordian III., Caesar. In the mean while 
 Maximinus, having besieged Aquileia, and the enter- 
 prise proving unsuccessful, was slain by his own 
 troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now seemed in quiet 
 possession of the throne ; but the guards, who had 
 already been engaged in a bloody feud with the peo- 
 ple, and were not willing to receive an emperor of the 
 senate's choosing, killed them both, and proclaimed 
 as Augustus, Gordian, already created Caesar. 
 
 Jul. Capitoleni Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et Bal- 
 binus, in Script. Hist. August. 
 
 9. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordia- 
 nus lasted from his twelfth to his eighteenth year.
 
 PERiot IV.] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. 355 
 
 He was grandson of the proconsul who had lost his fourth 
 life in Africa, and in the early part of his reign, ac- ^''^"'°" ' 
 quired a degree of firmness from the support of his 
 father-in-law, Misitheus, praefect of the praetorian Sjrian ex- 
 guard, as well as from the successful expedition which !j'''''*'°"! 
 he undertook into Syria against the Persians, who 
 had invaded that province. But after the death of 
 Misitheus, Philip the Arabian, being made praefect 
 of the guards in his stead, found means to gain the 
 troops over to himself, and, after driving Gordian 
 from the throne, caused him to be assassinated. 
 
 10. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was inter- Phiiippus, 
 rupted by several insurrections, especially in Panno- ^l\' 'f^^^ 
 nia; until at length Decius, whom he himself had 
 
 sent thither to quell the rebellion, was compelled by 
 the troops to assume the diadem. Philip was soon 
 after defeated by him near Verona, where he perished, 
 together with his son of the same name. In this 
 reign the secular games, ludi sceculares, were cele- 
 brated, one thousand years from the foundation of 
 the city. 
 
 11. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus 247. 
 Decius, aged fifty, the Goths for the first time forced Sept., 240 
 their way into the Roman empire by crossing the ^0"'"^^'" 
 Danube; and although Decius in the beginning op- 
 posed them with success, he was at last slain by them 
 
 in Thrace, together with his son, CI. Herennius De- 
 cius, already created Caesar. Upon this the arm)'- 
 proclaimed C. Trebonianus Gallus emperor, who Gaiius. 
 created his son, Volusian, Caesar; and having invited 
 Hostilian, the yet remaining son of Decius, witli tlie 
 ostensible purpose of securing his co-operation, he 
 nevertheless soon contrived to get rid of him. He 
 purchased a peace of the Goths ; but, despised by 
 his generals, he became involved in a war with his 
 victorious lieutenant, T^milius i^milianus, in Mcrsia, yEmiiianns, 
 and was slain, togetlier with his son, by his own army. ^*">' ^''•*- 
 In three months, however, iEmilianus shared the 
 same fate ; Publius Licinius Valerianus, tlie friend 
 and avenger of Gallus, advancing against him with 
 the legions stationed in Gaul. Both tlie people and 
 2 A 2
 
 356 ROMAN STATE. [book v, 
 
 I'ouRTH army hoped to see the empire restored under Valerian, 
 *"" already sixty years of a<2;e ; but, although his g'enerals 
 Valerian, defended the frontiers against the Germans and Goths, 
 he himself had the misfortune to be defeated and taken 
 prisoner by the superior forces of the Persians. Upon 
 this event his son and associate in the empire, P. Li- 
 Gaiiienus, ciuius Gallicnus, who knew every thing except the 
 259—2158. g^j.j. Q^ governing, reigned alone. Under his indo- 
 lent rule the Roman empire seemed on one hand 
 ready to be split into a number of small states, while 
 on the other it seemed about to fall a prey to the 
 barbarians ; for the lieutenants in most of the. pro- 
 vinces declared themselves independent of a prince 
 whom they despised, and to which, indeed, they were 
 driven, like Posthumius in Gaul, for their own se- 
 curity. — There were nineteen of these ; but as many 
 of them named their sons Caesars, this period has 
 been very improperly distinguished by the name of 
 the thirty tyrants, although their intolerable oppres- 
 sions might well justify the latter expression. The 
 Persians at the same time were victorious in the East, 
 and the Germans in the West. 
 
 The German nations which were now become so formidable 
 to the Roman empire, were : 1. The great confederation of tribes 
 under the name of Franks, who spread over Gaul along the 
 whole extent of the Lower Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the 
 Alemanni on the Upper Rhine. 3. The Goths, the most power- 
 ful of all, who had formed a monarchy upon the banks of the 
 Lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black Sea, which 
 soon extended from the Boristhenes to the Don ; and who be- 
 came formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their 
 naval power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of 
 Crim Tartary {Chersonesits Taurica); and by means of their 
 fleets they not only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic 
 provinces in a continual state of alarm. 
 
 Trebelli Pollioxis Valerianus, GalUeni duo, triginta ty- 
 ranni, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 f Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor 
 Gallienus, by J. C. F. INI.ixso ; at the end of his Life of Con- 
 stantine. 
 ciHudias, 12. Galhenus losing his life before Milan, in the 
 
 -Oct'i-iTü. '^var against Aureolus, a usurper, had nevertheless re- 
 commended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged 45 — 47) 
 for his successor. The new Augustus re-established
 
 PEiiioi. IV.] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. 3Ö7 
 
 in some degree the tottering empire ; not only by Fourth 
 taking Aureolus prisoner and defeating the Ale- ^"'°°' 
 manni, but also by a decisive victory gained at Nissa 
 over the Goths, vt^ho had invaded Mo^sia. He died, 2G9. 
 however, soon after, at Sirmium, of a pestilential dis- 
 ease, naming for his successor Aurelian, a hero like 
 himself, who mounted the throne upon the death of 
 Quintillus the late emperor's brother, who had at first 
 proclaimed himself Augustus, but afterwards died by 
 his own hand. 
 
 Tkebellii Pollionis divus Claudius, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, Auieiian, 
 which lasted almost five years, those countries which March'.'^/T. 
 had been partly or entirely lost to the empire were 
 restored. Having first driven back the Goths and 
 the Alemanni, who had advanced as far as Umbria, 
 he undertook his expedition against the celebrated 
 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who at that time possess- 271. 
 ed Syria, Egypt, and part of Asia Minor. These 
 countries he again brought under the dominion 
 of the empire, after having defeated Zenobia and zenobia de- 
 made her prisoner. The western provinces of Gaul, J^JIle'^pH"^ 
 Britain, and Spain, which since the time of Gallienus so»^'- -"i 
 had been governed by separate rulers, and were '"' 
 now under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced 274. 
 to their former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, 
 he willingly abandoned ; and as he transported tlie 
 Roman inhabitants across the Danube into Moesia, 
 the latter henceforward bore the name of Dacia Aure- 
 iuini. Hated for his severity, which in a warrior so 
 easily degenerates into cruelty, he was assassinated 
 in Illyria at the instigation of his private secretary 27.i. 
 Mnestlieus. 
 
 Flav. Vopisci divus Aurelianus in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, 
 and one of the most ancient cities in the world, became a Komun 
 colony in the time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husbaml of Zeno- 
 bia, had acquired so much celebrity by his victories over the 
 Persians, that Gallienus had even named him Augustus with 
 himself. He was murdered, however, by his cousin Ahvonius, 
 267. Zenobia now took possession of the government for her 
 sous Vabalathus, Ilerennianus, and Timolaus, without, however,
 
 358 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth being acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Clau- 
 
 Period. (liuSj she added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first 
 
 ~ defeated her near Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took 
 
 Palmyra, which, in consequence of a revolt, he destroyed. — 
 
 Even in its ruins Palmyra is still magnificent. 
 
 The Ruins of Palmyra, by P. Wood, London, 1753 ; and 
 the Ruins of Balbec, otherwise HeliopoUs, by the same author, 
 London, 1757, give us clear and certain ideas of the splendour 
 and magnitude of these cities. 
 
 A. H. L. Heeren, de Commercio urbis Palmyrce vicinarum- 
 que urbium in Comment, recent. Soc. Gotting. vol. vii., and the 
 Appendix to Heeren's Researches. 
 
 Tacitus, 14^ ^n interre2:num of six months followed upon 
 
 275—"^ ' the death of Aurelian, till at length the senate, at 
 April, 27Ö. ^}jg repeated solicitations of the army, ventured to fill 
 up the vacant throne. The object of their choice, 
 however, M. Claudius Tacitus, the worthiest of the 
 senators, was unfortunately seventy-five years old, 
 and perished after a short reign of six months, in an 
 expedition against the Goths. Upon this event the 
 army of Syria raised M. Aurelius Probus to the 
 purple ; while Florianus the brother of Tacitus, who 
 had already been acknowledged at Rome, was put 
 to death by his own people. 
 
 Flav. Vopisci Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus, in Script. Hist. 
 Aug. 
 
 Probus, 15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike 
 
 -^August, one. He defeated the Germans, and forced them 
 2b2. beyond the Rhine and Danube : strencrtheninp; the 
 
 278* frontiers by building a strong wall from the Danube, 
 near Regensburg, to the Rhine. He also obliged 
 the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, the 
 number of towns which he re-established and peo- 
 pled with prisoners of war, and the vineyards which 
 he caused his soldiers to plant on the Rhine, are 
 proofs that he had taste and inclination for the arts 
 of peace. This policy, however, would not suit the 
 legions ! After he had perished, therefore, by the 
 hands of his soldiers, they proclaimed the praefect of 
 Carus, the praetorian guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, 
 Aug., 282. TjyjjQ created his two sons Caesars — men very unlike 
 each other in disposition, M. Aurelius Carinus being
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. 359 
 
 one of the greatest reprobates, while M. Aurelius fourth 
 Numerianus was gentle by nature, and had a mind well ^'^'°" ' 
 formed by study. The new emperor, having defeat- 
 ed the Goths, marched against the Persians, but was 
 shortly afterwards killed, it is said, by a flash of light- Au-, 283. 
 ning. Nor did his son Numerianus long survive 
 him, being murdered by his own father-in-law, Arrius 284. 
 Aper, the praetorian prtefect. 
 
 Flav. Vopisci Probus imper. ejusd. Cams, Numerianus et 
 Carinus, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 16. Although this period gives us a finished pic- Review of 
 ture of a complete military despotism, it is still evi- menf^r"' 
 dent that this was owing to the entire separation of "iif.this 
 the military order from the rest of the people, by the ''^" 
 introduction of standing armies, and the extinction of 
 
 all national spirit among the citizens. The legions 
 decided because the people were unarmed. It was, 
 indeed, only among them, situated far from the soft 
 luxuries of the capital, and engaged in almost a con- 
 tinual struggle with the barbarians, that a remnant 
 of the ancient Roman character was still preserved. 
 The nomination of their leaders to the purple became 
 a natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty of 
 the succession, which could not be fixed by mere 
 ordinances, but often of necessity, from their being 
 in the field under the pressure of urgent circum- 
 stances. Thus a succession of distinguished generals 
 came to the throne : what authority, indeed, would 
 an emperor at that time have had who was not a 
 general ? All durable reform, however, was rendered 
 quite impossible by the quick succession of rulers. 
 Even the best among them could do but very little 
 for the internal administration ; as all their energies 
 were required to protect the frontiers, and defend 
 themselves against usurpers, who, with the exception 
 of the formality of being acknowledged by the senate, 
 had claims as well founded as their own. 
 
 17. The decline of the empire also became so Luxun 
 much the more rapid, in proportion as in these days |||!|;] •',',',! ',f'' 
 of terror luxury had increased not only in the splcn- the empire. 
 dour and profligate effeminacy of private life, but
 
 360 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book V- 
 
 Fourth 
 I'Eiuon. 
 
 Progress 
 and effects 
 of the 
 Christian 
 relia-ion. 
 
 more particularly in public, to a pitch almost beyond 
 belief. The latter was especially shown in the exhi- 
 bitions of the amphitheatre and circus; by which not 
 only every new ruler, but even every new magistrate, 
 was obliged to pui"chase the favour of the people. 
 Thus these remnants of a free constitution served 
 only to accelerate the general ruin ! What enjoy- 
 ments, indeed, could be found under the rod of des- 
 potism, except those of the grossest sensuality ; and 
 to satisfy this the intellectual amusements of the the- 
 atre, (mimes and pantomimes,) and even those of 
 rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute. 
 
 18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual 
 spread of the Christian religion was working a reform 
 altogether of a different nature. Before the end of 
 this period it had opened itself a way into every pro- 
 vince, and, notwithstanding the frequent persecutions, 
 had made converts in every rank of society, and was 
 now on the eve of becoming the predominant form 
 of worship. We shall be better able to estimate its 
 value, if we consider it as the vehicle by whicli civil- 
 ization made its way among the rude nations that 
 now appeared on the scene, than if we merely con- 
 sider it as the means of improving the manners and 
 morals of tlie Roman world. In a political view it 
 became of the greatest importance on account of the 
 hierarchy, the framework of which was now in a 
 great measure constructed among its professors. It 
 was afterwards adopted as a state religion ; and al- 
 though the ancient creed of Rome had formerly been 
 on the same footing, yet it was only calculated for 
 the republic, and not at all for the now existing mon- 
 archy. The overthrow of paganism was necessarily 
 attended with some violent convulsions, yet its loss 
 was nothing to be compared with the support which 
 the throne afterwards found in the hierarchy. 
 
 The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions 
 which Avere renewed from time to time after the reign of Nero, 
 (but which only served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly co-oper- 
 ated in spreading the Christian religion. These persecutions 
 were principally called forth against the Christians on account 
 of their forming themselves into a separate society, which
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. S61 
 
 caused them to be regarded as a dangerous sect at Rome, not- Fourth 
 withstanding the general toleration granted to every other sys- I'kriod. 
 tem of religious belief. Although towards the end of this period, 
 only a very small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman 
 empire as j^et professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had 
 followers in every province. 
 
 \ History of the Social Constitutio)i of the Christian Church, 
 by D, G. J. Plaxck, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first pai't of this 
 excellent work which relates to this period. 
 
 THIRD SECTION. 
 
 From Diocletian to the overthroxv of the Roman empire in 
 the West, A. C. 281—476. 
 
 Sources. It now becomes of importance to inquire whether 
 the historians were Christians or pagans. Zosuius, the imi- 
 tator of Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall 
 of the Roman state, as his model does the previous part. Of 
 his Histories only five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 
 410, have descended to us. He was certainly a violent anta- 
 gonist of the Christians, yet, nevertheless, the best writer of this 
 period. — Ajoiiani ÄIarcellini Historiarum, lib. xiv. — xxxi., 
 from the year 353 — 378 (the first thirteen books are lost). 
 Probably a Ciiristian, but yet no flatterer ; and, notwithstand- 
 ing his tiresome prolixity, highly instructive. Together with 
 the writers of general history already noticed at p. 348, we must 
 here especially add to the abbreviators, Pauli Orosii Hist. lib. 
 vii. and Zonar^ Annates. The Panegi/rici Veteres, from üi- 
 ocletian to Theodosius, can only be used with circum.spection. 
 — The writers of church history, such as EusKiuus, in his Hist. 
 Eccles. lib. X., and in his Vita Coiistantini Magni, lib. v., as 
 well as his continuators, Socrates, Tiieouoret, Sozomexus, 
 and EvAGRius, are also highly important for the ]>olitical history 
 of this period, though, from their partiality towards tlie Ciiris- 
 tian emperors, they should rather be classed witli the panegy- 
 rists than the historians. To these may be added anotlier prin- 
 cipal source, viz., the Constitutions of the emperors, which have 
 been preserved in the Codex Tlieodosianus and Justinianeus, 
 from the time of Constantine the Great. 
 
 Besides the works quoted at pages 328, 348, the Byzantine 
 historians here become of importance. We shall mention also, 
 
 Histoire du Bas-Empire dcpuis Consfantin, par M. le Beau, 
 continnee par M. Ameiliion. Pari.^*, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The 
 first seven parts only belong to tliis period. 
 
 I The German translation of Guthrie and Gray's Universal
 
 362 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth History, 5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful 
 
 PiiiuoD. ijy the labours of Ritter. 
 
 ~ Ilistoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jiisqrC a la prise 
 
 de Constantinople en 1453, pr/r Cakentin Royou, Paris, 1803, 
 4 vols. 8vo. A useful abridgement, without much research. 
 
 Diocletian, 1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged 39 — 
 ^gP^J^J' 60, proclaimed emperor after the murder of Nume- 
 1, 305. rianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins a new 
 section in Roman history. To the period of military 
 despotism succeeded the period of partitions. After 
 Carinus, Diocletian had defeated Carinus, the yet remaining 
 1 28o. Caesar, in Upper Moesia, where he was assassinated, 
 Maximian he made M. Valerius Maximianus Herculius, a rough 
 hiThe^'o- warrior who had hitherto been his comrade in arms, 
 vernment, the sharcr of liis throne. Herculius now contended 
 with the Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of 
 the Rhine, while Diocletian himself made head against 
 the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti soon 
 found themselves unable to withstand the barbarians, 
 who were pressing forward on every side, more espe- 
 Carausius, cially as Carausius had usurped and maintained the 
 288—293. ^j^i^ ^£ Csesar in Britain. Each of them, therefore, 
 Gaierius Created a Csesar: Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and 
 created"'"^ Maximianus Flavins Constantius Chlorus, both of 
 Caesars, whom had distinguished themselves as generals, at 
 ^^^' that time the only road to advancement. The whole 
 
 empire was now divided between these four rulers ; 
 so that each had certain provinces to govern and de- 
 fend ; without detriment, however, to the unity of 
 the whole, or to the dependence in which a Caesar 
 stood as the subordinate assistant and future successor 
 of his Augustus. 
 
 In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern pro- 
 vinces ; Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube 
 (niyricum) ; Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands ; and 
 Constantius, the western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and 
 Mauritania. 
 
 2. This new system could not but have a striking 
 effect upon the spirit of the government. It was 
 now not only in fact, but also in form, entirely in the 
 hands of the rulers. By their continual absence from 
 Rome they became freed from that moral restraint in
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 363 
 
 which the authority of the senate, and the name of Fouuth 
 the republic, not yet entirely laid aside, had held be- ^'''"'°"' 
 fore them. Diocletian formally assumed the diadem, 
 and, with the ornaments of the East, introduced its 
 luxuries into his court. Thus was laid the founda- 
 tion of that structure which Constantine the Great 
 had to complete. 
 
 3. The consequences of this new system became 
 also oppressive to the provinces, inasmuch as they 
 had now to maintain four rulers, with their courts, 
 and as many armies. But however loud might be 
 the complaints of the oppression occasioned thereby, 
 it was, perhaps, the only means of deferring the final 
 overthrow of the whole edifice. In fact, they suc- 
 ceeded not only in defeating the usurpers, Alectus in 296. 
 Britain, (who had murdered Carausius in 293,) Julian 2'J3— 296. 
 in Africa, and Achilleus in Egypt ; but also in de- 
 fending the frontiers, which, indeed, by the victories 
 
 of Galerius over the Persians, they extended as far 
 as the Tigris. Did not, however, the gloomy per- 
 spective present itself, that among so many rulers, 
 and the undefined relations which existed between 
 the Csesars and the emperors, the union could not be 
 of long continuance ? 
 
 4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne, 
 (although the growing power and encroaching dis- 
 position of Galerius might perhaps have had some 
 influence,) and obliged his colleague Maximianus 
 
 to do the same. The two Caesars, Constantius and Const<)n- 
 Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, and altered the j^o;'' "^^ 
 division of the empire, so that the former possessed ^^'J^".""' 
 all the western countries, of which, however, he freely ' 
 ceded Italy and Africa to Galerius, who had all the 
 remaining provinces. The latter, during the same 
 year, created Flavins Severus, Caesar, and confided 
 to him the government of Italy and Afi-ica ; as he 
 did also C. Galerius Maximin, to wliom he gave the 
 Asiatic provinces. The administration of the two 
 emperors, however, was very difierent ; Constantius 
 was as much beloved for his mild and disintcM-ested 
 government, as Galerius was hated for his harshness
 
 364 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth and prodigality. Constantius died very soon after at 
 '^'"""' York, leaving his son Constantine heir to his do- 
 minions, who was immediately proclaimed Augustus 
 by the legions, although Galerius would only acknow- 
 ledge him as Cfesar. 
 Constantine 5. Thus Constantins, who afterwards obtained the 
 jlfij^jr^' surname of Great, began to rule, aged 33 — 64, 
 306— May though at first only over Britain, Spain, and Gaul ; 
 nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence and 
 warfare, he succeeded in opening himself a way to 
 the sole dominion of the empire. The rulers dis- 
 agreed among themselves ; and formidable usurpers 
 started up and rendered war inevitable. 
 
 The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306 — 3 1 3, 
 is very complicated ; after that he had only one rival to strug- 
 gle with, 314 — 323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, 
 was in possession of all the other provinces ; of which, however, 
 he had given to Caesar Maximin the government of those of 
 Asia, and to Cajsar Severus, now created Augustus, Italy and 
 Africa. The latter, however, rendering himself odious by his 
 oppression, Maxentius, the son of the former emperor, INIaxi- 
 mianus, assumed the title of Augustus at Rome, (Oct. 28, 306,) 
 and associated his father with himself in the government ; so 
 that at this time there were six rulers : Galerius, Severus, Con- 
 stantine, Maximin, and the usurpers Maxentius and his father 
 Maximianus. But in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose 
 Maxentius, was abandoned by his own troops, upon which he 
 smTcndered himself to Maximianus, who caused him to be exe- 
 cuted. In his place Galerius created his friend Licinius Au- 
 gustus ; and Maximin obtained the same dignity from his army 
 in Asia. In the mean time, Maximianus, after having endea- 
 voured to supplant his own son in Rome, fled to Constantine, 
 who had crossed over into Gaul and there defeated the Franks, 
 306 ; but having made an attempt upon the life of Constantine, 
 who had married his daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him 
 to be put to death, 310. As the excesses of Galerius soon 
 brought him to the grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, 
 Licinius, and Maximin, and the usurper Maxentius. The latter 
 was soon defeated and slain, 312, before the gates of Rome, by 
 Constantine, who thereby became master of Italy and the capital. 
 A war having broken out about the same time between Maximin 
 and Licinius, Maximin was defeated near Adrianople, and then 
 killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a war between 
 the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius, which, 
 however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which 
 Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the 
 Danube, as well as Thrace and Moesia Inferior ; it broke out
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 365 
 
 ogaifi, however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive FoinT» 
 victory in Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom I'hhiod. 
 Constantine put to death, 324. 
 
 6. However opposite may be the opinions formed 
 respecting the reign of Constantine the Great, its 
 consequences are perfectly plain. Although he an- 
 nihilated military despotism, he established in its 
 stead, if not completely, yet in great measure, the 
 despotism of the court, and likewise the power of the 
 hierarchy. He had already, during his expedition 
 against Maxentius, decided in favour of the Chris- 
 tian religion ; and since he thereby gained a vast 
 number of partisans in all the provinces, and weak- 
 ened at the same time the power of his co-emperors, 
 or competitors, it was the surest way he could have 
 taken to obtain sole dominion, the great object of his 
 ambition. This change must nevertheless have had 
 very considerable influence on every part of the go- 
 vernment, as he found in the previously established 
 hierarchy a powerful support of the throne ; and since 
 he, in concert with it, settled what was and what was 
 not the orthodox doctrine, he introduced a spirit of 
 persecution heretofore unknovvn. 
 
 At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily 
 have become political parties, we can by no means venture to 
 judge of the importance of the sect by the importance of their 
 points of doctrine. The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at 
 this time, gave Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the 
 opportunity he wished for, of making good his authority in re- 
 ligious legislation. 
 
 7. The removal of the seat of empire from Rome 
 to Constantinople was connected with this change in 
 the form of worship — as a Christian court would have 
 been awkwardly situated in a city still altogether pa- 
 gan — although the need there was of protecting the 
 frontiers against the Goths and Persians had a con- 
 siderable share therein. It did, indeed, become the 
 principal means of establishing the despotism of the 
 court ; but those who regard it as one of the causes of 
 the decline of the empire, should remember, that for 
 an empire fallen so low as the Roman was at this time, 
 despotism was almost the only support that remained.
 
 366 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 FouuTii Tlie various partitions of the empire from the time of Didtle- 
 Peuiod. ti-i,j^ ],fi(| led tiie y^rny to tluH changc of the capital ; because a 
 natural result of that system was, that the emperors and Caesars, 
 when not with tlie army as tliey usually Avere, would reside in 
 ditferent cities. The seat of Diocletian's government was at Ni- 
 comedia ; of Maximian's, at Milan ; even Constantine himself 
 remained but very little at Rome. In these new residences they 
 felt themselves unfettered ; and therefore, although the Roman 
 senate existed till after the time of Constantine, its authority 
 must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian. 
 
 8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the 
 consequence of this removal was so complete a 
 change in the whole form of government, that after 
 a short time it seemed to be altog-ether a different 
 state. A partition of the empire was made, which, 
 though it might in part have been founded on those 
 which had previously existed, was yet so different, 
 that it not only changed the ancient divisions of the 
 provinces, but completely altered their mode of go- 
 vernment. — The court, with the exception of poly- 
 gamy, assumed entirely the form of an eastern court. 
 — A revolution also had taken place in the military 
 system, by the complete separation of the civil and 
 military authorities, which the praetorian prsefects had 
 hitherto possessed, but who now became merely civil 
 governors. 
 
 According to the new division, the whole empire was divided 
 into four prcpfectures, each of which had its dioceses, and each 
 diocese its provinces. The praefectures were : I. The eastern 
 {prcefectura Orientis); it contained five dioceses; 1. Orientis; 
 2. ^gypti; 3. Asi(B ; 4. Ponti ; 5. Thracice ; forming alto- 
 gether forty-eight provinces, and comprising all the countries of 
 Asia and Egypt, together with the frontier countries of Libya 
 and Thrace. II. Prcefectura lUyrici, containing two dioceses ; 
 1. MacedonicE ; 2. Dacice ; forming eleven provinces, and com- 
 prising Moesia, IMacedon, Greece, and Crete. III. Prcefectura 
 Italice, containing three dioceses; 1. Itcdice ; 2. lUyrici ; 3. 
 Africce; forming twenty-nine provinces, and comprising Italy, 
 the countries on the south of the Danube, as far as the bounda- 
 ries of Moesia ; the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and 
 the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV. Prcefectura Galli- 
 arum, containing three dioceses; 1. GallicB ; 2. HispardcB ; 3. 
 BritannicB ; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces, and 
 comprising Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, 
 and Britain. — Each of these pragfectures was under ii prcefectus 
 prcetorio, (prietorian pr^efect,) but who was merely a civil go-
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 367 
 
 vernor, and had under him vicarios, in the dioceses, as well as Fourth 
 the rectores provinciarum, of various ranks and titles. They Period. 
 
 wei'e named proconsules prccsides, etc. Besides these, Rome 
 
 and Constantinople, not being included in any of the four priy- 
 fectures, had each its prfefect. 
 
 As principal officers of state and the court, {s. cubiculi,) we 
 now for the first time meet with the prcepositus s. cubiculi, 
 (grand-chamberlain,) under whom were all the comites palatii 
 and cubicularii, in four divisions ; these, at a later period, were 
 frequently eunuchs of great influence ; the magister ojficiorum 
 (chancellor, minister of the interior) ; the comes sacrarum hircji- 
 tiorum (minister of the finances) ; the cpicestor (the organ of the 
 emperors in legislation ; minister of justice and secretary of 
 state) ; the comes rei principis (minister of the crown-treasury) 
 [privy-purse] ; the two comites domesticorum, (commander of 
 the household guards,) each of whom had his corps (sc/tolas) 
 under him. The number of the state officers and courtiers was 
 continually increasing. If the good of a commonwealth con- 
 sisted in forms, ranks, and titles, the Roman empire must at 
 this time have been truly happy ! 
 
 At the head of the troops were the magistri pedittan (masters 
 of the infantiy) and the magistri eqtiitum, (masters of the horse,) 
 under the magister iitriusque militce (general in chief of the 
 whole army). Their subordinate commanders were called co- 
 mites and duces. Constantine considerably reduced the army. 
 In the arrangement of the troops he also made great alterations ; 
 these, however, were but of slight consequence compared with 
 that which was produced by admitting into the service a con- 
 tinually increasing number of barbarians. 
 
 Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not. Pancirolli 
 Grjev. Thesaur. Antiquität. Rom. vol. vii. 
 
 9. It would naturally be expected that these great Taxes. 
 changes should lead to others in the system of tax- 
 ation. New taxes, or old ones revived, were added 
 to those already existing, and became, by the manner 
 in which they were collected, doubly oppressive. 
 We shall particularly notice, a. The annual land-tax 
 (JmUctid). h. The tax upon trade (aiiriim liistralc). 
 c. The free gift, {don. gratuit.,) now grown into an 
 obligatory tax {aurum coronarium). To these we 
 must add the municipal expenses, which fell entirely 
 upon the citizens, and especially upon the civic of- 
 ficers, {decitrione.s,) places which must have been 
 generally held by the rich, as Constantine had in 
 great measure appropriated the wealth of the cities to 
 the endowment of churches, and the support of tlie 
 clergy.
 
 )68 
 
 ROMAN STATE, 
 
 [book v. 
 
 FounTH 
 Period. 
 
 Spread of 
 the Chris- 
 tian reli- 
 gion. 
 
 Constan- 
 tine, Con- 
 stantiiis, 
 and Con- 
 stans. 
 
 a. The land-tax, or indiction, which if not first introduced by 
 Constantiiie, was entirely regulated under him, was collected 
 after an exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed 
 estates. Its amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the 
 emperor, {indicehatur,) and kn'ied by the rectors of provinces 
 and the decurions ; an arbitrary standard {caput) being taken 
 as the rate of assessment. 
 
 As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it 
 gave rise to the cycle of indivtions of fifteen years, which be- 
 came the common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In 
 this manner the tax included all those who were possessed of 
 property, b. The tax on commerce ; which was levied on al- 
 most every kind of trade. It was collected every four years, 
 whence the auriim lustrale. c. The aurum coronarium grew 
 out of the custom which obtained of presenting the emperors 
 with golden crowns on particular occasions ; the value of which 
 was at last exacted in money. Every considerable city was 
 obhged to pay it. 
 
 10. The rapid spread of the Christian rehgion, the 
 promulgation of which was enforced as a duty upon 
 all its professors, was now accelerated by the endea- 
 vours of the court. Constantine forbade sacrifices, 
 and shut up the temples ; and the violent zeal of his 
 successors unfortunately soon turned them into ruins. 
 
 Histoire de Constantin-le- Grand, par le E. P. Berx. de Va- 
 KENNE. Paris, 1778, 4to. 
 
 Vita di Constantino il Grande delV Abb. Fr. Gusta. Fu- 
 ligno, 1786. Both these works, especially the first, are written 
 in a tone of panegyric ; the latest, and by far the best, is 
 
 I Life of Constantine the Great, by J. C. F. Manso. Bresl. 
 1817. With several very learned appendixes, which clear up 
 some particular points. 
 
 11. The three Caesars and sons of Constantine the 
 Great, Constantine, 337 — 340 ; Constantius, 337 — 
 361; and Constans, 337 — 350; had been carefully 
 educated, and yet resembled one another as much in 
 their vices as they did in their names. They indeed 
 divided the empire again upon the death of their 
 father ; but were so eager after territory, which nei- 
 ther of them was qualified to govern, that a series of 
 wars followed for the next twelve years, till at last 
 Constantius was left master of the whole ; and by the 
 murder of most of his relations secured the throne to 
 himself 
 
 In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the prai-
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 47G. 369 
 
 fectura GalUarirm, Constaiis the prcpfectura Italia', ei Ilh/riri, Fountu 
 and Constantiiis the pra'fectura Orientis. But as Coii.stiintijie FtRion. 
 desired to add Italy and Africa to hi.s portion, he attacked Con- 
 stans, and thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into the 
 possession of the western countries. In consequence, however, 
 of his wretched misgovernment, Magnentius, a general, pro- 
 claimed himself em^^eror in Gaul, and Constans was slain in en- 
 deavonring to escape, 350. A war with Constantius, who was 
 then occupied in the East, became inevitable, and broke out 351. 
 The usur[)er was defeated first at Mursa in Pannonia, then re- 
 treating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353 ; upon which he 
 slew himself, together with his family. 
 
 12. As Constantius, however — sunk in effeminacy Cusfamius 
 and debauchery, and surrounded and governed by '*'"'"'• 
 eunuchs — was unable to sustain the weight of g-overn- 
 
 ment alone, he took his cousin Constantius Callus, 35i. 
 hitherto a state prisoner, and whose father he had 
 formerly slain, to his assistance, created him Ca?sai*, 
 and sent him into the East against the Parthians. 
 But his excessive arrogance, which was fomented by 
 his wife Constantina, rendered him so dangerous that 
 Constantius recalled him, and caused him, upon his 
 return, to be put to death in Istria. His younger 
 brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious Con- 
 stantius believed he had nothing to fear, was promoted 354. 
 in his place, created Ceesar, and sent to defend the Nov. 6, 
 frontiers on the Rhine. Although Julian passed sud- ^^^' 
 denly from study to warfare, he not only fought 
 against the Germans with success, but also made a 
 deep inroad into their country. In the mean time 
 Constantius, after his generals had been beaten by 
 the Persians, who wished to reconquer the provinces 
 they liad ceded, was preparing an expedition against 
 them in person, and with that view endeavoured gra- 
 dually to withdraw the troops of Julian, in conse- 
 quence of which the latter, suspecting his design, 
 was induced to accept the diadem presented by his 
 soldiers. While marching, however, along the Da- 3r.i. 
 nube against Constantius, he received information of 
 that prince's death in Asia. 
 
 13. Fl. Jidian, (tin; apostate,) who reigned from Julian, 
 his twenty-ninth to his thirty-second year, was the 5unc S! 
 last and most highly-gifted prince of the house of-'ic;'. 
 
 2 B
 
 370 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and study, 
 ^'^'°°' he yet had some faults, though certainly free from 
 great vices. He began with reforming the luxury of 
 the court. His abjuration of the religion now be- 
 come dominant, and which he wished to annihilate 
 by degrees, was an error in policy, which he must 
 have discovered to his cost had his reign been pro- 
 longed. Wishing, however, to terminate the war 
 against the Persians, he penetrated as far as the Ti- 
 gris, where he lost his life in an engagement, after a 
 reign of three years. 
 
 f The Emperor Julian and his Times, by August. Neaxder. 
 Leipsic, 1812. An historical sketch. 
 
 joviau, 14. Fl. Jovianus, now thirty-three years of age, 
 
 3G3— r'e'b ^^'^^ immediately raised to the purple by the army. 
 21, 364. He concluded a peace with the Persians, by which 
 he restored them all the territory that had been con- 
 quered from them since the year 297. After a short 
 reign of eight months he was carried off by a sudden 
 disorder ; and the army proclaimed Fl. Valentinian. 
 Vaientinian at Nicc in his stcad. Valentinian almost immediately 
 and Valens, agsociatcd his brother Valens with himself in the o-o- 
 vernment, and divided the empire by giving him the 
 prcefectura Orkntis, and retaining the rest for 
 himself 
 Valentinian 15. The rcign of Valentinian I. in the West, who, 
 ijbV— Nov. ^^ the year 367, created his son Gratian Augustus 
 17, 375. W\\\\ himself, is distinguished by the system of tole- 
 ration which he followed with regard to the affairs 
 of religion, though in other respects a cruel prince. 
 Nearly the whole of his reign was taken up in almost 
 continual struggles with the German nations, who 
 had recovered from the losses they had suffered un- 
 der Julian. His first efforts were directed against 
 the Franks, the Saxons, and the Alemanni on the 
 Rhine ; and afterwards against the Quadi and other 
 nations on the Danube ; where he died of apoplexy 
 at Guntz in Hungary. 
 Valens, 16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged 
 
 3G4— 3<8. 3g — 22 years) had to contend with a powerful insur- 
 rection which had broken out in the East. A certain
 
 rEEioD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 176. 371 
 
 Procopius had instigated tlie people to tliis, by takino- i>'Ii;th 
 advantao'e of the discontent occasioned by the oppres- ''"'°"' 
 sion of Valens, who, havino- adopted the opinion of 
 the Arians, was more disliked in the East than his 
 brother was in the West. His war against the Per- 373. 
 sians ended with a truce. But the most important 
 event that happened during his reign, was the en- 
 trance of the Huns into Europe, which took place 
 towards its close. This, in its turn, gave rise to the 
 great popular migration, by which the Roman em- 
 pire in the AVest may properly be said to have been 
 overthrown. The immediate consequence was the 
 admission of the greater part of the Visigoths into 
 the Roman empire, and this occasioned a war which 
 cost Valens his life. 
 
 The ITiiiis, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great 
 Mongolian race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they .sub- 
 dued the Gotlis upon that river as far as tlie Theiss. The 
 Goths, divided into Ostrogoths and Visigotlis, were separated 
 from one another by the Dnieper. Tlie former, driven from 
 their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in consequence of which 
 the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to grant them 
 admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of 
 the Vandals, Avho had been seated in Pannonia from the time of 
 Constantine, they were the fir.st barbarian nation that had been 
 settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous 
 oppression of the Konian governor, hoAvever, drove them into 
 rebellion ; and as Valens marched against them, he was defeated 
 near Adrianople and lost his life, 378. 
 
 17. Durino; these events, Gratian (ao-ed 16 — 24 Gratian, 
 years) succeeded his fatlier Valentinian I. in tiic 'J,'|~"" 
 West, and immediately associated his brother, Aalen- vaientiniai 
 tinian II. (ao-ed 5 — 21 years) with himself in the ^J- •^"■'— 
 empire; giving him, though under his own superin- 
 tendence, the;jrrf;/6'c^/^r<7 It (due et Illtjr'iei. Gratian 
 
 set forward to the assistance of his uncle A'alens 
 against the Goths, but receiving on his march an ac- 
 count of his defeat and death, and fearing tlie East 
 might tall a prey to the Gotiis, he raised Theodosius, 
 a Spaniard, who had already distinguished himself as 
 a warrior, to the purple, and gave him the 'pnvfeetura 
 Orientis et llhiric'i. 
 
 18. The indolent reign of Gratian led to the re- Revolt of 
 
 2 R 2
 
 o7.i ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 FouuTii bellion of Maximus, a commander in Britain, who, 
 ^^luoD. j^j.Qggjj^g \^^Q Gaul, was so strongly supported by tlie 
 Maximus, defection of the Galhc legions, that Gratian was 
 ^^^' obliged to seek safety in flight. He was, however, 
 
 overtaken and put to death at Lyons. By this event, 
 Maximus found himself in possession of all the pra;- 
 fcctura Galllarum. ; and by promising Theodosius 
 not to interfere with the young A^alentinian II. in 
 Italy, he prevailed upon him to acknowledge him 
 emperor. But having broken his promise by the in- 
 vasion of Italy, he was defeated and made prisoner 
 388. by Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after executed. 
 Upon this Valentinian II., a youth of whom great 
 hopes were entertained, became again master of all 
 the West. But, unfortunately, he was murdered by 
 the offended Arbogast, his magister m'llltum ; who, 
 Eugenius. thereupon, raised to the throne his own friend Euge- 
 nius, magister ojficiorum. Theodosius, however, so 
 far from acknowledging, declared war against him 
 and made him prisoner. He himself thus became 
 master of the whole empire, but died in the following 
 
 Theodosius 19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the East, 
 ja'ii.^i'g^^' f'"om his thirty-fourth to his fiftieth year, was not less 
 379— Jan. dcvotcd to DoHtics than to religion. The dexterity 
 ' ' ■ with which he at first broke the power of the victori- 
 ous Goths (though they still preserved their quarters 
 in the provinces on the Danube) procured him con- 
 siderable influence, which the strength and activity 
 of his character enabled him easily to maintain. The 
 blind zeal, however, with which he persecuted Arian- 
 ism, now the prevailing creed in the East, and re- 
 stored the orthodox belief, as well as the persecutions 
 which he directed against the pagans, and the de- 
 struction of their temples, occasioned the most dread- 
 ful convulsions. His efforts to preserve the bound- 
 aries of the empire, not a province of which was lost 
 before his death, required an increase of taxes ; and 
 however oppressive this might be, we cannot impute 
 it to the ruler as a crime. In an empire so enfeebled 
 in itself, and which, nevertheless, had powerful foes
 
 rERioD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 373 
 
 on every side to contend with, it followed that every Fourth 
 active reign would be oppressive. • Yet never before ^'^"'" "' 
 had the internal depopulation of the empire made it 
 necessary to take so many barbarians into Roman 
 pay, as under this reign ; whence naturally followed 
 a change in the arms and tactics of the Roman armies. 
 
 P. Erasm. Müller, de genio sceculi Theodosiani. Havnije, 
 1798, 2 vols. A very learned and in eveiy respect excellent 
 description of the deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood. 
 
 20. Theodosius left two sons, between whom the Final divi- 
 empire was divided. Both parts, however, were ?i°" "'^ "'* 
 certamly considered as forming but one empire — an p>re. 
 opinion which afterwards prevailed, and even till late 
 
 in the middle ages had important consequences — yet 
 never since this period have they been reunited under 
 one ruler. The Eastern empire, comprising the 
 prafectura Orieutis et lUijrici, was allotted to the 
 eldest son, Arcadius, (aged 18 — 31,) under the guard- Arcadiis, 
 ianship of Rufinus the Gaul. The Western, or the ^'^-J— ^u«- 
 prcpfectura GalUanwi et Ital'icc, to the younger, 
 Honorius, aged 11 — 39, under the guardianship of Hononus, 
 the Vandal Stilico. '"'-'-•'• 
 
 21. The Western empire, to the history of which 
 we shall now confine ourselves, suffered such violent 
 shocks during the reign of Honorius, as made its 
 approaching fall plainly visible. The intrigues of 
 Stilico to procure himself the government of the 
 whole empire, opened a way for the Goths into its 
 interior, just at a time when they were doubly formi- 
 dable, fortune having given them a leader greatly 
 superior to any they had hitherto had. Alaric king Aiaric king 
 of the Visigoths established himself and his people in gu'i'.sl ^ "*'' 
 the Roman empire, became master of Rome, and 
 mounted the throne : it was the mere effect of cliancc 
 
 that lie did not overthi'ow it altoiiether. 
 
 o 
 Both Honoi'ius and Arcadius, especially the lattei-, bcloiijjed 
 to that class of men who never come to years of maturity ; tlieir 
 favourites and ministers therefore froverned according to tlicir 
 own inclination. Stilico, who made Iluiioriiis his son-in-law, 
 was not deficient, indeed, in abilities for governinjr ; and his en- 
 deavour to obtain the management of the wliole empire, arose, 
 perhaps, from the conviction that it was necessary he should
 
 374 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 FounTH have it. He could not, however, gain liis object by intrigue ; 
 
 Peuiod. fm- after the murder of Rufinus, 395, lie found a still more 
 powerful opponent in the eunuch ICutropius, his successor in 
 the East. Under the regency of Stilico, Gaul, in consequence 
 of its troops being withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inun- 
 dated by German triljes — by Vandals, Alani, and Suevi — who 
 from thence penetrated even into Spain. Nevertheless, he pre- 
 served Italy from their attacks by the victory which he gained, 
 403, over Alaric at Verona ; and again over Radagaisus, 405, 
 who had advanced with other German hordes as far as Florence. 
 But Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with Alaric, 
 for the purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire of 
 the East, was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite 
 Olyrapius, whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the 
 weakness of Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and 
 foreign soldiers. Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, 
 and was executed August 23, 408. Rome lost in him the only 
 general that was left to defend her. Alaric invaded Italy the 
 same year, 408, and the besieged Rome was obliged to purchase 
 peace ; the conditions, however, not being fulfilled, he Avas 
 again, 409, before Rome, became master of the city, and created 
 Attains, the pragfect of the city, emperor instead of Honorius, 
 who had shut himself up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the 
 diadem ; and, making himself master of the city by force, gave 
 it up to be plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while 
 pi'ojecting the capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in Lower 
 Italy. His brother-in-law and successor, Adolphus, together 
 with his Goths, left Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went 
 into Gaul, and from thence proceeding into Spain, founded there 
 the empire of the Visigoths : he carried with him, however, 
 Placidia the sister of Honorius, either as prisoner or as hostage, 
 and married her in Gaul. During these events a usurper 
 arose in Britain and Gaul named Constantine, 407 : he was 
 vanquished, and put to death, 411, by Constantius, one of 
 Honorius's generals. This latter prince not only gave Con- 
 stantius his sister Placidia, who had become a widow and was 
 restored in 417, in marriage, but also named him Augustus in 
 421. He died, however, a few months after, so that Placidia 
 henceforward had a considerable share in the government. She 
 went, nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, where she remained 
 until the death of Honorius. 
 
 f Fl. Stilico, or the JVallenstein of Antiquity, by Che. Fe. 
 Schulze, 1805. Not written by way of comparison. 
 
 22. In this manner was a great part of Spain and 
 
 part of Gaul cut off from the Roman empire during 
 
 423. the reio'n of Honorius. After his death the secretary 
 
 42Ö. John usurped the government, but was defeated by 
 
 Vaientinian the Eastcm cmpcror Theodosius IL- The nephew of 
 
 455. "''" Honorius, Vaientinian III., a minor, (aged 6 — 36,)
 
 PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 375 
 
 was then raised to the throne, under tlie guardian I'mnx» 
 care of his mother Placidia (t 450). Under his ^^""""- 
 miserable reign the Western empire was stripped of 
 ahuost all her provinces with the exception of Italy. 
 Yet the government of his mother, and afterwards 
 his own incapacity, were as much the cause as the 
 stormy migration of barbarous tribes, which now 
 convulsed all Europe. 
 
 Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. 
 In Africa, the governor Boniface having been driven into rebel- 
 lion by the intrigues of tlie Roman general ^tius, who pos- 
 sessed the ear of Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, 
 under the command of Genseric, to come to his assistance. 
 The latter then obtained possession of the country, 429 — 439 ; 
 indeed, even as early as 43Ö, Valentinian was obliged to make 
 a formal cession of it to them. Yalentinian's Avife Eudoxia, a 
 Grecian princess, was purchased by the cession of western Illy- 
 ricum (Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum) ; so that of all the 
 countries south of the Danube there now only remained those 
 which belonged to the praifecture of Italy, Rluvtia and Vinde- 
 licia. On the south-east of Gaul was formed, 435, the king- 
 dom of the Burgundians, wliich, besides the south-east part 
 of France, comprised also Switzerland and Savoy. The south- 
 west was under the dominion of the Visigoths. There remain- 
 ed only the tei'ritory north of tlie Loire which still submitted to 
 the Roman governors ; the last of whom, Syagrius, survived 
 the fall of the empire itself ; holding out till tlie year 486, when 
 he was defeated near Soissons by Clodovicus, or Clovis, king 
 of the Franks. 
 
 23. But while the Western empire seemed thns The iiuns, 
 of itself almost to fall to pieces, another impetuous 
 rush of nations took place, which threatened the wliole 
 of western Europe. The victorious hordes of Huns 
 who now occupied the territory formerly the seat of 
 the Goths, between the Don and the Theiss, and even 
 as far as the Volo-a, had united themselves since the 
 year 444, under one common chief, Attila ; who, by Attiia. 
 this union and his own superior talents as a warrior 
 and ruler, became the most powerful prince of liis 
 time. The Eastern empire having bought a {)cac.e 
 by paying him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty 4.-,o. 
 army upon the W(!stern provinces. The united forces, 
 liowcver, of the Romans under vEtius and the Visi- 
 goths, obliged him near Chalons (/// ciunpis Cdlalan- »u.
 
 376 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Foi-HTii nkis) to retreat. Nevertheless, the following year 
 he again invaded Italy, where he had a secret under- 
 standing with the licentious Honoria, Valentinian's 
 
 4Ö3. sister. The cause of his second retreat, which was 
 soon followed by his death, is unknown. The miser- 
 able Valentinian soon after deprived the Roman em- 
 pire of its best general, being led by his suspicions 
 
 454. to put iEtius to death. He himself, however, was 
 soon doomed to undergo the punishment of his de- 
 
 •155. baucheries, being murdered in a conspiracy formed 
 by Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had dishonour- 
 ed, and some friends of ^tius, whom he had executed. 
 24. The twenty years which intervened between 
 the assassination of Valentinian, and the final de- 
 struction of the Roman empire in the West, was 
 nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. 
 No less than nine sovereigns rapidly succeeded one 
 another. These changes, indeed, were but of little 
 importance* in this troublesome period, compared to 
 the terror with which Genseric kino- of the Vandals 
 filled the Roman empire : he by his naval power 
 havino- become master of the Mediterranean and 
 Sicily, could ravage the coasts of the defenceless 
 Italy at his pleasure, and even capture Rome itself. 
 While in Italy, the German Ricimer, general of the 
 foreign troops in Roman pay, permitted a series of 
 emperors to reign in his name. It would have been 
 his lot to put an end to this series of Augusti, but for 
 mere accident, which reserved that glory for his son 
 and successor, Odoacer, four years after his father's 
 death. 
 
 After the death of Valentinian, IMaximus was proch^imed 
 erapei'or ; but as he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's 
 widow, to marry him, she called over Genseric from Africa, 
 Avho took and pillaged Rome, and JMaximus perished after a 
 reign of three months, 455. He was succeeded by M. Avitus, 
 who ascended the throne at Aries ; and he again was soon de- 
 posed by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet 
 of the Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, iirst Ju- 
 lianus Majorianus, April 1, 457 ; but he, having distinguished 
 himself in the wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and 
 Libius Severus put in his place, who, however, died in 465, pro- 
 bably of poison. His death was followed by an interregnum of
 
 PERIOD iv.l FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 475. 377 
 
 two years, during which Ricimer ruled, tho\igh without tlie title Foirth 
 of emperor. At length the patrician Antiiemiu.s, then at Con- I'tiuoo. 
 stantinople, (where they never gave up their pretensions to the 
 right of naming or confirming the sovereigns of the AVest,) was, 
 though not without the consent of the powerful Ricimer, named 
 emperor of the West, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo. But 
 differences having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter 
 retired to jNIilan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took 
 and pillaged Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself 
 followed soon after, t-'^ug' ^^i 472. Upon this, Anicius Oly- 
 brius, son-in-law of Valentinian III., was proclaimed Augustus, 
 but dying in three months, Oct., 472, Glycerius assumed the 
 purple at Ravenna, without, however, being acknowledged at 
 Constantinople, where they in preference named Julius Nepos 
 Augustus. The latter, in 474, having exj)elled Glycerius, i>e- 
 came also in his turn expelled by his own general Orestes, 47.3, 
 who gave the diadem to his son Romulus Momyllus, who, as 
 tlie last in the succession of Augusti, acquired the surname of 
 Augustulus. In 476, however, Odoacer, the leader of the Ger- 
 mans in the Roman pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution 
 of Orestes, into captivity, and allowed him a pension. Odoacer 
 now remained master of Italy till the year 492, when the Os- 
 trogoths, under their king Theodoric, founded there a new 
 empire. 
 
 25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the West, 
 while that of the East, pressed on every side, and in 
 a situation almost similar, endured a thousand years, 
 notwithstanding its intestine broils, which would 
 alone have sufficed to destroy any other, and the 
 hosts of barbarians who attacked it during the middle 
 ages. The impregnable situation of its capital, which 
 usually decides the fate of such kingdoms, joined to 
 its despotism, wliich is not unfrequently the main 
 support of a kingdom in its decline, can alone, in 
 some measure, explain a phenomenon which has no 
 equal in the history of the woi-ld.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS TO THE TIME OF CYRUS, 
 EXTRACTED FROM THE RESEARCHES OF M. VOLNEY. 
 
 See Preface. 
 
 Although Herodotus did not write his work in 
 chronological order, yet we cannot doubt that he had 
 some general plan of computing time. By carefully 
 selecting and comparing the separate data scattered 
 through his work, this plan to a certain extent may 
 be traced out, and early history, with regard to set- 
 tled chronology, must necessarily gain a good deal. 
 The following essay is founded upon a procedure of 
 this kind ; it is drawn entirely from Herodotus, and 
 only from data which he has precisely determined, 
 the passages of his work being always referred to. 
 
 The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages 
 and the Median empire took place, as may be proved 
 from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point of time from 
 which we may ascend into higher antiquity. This 
 point of time may be determined by the chronological 
 data respecting the battle of Marathon, four years 
 before the death of Darius, (Herodotus, VII. 1. 4.,) 
 agreeing with the general data of the Greeks, who fix 
 it in the third year of the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. 
 By adding to this the thirty-two years of Darius's 
 reign that had already elapsed, (Herodotus, ibid.,) the 
 eight months of Smerdis, (Herodotus, HI. 68.,) the 
 seven years and five months of Cambyses, (Herodo- 
 tus, lit. 66.,) and the twenty-nine years of Cyrus, 
 (Herodotus, I. 214.,) we obtain the year 560 as the 
 first year of Cyrus.
 
 APPENDIX. 379 
 
 II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 B. c. 
 
 End of the Median empire 561. 
 
 Duration of the I\Iedian empire one hundi-ed and 
 fifty-six years (Herodotus, I. 130.) 
 
 The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation 
 
 from tlie Assyrians, would be . . . . 717. 
 
 In this period, at first, six years of anarchy' . . 716 — 710. 
 
 Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, 1. 102.) 710 — 657. 
 
 Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.) . . 657 — 635. 
 
 Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.) .... 635 — 595. 
 
 Irruption and dominion of the Scythians, twenty- 
 eight years (I. 203. 106.) .... 625—595. 
 
 Conquest of Xineveh (I. 106.) .... 597. 
 
 Astyages reigned tliirty-five years (I. 130.) . . 595 — 561. 
 
 The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias, 
 which entirely ditiers from this, the author thinks 
 might be explained by a duplication ; see f Gott. 
 GdL Anz. 1810, p. 4. 
 
 I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or their 
 empire, ended with the revolt of the Medes (Herodo- 
 tus, I. 95.) ; although the existence of their state did 
 not then end, but terminated with the capture of 
 Nineveh by Cyaxares, B. C. 597. 
 
 B. c. 
 
 Revolt of the Medes, as above .... 717. 
 
 The dominion of the Assyrians had endured five 
 
 hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.) 
 The Assyrian empire lasted therefore from . . 1237 — 717. 
 
 As Herodotus intended to write the history of this 
 empire in a separate work, (I. 184.,) he only casually 
 mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who began to 
 reign 1237 ; and afterwards Sennacherib and his ex- 
 pedition (II. 141.); and the last kino-, Sardanapalus 
 (IL 150.). 
 
 ' These are certainly not dclcrmincd from Herodotus; but they 
 remain after subtracting the one hundred and fifty years' reign of 
 the four Median kings.
 
 380 APPENDIX. 
 
 The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition 
 furnishes a point of time for comparing" the chro- 
 nology of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the 
 Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expe- 
 dition took place B. C. 714 (see above, p. 22); his 
 death takes place immediately after, and he has for 
 his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings xix. 37. Here 
 then is certainly a contradiction, since, according to 
 Herodotus, the Assyrian dominion had ceased three 
 years before, namely, 717. M. Volney endeavours 
 to reconcile this difficulty by the restoration of an 
 ancient readincr in the sacred text ; accordin«; to 
 wdiich Amon, king of Judeea, reigned twelve years 
 instead of two (2 Kings xxi. 10) ; from which it 
 would follow, that the expedition of Sennacherib took 
 place in 724. As this would leave seven years after 
 his death for his successor Esar-haddon, who agrees 
 both in time and name with the Sardanapalus of the 
 Greeks (the Greek name being formed from Esar- 
 haddon-pal, i. e. Esar, the lord, son of Pal,) the two 
 chronologies are thus made to agree exactly. But 
 even in following the ancient usual reading, the great- 
 est difference between the two statements is only ten 
 years ; quite as little as can be reasonably expected 
 imder such circumstances. 
 
 With regard to the Assyrian chronology of Ctesias, 
 M. Volney has satisfactorily shown that it is full oi 
 contradictions, and unworthy of any credit. 
 
 III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The arrangement of the Lydian chronoloccy rests 
 upon the settlement of two principal facts : first, the 
 great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes, foretold by 
 Thales (Herodotus I. 74.) ; and secondly, the con- 
 quest of Sardes, and overthrow of the empire under 
 Croesus, by Cyrus ; both of which Herodotus certain- 
 ly mentions, but w^ithout any precise date. But by 
 a careful comparison of all the data it has been proved, 
 that the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to 
 the tables of Pingre) happened in the year 625 ; and
 
 APPENDIX. 381 
 
 the conquest of Sardcs, and the end of the Lydian 
 empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus. 
 Therefore : 
 
 B. c. 
 End of the Lvdiaa empire ..... oö7. 
 
 It subsisted under tlwee houses ; under that of the 
 Atyadse (fabulous and uncertain) ; under that of the 
 Herachda3, five hundred and five years (Herodotus, 
 I. 7.) ; and under the last, that of the Mermnadte, 
 one hundred and seventy years. 
 
 The Heraclidse and Mermnadae, then, reigned al- 
 together six hundred and seventy-five years. There- 
 fore : 
 
 a. c. 
 Commencement of tlie reign of the Ileraclida^, with 
 
 Agron the son of Ninus (I. 7.) . . . . 1232. 
 
 End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by 
 
 Gyges 727. 
 
 By fixing the time of Agron son of Ninus, Hero- 
 dotus verifies himself (I. 7.) ; as, by the preceding 
 data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria, 1237 ; con- 
 sequently it must have been in the fifth year of his 
 reign that he conquei'ed Lydia, and placed his son 
 Agron upon the throne. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Dominion of the Mermnadn?, one hundred and se- 
 venty years, under kings of that liouse . . 727 — 557 
 
 Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, 1. 14.). . 727 — 689. 
 
 Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.) . . 689 — 640, 
 
 First irruption of the Cimmerians . . . 670. 
 
 Sadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.) . . 640— 62S. 
 
 Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.) . 628—571. 
 
 War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse, 
 
 and second irru^^tion of the Cimmerians . . 625. 
 
 Croesus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodo- 
 tus, I. 86.) .... . 571 — 557. 
 
 IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS. 
 
 For this as well as for the Egyptians there is no 
 'evidence to guide us, the data being very scanty, and 
 taken from Herodotus alone. The clu-onology of
 
 APPF.NDIX. 
 
 the Babylonians, according to the canon of Ptolemy, 
 begins with Nabonassar, 747, who was succeeded by 
 twelve kings, (mentioned in the same canon,) down 
 to Nabopolassar (see above, p. 24). 
 
 B. c. 
 Nabopolassar 627—604. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar 
 
 Evil-Merodach 
 
 Nei'iglissar . 
 
 Labynetus . 
 
 Conquest of Babylon by Cjtus 
 
 604—561. 
 561—559. 
 559—555. 
 555—538. 
 538. 
 
 \. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 M. Volney very properly commences this with the 
 dodecarchy — as of the earlier periods only the time 
 of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained; — and arranges it 
 in the following manner : 
 
 B. c. 
 Dodecarchy ....... 671 — 656. 
 
 Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years . 656 — 617. 
 Reign of Neco, sixteen years .... 617 — 601. 
 
 Psammis, six years .... 601 — 595. 
 
 • Apries, twenty-five years . . . 595 — 570. 
 
 Amasis, forty-four yeax's . . . 570 — 526. 
 
 Psammenitus, six months ..... 525. 
 
 Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses.
 
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 I— I
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Acamania, the most -westcm country in 
 Hellas, 92. general outline of its history, 
 120. 
 
 Achcean League, The, its formation, history, 
 and overthrow, 223, 224. -war with the 
 jEtolian League, 226. in the war be- 
 tween Rome and Philip II., sided first 
 with the latter, and afterwards vdih. 
 Rome, 228, 279. war with Nabis, ib. ac- 
 cession of Sparta to the League, ib. Ro- 
 man policy against them, 229. fall of the 
 Leagcie, 231,286. 
 
 Achaaiis, a principal branch of the Hel- 
 lenes, 96. Aigos, Sparta, Messene, and 
 Corinth wrested from them by the Do- 
 rians, 103, 106. expel the lonians, and 
 settle in Achaia, ib. 
 
 Achamenes, brother to Artaxerxes I., S3, 
 defeated by the revolted Egyptians, ib. 
 
 Achcnis, cousin of Seleucus III. king of 
 Syria, 190. on the death of that monarch 
 re-establishes the kingdom of the Seleu- 
 cidae in Asia Minor, it. 
 
 Achaia, a country of Peloponnesus, 93. 
 geographical outline, ib. general outline 
 of its history, 117. 
 
 Achelous, one of the principal rivers of 
 Greece, 90. 
 
 Achilleiis, 363. 
 
 Acichorius, a leader of the Gauls in tlieh- 
 irruption into Greece, 221. with Brennus 
 invades Paionia, ib. subsequently bursts 
 into Greece and pushes on for Delphi, 
 but is defeated, 222. 
 
 Acrte, a city of Sicily, 142. 
 
 Adrian, P. ^Elitis, a Roman emperor, 343. 
 his reign, 344. 
 
 .^gina, a Greek island in the Saronic Gulf, 
 94. sometimes contended witli Athens, 
 114. historical outline, 122. 
 
 yEtnilianus, ./Einilizts, a Roman emperor, 
 355. 
 
 JEolians, a principal branch of tlie Hel- 
 lenes, 96. begin the colonization of Asia 
 Minor, 103. their colonies, 127. 
 
 yEthiopia, 40. lies next above Esrypt, ib. 
 
 and from the earliest times was closely 
 connected with it, ib. 
 
 JEtolia, a country in Central Greece, 92. 
 the least cultivated of any, ib. general 
 outline of its history, 119. 
 
 yEtoliati League, The, 224. war with the 
 Achffian League, 226. alliance with 
 Rome, Sparta, and Elis, 227. compelled 
 by Philip II. to accept peace, ib. 
 
 Africa, Ancient, general geographical out- 
 line, 37. only the nortlicm part known to 
 antiquity, ib. this better kno\^ii by them 
 than by the moderns, ib. diflers greatly 
 from Asia, ib. forms a world in itself, ib. 
 its physical geography, ib. not comprised 
 in any political division, 38. circum- 
 navigated by the Phoenicians at the com- 
 mand of Neco, 57. 
 
 Agathocles, eldest son of Lysimachus, 221. 
 executed at the instigation of his step- 
 mother, Arsiiioe, ib. 
 
 Agesilaus, after the death of Agis, seizes 
 tlie regal dignity at Sparta, 160. his ex- 
 pedition into Asia, ib. recalled out of 
 Asia, 161. sent to Egypt to support the 
 insurrection of Tachos, 164. 
 
 Agricola, his expedition into Britain, 341. 
 
 Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, in Sicily, 
 141. its history, ib. 
 
 Agrippa, grandson of Herod, made king by 
 Caligula, 250. 
 
 Agrippa II. son of Philip the tetrarch, 250. 
 
 Agrippina, a wife of Claudius Cesar, 337. 
 
 Alaria, or Alalia, a Greek settlement in 
 Corsica, 142. 
 
 Alaric, the Visigoth, 373, 374. 
 
 Alba Longa, a. city of the Latini, from which 
 I{ome was a colony, 260. its destruction, 
 261. 
 
 Albinus, a Roman general commanding in 
 Brit^iin, and proclaimed emperor by his 
 army after the death of Commodus, .350. 
 defeated by Severus, kills himself, ib. 
 
 Alcibiades, obtains the managemcHt of af- 
 fairs at Athens, 157. his character, »6. 
 incites to a project for conquering Sicily,
 
 390 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ■ib. sent on the expedition with Nicias 
 and Lamachus, ib. defeated, ib. flies to 
 Tissaphernes, 158. negociates with the 
 Athenian generals at Samos, ib. named 
 leader by the army, ib. repeated victories 
 over the Spartans, ib. is de]iosed, and 
 goes into voluntary exile, 159. defeated 
 at Notium, ib. .and deprived of the com- 
 mand, ib. 
 
 Alcimus, a high priest of the Jews, 248. 
 
 Alcmeeon, the last of the Athenian archons, 
 110. 
 
 Alectus, .3G3. 
 
 Alemanni, The, 326. wars with Caracalla, 
 352. become formidable to Rome, 356. 
 defeated by Aurelius Claudius, 357. 
 driven back by Aurelian, ib. 
 
 Alexander the Great, succeeds his father 
 Philip on the throne of Macedon, 173. 
 commotions thereupon, 174. his expe- 
 dition against Thrace, ib. appointed ge- 
 neralissimo of the Greeks, ib. his plan of 
 attack on Persia, ib. passage of the Hel- 
 lespont, ib. battle of the Granicus, ib. 
 battle of Jssus, ib. siege of Tyre, ib. con- 
 quest of Egypt, 175. reduction of Tyre, 
 ib. builds Alexandria, ib. battle of Ar- 
 bela, ib. wholly subjects Persia, ib. the 
 opposition he subsequently met with in 
 his own army, ib. expedition against In- 
 dia, 176. originated in his propensity to 
 romantic enterprise, ib. the course of his 
 invasion, ib. defeats Porus the king, ib. 
 is compelled by mutiny in his army to 
 return, ib. the modern connexion of Eu- 
 rope with the East the work of his hands, 
 ib. proceeds to Persis and Babylon across 
 the desert, 177. Üie extent of his do- 
 minions, ib. his policy in the conquered 
 countries, ib. his views, ib. his death, 1 78. 
 his character, ib. state of liis family at his 
 death, 1 79. the example which his mon- 
 archy affords, 186. 
 
 Alexander, the posthumous son of Alex- 
 ander the Great, proclaimed king jointly 
 with Arrhideeus, 179. murdered, with 
 his mother, by Cassander, 183, 218. 
 
 Alexander, son of Polysperchon, regent of 
 the Macedonian empire, 217. sent by 
 his father to gain possession of Athens, 
 ib. expelled by the democratic party, ib. 
 won over by Cassander, 218. murdered, ib. 
 
 Ale.xander, a son of Cassander, murdered 
 by Demetrius Poliorcetes, 219. 
 
 Alexander Balas, a usurper of the SjTian 
 throne in the reign of Demetrius Soter, 
 195. his character, ib. defeated and de- 
 throned by Demetrius II. aided by Phi- 
 lometor, 196. 
 
 Alexander Zebinas, a pretended son of the 
 preceding, 197. setup by Ptolemy Phys- 
 con as a rival to Demetrius 11., ib. war 
 with Cleopatra, 198. 
 
 Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great, 
 
 175. its increase under Ptolemy Sotcr 
 202. siege by .Julius Ca-sar, 21.3, 313. 
 massacre of the inhabitants by C'lra- 
 calla, 352. 
 
 Amestris, queen of Xerxes I., 82. her in- 
 trigues in his court, ib. and in that of 
 Artaxerxes I., 84. 
 
 Amisus, a Greek colony of the Black Sea, 
 and mother city of Trapezus, 131. 
 
 Amnion, an Egyptian deity, confounded by 
 the Greeks with their Jupiter, 47. 
 
 Amphictyonic council, the most important 
 public association of the Greeks, and 
 which continued the longest, 100. it pro- 
 moted the national feeling of unity, 105. 
 not a states-general, ib. its immediate 
 office to attend to the temples and oracles 
 of Delphi, ib. hence it was enabled to 
 take a share in the affairs of different 
 states, ib. none but Hellenes were ad- 
 mitted to it, ib. abuses its authority in 
 kindling the Sacred war, 164. its sen- 
 tence against Sparta, 165. Phocians be- 
 ing expelled from the council, Philip 
 takes their place and vote, 165. its sen- 
 tence on the Locrians, ib. 
 
 Amphipolis, a city on the coast of Mace- 
 donia, a colony from Athens, 132. 
 
 AmyrtcBus, an Egyptian, who excited his 
 country to the second revolt against 
 Persia, 83. defeated by Megabyzus, ib. 
 takes refuge in the morasses, and con- 
 tinues to make head against the Persians, 
 ib. issues forth and expels the Persians 
 from Egj'pt, 85. 
 
 Amytis, queen of Artaxerxes I., 84. her in- 
 trigues, ib. 
 
 Annals, one source of history, 8. 
 
 Antigomis, one of the generals of Alex- 
 ander the Great, 180. receives Phrygia, 
 Lycia, and Pamphylia at his master's 
 death, ib. refuses to obey Perdiccas, ib. 
 attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow him, 
 181. he passes over to Antipater, ib. war 
 with Eumenes, ib. becomes master of 
 Asia Minor, ib. victory o-\er the royal 
 fleet, 182. returns to Asia Minor, 183. 
 frustrates the league of Ptolemy, the 
 two Cassanders, and Lysimaclius against 
 him, ib. peace with his enemies, ib. in- 
 stigates the death of Cleopatra, ib. rup- 
 ture ^^-ith Ptolemy, 184. new league 
 against him and his son, 185. he loses 
 his life, and his kingdom is annihilated, 
 at tlie battle of Ipsus, ib. 
 
 Antigomis Gonnatas, son of Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes, seated himself on the Mace- 
 donian throne after the first irruption of 
 the Gauls, 222. buys ofi' his competitor 
 Antiochus Soter, ib. dethroned by Pjt- 
 rhus, ib. again obtains the crown after 
 the death of Pyrrhiis, 223. his designs 
 upon Greece, ib. allies himself with tJie 
 iEtolians, 224. his death, ib.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 391 
 
 Antigonus Doson, king of- Macedonia, 224. 
 Antigonus, a king of the Jews, 249. 
 Antiochls, daughter to Antiochus the Great, 
 
 married to Ariarathes V. king of Cap- 
 
 padocia, 238. 
 Antiochus I., surnamcd Soter, son of Se- 
 
 leucus Nicator. His father cedes to 
 
 him Upper Asia, and his wife Stratoniee, 
 
 188. succeeds liis father in the Syrian 
 empire, 189. entangled in wars by the 
 hito conquests of Seleucus, ih. attempts 
 in vain to subject Bithynia, ib. inroad 
 into Egypt, ib. 
 
 Antiochus II., surnamed 0£os, succeeded 
 Antiochus Soter in the Syrian empire, 
 
 189. the state swayed by women during 
 his reign, ib. the Parthian and Bactrian 
 kingdoms grow out of secessions from 
 his kingdom, ib. war withPtolemy II., ib. 
 repudiates his wife Laodice, and mar- 
 ries Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, 19Ü. 
 puts away Berenice and takes back La- 
 odice, ib. by whom he is poisoned, ib. 
 
 Antiochxis III., suniamed the Great, 
 younger son of Seleucus Callinicus, 
 king of Syria, 190. war with his brother 
 Seleucus Ceraumis, ib. on the death of 
 Seleucus, the crown is insured to him 
 by means of Achsus, ib. his reign the 
 most eventful in Syrian history, and 
 marks a new epoch, 191. in such a line 
 of princes not difficult to earn the title 
 Great, ib. insurrection in Medi* and 
 Persia quelled by him in person, ib. re- 
 bellion of Achffius in Asia Rlinor, ib. war 
 with the Ptolemies, ib. defeats Achasus, 
 ib. campaign in the upper provinces, ib. 
 peace with Arsaces, ib. war and peace 
 wilii Bactria, ib. expedition into India, 
 ib. his supremacy in Upper Asia estab- 
 lished, ib. naval expedition on the Per- 
 sian Gulf, 192. war with Egypt, ib. ex- 
 pels the Ptolemies from Syria, Coele- 
 Syria, and Phoenicia, ih. disputes with 
 Rome, ih., 280. Hannibal takes refuge 
 at his court, 192, 281. neglects Hanni- 
 bal's advice, is defeated by the Romans 
 at Magnesia, and the Syrian empire for 
 ever broken, 192, 281. the conditions of 
 the peace, ih. murdered, 193. 
 
 Afitiochus, a younger son of Antiochus the 
 Great, delivered to the Romans as an 
 hostage, 19"Z. exchanged by Seleucus 
 Philopator, for his son, as an liostage at 
 Rome, 193. 
 
 Antiochxis IV., surnamed Epiphanes, suc- 
 ceeded his lather, while a minor, in the 
 Syrian empire, 193. had been exchanged 
 as an hostage at Rome for his inicle by 
 his father, ib. meagre information re- 
 specting his history, ih. war with Egypt 
 and its causes, ih. the Romans interfere, 
 and Antiochus is compelled to make 
 peace, and relinquish Cyprus and Pc- 
 
 lusium, 194. his religious intolerance, 
 ih. sedition of the Jews, ib. decay in the 
 finances of the .Seleucidae, ib. expedition 
 into Upper Asia, ih. his deatli, ih. 
 
 Antiochus r., surnamed Eujjator, a younger 
 son of Antiochus Epiphanes, succeeds 
 at the age of nine years to the throne, 
 tlie true heir, Demetrius, being detained 
 as an hostage at Rome, 194. his short 
 and troubled reign, ib. put to death by 
 Demetrius, 195. 
 
 Antiochus Sidetes, younger brother to De- 
 metrius II. of Syria, 196. marries Cle- 
 opatra, ih. overtlirows the usurper Try- 
 phon, ih. becomes king of Syria, ib. 
 campaign against Parthia, 197. is cut to 
 pieces with his army, ih. 
 
 Antiochxis Grrjphtis, yoiuigest son of Cleo- 
 patra the Syrian queen, 198. raised by 
 her to the throne, ib. murders his mother, 
 ib. involved in war with his half-brother, 
 Antiochus Cyzicenus, ih. partition of 
 territory betsveen them, ih. is murder- 
 ed, ib. 
 
 Antiochus Cyzicemis, son of Antiochus 
 Sidetes and Cleopatra, 198. war with 
 the preceding, his half-brother, ib. slain 
 by Seleucus, son of Grj'phus, ih. 
 
 Antiochus Asiaticus, 198. 
 
 Antipas, son of Herod, made tetrarch by 
 Augustus, 250. 
 
 Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander 
 the Great, 179. after the death of Alex- 
 ander obtains with Craterus the manage- 
 ment in Europe, ib. the Samian war, its 
 causes, progress, and results, 21G. Per- 
 diccas divorces his daughter, 180. league 
 with Craterus and Ptolemy, 181. advances 
 towards Syria against Perdiccas, ib. on 
 the death of Perdiccas assumes the re- 
 gency, ib. his death, ib. appoints Poly- 
 sperclion regent, 217. 
 
 Antipater, a son of Cassander, and grand- 
 son of the preceding, 219. 
 
 Atitipater, appointed king of Macedonia 
 after the deposition of Meleager during 
 the irruption of the Gauls, 221. soon de- 
 posed on account of incapacity, ib. 
 
 Antipater of Iduma>a, confidant of Hyr- 
 caiuis, and allerwards procurator of Ju- 
 da?a, 2 19. 
 
 Antoninus Pius, T. ^'TLlius Adrianus, em- 
 peror of Rome, 345. 
 
 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, successor of 
 the preceding, his reign, 345, 346. 
 
 Antony, M., a Roman general, 315. tries to 
 raise himself into the place of Ciesar, 
 31(j. defeated in Cisalpine Gaul, ih. forms 
 a triunn irate with t)ctavi;mus and Lepi- 
 dus, 317. quarri'ls with Octavianus, .318. 
 reconciliation, 319. wars in Parlliia, 320. 
 his attachment toCleopatra, ib., 213, 211. 
 his defeat at the battle of Acliuni, 320. 
 and deatli, ib.
 
 392 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Antony, C, a brotlicr of the preceding, 316. 
 
 Apollodotus, a king of Bactria, '245. 
 
 Apulia, a country in Lower Italy, 256. 
 
 Arabia Felix, unsuccessful attempt of the 
 Romans upon it, 332. part of Arabia con- 
 quered by Trajan, 343. 
 
 Arcadia, a country of Peloponnesus, 92. 
 geographical outline, ib. general outline 
 of its history, 114. 
 
 Arcadius, a Roman emperor, 373. 
 
 Arces, youngest son of Artaxerxes III., 
 raised to the throne of Persia by Bagoas, 
 88. by whom he is after two years de- 
 posed, ib. 
 
 Archelaus, son of Herod, obtains part of 
 his kingdom, 250. 
 
 Archons, at Athens, governors appointed 
 after the death of Codrus, the last king, 
 110. the first taken from the family of 
 Codrus, ib. succeeded by inheritance, but 
 were responsible, ib. 
 
 Areopagiis, a court at Athens, intended by 
 Solon to be the main buttress of the 
 constitution, 110. 
 
 Argolis, a country of Peloponnesus, 93. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Ar(f07iauts, their expedition, 100. 
 
 Argos, with Messene and Tegea, sometimes 
 rivalled Sparta, 114. general outline of 
 its early history, 115. 
 
 Arians, 365. 
 
 Ariararnnes, a king of Cappadocia, 238. 
 
 Ariarathes, the name of ten kings of Cap- 
 padocia, 238. 
 
 Ariobarzanes, a king of Pontus, tributary 
 to Persia, 236. also the name of three 
 kings of Cappadocia, 239. 
 
 Aristides, manages the state affairs of 
 Athens, 147. his disinterestedness, ib. 
 banished, ib. his recall, 148. accompa- 
 nies Pausanias and Cimon in the expe- 
 dition against Cyprus and Byzantium, 
 ib. his death, 151. 
 
 Aristobulus, the cruel son of John Hyr- 
 canus, 249. also the son of Alexander 
 Janna;us, ib. 
 
 Aristomenes of Acarnania, appointed to 
 the administration of Egypt during the 
 minority of Ptolemy Epiphanes, by M. 
 Lepidus the regent, 207. a victim to the 
 tyranny of Epiphanes, 208. 
 
 Artnenia, its history as a kingdom, 239. 
 divided into Major and Minor, ib. con- 
 quered by Trajan, 343. relinquished by 
 Adrian, 344. 
 
 Arrhidaus, a bastard half-brother of Alex- 
 ander the Great, 179. proclaimed king, 
 with the younger Alexander, ib. mar- 
 ried to Eurydice, Philip's niece, ISO. 
 murdered with his wiie by Olympias, 1 82. 
 
 Arsaces, the name of thirty kings of Par- 
 thia, 241—243. 
 
 Arsinoe, daughter of Lysimachus, married 
 by Ptolemy Philadelphus, and repudiated 
 
 by him that he might marry his own sister 
 of the same name, 205. 
 
 Artabanes, conspires with the eunuch Spa- 
 mitres, and destroys Xerxes I., 82. as- 
 sassinated by Artaxerxes, 83. 
 
 Artabazes, a king of Pontus, tributary to 
 Persia, 236. 
 
 Artabazus, a Persian satrap in the reign of 
 Artaxerxes II., 87. the feud between him 
 and Iphicrates defeats the attempt to re- 
 cover Egypt, ib. foments a rebellion in 
 Asia Minor, ib. favourably received by 
 Philip of Macedon, 88. 
 
 Artaxerxes I., succeeded to the Persian 
 throne after the murder of his father and 
 elder brother, 83. and by assassinating 
 Artabanes, ib. Megabyzus revolts against 
 him and makes his own terms of recon- 
 ciliation, 84. Artaxerxes kept in a state 
 of tutelage by the dowager and reigning 
 queens till his death, ib. 
 
 Artaxerxes II., surnamed Mnemon, suc- 
 ceeded his father Darius II. on the Per- 
 sian throne, 85. the rebellion of his bro- 
 ther Cyrus, ib. kept in tutelage by his 
 mother Parysatis, 86. unfit for military 
 command, 87. died in the midst of com- 
 motions for the succession, ib. 
 
 Artaxerxes III., the name assumed by 
 Ochus, youngest son of Artaxerxes II., 
 on taking possession of the Persian 
 throne, 87. destroys the whole of the 
 ra^al family, ib. undertakes an expe- 
 dition in person against Egypt, 88. re- 
 duces it to a province, ib. held in subjec- 
 tion by Mentor and Bagoas, ib. poisoned 
 by the latter, ib. 
 
 Artaxias, a lieutenant of Antiochus the 
 Great, 239. 
 
 Artoxares, a eunuch in the court of Da- 
 rius II., conspired against his sovereign, 
 and is put to death, 84. 
 
 Asdrubal, the Carthaginian general, 275. 
 
 Asia, its contents, 13. situation, ib. na- 
 tural features, ib. divisions into Northern, 
 Central, and Southern, 14, et seq. differs 
 greatly from Africa, 37. 
 
 Asia Mi?ior, 15. the reason why it was never 
 united into one empire, 24. its most im- 
 portant divisions, ib. its divisions into 
 Roman provinces, 325. 
 
 Asiatic empires, their history and constitu- 
 tion, 19. revolutions, ib. short existence, 
 ib. similarity of constitution, ib. effects 
 of polygamy, ib. 
 
 Associations, political, reflections on their 
 rise, 15. 
 
 Assyrian empire, its chronology according 
 to Herodotus, 379. 
 
 Assyrians, of the Greeks and of the Jews 
 different, 21. their respective histories 
 before Cyrus, ib., 22. 
 
 Athens. Its early history important rather 
 for domestic revolutions than foreign
 
 INDEX. 
 
 393 
 
 aggrandizement, HO. begins properly 
 with Theseus, ib. period uf kingly go- 
 vernment, ih. establishment of arehons 
 for life, ib. decennial arehons. 111. arehons 
 annually chosen, ib. rise of an oppres- 
 sive aristocracy, ib. Draco's criminal 
 code, ib. anarchy from political factions, 
 ib. Salamis taken by the Megarians, ib. 
 Avrested from them by Solon, ib. Solon 
 appointed archon, and commissioned to 
 remodel the constitution of the city, ib. 
 principal features of his legislation, ib. 
 it did not effect a total extinction of 
 party spirit, 113. tyranny established by 
 Pisistratus, ib. changes in Solon's con- 
 stitution, ib. struggle with Sparta, which 
 attempts to restore monarchy, 114. with 
 Sparta takes the lead of the other Gre- 
 cian states, ib, with rivals occasionally 
 in Megara and .^Egina, ib. with Sparta 
 alone, of the Greek states, rejected the 
 Persian yoke, 146. were the saviours of 
 Greece, ib. expedition against Paros, ib. 
 the fall of Miltiades, a means of happi- 
 ness to Athens, ib. raised by Theinis- 
 tocles as a maritime power, 147. burnt 
 by Xerxes, 148. rebuilt and Ibrtilied by 
 Themistocles, ib. formation of the Pirae- 
 us, ib. expedition against the Persians 
 in Cyprus and Byzantium, 148. jealousy 
 with Sparta, 149. supremacy of Athens, 
 ib. the power of the state gradually 
 centered in the power of ten generals 
 annually elected, 150. the brilliant pe- 
 riod of the city, ib. political greatness 
 her fundamental principle, ib. civiliza- 
 tion, ib. Cimon at the head of atlairs, 
 151. his banishment, ib. death of Aris- 
 tides, and elevation of Pericles, ib. va- 
 rious rivals set up to oppose him, 152. 
 change in the administration of afl'airs, 
 ib. the precedence of Athens advancing 
 to supremacy, ib. war with Corinth and 
 Epidaurus, ib. first rupture with Sparta 
 and Boeolia, ib. recall of Cimon, ib. his 
 death, 153. tlie formation of a league 
 against Athens, 154. Peloponnesian war, 
 ib. sketch of the internal stale of Athens, 
 155. financial system, ib. at first unsiic- 
 cessful in the Peloponnesian war, 15(3. 
 suffers from the plague, ib. governed by 
 Cleon, ib. unrestrained democracy, ib. 
 death of Cleon, 157. peace concluded, 
 ib. Alcibiades succeeds to the head of 
 affairs, ib. battle of Mantinea, ib. project 
 against Sicily, ib. failure in this the 
 first great blow suflered by Athens, ib. 
 ims\iccessful siege of Syracuse, and an- 
 nihilation of the Athenian fK'ct, 158. 
 revolutions at Athens, ib. reformation of 
 government, and recall of Alcibiades, ib. 
 repeated victories over the Spartans, ib. 
 rejects the proposals for peace made by 
 Sparta, ib. defeat by Lysander at No- 
 
 tium, 159. ten new leaders appointed, 
 ib. decisive defeat at .^Egosjioiamos, ib. 
 besieged and taken by Lysander, ib. de- 
 prived of her walls, her navy reduced, 
 and the constitution commuted to an 
 oligarchy, ib. expulsion of the thirty 
 tyrants, 160. restoration and reform of 
 Solon's constitution, ib. engages in the 
 Corinthian war, 161. the Athenian and 
 Persian fleets defeat the Sjjartan at 
 Cnidus, 161. the advantage made use of 
 by Conon to re-establish the independ- 
 ence of Athens, ib. Sparta in distress 
 makes an alliance with Athens, 163. in 
 the war with Thebes, loses the greater 
 part of her allies and three leaders, 164. 
 their place taken by Chares, ib. suffers 
 from his cabals, ib. participates in the 
 insurrection of Artabazus, lö. repel Philip 
 in his attempt to push through Ther- 
 mopylae into Greece, 165. makes peace 
 with him, ib. alliance with Thebes against 
 Philip brought about by Demosthenes, 
 172. flourishing condition at the death 
 of Alexander the Great, 215. Cassander 
 gets his friend Nicanor to be command- 
 er, 217. a two-fold revolution, and De- 
 metrius Phalereus placed at the head of 
 affairs, ib. democracy restored, and De- 
 metrius driven out, 219. after the battle 
 of Ipsus closes her harbours against De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes, ib. on his gaining 
 the throne of Macedonia, he becomes 
 her master, 22Ü. and in his misfortimes, 
 she drives out the Macedonian gamson, 
 and re-establishes her ancient constitu- 
 tion, ib. besieged by him, and he is paci- 
 fied by Crates, ib. joins the AcluTan 
 league, 223. the probability that a depu- 
 tation from Rome, sought counsel in 
 forming the code of the twelve tables, 
 264. 
 
 Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and wife of 
 Darius, 81. her boundless influence 
 over her husband, ib. 
 
 Attains, the name of three kings of Per- 
 gamus, 234. 
 
 Attica, a foreland in Central Greece, 91. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Attila, 375, 376. 
 
 Atiffusttes, the honourable title conferred by 
 the senate on C. Oetavianus after the 
 battle of Actiuni, 328. See Octavius 
 Cersar. 
 
 Aurelianus, L. Domitius, an emperor of 
 Home, 357. 
 
 Aureolus, a usurper in the reign of Galli- 
 enus, 356. 
 
 Babylon, its history before Cyrus, 23. re- 
 volts and is regained by Darius, 77. 
 
 Babylonians, their chronology, according to 
 Herodotus, 381. 
 
 Bactria, history of the kingdom, 2 15.
 
 394 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bentica, a province of Spain, 321. 
 
 Bagoas, a eunuch in the court oC Arta- 
 xerxes III., who held him hjng in .subjec- 
 tion, 88. and iinally poisons him, ib. 
 raises to the throne tlie king's y(jun(ie.st 
 son Arces, ib. deposes him and raises 
 Darius Codomannus, ib. by whom he is 
 put to death, ib. 
 
 Balhinus, Clodius, 354. 
 
 Baleares, The, a colony of Carthage, 61 . con- 
 sidered a part of the Roman province of 
 Spain at the time of Augustus, 322. 
 
 Bards, mainly instrumental in the civiliza- 
 tion of the ancient Greeks, 99. 
 
 Bedotdns, overrun ancient Egypt, 49. their 
 dominion lasted about 200 years, 50. 
 finally expelled, ih. 
 
 Belgius, a leader of the second expedition 
 of the Gauls, in their irruption into 
 Gi-eece, 221. he defeats Ptolemy Cerau- 
 nus, ib. 
 
 Beretiice, daughter of Ptolemy Evergetes, 
 married to Antiochus Geo«, 190. repudi- 
 ated by him after the death of Ptolemy, 
 ib. hatred between her and Laodice 
 caused struggles with Egj'pt which aided 
 in subverting the Syrian empire, ib. as- 
 sassinated, ib. 
 
 Berenice, eldest daughter of Ptolemy Au- 
 letes, king of Egypt, 212. 
 
 Bias, son of Bot}Tas, king of BithjTiia, 235. 
 
 Bithynia, its history as a kingdom, 235. 
 
 Black Sea, its shores covered with Greek 
 colonies, 130. nearly all from the city of 
 Miletus, ib. 
 
 BoBotia, a country in Central Greece, 91. 
 geographical outline, ib. of all the Grecian 
 states, contained the greatest number of 
 cities, ib. general outline of its history, 
 118. 
 
 Botyras, a king of Bithynia, 235. 
 
 Brennus, a leader in the second expedition 
 of the Gauls in their second irruption 
 into Greece, 221. with Acichorius invades 
 Pffionia, ib. leads in a subsequent inva- 
 sion, and pushes on for Delphi, but is 
 defeated, 222. 
 
 Britain, the commerce of the Carthaginians 
 extended as far, 64. Cssar's expedition 
 into Britain, 310. reduced to a Roman 
 province in the time of Nero, 323, 337. 
 the expedition of Agricola, 341. of Se- 
 verus, 351, abandoned by the Romans, 
 375. 
 
 Britanniens, a son of Claudius Caesar, mur- 
 dered by Nero, 337. 
 
 Bruttium, a country in Lower Italy, 256. 
 
 Brutus, M., his conspiracy against Caesar, 
 315. takes possession of Macedonia, 317. 
 defeated at Philippi, 318. death, ib. 
 
 Burgundians, their kingdom formed, 375. 
 
 Caesar, J., liis power, ambition, talents, and 
 courage, 309. his union with Pompey 
 
 and Crassus, ib. his campaign in Gaul, 
 309. in Britain and Gennany, 310. raises 
 himself above the triumvirs, ib. jealousy 
 between them, 311. tenns of their ac- 
 commodation, ib. contest with Pompey, 
 312. the means by which Caesar main- 
 tained his interest at Rome, ib. is com- 
 manded to disband his army, and crosses 
 the Rubic(m, 313. defeats Pompey, ib. 
 war in Alexandria, and in Pontus, ib. 
 his views and purposes, 314. conspiracy 
 against him, 315. his death, ib. 
 
 Ccesar, Octavius, afterwards C. Octavianns, 
 nephew of Julius Caesar, 315. adopted 
 in the will of his uncle, ib, sent against 
 Antony, 316. obtains the consulate, ib. 
 forms a triumvirate with Antony and 
 Lepidus, 317. quarrels between them, 
 318. peace effected, 319. compels Lepi- 
 dus to retire, ib. wars in Dalmatia and 
 Pannonia, 320. war with Antony, whom 
 he defeats at the battle of Actium, ib. 
 becomes absolute master of the republic, 
 ib. the title of Augustus confen'ed on 
 him by the senate, 328. the nature of his 
 government, and the forms under which 
 he held supreme power, 329 — 331. ex- 
 tension of the empire under him, 331, 
 332. his reign the brilliant period for 
 Rome, 333. his family, ib. 
 
 Ccesars, The, genealogical table, 387. 
 
 Calabria, or Messapia, a small country in 
 Lower Italy, 256. 
 
 Caligula, Caius Ccesar, son of Germanicus, 
 336. his reign, ib. 
 
 Cambaxiles, a leader of the first expedition 
 in their irruption into Tlu'ace in the 
 time of Ptolemy Ceraunus, 221. 
 
 Cambunian mountains, the northern bound- 
 ary of Greece, 90. 
 
 Catnbyses, the Persian king, son of Cyrus, 
 75. destroyed the empire of the Pha- 
 raohs in Egypt, at the battle of Pelusium, 
 58, 75. persecuted the Egyptian priest- 
 hood from policy, 75. his death, ib. 
 
 Camirus, a city and Dorian colony in the 
 island of Rhodes, 130. 
 
 Campania, a country in Central Italy, 255. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Ca7iaries, The, probably a colony of Car- 
 thage, 61. 
 
 Cajtpadocia, its history, 238. 
 
 Caracalla, M. A. A. B., emperor of Rome, 
 .351. 
 
 Caraitsius, 362. 
 
 Carintis, M. Aurelius, 358, 362. 
 
 Carthage, a colony of Phcenicians, 26. its 
 history divided into three periods, 59. 
 1st, to commencement of wars with Sy- 
 racuse, B.C. 480 ; 2nd, to the wars with 
 Rome, B.C. 264 ; 3rd, to its destruc- 
 tion, B. C. 146, 60. Vast extent of the 
 Carthaginian dominions, ib. protected 
 the Tyrian colonies in Africa and Cy-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 395 
 
 rene, 61. her colonies, ib. her fleets and 
 armies, G'2. the latter chiefly mercena- 
 ries, ib. Her political constitution an 
 aristocracy with a certain admixture 
 of democracy, 63. finances, ib. her 
 commerce extended as ftir by sea as 
 Britain and Guinea, 64. by land, to the 
 interior of Africa, ib. extended her do- 
 minion in Africa, 65. wars with Sicily, ib. 
 wars with Rome, 66, 272. contrast of 
 the two states, 272. first war, its ori^rin 
 and results, 273. the terms of peace, ib. 
 expelled from Sicily, ib. endeavours to 
 compensate the losses thus sustained by 
 extending her Spanish dominions, 274. 
 second war with Rome, 275. Hannibal 
 carries the war into Italy, ib. the Cartha- 
 ginians defeated in Spain and in Africa, 
 276. the terms of peace granted by Rome, 
 ib. Carthage becomes a trading city under 
 the tutelage of Rome, ib., 69. the vigilant 
 guard kept over her, 282. new projects 
 against her and bad treatment by Rome, 
 285. her destruction, 71, 286. produced 
 ratlier by party spirit and the avarice of 
 the gi-eat than by the debased state of 
 the nation, 71. 
 
 Cai-iis, M. AureUxis, a Roman emperor, 
 358. 
 
 CasmatKB, a city of Sicily, 142. 
 
 Cassander, the name of two of tlie generals 
 of Alexander the Great, 183. one the son 
 of Antipater, whom his father, at his 
 death, excluded from the regency, 217. 
 escapes to Antigonus, ib. occupies A tliens, 
 ib. besieges and takes Olympias at Pyd- 
 na, ib. puts her to death, ib. obtains tlie 
 sovereignty of Macedonia, ib. marries 
 Thessalonice, half-sister to Alexander, 
 218. murders Roxana and her son Alex- 
 ander, ib. instigates Polysperchon to mur- 
 der Hercules, ib. war with Antigonus 
 and Demetrius, 219. strengthens his 
 l)ower in Greece, ib. his death, ib. 
 
 Cassius, conspires against Ctesar, 315. pro- 
 vince of Syria given him after Cesar's 
 death, 316. war with DolabeUa, 317. de- 
 feated at Philippi, 318. death, ib. 
 
 Caste, the complete division of the Egyp- 
 tians into castes efl'ected in the second 
 period of their history, 54. the Greeks 
 had no sacerdotal caste, 99. 
 
 Catana, a city in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Catiline, his conspiracies, defeat, and death, 
 307, 308. 
 
 Cato, the Elder, his immorality, malignant 
 passions, and pernicious politics, 283. 
 heads tlie party seeking the destruction 
 of Carthage, 285. 
 
 Cato, the Yoimger, 308. his death, 314. 
 
 Catti, The, unsuccessful expedition of Do- 
 mitiiui against them, 342. tlieir irruption 
 in the time of Aurelius, 346. wars with 
 Caracalla, 352. 
 
 Censors, officers established at Rome, 265. 
 their importiuice, ib. 
 
 Cephalonia, a Greek island, 94. 
 
 Ceretrius, a leader in the second expedi- 
 tion of the Gauls in tlieir irruption into 
 Thrace, 221. 
 
 Chabrias, a celebrated Athenian general, 
 164. fulls at the siege of Chios, (6. 
 
 Chm-ea, Cassius, assassinates Caligula, 336. 
 
 Chalcis, a city on the coast of Macedonia, 
 founded by Athens, 132. 
 
 Chares, an Athenian commander, 164. his 
 cabals against Iphicrates and Timotheus 
 his colleagues, ib. 
 
 Charilaus, king of Sparta, nephew and 
 ward of Lycurgus, 107. 
 
 Chios, an island of Asia Minor, in which 
 a colony was founded by the lonians, 
 130. 
 
 Christianity, its progress and cfl'ects in tlie 
 Roman empire, 360. its rapid spread to 
 the time of Constantino, 368. 
 
 Chronicles. See Annals. 
 
 Cicero, has a place in the administration, 
 308. defeats, at Rome, the conspiracy of 
 Catiline, ib. banished by the triumvirate, 
 310. his return, ib. his death, 317. 
 
 Cilicia, made a Roman province, 340. 
 
 Cimbri, or Cimmerians, 296. their invasion 
 of Italy, {6. 
 
 Cimon, son of Miltiades, 151. supplies the 
 place of Themist odes at Athens, ib. his 
 character, ib. instigates the Athenians to 
 send help to the Spartans in the tliird 
 Mfssciiian war, ib. he is banislied, ib. 
 recalled at the suggestion of Pericles, 
 152. endeavours to restore domestic tran- 
 quillity and renew war witli Persia, ib. 
 defeats them by land and at sea, 153. 
 dies at the siege of Citium, ib. 
 
 Claudius, Tiberius, an emperor of Rome, 
 336, 337. 
 
 Clauditis, M. Aurelius, an emperor of Rome, 
 356. 
 
 Clazomene, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, 128. 
 
 Ch'omenes, king of Sparta with Demaratus, 
 109. 
 
 Cleon, a currier, succeeded Pericles at 
 Athens, 156. his death, 157. 
 
 Cleopatra, sister to Alexander tlie Great, 
 180. comes over to Asia in order to 
 marry Perdiceas, ib. murdered at the 
 instigation of Antigonus, 183. 
 
 Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus III. of 
 Syria, marries Ptolemy Epiphanes, 208. 
 
 Cleopatra, sister and wife of Ptolemy 
 Philometor, 209. after liis death marries 
 Physcon, ib. by wliom she is afterwards 
 repudiated that he may marry her 
 daughter of the same name, ib. 
 
 Cleopatra, daughter of Cleopatra tlie widow 
 and sister of Ptolemy Pliilometor, 210. 
 married by Ptolemy Piiyscon after he had
 
 396 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 repudiated her mother, ib. after his death 
 slie is compelled to place her eldest son 
 on the throne, ib. and gives Cyprus to 
 the younger, ib. afterwards exchanges 
 them, lb. her tyranny, ih. 
 
 Cleopatra, daughter to Ptolemy Philometor, 
 married to the Syrian usurper Alexander 
 Balas, 195, 209. taken from him and 
 married by Demetrius Nicator, 196, 209. 
 in order to strengthen herself against 
 Tryphon, marries Antiochus of Sida, 196. 
 ■war with Alexander Zebinas, 197. with 
 her own hand murders her son Seleucus, 
 ib. gives the crown to her youngest son, 
 Antiochus Gryphus, 198. by whom she 
 is murdered, ib. 
 
 Cleopatra Berenice, daughter and successor 
 of Ptolemy Lathyrus, 211. married to 
 Alexander 11., and murdered by him, ib. 
 
 Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, 
 who was left by her father under the 
 Roman superintendence and to marry 
 her brother Ptolemy Dionysos, 212. feuds 
 with her brother, ib. is driven out, 213. 
 Caesar, assuming the part of arbitrator, 
 is guided by her artifices, ib. sedition in 
 the capital, ib. Ctesar being victorious the 
 crown falls to her, ib. she poisons her 
 brother, ib. protected by Cffisar and de- 
 pendent upon him, ib. after his death 
 takes part with the triumviri, ib. sum- 
 moned before Antony, she fascinates him, 
 ib. he follows her to Egypt, ib. had three 
 children by him, 214. prevails on him to 
 break with Octavia, ib. accompanies him 
 to Samos, ib. follows him in his expedi- 
 tion against Octavius, ib. battle of Ac- 
 tium, ib. procures her own death, ib. 
 
 Clevis, or Clodovicus, 375. 
 
 Cnidus, a city and colony of the Doi'ians 
 in Asia Minor, 130. 
 
 Coins, one source of history, 6. 
 
 Colonies, essential to a seafaring and com- 
 mercial people, when their trade extends 
 to distant countries, 26. 
 
 Colonies, Grecian, 125. founded by the 
 Hellenic race, ib. their origin and re- 
 lations with the mother cities, 126. their 
 independence promoted the civilization 
 of the Hellenic race, ib. the most an- 
 cient and most important were those on 
 the western coast of Asia Minor, 127. 
 .(Eolian, described, ib. Ionian, 128. 
 Dorian, 13U. those of the Propontis, 
 131. of the Black Sea, ib. of Thrace 
 and Macedonia, 132. the western ones 
 founded later than those in the ^gean 
 and Black Seas, 132. in Lower Italy, 
 133. in Sicily, 136. on other islands or 
 coasts of the Mediterranean, 142. on the 
 coast of Gaul, ib. on the Spanish coast, 
 ib. on that of Africa, 143. 
 
 Colophon, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, 128. 
 
 Commagene, made a Roman province, .340. 
 
 Commodus, L.C«?sonms, afterward L. Varus, 
 adopted by Marcus Aurelius, 344. asso- 
 ciated with him in the government, 345. 
 sent against the Parthians, 346. his de- 
 ])aucheries, ib. his reign, 347. 
 
 Constans, 368. 
 
 Constantine the Great, 364—368. 
 
 Constantino, son of the preceding, 368. ge- 
 nealogical table of his house, 388. 
 
 Consta7itinople, removal of the seat of em- 
 pire to, 365. 
 
 Constatitius Chlorus, FL, created Caesar by 
 Maximian, 362. proclaimed Augustus, 
 363. his death, 364. 
 
 Constantius, son of Constantine the Great, 
 368, 369. 
 
 Corcyra, a Greek island in the Ionian Sea, 
 opposite Epirus, 94. historical outline, 
 122. 
 
 Corinth, a country of Peloponnesus, 93. 
 geographical outline, ib, general outline 
 of its history, 116. 
 
 Corinth, the chief city of the country of the 
 same name, 93. its siege and destruction 
 by the Romans, 286. 
 
 Corsica, probably a colony of Carthage, 61. 
 an island pertaining to Italy, 257. 
 
 Cos, an island, and city of the same name, 
 founded by the Dorians, 130. 
 
 Crnssus, a Roman general, 307, 309. his 
 expedition into Parthia, and overthrow, 
 311. 
 
 Craterus, one of the generals of Alexander 
 the Great, 180. with Antipater, retains 
 Macedonian Tlirace, at the partition of 
 the empire, ib. league with Antipater 
 and Ptolemy, 181. falls on Asia, and is 
 defeated and slain by Eumenes, ib. 
 
 Cremona, a colony founded by the Romans 
 after the overthrow of the Gauls, 275. 
 
 Crete, a Greek island, 94. general outline 
 of its history, 123. 
 
 Croton, a Grecian settlement in Lower 
 Italy, founded by the Achaeans, 133. 
 
 CumcB, a city in Lower Italy, a colony 
 from Chalcis in Euboea, 136. 
 
 Cyclades, a group of Greek islands in the 
 JSgean Sea, 94. historical outline, 123. 
 
 Cyprus, a Greek island, 94. delivered into 
 the possession of Persia after the peace 
 of Antalcidas, 86. general outline of its 
 history, 124. 
 
 Cyrenaica, a Roman pro^-ince, with the 
 isle of Crete, at the accession of Augus- 
 tus, 325. 
 
 Cyrene, a Greek colony on the coast of 
 Africa, founded by the island of Thera, 
 14.3. its history, ib. 
 
 Cyrus, the founder of the Persian mon- 
 archy, 73. his history obscured under 
 the veil of romance, ib. elected chief of 
 the Persian tribes, and became a mighty 
 conqueror, ib.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 397 
 
 Cyms, younger 3on of Darius II., 85. sup- 
 ported by his mother, Parysatis, rebels 
 against liis brother, Artaxerxes 11., ib. 
 is defeated and killed at the battle of 
 Cunaxa, 86. 
 
 Cythera, a Greek island oft" the south 
 coast, 94. 
 
 Cyzicus, a city and Grecian colony on the 
 Propontis, 131. in the Roman age, one of 
 the most flourishing cities of Asia, ib. 
 
 Dacia, 327. unsuccessful expedition of Do- 
 mitian against the Daci, 342. conquered 
 by Trajan, 343. abandoned by Aurelian, 
 357. 
 
 Damascus, the kingdom of, comprised the 
 greatest part of Syria, 28. and was extend- 
 ed at the expense of the kingdoms of Ju- 
 dah and Israel, ih. 
 
 Danube, a boundary of the Roman empire 
 at the accession of Augustus, 321. 
 
 Darius I., of the family of the Acha;me- 
 nides, raised to the Persian throne, 7G. 
 a great statesman and warrior, 77. first 
 carried the Persian arms into Europe, ib. 
 regains possession of Babylon, ib. expe- 
 dition against the Scythians, ib. liis 
 power established in Thrace and JMace- 
 donia, 78. campaign against Western 
 India, ib. and Barca in Africa, ib. cam- 
 paign against Greece, 79. perfects the 
 internal organization of Persia, ib. his 
 deatli, 81. the influence over him of his 
 wife Atossa, ib. 
 
 Darius II., the title assumed by Ochns, a 
 bastard son of Artaxerxes I., who nuir- 
 dcred his brother Sogdianus, and ascend- 
 ed the Persian throne, 8 1. reigned nine- 
 teen years imder his wife's tutelage, ib. 
 state rapidly declines under his reign, ib. 
 
 Darius III., Codomannus, a distant relation 
 of the reigning family of Persia, 88. raised 
 by Bagoas to the throne after the de- 
 position of Arces, ib. puts Bagoas to 
 death, ib. attacked by Alexander the 
 Great, ib. battle of the Granicus, 174. 
 battle of Issus, ib. battle of Arbela, 175. 
 falls under the treachery of Bessus, 89. 
 
 David, king of the Jews, 32. the Jews com- 
 pletely formed as a nation under him, ib. 
 
 Decius, Trajamis, an emperor of Rome, 
 355. 
 
 Deciles, CI. IJerenniiis, his son, 355. 
 
 Delphi, the seat of the most celebrated 
 Greek oracle, 99. 
 
 Demaratus, king of Sparta and colleague 
 of Cleomenes, 109. 
 
 Demetrius, son of Antigonus, 182. his cha- 
 racter, ib. 1ÜS victory at (iaza over Pto- 
 lemy, 183. expedition to liberate Athens, 
 184. his twofold sojourn there, i6.,2l9. 
 his victory ofl' Cypnis, 181. besieges 
 Rhodes, and gains the title of I'oliorcetes, 
 ib. appointed generalissimo of Greece, ib., 
 
 219. after the battle of Ipsus, escapes 
 into Greece, 185. murders Alexander, 
 son of Cassander, 219. and is proclaimed 
 by the army king of Macedonia, ib. liis- 
 tory of his seven years' reign, 220. his 
 ambition and death, ib. 
 
 Demetrius II., king of Macedonia, son of 
 Antigonus Gonnatas, 224. his reign, ib. 
 
 Demetrius, surnamed Soter, eldest son of 
 Antioclms Epiphanes, 194. being de- 
 tained at Rome as an hostage at the death 
 of his father, his younger brother suc- 
 ceeds to the throne, ib. cscaiies from 
 Rome, takes the throne, and puts to 
 death Lysias and Eupator, 195. gets him- 
 self acknowledged at Rome, ib. attempts 
 to extend his power, ib. compelled to 
 court the Jews, ib. killed in battle, ib. 
 low state of the Syrian kingdom, ib. 
 
 Demetrius II., surnamed Nicator, son of 
 Demetrius I., 196. marries Cleopatra, 
 daughter of Ptolemy Philometor, ib. de- 
 thrones tlic usurper, Alexander Balas, ib. 
 insurrection of Tryphon, ib. keeps his 
 footing in only part of Syria, ib. taken 
 prisoner by the Parthians and kept ten 
 years prisoner, ib. escapes from prison, 
 and regains the throne, 197. liis over- 
 bearing conduct, and meddling in Egyp- 
 tian affairs, caused Ptolemy Physcon to 
 set up Alexander Zebinas, by whom he 
 is defeated and slain, ib. 
 
 Demetrius, son of Philip II. of Maccdon, 
 229. ambassador at Rome, and intended 
 to succeed his father, ib. destroyed by 
 the envy and hatred of his bastard bro- 
 ther Perseus, ib. condemned by his fa- 
 ther, being innocent, ib. 
 
 Demetrius, the name of a Bactrian con- 
 queror, 215. 
 
 Demosthenes, an Athenian orator, 169. his 
 eloquence wards oft' for a time the fate 
 of Greece, 165. brings about an alliance 
 between Athens and Tliebes, 172. ex- 
 cites the Lamianwar, 216. Athens agrees 
 to deliver him up to Antipater, ib. 
 
 Demotic mode of writing used by the com- 
 mon people of Egypt, 42. only a running 
 hand derived from the hieroglyphic sys- 
 tem, ib. never used in the public monu- 
 nu'uts in the time of the Pharaohs, ib. 
 
 Despotism, defined, 20. laimot long be con- 
 liiuu'd among a mercantile and coloniz- 
 ing peojile, 26. 
 
 Diadumemis, M. Opelius, son of Macrinus, 
 created Ca;sar by his fallicr, 352. 
 
 Diocletian, C. Valerius, a Roman emperor, 
 his reign, 362. his abdication, 363. 
 
 Diodatus. See Thcodotus I. 
 
 Diodorus, derived his Egyptian liistory 
 partly from oral and written documents 
 of tlu' priests of Thebes, partly from old 
 Greek authors, 4 1. 
 
 Diodotus, See Tryphon.
 
 398 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Dioscurias, a city and Greek colony on the 
 eastern coast of the Bhack Sea, 131. 
 
 Dodona, the seat of a Greek oracle, 99. 
 
 Domitian, L, Flavins, emperor of Home, 
 341. 
 
 Domna, Julia, Avife of Septimius Severus, 
 351. 
 
 Dorians, a principal branch of the Hel- 
 lenes, 9Ü. expel the Achapans from Ar- 
 gos, Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, 1U3, 
 106. their colonies, 130. 
 
 Doris, a small country in Central Greece, 92. 
 
 Druszis, son-in-law of Augustus, 332. 
 
 Drusus, Germanicus, son of the above, 
 334. the hatred of Tiberius, 335. is 
 poisoned, ib. 
 
 Dydalsus, a king of Bithynia, 235. 
 
 Egypt, its geography, 39. one of the more 
 extensive countries of the globe, ih. varies 
 in its phj'sical properties, ih. divided into 
 Upper and Lower Egypt, 40. was from 
 the earliest times closely connected with 
 Ethiopia, ih. its history divided into three 
 periods, 1st, to the Sesostrid», B. C. 1500, 
 2nd, to Psammetichus, B. C. 650, 3rd, 
 to the Persian conquest, B. C. 525, 41. 
 political civilization commenced in Egypt 
 earlier than history reaches, 45. doubtful 
 whether earlier than in India, ib. causes of 
 its early civilization, 46. its commerce, ib. 
 its civilization came from the south, ib. a 
 caste of priests introduce their religion and 
 civilization, 47. Egypt anciently divided 
 into nomes, 48. and into small states, ib. 
 which according to Manetho first existed 
 in Upper and Middle Egypt, ih. overrun 
 by the Bedouins, 49. who were finally 
 expelled from Upper Egypt by Thumosis, 
 50. the whole kingdom united under the 
 Pharaohs, 52. this the brilliant age of 
 Egypt, 2Ö. the great monuments of Thebes 
 erected at this time, ib. its greatest splen- 
 dour due to Sesostris, 53. division of the 
 people into castes probably completed in 
 the second period of its history, 54. the 
 monarchy changed into a Dodecarchy, 
 55. and again by Psammetichus into one 
 kingdom, ib. continued united till the 
 Persian conquest, 56. conquered by Cam- 
 byses at the battle of Pelusium, 58. be- 
 came a Persian province, ib. revolts im- 
 der Darius I., 81. again subjected under 
 Xerxes I., ib. and treated with severity 
 by the satrap Achfemenes, ib. again re- 
 volts under Artaxerxes I., 83. partly 
 quelled by Megabyzus, ih. Persians ex- 
 pelled by Amyrtieus, 85. who is acknow- 
 ledged by the Persians, ib. Artaxerxes II. 
 attempts to recover Egypt, 87. made a 
 province by Artaxerxes III., 88. con- 
 quered by Alexander the Great, 175. 
 given to Ptolemy Soter in the partition 
 of Alexander's dominions, 199. Cyrene 
 
 and Libya annexed by Ptolemy, 201. 
 the empire advanced into Ethiopia, ib. 
 constitution of the government under 
 Ptolemy, ib. under the reign of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus became the most flourish- 
 ing country in existence, 203. its com- 
 merce and revenue, 204. wars with An- 
 tiochus II. of Syria, and with Magas of 
 Cyrene, 205. embassy to and from Rome, 
 ib. under Ptolemy Evergetc^s Egypt be- 
 comes a conquering state, ib. her con- 
 quests in Asia, Ethiopia, and Arabia, 
 chiefly used to secure her commercial 
 routes, 206. change in the condition of 
 the country under the luxurious reifen of 
 Ptolemy III. and his successors, 207. in 
 the reign of Ptolemy IV. the country in 
 great danger, ib. averted by the battle of 
 Kapliia, ib. rising of the people against 
 Agathocles and his sister, the guardians 
 of Ptolemy Epiplianes, ih. critical con- 
 dition of Egypt, ib. attack of the Syrian 
 and Macedonian kings, ih. Rome com- 
 mands peace, ih. regency given to M. 
 Lcpidus, and the administration to Aris- 
 tomenes of Acarnania, ib. important 
 bearing of this on the future destiny of 
 Egypt, ih., 285. loses the SjTian posses- 
 sions, 208. insurrections in consequence 
 of the tyranny and cruelty of Epiplianes, 
 ih. accession of Ptolemy Philometor, ib. 
 war with Antiochus Epiplianes, ib. de- 
 feat at Pelusium, ib. Egypt, as far as 
 Alexandria, gained by Antiochus, ib. 
 Philometor expelled and Physcon seated 
 on the throne, 209. the government di- 
 vided between them, and Antiochus com- 
 pelled by Rome to make peace, ib. war 
 between the brothers, and reconciliation, 
 ib. division of the kingdom, ib. accession 
 of Ptolemy VII., 210. his cruelty and 
 tyrann}', ih. insurrections, ib. accession 
 of Ptolemy Lathyrus, ib. intrigues and 
 changes in the government efl'ected by 
 his mother, ib. separation of Cyrenaica 
 from Egypt, 211. obscure history of the 
 country, which has become a harvest 
 ready for the Romans, 212. history of 
 Egypt till Cffisar is called in to arbitrate 
 between Ptolemy Dionysos and Cleo- 
 patra, 213. sedition at Alexandria, ib. 
 Cajsar besieged at Brucliium, ib. hatred 
 against Rome, ib. revolutions in the 
 capital decisive to the whole of Eg}'pt, 
 ih. the country dependent on Rome, ib. 
 unbounded wealth and efi"eminacy of the 
 kingdom, 214. a Roman province at the 
 accession of Augustus, 325. 
 
 Egyptians, first adopted the use of hiero- 
 glyphics, 42. history so recorded liable 
 to misinterpretation, ih. their chronology 
 according to Herodotus, 382. 
 
 Elis, a country of Peloponnesus, 93. geo- 
 graphical outline, ib.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 399 
 
 Elis, a Grecian state — general outline of its 
 history, 117. 
 
 Eningia. See Finningia. 
 
 Epaminondas, a Theban, 162. his lofty cha- 
 racter formed by the philosophy of Py- 
 thagoras, lb. his long struggle against 
 Sparta, ih. invented a new system of 
 tactics, ib. defeats the Spartans, and 
 makes his way to the gates of their city, 
 163. attempt on Corinth and the Pelo- 
 ponnesus defeated by the alliance of 
 Athens with Sparta, ib. fiills at the battle 
 of Mantinea, 164. 
 
 Ephesus, a city in Asia Minor, founded by 
 the Carians, and afterwards occupied by 
 th(! lonians, 129. its constitution, ih. 
 
 Epirus, the western country in Northern 
 Greece, 91. general outline of its history, 
 121. 
 
 Eras, necessity to fix on a common one, 9. 
 to compute before and after Christ the 
 most certain and convenient, ib. 
 
 Erythrce, a city in Asia Minor, founded by 
 the lonians, 128. 
 
 Etruria, a country in Central Italy, 254. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Eubwa, a Greek island opposite Boeotia, 94. 
 general outline of its history, 122. 
 
 Eucratidas, the name of two kings of Bac- 
 tria, 245. 
 
 Eunienes, one of the generals of Alexander 
 the Great, 180. receives Cappadocia after 
 his master's death, ib. supports Perdic- 
 cas, the regent, against the other generals, 
 181. commands in Asia Minor, ib. de- 
 feats and kills Craterus, to. war of An- 
 tigonus against him, ib. defeated by 
 treachery, shuts himself up in the fast- 
 ness of Nora, ib. appointed generalissi- 
 mo of the royal troops, 182. unable to 
 maintain himself in Lower Asia, ib. de- 
 feated through the insubordination of 
 his troops, ib. delivered to Antigonus by 
 the Argyraspida?, and put to death, ib. 
 the only loyal supporter of the family 
 of Alexander the Great, ib. 
 
 Etimeties I. of Pergamus, nephew of Phi- 
 letrems, defeats Antiochus 1. at Sar- 
 des, 2.33. and becomes master of iEolis 
 and the adjoining country, ib. 
 
 Eunienes II., son of Attains 1., king of Per- 
 ganuis, 234. his character and reign, ib. 
 
 Eunus, heads a revolt of the slaves in Sici- 
 ly, 292. 
 
 Ettphrates, a boundary of the Roman em- 
 pire, at the accession of A\igustus, 321. 
 
 Eurydice, daughter of Philip of Macedon, 
 
 179. married to the king Arrhidwus, 
 
 180. murdered with him by Olympias, 
 182. 
 
 Euthydemns, a king of Bactria, 245. 
 Ezra, 246. 
 
 Finningin, Finland, 326. 
 
 Flaminiris, T. Quintius, a Roman states- 
 man and general, 228, 278. 
 
 Florus, Gessius, a Roman procurator in 
 Judaja, 251. 
 
 Galba, S. S., a Roman emperor, 3.39. 
 
 Galerius, C, made Ca;sar by Diocletian, 
 362. proclaimed Augustus, 363. his 
 death, 364. 
 
 Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, a coimtry in 
 Upper Italy, 253. geographical descrip- 
 tion, ib., 323. 
 
 Gallia Narbonensis, Celtica, Aqtdtanica, 
 Belgica, the four provinces of Transal- 
 pine Gaul at the time of Augustus, 322. 
 
 Galliemis, an emperor of Rome, 356. 
 
 Gallus, C. Trebonianus, a Roman emperor, 
 355. 
 
 Gallus, Constantius, 369. 
 
 Garalis, a Greek settlement in Sardinia, 
 142, 
 
 Gaul, a Roman province at the time of 
 Augustus, 322. its boundaries and di- 
 visions, ib. its complete subjugation un- 
 der Augustus, 332. 
 
 Gauls, their irruption into Greece in three 
 expeditions, 221. its issue, 222. a second 
 irruption defeated by Antigonus Gonni, 
 ib. 
 
 Gela, a city in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Genseric, 376. 
 
 Geography, indispensable to the study of 
 history, 8. in ancient, care needed to dis- 
 tinguish the ftibulous from the true, 10. 
 
 Germanictcs, See Drusus. 
 
 Germans, to what chiefly they owe their 
 superiority in the science of antiquity, 5. 
 
 Germany, geogi-aphical outline at the ac- 
 cession of Augustus, 326. fruitless at- 
 tempts of the Romans to conquer it, 
 3-32. war with Maximin, 354. nations 
 become formidable to Rome, 356. de- 
 feated by Probus, 358. 
 
 Geta, son of Septimius Severus, assassin- 
 ated, ,351. 
 
 Gordianus, the name of the proconsul of 
 Africa in the reign of Maximin, 354. 
 proclaimed emperor with his son, ib. 
 
 Gordianus, M. Antoninns. grandson of the 
 preceding, emperor of Rome, 355. 
 
 Goths, force their way inio the Homan 
 empire by crossing the Danube, in the 
 reign of Decius, 355. peace purchased liy 
 Gallus, ib. the most powerful of the Ger- 
 man nations, 356. defeated by Aurelius 
 Claudius, 357. and by Aureliaii, ib. and 
 by Cams, 359. divided into Ostrogoths 
 and Visigoths, 371. their power broken 
 by Theodosius, 372. 
 
 Government, three dillerent kinds of, the 
 despotic, autocratic, and republican. 20. 
 
 Gracchus, T. Semp., a Roman tril)une. 291. 
 his elforts to relieve tlu' distresses of llie 
 lower orders, ib. his fall, 292.
 
 400 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gracchus, C. l)rother of tlic preceding, 
 treads in liis brother's steps, and meets 
 a similar fate, 293. 
 
 Gratlan, a Roman emperor, 371, 372. 
 
 Greece, geof^rajjliical outline, 9Ü. divisions, 
 ib. its islands, 93. the ])rin(ipal original 
 tribes, the Pelasgi and Hellenes, 9ü. 
 Pelasgi iirst extended their dominion in 
 Greece, ih. Hellenes afterwards drove 
 them from almost every part, ib. peopled 
 also by colonies from Egypt, Phoenicia, 
 and Mysia, 97. History of Sparta, lüü. 
 of Athens, 110. of the other States, 114. 
 Arcadia, ih. Argos, 115. Corinth, ih. 
 Sicyon, 116. Achaia, 117. Elis, ih. Me- 
 garis, 118. Bceotia, ib. Phocis, 119. 
 Locris, ib. .iEtolia, ib. Acarnania, 120. 
 Thessaly, ib. Epirus, 121. Corcyra, 122. 
 .iEgina, ib. Eubroa, ib. the Cyclades, 
 12.3. Crete, ib. Cyprus, 124. its colonies, 
 12.'3. See Colonies. General posture of 
 aftairs at the death of Alexander the 
 Great, 215. its history henceforth inter- 
 woven with that of the Macedonian king- 
 dom, ib. becomes a Roman province, 231. 
 
 Greeks, and Romans alone of antiquity 
 had acquaintance with philosophical his- 
 tory, 8. their use of the name Medes, 22. 
 The Greeks received improvements in 
 civilization and religion from foreigners, 
 but stamped upon them their own cha- 
 racter, 99. had no sacerdotal caste, ib. 
 the bards instrumental in their civiliza- 
 tion, ib. and the oracles, 100. and the re- 
 ligious festivals, ib. by means of which 
 they became associated for their com- 
 mon interests, ib. navigation aided in 
 civilizing them, ib. their chivalrous age, 
 101. the Trojan war, ib. kindled one 
 common national spirit, ib. changes re- 
 sulting from the wars and return of the 
 Heraclidae, 103. Greek colonies estab- 
 lished in Asia Minor, ib. republics took 
 the place of clanship, ib. amongst these 
 small states there was no common politi- 
 cal bond, but they were united by a na- 
 tional spirit, 105. founded more colonies 
 than any other ancient nation, 125. the 
 principal Hellenic colonies founded 
 Asia Minor, Thrace, Lower Italy, and 
 Sicily, 126. the independence of the co- 
 lonies promoted the civilization of the 
 race, ib. The unity and splendour of 
 the nation a result of the Persian inva- 
 sion, 146. its causes, ib. battle of Mara- 
 thon, ib. second Persian invasion, 147. 
 the glory of defeating it due to Themis- 
 tocles alone, ib. union of the Hellenic 
 states, ib. battle of Thermopylae, ib. naval 
 engagement off Artemisium, ib. burning 
 of Athens, 148. battle off Salamis, ib. 
 battles of Plateeae and of Mycale, ib. Per- 
 sians driven for ever from Greece, ib. 
 change thereby effected in the internal 
 
 and external relations of Greece, ib. be- 
 come aggressors on Persia, ib. expedi- 
 tion against Cyprus, and Byzantium, ib. 
 Supreme command assumed by Athens, 
 149. Permanent confederacy of the 
 Greek states, ih. its consequences, ib. its 
 effects in Sparta and Athens, ih. Cimon 
 attempts to restore domestic tranquillity 
 to the country, and to renew war with 
 Persia, 153. victorious expedition against 
 Persia, ib. peace with Persia, and death 
 of Cimon, ib. renewal of internal strife, 
 ih. formation of a league against Athens, 
 ih. the Peloponnesian war, 154. its pro- 
 gress and conclusion, 159. Athens dis- 
 mantled, and the Spartans at the head of 
 confederate Greece, ib. revolutions in most 
 of the Grecian states, ih, Corinthian war, 
 161. peace of Antalcidas, ib. predomi- 
 nance and arrogance of Sparta, ib. rivalry 
 of Thebes and Sparta, 162. general peace 
 concluded, mediated by Persia, ih. re- 
 jected by Thebes, ib. state of Greece after 
 the war between Sparta and Thebes, 164. 
 no state predominant, ih. The sacred 
 or Phocian war, ib. its causes, ib. it 
 annihilates the remaining morality and 
 patriotism of the country, 165. the grow- 
 ing ascendency of Philip of Macedonia, 
 ib., 171. thebattleofChseronea completes 
 it, 165, 172. preparations by Philip of 
 Macedon for a national war against Per- 
 sia, 173. Alexander the Great appointed 
 generalissimo, 174. The Lamian war, 
 after the death of Alexander the Great, 
 216. its progress and results, ih. Cassan- 
 der strengthens himself among the Gre- 
 cian cities, 217. Polysperclion endeavours 
 to gain them, ih. war between Antigonus 
 and Cassander, 219. battle of Ipsus, ib. 
 irruption of the Gauls into Greece, 221. 
 The Greeks, who were all, except the 
 Peloponnesians, united in one league, 
 unable to bring more than 90,000 men 
 into the field, 222. poverty of the coun- 
 tries, ih. the designs of the Macedonian 
 kings upon Greece, 223. the capture of 
 Corinth, ih. formation of the .(Etolian 
 League, ib. and of the Achaean, ih. their 
 important results in the history of Greece 
 and of the world, ib. war of the Leagues, 
 226. interference of Rome in the aflairs 
 of Greece, 227. battle of Cynoscephalae, 
 ib., 279. the Grecian cities in Europe and 
 Asia declared independent, 227. freedom 
 of Greece proclaimed at the Isthmian 
 games by T. Q. Flaminius, 228, 279. 
 supremacy of the Greeks transferred 
 from this time to Rome, and her history 
 interwoven with that of the Romans, ib. 
 the Roman policy fostered by the con- 
 tinual quarrels of the Greeks, 229. battle 
 of Pydna, 231. Greece becomes a Ro- 
 man province, ib.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 401 
 
 Guinea, coast of, the Commerce of the 
 Carthaginians extended as far, 64. 
 
 Halenosus, a Greek island off Thessaly, 94. 
 
 Halicarnassus, a city and colony of tlie 
 Dorians in Asia Minor, 130. 
 
 Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, obtains 
 the chief command in Spain, '275. in- 
 vades Italy, ih. his plan of action, 276. 
 attempts to form a league between Car- 
 thage, Syria, and Macedonia, against 
 Rome, 28Ü. is banished from Carthage 
 and flies to Antiochus, 192, 280, 281. 
 Antioclms neglects his advice, 192, 281. 
 his continued persecution by Home, 
 283. 
 
 Ueliogabalus, Bassianus, 352. his reign, ih. 
 
 Hellas, the name of Central Greece, 91. 
 
 Hellenes, one of the ancient tribes of Greece, 
 96. named from Hellen, one of their chief- 
 tains, ib. first appeared in Phocis, ib. 
 migrate to Thessaly, drive out the Pe- 
 lasgi, and spread over all Greece, ib. 
 subdivided into ^olians, lonians, Do- 
 rians, and Achffians, ib. Avere at first 
 savages, 98. at the time of the Trojan 
 war were barbarians, ib. were indebted 
 for the foundation of domestic civiliza- 
 tion to strangers, ib. and the same of re- 
 ligion, 99. but they stamped all these 
 improvements with their own character, 
 ib. from the time of the Trojan war al- 
 ways regarded themselves as one people, 
 101. the race were always united by a 
 national spirit, 105. they alone were 
 permitted to join in the national festivals 
 and games, 105. and in the Amphictyonic 
 council, ib. the colonies founded by 
 them, 126. their civilization promoted 
 by the independence of the colonies, 
 126. See Greece. 
 
 Helos, a city of Laconia, 106. its inhabit- 
 ants reduced to slavery by the Spar- 
 tans, ib. 
 
 Heraclea, a city and Greek colony, on the 
 southern coast of Bithynia, 131. 
 
 Heraclid(P, descendants of Heracles, exiled 
 from Argos, 102. establish their claims 
 in Peloponnesus, 103. 
 
 Herod, son of Antipater, appointed king of 
 the Jews, 249, 250. 
 
 Herodotus, his Egyptian history derived 
 solely from public monuments in or near 
 Memphis, 43. justly called the Father of 
 History, 95. his chronology, 378. 
 
 Hieratic mode of writing used by the priests 
 of Egj'pt, 42. only a running hand de- 
 rived from the hieroglyphic system, 42. 
 never used in the public monuments in 
 the time of the Pharaohs, ib. 
 
 Hiero, king of Syracuse, 272. 
 
 Hieroglyphics, first adopted by the Egyp- 
 tians, 42. the properties and defects of 
 this mode of writing, ib. liable to be 
 
 2 D 
 
 misinterpreted, ib. the Egyptian priests 
 sometimes unable or unwilling to ex- 
 plain it, 44. 
 
 Himera, a city of Sicily, 142. 
 
 Hipparchus, with Hippias, sons of Pisis- 
 tratus, succeed their father in the posses- 
 sion of power at Athens, 1 13. is murdered 
 by Harmodius and Aristogiton, ib. 
 
 Hippias, son of Pisistralus, rules jointly 
 with his brother Hipparchus in Athens, 
 till the latter is murdered by Harmodius 
 and Aristogiton, 113. being himself de- 
 posed, he flies to the Persians, ib. 
 
 Historia antediluviana, 4. why omitted from 
 this work, ib. 
 
 History, its sources, oral traditions, or 
 mythology, and Avritten documents, 5. 
 the latter including inscriptions on public 
 documents, and coins ; aimals and chro- 
 nicles ; philosophical works on the sub- 
 ject, 6. geography and clironology indis- 
 pensable to its study, 8. 
 
 History, philosophical, flourishes most under 
 free governments, 8. the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans alone of antiquity had acquaintance 
 with it, ib. 
 
 History, political, its objects, 3. divided 
 into ancient, that of the middle ages, and 
 modern, 4. does not commence till after 
 the formation of states, ib. 
 
 Honoria, 376. 
 
 Honor ius, a Roman emperor, 373. 
 
 Hostilius, Tulhis, a king of Rome, 261. 
 
 Htms, their entrance into Europe, 371. sub- 
 due the Goths, ib. united under Attila, 
 375. fall on the western provinces of tlie 
 Roman empire, ib. 
 
 Hybla, a city in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Hyrcanus, John, son of Simon Maccaba;us, 
 248. 
 
 Hyskos, the Egyptian title of the Bedouin 
 Arabs, 49. contemporary with Moses, 
 50. finally defeated and expelled from 
 Egypt, ib. 
 
 Hystaspes, brother of Artaxerxes I., 83. 
 rebelled against his brother, and defeated 
 in two battles, ib. 
 
 laJyssus, a city and Dorian colony in the 
 island of Rhodes, 130. 
 
 Illyricum, its boundaries as a Roman pro- 
 vince, 324. 
 
 Imbrus, a Greek island, 9 1. 
 
 Inanis, of Marea, king of Libya, excites 
 the revolt of Egypt against the Persians, 
 83. defeated by Megabyzus and capitu- 
 lates, ib. executed in vioLation of the 
 promise of Megabyzus, ib. 
 
 India, Alexander's expedition against it, 
 176. relinquished in conscqticnce of 
 mutiny in his army, ib. the modern con- 
 nexion of Europe with tiie East a result 
 of this expedition, ib. communication by 
 sea opened by his admiral, »6.
 
 402 
 
 indp:x. 
 
 Inscriptions on public monuments, one 
 source of history, 6. 
 
 lonians, a principal branch of the Hellenes, 
 96. expelled by the Acheeans, are re- 
 ceived by the Athenians, 1U3. their 
 colonies, 128. 
 
 Iphicrates, an Athenian commander, 164. 
 
 Israel, kingdom of, 33. its relations with 
 the kingdom of Judah, ib. summary ol' 
 its history, 34. 
 
 Italy, geographical outline, 252. its division 
 into Upper, Central, and Lower, ib. the 
 countries comprised in each division, 
 253—256. its islands, 257. 
 
 Ithaca, a Greek island, 94. 
 
 Jann(BUS, Alexander, son of John Hyr- 
 canus, 249. 
 
 Jason, a high priest of the Jews, 247. 
 
 Jerusalem, captured by Ptolemy 1., 246. 
 
 Jexoish history of the Assyrians, 22. 
 
 Jeics, their history before Cyrus, 28. its 
 divisions, ib. their nomad state, 29. a 
 federative republic, 30. a monarchy, 31. 
 under Saul a mere agricultural and pas- 
 toral race, but gradually assuming the 
 character of a warlike nation, 32. com- 
 pletely formed as a nation under David, 
 ih. aggrandized by conquest, ib. declen- 
 sion of the state vmder Solomon, 33. it 
 is divided luidcr Rehoboam, ib. their 
 state as a divided kingdom, ib. history 
 of their restored kingdom after Cyras, 
 246 — 251. war against them by Vespasian 
 and their city destroyed, 341. synopsis 
 of their reigning houses, 386. 
 
 Jonathan, a high priest and leader of the 
 Jews, 248. 
 
 Joshua, a high priest of the Jews, who, 
 with Zorobabel, headed the colony of 
 Jews on their return to Judaea by per- 
 mission of Cyrus, 246. 
 
 Joviaiius, FL, a Roman emperor, 370. 
 
 Judah, the kingdom of, 33. relations be- 
 tween it and Israel, ib. summary of its 
 history, 35. 
 
 Judas MaccabfEUS, 248. 
 
 Jugurtha, of Numidia, his war with Rome, 
 295. 
 
 Julia, the daughter of Augustus, 333, 334. 
 
 Julian, 363. 
 
 Julian, Fl., (the apostate,) a Roman em- 
 peror, 369, 370. 
 
 Julianus, M. Didius, purchases the Roman 
 empire from the praetorian guard, 350. 
 executed, ib. 
 
 Laconia, a country of Peloponnesus, 92. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Lampsacus, a city on the Propontis, a Gre- 
 cian colony, 131. 
 
 Laodice, wife of Antiochus Geo«, 189. re- 
 pudiated by him on his marriage with 
 Berenice, 190. being taken back she 
 
 poisons him, ib. the Syrian kingdom 
 subverted, partly by the struggle with 
 Egypt, caused by the hatred between her 
 and Berenice, ib. 
 
 Laodice, the name of two queens of Cappa- 
 docia, 238. ■■ 
 
 Latini, the race to which the Romans be- 
 longed, 260. it was their ancient practice 
 to extend the cultivation of their country 
 by colonies, ib. 
 
 Latium, a country in Central Italy, 254. 
 geographically described, ib. 
 
 Lebedus, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, 128. 
 
 Lemnos, a Greek island, 94. 
 
 Leonidas. Battle of Marathon, 147. his 
 heroism contributed to the greatness of 
 Greece, as much as the victory ofi" Sa- 
 lamis, a. 
 
 Leonnatus, one of the generals of Alexan- 
 der the Great, 179. made one of the re- 
 gents after his master's death, ib. receives 
 Mysia at the distribution of the empire, 
 180. refuses to obey Perdiccas, ib. goes 
 to Europe to marry Cleopatra, and dies 
 in the Lamian war, ib. 
 
 Leontini, a city in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Lepidus, M., appointed by Rome regent of 
 Egj'pt in the minority of Ptolemy Epi- 
 phanes, 207. 
 
 Leucadia, a Greek island off Acamania, 94. 
 
 Licinius, 364, 365. 
 
 Liffuria, a country in Upper Italy, 253. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Lindus, a city and Dorian colony in the 
 island of Rhodes, 130. 
 
 Livia, the second wife of Augustus Caesar, 
 .333. 
 
 Locr^i Epizephyrii, a Grecian colony in 
 Lower Italy, 135. 
 
 Locris, a country, divided into two parts, 
 in Central Greece, 92. general outline 
 of its history, 119. 
 
 Lucania, a country in Lower Italy, 256. 
 
 Lusitania, a province of Spain, 321. 
 
 Lycia, a free state at the accession of 
 Augustus, became a Roman province, 
 A. D. 43, 325, 340. 
 
 Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator, 107. the 
 principal features of his constitution, ib. 
 
 Lydian empire before Cyrus, 25. three 
 dynasties, ib. its proper history com- 
 mences with that of tlie Mermnadae, 
 ih. empire destroyed by C}Tus, 73. its 
 chronology according to Herodotus, 380. 
 
 Ly Sander, a Spartan commander, 159. de- 
 feats the Athenians at Notium, ib. suc- 
 ceeded by Callicratidas, ib. restored to 
 the command, and gloriously terminates 
 the Peloponnesian war, ib. besieges 
 Athens, and takes it, ib. alters its con- 
 stitution, ib. alters the constitution of 
 most of the Grecian states, ib. his death 
 at the battle of Haliartus, 161.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 403 
 
 Lysias, rezent of Syria, in the absence of 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, 195. contests with 
 Philip, ib. put to death by Demetrius, ib. 
 
 Lysimachus, one of the generals of Alex- 
 ander the Great, 180. receives Macedo- 
 nian Thrace at the partition of the em- 
 pire, ib. his aggrandizement in Mysia, 
 183. league with Ptolemy and the two 
 Cassanders,i6. irruption into Asia Minor, 
 185. after the battle of Ipsus, obtains 
 Asia Minor as far as Mount Taurus, ib. 
 deposes Pyrrhus of Epirus from the 
 throne of Macedonia, and adds that 
 kingdom to his own, 2'il. war with 
 Seleucus Nicator, 189. killed at the 
 battle of Curopedion, ib., 221. 
 
 Macedonia, origin of the kingdom, 166. its 
 early history, ib. its kings tributary to 
 Persia, ib. its independence restored by 
 the battle of PlatsiP, ib. its exposure to 
 the attacks of its neighbours the means 
 of its being early involved in the affairs 
 of Greece, ib. differences with Athens, 
 167. peace restored with Athens, ib. 
 civilization promoted by Archelaus, 168. 
 his murder, ib. followed by a stormy pe- 
 riod, which renders its existence as a 
 kingdom doubtful, ib. progress till the 
 reign of Philip, 169. melancholy posture 
 of affairs, ib. the change effected within 
 two years, 170. he makes Macedonia the 
 arbiter of Greece, ib. its internal govern- 
 ment under Philip absolute, 173. he is 
 murdered, ib. accession of Alexander the 
 Great, ib. commotions in the country 
 thereupon, 174. ruin of the monarchy at 
 the death of Alexander, 179. the country 
 falls to AntipaterandCraterus, 180,216. 
 the death of both, ib. Polysporchon re- 
 gent, 217. the sovereignty obtained by 
 Cassander, ib. on the death of Cassandcr 
 and his sons, Demetrius Poliorcetes pro- 
 claimed king by the army, 219. his reign 
 of seven years, 220. Pyrrhus of Epirus 
 proclaimed king, ib. deposed by Lysi- 
 machus of Thrace, ib. his defeat and 
 death at the battle of Curopedion, 221. 
 Seleucus Nicator proclaimed king, ib. 
 murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, who 
 takes possession of the throne, ib. thi> 
 irruption of the Gauls, 221, 222. deatli of 
 Ptolemy and of Meleager, 221. Sosthenes 
 assumes the command, ib. after his death 
 Antigonus of Gonni king, 222. dethroned 
 by Pyrrhus, ib. at his death Antigonus 
 again takes the crown, 223. and renews 
 his designs against Greece, ib. obscure 
 reign of his son Demetrius II., ib. reign 
 of Antigonus Doson, 224. reign of Philip 
 II., 225. the country recruited by a long 
 peace, ib. her grand aim, the supremacy 
 of Greece, seems within her grasp, ib. 
 interference of Rome, 226. war of tlic 
 
 2 D 
 
 Leagues, ib. attacked by Rome, 227. bat- 
 tle of Cynoscephahc, ib. the Macedonian 
 history becomes» interwoven with that of 
 Rome, 228. death of Philip, 229. acces- 
 sion of Perseus, 230. his policy and ex- 
 ertions against Rome, ib. battle of Pydna, 
 231, 284. the country becomes dependent 
 on Rome, and is ultimately converted 
 into a Roman province, ib., .324. synopsis 
 of the reigning houses, 383. 
 
 Macrimis, M. Opelitis, cmjjcror of Rome, 
 352. 
 
 Madeira, probably a Carthaginian colony, 
 61. 
 
 Magas, son of Ptolemy I., 201. Cyrene 
 given to him, ib. marries A])ame, daughter 
 of Antiochus I., 205. his rebellion and 
 war with Ptolemy Philadelphus, ib. 
 
 Magnentius, 369. 
 
 Manetho, high priest at Heliopolis, wrote 
 the Algyptiaca, 44. the autlienticity of 
 his history now perfectly established, ib. 
 
 Marcelliis, a Roman general, who overthrew 
 the Gauls, 275. 
 
 Marcomanni, their first war with Rome, 
 346. peace with them bought by Corn- 
 modus, 347. 
 
 Marius, C, a Roman general, 295. obtains 
 the consulship, ib, forms his army from 
 the lower orders, ib. defeats the Cimbri 
 and Teutones, 296. buys his sixth con- 
 sulate, ib. attempts to overthrow the re- 
 public, 297. compelled to retire into Asia, 
 ib, hatred between him and Sylla, 299. 
 tries to wrest from him the command in 
 the Pontine war, ib, expelled from Rome, 
 ib. escapes to Africa, and is proscribed, 
 ib. his death, 301. 
 
 Martins, Anctis, a king of Rome, 261. 
 
 Masinissa, king of Numidia, 69. disjjutes 
 with the Carthaginians, 70. won over to 
 the Roman cause by Scipio, 276. included 
 in the peace with Carthage, ib. employed 
 by the Romans as an instrument in sub- 
 jugating Carthage, 69, 282. his victory 
 and its results, 71, 285. 
 
 Massilia, a Greek colony founded by the 
 Phoca^ans on the coast of Gaul, 142. 
 
 Mattathias, a priest of the Jews, 247. 
 
 Maiiritatiia, C(csarie?tsis and Singitana, two 
 Roman provinces in Africa, .325. 
 
 Maxentius, a Roman usurper, 364. 
 
 Mariminianns Ilercitlitis, M. Valerius, an 
 emperor of Romi", .362 — .364. 
 
 Maximinus, C.Galemts, created Ca?sar, 363. 
 Augustus, 364. 
 
 Maximimis, C. Julius, an emperor of Rome, 
 .354. 
 
 Maximus, 372. 
 
 Medes, ditferent uses of tlie name, 22. their 
 history before Cyrus, «6. Herodotus's 
 history, ib. 
 
 Median empire, its chronology according 
 
 to Herodotus, 379. 
 2
 
 404 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Medon, the first of the Athenian archons, 
 110. 
 
 Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, under Arta- 
 xcrxcs I., 83. 
 
 Megara, sometimes contended with Athens, 
 114. 
 
 Megaris, the smallest of the Grecian coun- 
 tries, 91. general outline of its history, 
 118. 
 
 Meleager, appointed king of Macedonia 
 after the fall of Ptolemy Ceraunus in the 
 irruption of the Gauls, 221. soon deposed 
 for his incapacity, ib. 
 
 Memnon, a Persian general under Darius 
 III., whose death defeated the invasion 
 of Macedonia, 89. 
 
 Memphis, a state in Egypt founded by the 
 state of Thebes, 49. was powerful in 
 Joseph's time, ib. continues under Pto- 
 lemy the capital of the kingdom, 202. 
 
 Menander, a king of Bactria, 245. 
 
 Menelaus, a high priest of the Jews, 247. 
 
 Mesopotamia, conquered by Trajan, 343. 
 relinquished by Adrian, 344. 
 
 Messalina, the wife of Claudius Caesar, 337. 
 
 Messana. See Zancle. 
 
 Messapia. See Calabria. 
 
 Messene, with Argos and Tegea, sometimes 
 rivalled Sparta, 114. 
 
 Messenia, a country of Peloponnesus, 93. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Milan, the seat of Maximian's government, 
 366. 
 
 Miletus, a city in Asia, founded by the Ca- 
 rians, and afterwards occupied by the 
 lonians, 128. was, next to Tyre and Car- 
 thage, the first emporium in the world, 
 129. implicated in the insurrection of 
 Aristagoras against the Persians, ib. and 
 destroyed, ib. established colonies on the 
 shores of the Propontis, Black Sea, and 
 Palus Mtcotis, 130. 
 
 Miltiades, the leader of the Athenians in 
 rejecting the demands of Persia, and in 
 repelling their invasion, 146. battle of 
 Marathon, ib. the expedition against Pa- 
 res undertaken at his instigation, ib. its 
 failure, and his unjust punishment, ib. his 
 fall the source of happiness to Athens, ib. 
 
 Mithridates, the name of six kings of Pon- 
 tus, 236. of whom the Vl.th was sumamed 
 the Great and Eupator, ib. his history, 
 237. his first war with Rome, 300. se- 
 cond, 303. third, 304. his fall, 306. 
 
 Mitylene, a city in Lesbos, the principal of 
 all the Ionian colonies, 127. was almost 
 razed by the Athenians, 128. 
 
 Mcesia, Superior and Inferior, Roman pro- 
 vinces south of the Danube, 324, 332. 
 
 Monuments, inscriptions on them, one source 
 of history, 6. 
 
 Morzes, a king of Paphlagonia, 236. 
 
 Mythology, includes, besides historical facts, 
 the general notions of nations in their in- 
 
 fancy, 5. to be used by the historian 
 with great caution, ib. its fables usually 
 collected by grammarians from the works 
 of the poets, 6. 
 Mijtts, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, 128. 
 
 Naxus, a city in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the 
 Great, 177. his voyage from the Indus 
 to the Euphrates, ib. 
 
 Nectabemis I., king of Egypt, in whose 
 reign Artaxerxes II., king of Persia, 
 made an unsuccessful attempt to reduce 
 Egypt, 87. 
 
 Nectabenus II., defeated by Artaxerxes III. 
 at the battle of Pelusium, and his king- 
 dom made an Egyptian province, 88. 
 
 Nehemiah, 246. 
 
 Nerigon, Norway, 326. 
 
 Nerva, M. Coceeius, emperor of Rome, 342. 
 
 Nicanor, the friend of Cassander, procured 
 by him to be commander at Athens, 217. 
 overthrown by the democratic party, ib. 
 
 Nicias, an Athenian general, 157. his pru- 
 dence, ib. sent with Lamachus and Al- 
 cibiades against Sicily, 158. 
 
 Nicomedes I., II., III., kings of Bithynia, 
 235, 236. 
 
 Nicomedia, the seat of Diocletian's govern- 
 ment, 366. 
 
 Niger, Pescennius, a Roman general com- 
 manding in Syria, and proclaimed by his 
 army emperor after the death of Com- 
 modus, 350. defeated and slain by Sep- 
 timius Severus, ib. 
 
 Nomad nations, their influence on political 
 history, 14. probably one half of the hu- 
 man race must always remain in a nomad 
 state, ib. 
 
 Nomad empires, their rise, progress, and 
 fall, 20. 
 
 Nomes, districts into which Egypt was very 
 anciently divided, 48. connected ■with the 
 chief temples, ib. 
 
 Noricum, a Roman province south of the 
 Danube, 324, 332. 
 
 Numa Pompilius, king of Rome, 261. 
 
 NumeriaJius, M. Aurelius, 359. 
 
 Ochus. See Darius II. 
 
 Octavia, sister of Csesar Octavianus, mar- 
 ried to M. Antony, 319. rejected by 
 him, 320. 
 
 Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia, 357. 
 
 Odoacer, 376, 377. 
 
 Olbia, a city and Greek colony at the 
 mouth of the Borysthenes, 131. another 
 in Sardinia, 142. 
 
 Olympia, tlie seat of a Greek oracle, 100. 
 
 Olympias, the queen of Philip of Macedon, 
 173. her cruelty, 179. after the death of 
 Alexander, Antipatcr not permitting her 
 to rule, she •wiüidrew to Epirus, 216.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 405 
 
 recalled by Polysperclion, 182, 217. but 
 dares not come without an army, 217. 
 returns from Epirus, ib. is besieged by 
 Cassander in Pydna, ib. and beinp; taken 
 is condemned and put to death, ib. 
 
 Olynthus, a city on the coast of Macedonia, 
 named after its fovmder, a son of Her- 
 cules, 1.32. 
 
 Onias, the name of three high priests of 
 the Jews, 247, 218. 
 
 Onomarchiis, a Phoeian general who suc- 
 ceeds his brother Philomclus, 1G5. killed 
 in the M'ar with Philip, ib. 
 
 Oracles, powerful in the civilization of' 
 ancient Greece, 100. the direction of 
 public affairs depended principally upon 
 them, ib. 
 
 Orophernes, a king of Cappadocia, 238. 
 
 Osiris, an Egyptian deity, confounded by 
 the Greeks with their Bacchus, 47. 
 
 Ostrogoths, a division of the Goths, 371. 
 found a new empire in Italy, 377. 
 
 Otho, a Roman emperor, 339. 
 
 Palmyra, Roman trade with India carried 
 on throui,'h it, 348. conquered by Aure- 
 lian, 3.57. 
 
 Palus Maotis, its shores covered with 
 Greek colonies, 130. nearly all from 
 the city of Miletus, ib. 
 
 Pannonia, Superior and Inferior, Roman 
 provinces south of the Danube, 324, 332. 
 
 PanticapcBum, a city and Greek colony in 
 the Chersonesus Taurica, 131. capital 
 of the kingdom of Bosporus, ib. 
 
 Paphlagonia, its history as a kingdom, 23.5. 
 
 Papyrus, employed for writing, in the 
 highest antiquity, 42. 
 
 Parchment, its discovery at Pergamus, 
 234. 
 
 Parthians. Their kingdom formed out of 
 the secession of the eastern provinces of 
 the Syrian empire in the reign of An- 
 tiochus Beos, 189. war with Seleucus 
 Calliiiicus, whom they take prisoner, 
 190, 241. regarded by them as the real 
 date of the foundation of their kingdom, 
 190. main facts in the history and con- 
 stitution of the kingdom, 240 — 2 14. con- 
 quered by Trajan, 343. their irruption 
 in the time of Aurelius, 340. war with 
 Caracalla, 352. peace purchased by Ma- 
 crinus, ib. revolution and formation of 
 the new Persian empire, 353. 
 
 Parysatis, queen of Darius II., 84. keeps 
 her husband in a state of tutelage, ib. 
 incites her son Cyrus to rebel against 
 his brother Artaxerxes II., 85. keeps 
 Artaxerxes in a state of tutelage, and 
 commits horrible excesses, 8(5. 
 
 Pnsargadre, the princijjal of the clans into 
 which the Persians were divided, 7.3. 
 
 Pausanias the Spartan, who, jointly with 
 Ari.stidcs the Athenian, commanded at 
 
 the battle of Plataeaj, 148. his treachery 
 and fall, ib. 
 
 Pelasgi, one of the principal ancient tribes 
 of Greece, 96. first extend their domi- 
 nion in the country, ib. are driven by the 
 Hellenes first from Thessaly, and after- 
 wards from almost all the country, ib. 
 they maintain their ground only in Ar- 
 cadia and Dodona, ib. some migrate to 
 Italy, Crete, «&c., «6. 
 
 Pelopidas, a Theban commander, 162. li- 
 berates Thebes from the Spartan rule, ih. 
 the defensive war conducted by him, ib. 
 his expedition into Thessaly, 163. sent 
 ambassador to Macedonia, and taken pri- 
 soner by Alexander, ib. rescued by Epa- 
 minondas, ib. accomplislies an alliance 
 of Thebes with Persia, ib. last ex])edition 
 against Alexander, in which he falls, 164. 
 
 Pelopontiesus, a penmsula in Greece, 92. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Peneus, one of the principal rivers of 
 Greece, 90. 
 
 Perdiccas, one of the generals of Alexander 
 the Great, 179. made one of the regents 
 after the death of Alexander, ib. makes 
 grants of the provinces, 180. his first 
 acts, ib. repudiates his wife Nicsea, and 
 wishes to marry Cleopatra, ib. attempts 
 to overthrow Antigonus and Ptolemy, 
 181. falls in an insurrection of his 
 troops, ib. 
 
 Pergafnus, in Mysia, the origin and history 
 of the kingdom, 2.33. 
 
 Pericles, succeeds to the head of afl'airs at 
 Athens on the death of Aristides and 
 banishment of Cimon, 151. his character, 
 152. his administration, ib. his death by 
 the plague, 156. 
 
 PersepoUs, built, 76. burnt, 89. 
 
 Perseus, an illegitimate son of Philip II., 
 king of Macedon, 229. his hatred to De- 
 metrius his brother, ib. causes his death, 
 ib. succeeds his father on the throne, 
 2.30. his talents, and hatred to the Ro- 
 mans, ib. his exertions Uj oppose them, 
 ib. hostilities with Rome caused by the 
 hatred of Eumenes, ib. defeated at the 
 battle of Pydna, 231, 284. his capture at 
 Samothrace, 231. miserable condition 
 and death at Rome, ib. 
 
 Persians, before the time of Cyrus, a high- 
 land jieople, in a nomad st;ite, subject to 
 the Medcs, 73. divided into ten clans, ib. 
 their government therefore patriarchal, 
 ib. the monarchy founded l)y Cyrus, ib. 
 the dominion rises on the destruction of 
 the Medo-Baetrian empire, ib. Persians 
 adopt the religion, laws, and general sys- 
 tem of the Medes, 74. political constitu- 
 tion of the empire by Cyrus, JA. standing- 
 armies kept in pay, 75. reign of Cam- 
 byses, ib. accession of Darius, 76. expe- 
 ditions against the Scythians, 77. against
 
 406 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Western India, 78. Barca, ib. and Greece, 
 79. In the reign of Darius the kingdom 
 was weakened, but its internal organiza- 
 tion perfected, ib. the empire divided into 
 twenty satrapies, ib. the system of Per- 
 sian finance, 80. military system, ib. from 
 the time of Darius the government con- 
 centrated in the seraglio, ib. Expedition 
 against Greece under Xerxes I., 81. suc- 
 cessive defeats and retreat of the armies, 
 
 82. the empire thereby weakened and 
 depopulated, ib. bribery of the Greek 
 chieftains more successful, ib. death of 
 Xerxes I., 82. accession of Artaxerxes I., 
 
 83. during his reign, Persia on the de- 
 cline, ib. the second revolt of Egypt part- 
 ly quelled by Megabyzus, ib. fleet and 
 army defeated by Cimon, ib. disgraceful 
 peace made with Athens, ih. rebellion 
 of Megabyzus in Syria, 84. revolutions 
 rapidly succeed in the reigns of Xerxes 
 II., Sogdianus, and Darius II., ib. the 
 state rapidly declines, ib. Persians ex- 
 pelled from Egypt, 85. policy of Persians 
 from this time to foment quarrels among 
 the Greeks, ih. accession of Artaxerxes 
 II., ib. rebellion and defeat of his brother 
 Cyrus, ib., 86. war with Sparta, 86. 
 Grecian colonies of Asia Minor again 
 delivered to Persia, ib. friendly relations 
 with Thebes, ib. the political relations 
 with Greece now determined chiefly by 
 tlie satraps of Asia Minor, 86. attempt 
 to recover Egj'pt, 87. the empire nearly 
 destroyed by disputes for the succession, 
 ib. death of Artaxerxes II., and succes- 
 sion of his son Ochus, ib. insurrection 
 in Asia Minor, 88. of the Phoenicians 
 and Cyprians in conjunction with Egypt, 
 ib. Egypt again a Persian province, ib. 
 Artaxerxes III. poisoned by Bagoas, ib. 
 Arces raised to the throne, ib. deposed 
 and succeeded by Darius III., Codoman- 
 nus, ib, invasion of Alexander the Great, 
 ib. after the loss of two battles, Darius 
 treacherously killed, Persepolis burnt, 
 and the Persian empire destroyed, 89. 
 
 Pertinax, P. Helvius, emperor of Rome, 
 349. 
 
 Phanagoria, a city and Greek colony on 
 the eastern coast of the Black Sea, 131. 
 
 Pharaohs, their dynasty the brilliant age of 
 Egypt, 52. they united the whole king- 
 dom, ih. the great monuments of Thebes 
 erected in their age, ih. their empire 
 overthrown at the battle of Pelusium 
 by Cambyses, 58. 
 
 Pharus, The, built by Ptolemy Soter, 202. 
 
 Phasis, a city and Greek colony on the 
 eastern coast of the Black Sea, 131. 
 
 Phayllus, a Phocian general who succeeded 
 Onomarchus in the Sacred war, 165. 
 
 Philetmrus, lieutenant of Lysimachus in 
 Pergamus, asserts his independence. 233. 
 
 Philip, son of Perdiccas III., king of Mace- 
 don, 169. contemporary with Artaxerxes 
 II. king of Persia, 87. receives Artabanus 
 with favour, 88. sent as an hostage to 
 Thebes, 169. a pupil of Epaminondas, ib. 
 escapes from Thebes to gain the throne, 
 ih. governs at first only as regent, 170. 
 the successful commencement of his 
 reign, ib. his sagacity, ib. his policy, ih. 
 possesses himself of Thessaly, ih. takes 
 advantage of the Sacred war to promote 
 his views, ib. his growing power, 164. 
 repelled by the Athenians in attempting 
 to push through Thermopylie, 165, 171. 
 makes peace with Athens, ib. makes 
 himself master of Thessaly, 171. takes 
 the place of the Phocians in the Am- 
 phictyonic council, 165, 171. fosters a 
 party in Greece, 171. makes conquests 
 in Illyria and Thrace, 172. thwartt;d by 
 Phocion, ib. obtains the supreme com- 
 mand in the second Sacred war, 165, 172. 
 second expedition against Greece, 172. 
 Athens and Thebes combine against 
 him, ih. battle of Cheeronea, 165, 172. his 
 designs against Persia, 173. obtains from 
 the Amphictyonic coimcil the supreme 
 command against Persia, 165, 173. un- 
 fortunate in his family, 173. is murdered 
 by Pausanias, ib. 
 
 Philip II., son of Demetrius II., king of 
 Macedonia, 225. his character and acces- 
 sion to the throne, ib. favourable condi- 
 tion of his country, ih. entangled by the 
 Roman power, and his life imbittered, 
 226. in the war of the Achsean and 
 Jitolian leagues the former have re- 
 course to him, ih. he dictates the terms 
 of peace, ib. negotiations with Hannibal, 
 ib. hostilities against him commenced by 
 Rome, 227, 283. war with Attains, 227. 
 defeat at Chios, ih. war with Rome, ib. 
 battle of Cynoscephalee, ib. the articles 
 of peace, ib. increases his territory, 228. 
 oppression of Rome, 229. his misfortunes 
 public and domestic, ib. and death, ib. 
 
 Philip, son of Herod, made tetrarch by 
 Augustus, 250. 
 
 Philippus, M. Julius, emperor of Rome, 355. 
 
 Philomelus, a Phocian general, 164. killed 
 in the war with Thebes, 165. 
 
 Phocaa, a colony of the lonians in Asia 
 Minor, 129. 
 
 Phocion, an Athenian general who frus- 
 trates the plans of Philip of Macedon 
 at the siege of Perinthus and Byzantium, 
 172. the democratic party overthrow the 
 rulers headed by him, and compel him 
 to swallow poison, 217. 
 
 Phocis, a country in Central Greece, 92. 
 geographical outline, ih. general outline 
 of its history, 119. 
 
 Phwnicia, its history before Cyrus, 25. con- 
 sisted of several states, ib. each state had
 
 INDEX. 
 
 40: 
 
 its own government, by kings <and magis- 
 trates associated with them, 26. its colo- 
 nies, ib. geographical sketch of them, ib. 
 
 rhos7iicia7is, their commerce took its rise 
 in piracy, 27. the principal objects of 
 their commerce, ib. their manufactures, 
 ib. circumnavigate Africa at the com- 
 mand of Neco, 57. 
 
 Phrygian empire before Cyrus, 24. 
 
 Phtha, an Egyptian deity, confounded by 
 the Greeks with their Vulcan, 47. under 
 Ptolemy the temple continues the chief 
 sanctuary, 202. 
 
 Physcon, younger son of Ptolemy Epi- 
 phanes, 209. on the invasion of Egypt 
 by Antiochus Epiphanes, he is seated on 
 the tlirone, ib. agrees with his brother 
 to rule in common with him, ib. in sub- 
 sequent contests he is driven to take 
 refuge in Rome, ib. obtains the promise 
 of Cyprus, ib. Cyrene rebels against 
 him, ib. he falls into the hands of Phi- 
 lometor, who pardons him, leaves him 
 Cyrene and Libya, and adds some other 
 cities, ib. succeeds his brother, and as- 
 sumes the name of Ptolemy VII. and 
 Evergetes II., 210. marries his brother's 
 widow, murders her son, repudiates her, 
 and marries her daughter, ib. unites the 
 divided kingdom, ib. his monstrous wick- 
 edness, cruelty, and tyranny, ib. is com- 
 pelled by insurrection to flee to Cyprus, 
 but recovers the throne and holds it 
 till his death, ib. a friend of science, 
 and an author, ib. 
 
 Picenum, a country in Central Italy, 255. 
 
 Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, headed the 
 commons, and obtained supreme power, 
 113. expelled, ib. again exalted by means 
 of his matrimonial connexion with the 
 family of Megacles, ib. again expelled 
 by Megacles, ib. again obtains the power 
 and maintains it till his death, ib. 
 
 Placentia, a colony founded by the Ro- 
 mans after the overthrow of the Gauls, 
 275. 
 
 Plautiantis, the minister of Septimius Se- 
 verus, 351. 
 
 Plotina, the wife of Trajan, 343. 
 
 Poetry generally supplied the place of 
 writing among infant nations, 5. 
 
 Polys23erchon, the regency of Alexander's 
 enijjire bequeathed to him by Antipater, 
 181. quarrels with Cassander, 217. mea- 
 sures taken to oppose him, ib. instigated 
 by Cassander to murder Hercules, an 
 illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, 
 218. appoints Eumenes commander of 
 the royal troops, 182, 217. invites Olym- 
 pias from Epirus, ib. sends his son Alex- 
 ander to get possession of Athens, 217. 
 
 Poynpey, a Homan general, .302, 303. com- 
 mands against Sertorius, and in (he third 
 Mithridatic war, 304. jealousy between 
 
 him and Crassus, 305. closes the war 
 against the Pirates, 306. brings the last 
 Mithridatic war to a glorious end, and 
 settles the affairs of Asia, 306, 307. he 
 restores the tribunes, 307. and forms an 
 oligarchy, ib. 
 
 Pompey, the name of sons of the preceding, 
 318, 319. 
 
 Pontius Pilate, 250. 
 
 Pontics, its history as a kingdom, 236 — 238. 
 
 Perus, king of India, defeated by Alexan- 
 der the Great, 176. 
 
 Potidcpa, a colony from Corinth, a city 
 on the coast of Macedonia, 132. 
 
 Priene, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, 128. 
 
 Priesthood, no separate order of, in Greece, 
 99. 
 
 Priscus, Tarquinius, a king of Rome, 261. 
 
 Probus, M. Aurelius, a Roman emperor, 
 358. 
 
 Propojitis, The, its shores covered with 
 Greek settlements, 130. nearly all from 
 Miletus alone, ib. 
 
 Prusias I. and //., kings of Bithynia, 235. 
 
 Psa7nmetichus, a member of the Egyptian 
 oligarchy, compelled to take flight, 55. 
 by the help of Greek and Carian mer- 
 cenaries became sole ruler, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy, son of Lagus, one of the generals 
 of Alexander the Great, 180. on the 
 death of his master received Egypt, ib., 
 200. Pcrdiccas attempts to overthrow 
 him, 181, 200. his league with Antipater 
 and Craterus, ib. takes possession of 
 Syria and Plurnicia, ib. his victory over 
 Demetrius, 183. surrenders Syria and 
 Phoenicia, ib. desires to marry Cleopa- 
 tra, ib. his growing power at sea, 184. 
 league with Cassander and Seleucus, 
 185. retires into Egypt, ib. after the 
 battle of Ipsus, Phtrnicia and Cade-Syria 
 made over to him, 200. Cyprus taken 
 and ultimately retained, ib. captures Cy- 
 rene and Libya, 201. he regenerates 
 Egypt, 202. the administration he estab- 
 lished, ib. his character, ih. his regard 
 for the interests of science, 203. 
 
 Ptolemy II., surnanied Philadelphus, son 
 of the former, and joint king with him, 
 203. reigned thirty-eight years, ib. pro- 
 moted the arts of peace, trade, and 
 science, ib. made Egypt the most flourish- 
 ing country in the world, ib. his measures 
 fur promoting commerce, 204. his re- 
 venue, ib. war with Antiochus II. of 
 Syria, and Magius his half-brother, ib. 
 embassy to and from Rome, 205. the 
 luxury of his court, ib. repudiates his 
 wife, and marries his sister Arsinoe, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy III., surnamed Evergetes, son of 
 the former, 205. his warlike si)irit, and 
 genius also for the arts of peace, ib. liis 
 conquests, 2U6.
 
 408 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ptolemy IV., sumamed Philopator, suc- 
 ceeded the preceding, 207. a debauchee 
 and a tyrant, ib. his tutelage to So- 
 sibius, and afterwards to Agathoeles and 
 his sister, ib. ill-deserved victory of 
 Raphia, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy V., surnamed Epiphanes, when he 
 was five years old, Agathoeles and his sis- 
 ter seek to obtain his guardianship, 207. 
 this being prevented, the office is con- 
 fided to Sosibius and TIepolemus, ib. the 
 regency deferred to Rome, ib. and given 
 to M. Lepidus, ib. marries Cleopatra, 
 daughter of Antiochus III., 208. cha- 
 racter of Ptolemy, tyranny and cruelty, 
 ib. killed at the age of 28, by his in- 
 temperance and debauchery, 208. 
 
 Ptolemy VI., surnamed Philometor, at five 
 years of age ascended the throne imder 
 the guardianship of his mother, 208. at 
 her death Eulaeus and Leneeus became 
 guardians, ib. involved in war with An- 
 tiochus Epiphanes, ib. who obtains the 
 victory of Pelusium, and possesses him- 
 self of Egypt as ftir as Alexandria, 208. 
 Ptolemy is expelled from Alexandria, 
 and Physcon seated on the throne, 209. 
 falls into the hands of Antiochus, ib. 
 signs an injurious peace with him, ib. 
 agrees with Physcon to divide the em- 
 pire, ib. Antiochus makes an inroad, 
 and the Romans command him to make 
 peace, ib. qiiarrel with his brother Phys- 
 con, who ultimately falls into his hands, 
 ib. pardons him, gives him part of his 
 dominions, and promises him his daugh- 
 ter in marriage, ib. busies himself in 
 Syrian affairs, gives his daughter to 
 Alexander Balas, ib. afterwards sup- 
 ports Demetrius, and gives him his 
 daughter, ih, is killed in battle, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy VII. See Physcon. 
 
 Ptolemy VIII., surnamed Lathyrus, placed 
 on the throne of Egj'pt by his mother 
 Cleopatra, -«idow of Ptolemy VII., 210. 
 compelled by her to exchange with his 
 brother for the government of Cyprus, 
 ib. reinstated on the throne after the 
 death of his brother, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy Alexander I., the brother of 
 Ptolemy VIII., 210. had the govern- 
 ment of Cyprus given him by his mother, 
 ib. she makes him king of Egypt, ib. 
 unable to bear her tyranny, he attempts 
 to take her life, but fails, and perishes, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy of Cyprus, and Ptolemy Auletes, 
 illegitimate sons of Ptolemy Latliyrus, 
 
 211. their history, 212. 
 
 Ptolemy Dionysos, son of Ptolemj' Auletes, 
 
 212. poisoned by his sister Cleopatra, 213. 
 Ptolemy Neoteros, another son of Ptolemy 
 
 Auletes, 212. 
 Ptolemy Ceraunus, brother of Lysandra, 
 wife of Agathoeles, 221. driven out of 
 
 Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, ib. 
 goes over to Seleucus Nicator, ib. mur- 
 ders him, 189, 221. takes possession of 
 the Macedonian throne, 221. loses his 
 life by the irruption of the Gauls, ib. 
 
 Ptolemies, genealogical table, .385. 
 
 Pupienus, Maximus, 354. 
 
 Pylamenes I. and //., kings of Paplilago- 
 nia, 236. 
 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, son of iEaeides, 
 220. the Ajax of his time, and rather an 
 adventurer than a king, ib. his descent, 
 ib. his wars in Macedonia, Greece, Italy, 
 and Sicily, ib. proclaimed king of Mace- 
 donia after the death of Demetrius Po- 
 liorcetes, but retains the throne only one 
 year, ib. 
 
 Python, his destruction of the rebels in the 
 insurrection of the mercenaries settled 
 by Alexander the Great in Upper Asia, 
 180. his ambition, ib. resigns the regency 
 under the son of Alexander, 181. 
 
 Quintillus, 357. 
 
 Rehoboam, king of the Jews, 33. 
 
 Rhcetia, a Roman province, south of the 
 Danube, 32.3, 332. 
 
 Rhegium, a city in Lower Italy, a colony 
 from Chalcis in Euboea, 136. 
 
 Rhine, a boundary of the Roman empire 
 at the accession of Augustus, 321. 
 
 Rhodes, its history subsequent to the par- 
 tition of Alexander's kingdom, 2.34. a 
 free state at the accession of Augustus, 
 and became a Roman province, A. D. 
 70, 325, 340. 
 
 Ricimer, 376. 
 
 Rotne, Romans. General characteristic of 
 Roman historj', 259. the Romans be- 
 longed to the race of the Latini, and the 
 city was a colony of Alba Lo7iga, 260. 
 early government by kings, and the insti- 
 tutions framed during this period, 260, 
 261. wars mth neighbouring people, 261. 
 succeed in becoming the head of the col- 
 lected cities of Latins, ib. abolition of 
 royalty and establishment of consular 
 government, 262. oppression of the aris- 
 tocrats, and establishment of the tribuni 
 plebis, ib. rise of the constitution, 263. 
 the code of the twelve tables, ib. its en- 
 actments, 264. deputation probably sent 
 to Athens and other Grecian cities, ib. 
 wars with the neighbouring nations, 265. 
 siege of Veii, 266. Rome burnt by the 
 Sennonian Gauls, ib. delivered by Camil- 
 lus, ib. rebuilt, ib. feuds between the 
 nobility and the commons, ending in 
 political equality between them, 267. 
 wars with the Samnites, ib. the triie 
 heroic age of Rome, ib. war with the 
 Tarentines, who call Pyrrhus to their 
 aid, 268. his victories at Pandosia and
 
 INDEX. 
 
 409 
 
 Asculiim, and his defeat at Bcncvenluni, 
 ib. the establishment of colonies, and 
 the colonial system adopted, ib. construc- 
 tion of military highways, ib. relations 
 with the Italian nations, 269. internal 
 constitution of the state, ib. struggle with 
 Carthage, and contrast of the two powers, 
 272. first war, and the Carthaginians ex- 
 pelled from Sicily, ib., 273. efi'cct of the 
 success of this war on the constitution, 
 ib. Illyrian war, and chastisement of the 
 Illyrian pirates, 274. renewed war with 
 the Gauls, ib. who are finally overthrown 
 by Marcellus, ib. second war Avith Car- 
 thage, 27f). invasion of Italy by Hanni- 
 bal, ib. defeat of Asdrubal, ib. the Car- 
 thaginians defeated in Spain and in Italy, 
 275. the terms granted to Carthage, ib. 
 the power of Rome increased by this 
 war, 277. the power of the senate almost 
 unlimited, ib. Rome now becomes the 
 first military republic, ib. from this time 
 aspires to universal dominion, ib. her 
 policy in accomplishing this, ib. state of 
 the other civilized states, 278. war with 
 Philip of Macedonia, ib. the power of 
 Rome in the East really founded by T. 
 Quintius Flaminius, ib. the ability and 
 address of the Romans in their foreign 
 policy, 279. Greece made dependent, ib. 
 war with Syria, 280. the attempt to form 
 a league between Carthage, Syria, and 
 Macedonia defeated, ib. defeat of Anti- 
 ochus, and conditions of peace, reducing 
 him to dependence, 192, 281 . war in Spain 
 and with the Ligurians, 281. her moder- 
 ation after her victories, ib. war with the 
 Gauls in Asia Minor, 282. becomes the 
 arbitress of the world, ib. improvement 
 in civilization and increase of immorality, 
 ib., 283. disputes and war with Mace- 
 donia, 283. ruin of the Macedonian 
 kingdom, 284. its consequences, ib, the 
 Romans aspire to become the masters of 
 the world, ib. change in the relations of 
 Romewith herallies,285. projects against 
 Carthage and bad treatment of that city, 
 ib. destruction of Carthage, 286. new war 
 in Macedonia, ib. fall of the Aclux-an 
 leagaie and destruction of Corinth, «6. war 
 in Spain, ib., 287. Pergamus bequeathed 
 to Rome by Attains III., 287. the Roman 
 provinces, 288. their government, ib. the 
 revenue of the state, ib., 289. struggles 
 between the aristocratic and democratic 
 parties, 291. the attempts of T. S. Grac- 
 chus to relieve the lower orders, ib. the 
 first agrarian law, ib. his fall, 292. his 
 party remains, ib. revolt of the slaves in 
 Sicily, ib. tribunes endeavour to increase 
 their power, ib. Roman power established 
 in Transalpine Gaul, ib. Baleares con- 
 quered, 293. tribunate of C. Gracchus, 
 ib. rencAvs the agrarian law, ib. he is as- 
 
 sassinated, ib. victory of the aristocratic 
 faction, ib. the pernicious cfiects of party 
 spirit on the nation, 294. war with Ju- 
 gurtha, elevation of Marius, 295. who 
 defeats the Cimbri and Tiutones, 296. 
 he buys his sixth consulate, ib. after va- 
 rious cabals and insurrections he is com- 
 pelled to retire to Asia, and the state 
 enjoys some years of tranquillity, 297. 
 acquisition of Cyrenc, 298. revolt of the 
 Indian tribes, and Wnr of the Allies, ib. 
 the allies gradually admitted to the free- 
 dom of the city, ib. feuds between Ma- 
 rius and Sylla, 299. the latter marches 
 to Rome and expels Marius, ib. war 
 with Mithridates, ib. new revolution 
 at Rome, pillage of the city and mas- 
 sacre of the inhabitants, 3Ul. death of 
 Marius, ib. return (jf Sylla to Italy, and 
 dreadful civil Avar, ib. proscription, 3U2. 
 dictatorship of Sylla, reform in the 
 constitution, the poAver of the senate 
 restored, ib. second Avar begun against 
 Mithridates, 303. attempt of .iE. Lepi- 
 dus to rescind the laAvs of Sylla, ib. 
 Avar Avith Sertorius in Spain, 304. third 
 Mithridatic Avar, ib. the Servile Avar, ter- 
 minated by Crassus, 305. the Avar against 
 the Pirates, 306. close of the Mithridatic 
 Avar by Pompey, aa'Iio settles the Asiatic 
 affairs, ib. Rome at the highest pilch of 
 her power, 307. the constitution of Sylla 
 shaken by Pompey, ib. formation of an 
 oligarchy, ib. Catiline's conspiracy, ib. 
 the luxury introduced into the state, 308. 
 Pompcy's return to Rome, and struggle 
 Avith the senate, 309. union of Ca;sar, 
 Pompey, and Crassus, ib. consulate of 
 Cicsar, ib. his expeditions in Gaul, Bri- 
 tain, and Germany, 310. jealousy of the 
 triumvirate, 311. campaign of Crassus 
 against the Parthians, and total defeat, 
 ib. Pompey appointed sole consul, 312. 
 beginning of the contest betAveen him and 
 Cffisar, ib. civil Avar between them, and 
 defeat of Pompey, 313. Cajsar appoiiUed 
 dictator, ib. his views, 314. his death, 
 315. results, 316. the triumvirate of Oc- 
 tavianus, Antony, and Lepidus, 317. civil 
 Avar belAveen the oligarchy and republi- 
 cans in Macedonia, 318. battle of Plii- 
 lippi, ib. quarrels and Avars betw(>en the 
 triumvirs, ib. Antony's expedition into 
 Parthia, 320. his defeat and death, ib. 
 Octavianus absolute master of the re- 
 public, ib. Geographical outline of the 
 Roman empire and provinces at this 
 ]U'rii)d,321 — 327. the nature of the gnvcrn- 
 nu'nt under Augustus, 328. the senate, 
 329. introduction of standing armies, 3;i0. 
 government of the provinces, ib. linances, 
 ib. extension of the empire, 332. unsuc- 
 cessful attempts on Germany. 3.32. the 
 reign of Augustus the brilliant period
 
 410 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 for Rome, 333 reign of Tiberius, 334. he 
 changes the spirit of tlic constitution, ih. 
 his tyranny, 335. cruelty of Sejanus, ib. 
 his fall, and the carnage which accom- 
 panied it, 33G. accession and reign of 
 Caligula, ih. of Claudius, ib. of Nero, 
 337. the greater part of Rome was fed 
 by the emperors, 338. reigns of Galba, 
 dtho, Vitellius, 339. of Vespasian, ib. 
 the reforms he effected, 340. reign of 
 Titus and Domitian, 341. of Nerva and 
 Trajan, 342. Trajan restores the consti- 
 tution, ib. his conquests, 343. reign of 
 Adrian, who relinquishes part of Trajan's 
 conquests, 344. reigns of Antoninus Pius, 
 and of Marcus Aurelius, 345. of Com- 
 modus, 347. condition of the empire, 348. 
 reign of Pertinax, 349. commencement of 
 military despotism, 349, 350. Didias Ju- 
 lianus, Septimius Severus, Pescennius 
 Niger, and Albinus, proclaimed by dif- 
 ferent armies, 350. reign of Severus, 351. 
 of Caracalla, 351, 352. of Heliogabalus, 
 353. of Alexander Severus, ib. war with 
 Persia, ib. reign of Maximinus, 354. war 
 with the Germans, ih. proclamation of 
 the two Gordians, Pupienus, B albinus, 
 and Gordian III., ib. reign of Philippus, 
 Decius, Gallus, .iEmilianus, 355. Va- 
 lerian taken by the Parthians, 356. reign 
 of Gallienus, ih. the thirty tyrants, ib. 
 of Aurelius Claudius, 357. of Aurelian, 
 ib. defeat and capture of Zenobia, ib. 
 interregnum of six months, 358. reigns of 
 Tacitus, Probns, and Cams, ib. review 
 of the government, 359. decline of the 
 empire, ib. progress and effects of Chris- 
 tianity, 360. reign of Diocletian, 362. 
 Maximian associated with him, ih. Gale- 
 rius and Constantius created Caesars, ib. 
 consequences of the new system, ih. ab- 
 dication of Diocletian and Maximian, 
 363. Constantius and Galerius proclaim- 
 
 d Augusti, ih. Constautine proclaimed 
 Augustus, 364. his reign, ib. establishes 
 his authority in religious legislation, 365. 
 removal of the seat of empire to Con- 
 stantinople, ib. new division of the em- 
 pire, 366. change in the form of govern- 
 vernment, ib. taxes, 367. spread of the 
 Christian religion, 368. reign of Constan- 
 tius, 369. of Julian, ib. of Jovian, Va- 
 lentinian, and Valens, 370. entrance of 
 the Huns into Europe, 371. reign of 
 Gratian and Valentinian II., ih. of Max- 
 
 mus, Eugenius, and Theodosius the 
 Great, 372. final division of the empire 
 between Arcadius and Honorius, 373. 
 Alaric, king of the Visigoths, establishes 
 himself in Rome, ib. invasion of the 
 Huns and Goths, 375. final destruction of 
 the Western empire, 376. 
 Roma7is, and Greeks, alone of antiquity, had 
 acquaintance with philosophical history,8. 
 
 Bomulus, founder of Rome, 261. 
 
 Ilosetta Strme, The, its date and import- 
 ance, 208. 
 
 Roxana, wife of Alexander the Great, 179. 
 pregnant at the time of his death, ib. 
 nnirdered with lier son by Cassander, 
 183, 218. 
 
 Rufinus, 373. 
 
 Sabinus, Corn., with Chscrea, assassinates 
 Caligula, 336. 
 
 Saguntum, a Greek colony, from the island 
 of Zacynthus, on the coast of Spain, 142. 
 
 Salamis, a Greek island on the Saronic 
 Gulf, 94. 
 
 Samaritans, their separation from the Jews, 
 246. the hatred between them, ih. 
 
 Samnium, a country in Central Italy, 255. 
 
 Samos, an island in Asia Minor, in which 
 the lonians founded a flourishing colony, 
 129. a free state at the accession of 
 Augustus, became a Roman province, 
 A. D. 70, 325, 340. 
 
 Samothrace, a Greek island, 94. 
 
 Sanctuaries, probable that many among 
 the Greeks were settlements of priests 
 from Egypt, 99. 
 
 Sardinia, an island pertaining to Italy, 
 257. a Carthaginian colony, 61. inrasion 
 by the Romans, 273. a Roman province 
 at the time of Augustus, 323. 
 
 Sarmatia, the north of Europe, 327. 
 
 Saul, king of the Jews, 31. 
 
 Scatidinavia, 326. 
 
 Scipio, the name of several Roman com- 
 manders, 276, 279, 281, 283, 285, 286, 
 287. 
 
 Scyathus, a Greek island off" Thessaly, 94. 
 
 Sejanus, L. JEKus, the minister of Tibe- 
 rius, 335, 336. 
 
 Seleucida, the successors of Seleucus Ni- 
 cator in the Syrian empire, 187. ge- 
 nealogical table of them, 384. 
 
 Seleucxis Nicator, one of the generals of 
 Alexander the Great, receives Babylon 
 in the new division of the provinces, 
 
 181, 187. flies from Babylon to Egypt, 
 
 182. forms a league between Ptolemy, 
 the two Cassanders, and Lysimachus, 
 against Antigonus, 183. marches back 
 to Babylon, and maintains himself in 
 Upper Asia, ib., 187. excluded from the 
 general peace between Antigonus and 
 his enemies, 183. thii-d league with Cas- 
 sander and Ptolemy, 185. junction with 
 Lysimachus in Phrygia, ib. at the defeat 
 of Antigonus part of Asia Minor falls to 
 him, ib., 187. his campaign in India 
 against king Sandracottus, 187. removes 
 the seat of government to Syria, 188. mar- 
 ries the daughter of Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes, ib. his genius for the arts of peace, 
 ib. organizes the home department of 
 his empire of satrapies, ib. cedes Upper
 
 INDEX. 
 
 411 
 
 Asia and his wife to his son Antiochus, 
 ib. war with Lysimachus, 189, 221. buttle 
 of Curopedion, 189, 221. gains the throne 
 of Macedonia, 221. assassinated by Pto- 
 lemy Ceraunus, 189, 221. 
 
 Seleucus II., surnanied Callinicus, sue- 
 ceeded Antiochus Oeos in the Syrian 
 empire, 190. history of reign, ib. an un- 
 broken series of wars, ib. taken by the 
 Parthians, and remains a prisoner till 
 his death, ib. ' 
 
 Seleucus III., sumamed Ceraunus, elder 
 son of the preceding, ib. poisoned as he 
 was about to take the field against At- 
 tains, ib. 
 
 Seleucus IV., named Philopator, son of 
 Antiochus the Great, 193. succeeded his 
 father, ib. his reign a time of peace 
 arising from weakness, ib. fell a victim 
 to the ambition of Heliodorus, 193. 
 
 Seleucus, eldest son of Antiochus Gryphus, 
 198. 
 
 Seleucus Cybiosactes, 198. 
 
 Selinus, a city of Sicily, 142. 
 
 Seneca, 338. 
 
 Serapewn, The, erected by Ptolemy Soter, 
 202. 
 
 Sertorius, 304. 
 
 Sesostris, king of Egypt, 53. the splendour 
 of the kingdom mainly due to him, ib. 
 
 Severus, Septimius, emperor of Rome, 351. 
 
 Severus, Alexander, emperor of Rome, 353. 
 
 Severus, Flavins, created Cajsar, 3(i3. Au- 
 gustus, 364. 
 
 Sicily, an island pertaining to Italy, 25, 125, 
 257. the Carthaginians never succeeded 
 as they desired in the conquest of it, 61. 
 their expulsion by the Romans, 273. a 
 Roman province at the time of Augustus, 
 323. 
 
 Sicyonia, a country of Peloponnesus, 93. 
 geographical outline, ib. genei'al outline 
 of its history, 116. 
 
 Simon, sumamed The Just, a high priest 
 of the Jews, 247. also the brother and 
 successor of Jonathan, 248. 
 
 Sinope,a. Greek colony in Paphlagonia, 131, 
 the most powerful of all the Grecian set- 
 tlements in the Black Sea, ib. 
 
 Sogdiaiius, a bastard son of Artaxerxes, 
 who killed his brother Xerxes II., 81. 
 and reigned in Persia six mouths, ib. 
 deposed by another bastard brother, 
 Ochus, ib. 
 
 Solomon, king of the Jews, 32. his govern- 
 ment and character, ib. decline of the 
 kingdom under his reign, 33. 
 
 Solon, chosen archou of Athens, and ap- 
 pointed to remodel its constitution, 111. 
 the whole human race deeply indebted 
 to him, ib. prominent features of his 
 legislation, ib. 
 
 Sosthenes, a Macedoniannoble, who, during 
 the irruption of tlie Gauls, assumed the 
 
 command after the deposition of Anti- 
 pater and liberated his country, 221. de- 
 feated and slain in a subsequent irruption 
 of the same people, 222. 
 
 Spain, its boundaries and divLsions at the 
 accession of Augustus, 321. the northern 
 part completely subjugated under Au- 
 gustus, 331. the kingdom of the Visi- 
 goths founded, 374. 
 
 Spamitres, a eunucli in the seraglio of 
 Xerxes I. who conspired to destroy him, 
 82. 
 
 Sparta, first inhabited by the Acha;ans, 106. 
 governed by princes of the house of Per- 
 seus, afterwards by those of the house of 
 Pelops, ib. the Achaeans expelled by the 
 Dorians, ib. repeated wars with the Ar- 
 gives, ib. received a constitution from 
 Lycurgus, 107. described, ib. wars with 
 the Messenians fostered by the ambition 
 of the Spartan kings, 108. takes the lead 
 among the Dorian states, 109. and, with 
 Athens, of all Greece, 114. meets with 
 rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea, ib. 
 with Athens alone of the Greek .states 
 rejected the Persian yoke, 146. sutters 
 by the insanity of one king, Cleomenes, 
 and the arrogance of the other, 147. the 
 honour of the command in repelling the 
 second Persian invasion left to the Spar- 
 tans, ib. battle of Thermopylae, ib. battles 
 of Platteffi and Mycale, 148. the chief 
 command devolves upon Athens, ib. jea- 
 lousy with Athens, 149. the establishment 
 of the Greek confederacy, ib. counter- 
 league headed by Sparta, ib. changes in 
 the internal, organization, ib. intrigues 
 for the expulsion of Themislocles from 
 Athens, 150. contrast of lier condition 
 with that of Athens, ib. tiie develop- 
 ment of genius arrested by rude customs 
 and laws, ib. wars with Athens, 152, 153. 
 sketch of the internal conilition of Sparta, 
 155. conceives the idea of an alliance 
 with Persia, 156. finds a general in Bra- 
 sidas, 157. becomes a naval power, ib. 
 war in Sicily with Athens, 15». repeat- 
 edly defeated by the Athenians, ib. otters 
 proposals of peace whicii the Athenians 
 reject, ib. Lysander wins over Cyrus to 
 the Spartan interest, 159. triumphant con- 
 clusion of the twenty-seven years' war, ib. 
 decisive victory over the Athenians, ib. 
 Sparta at the head of Grecian all'airs, ib. 
 its oppressive conduct, and revolutions 
 in Grecian states, ib. engages in a war 
 with Persia, 160. war against Corintli, 
 Thebes, and Argos, 161. defeat at Hali- 
 artus, ib. endcavoin-s to bring over the 
 Persians to her interests, ib. peace nf 
 Antalcidas, which gives Sparta the i)re- 
 dominance, ib. her arrogance to tiie weak- 
 er stales, ib. rivalry with Thebes, 162. 
 long struggle with that city, ib. her power
 
 412 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 is abased, ib. lier supremacy anniliilated, 
 I(j3. Epaminondas makes his way to lier 
 gates, ib. Sparta in distress applies to 
 Athens, ib. Dionysius I. of Syracuse 
 helps them, ib. loses Messene, 164. sen- 
 tence of the Aniphictyons against her, 
 165. after the death of Alexander the 
 Great, revolts against Macedonia, and is 
 defeated by Antipater, 215. remarkable 
 revolution in the reign of the Macedonian 
 king Antigonus Doson, 224. sketch of the 
 afl'airs of the state at this period, 225. in 
 the war of the AchaBan and .(Etolian 
 leagues joins the latter, 226. alliance 
 with Rome in the war with Philip II., 
 227. by the Roman policy continually 
 embroiled with the Achaeans after the 
 defeat of Philip, 229. 
 
 Spartacus, 304, 305. 
 
 Stilico, 373, 374. 
 
 Stratonice, the beautiful daugliter of De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes, 188. marries Seleu- 
 cus Nicator, ib. ceded by him to his son 
 Antiochus Soter, ib. 
 
 Suevi, The, .326. 
 
 Suffetes, the Carthaginian name of their 
 two kings, 63. 
 
 Sybaris, a city founded by the Achseans in 
 Lower Italy, 134. 
 
 Sylla, a Roman general, distinguishes him- 
 self in the War of the Allies, 298. the 
 hatred between him and Marius, 299. 
 marches upon Rome, expels Marius, and 
 hastens back to Greece, ib. carries on 
 the first war against Mithridates, and is 
 proscribed at Rome, .300. returns to Italy, 
 and after a bloody civil war is made dic- 
 tator, 301. proscribes his enemies, 302. 
 reforms the constitution, and abdicates 
 power, ib. his death, 303. 
 
 Syracuse, a city of Sicily, the most power- 
 ful of all the Greek colonies, 137. its 
 history, ih. 
 
 Syrians, their history before Cjtus, 28. 
 dwelt in cities as early as B. C. 2000, ib. 
 often subject to foreign conquest, ib. 
 
 Tachos, king of Egypt, supports a rebel- 
 lion in the western half of Persia, 87. 
 
 Tacitus, M. Probus, emperor of Rome, 358. 
 
 Tanais, a city and Greek colony on the 
 northern coast of the Black Sea, 131. 
 
 Taprobana, Ceylon, 327. 
 
 Tarentum, a Grecian settlement in Lower 
 Italy, 133. its history, ib. 
 
 Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of 
 Rome, 262. 
 
 Tarraconensis , a province of Spain, 321. 
 
 Tegea, with Messene and Argos, sometimes 
 rivalled Sparta, 114. 
 
 Temples, Roman, shut up by Constantine, 
 and destroyed by his successors, 368. 
 
 Teas, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, 128. 
 
 Teuta, a queen of the Illyrians, 273. 
 
 Thasits, a Greek island, 94. 
 
 Thebes, the most ancient state in Egypt, 
 49. its great monuments erected in the 
 age of tlie Pharaohs, 52. 
 
 Thebes, a city of Greece, liberated from 
 the Spartan ruh;, 162. its rivalry with 
 Sparta, ih. her greatness the work of two 
 men, Epaminondas and Pelopidas, ib. 
 they reject the proposal for a general 
 peace, ib. her long struggle against 
 Sparta, ib. battle of Leuctra, 163. ex- 
 pedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly, ib. 
 second expedition by Epaminondas, ib. 
 alliance -«ith Persia, ib. her greatness 
 swept away by the death of her two 
 great men, ib. alliance with Athens 
 against Philip brought about by Demos- 
 thenes, 172. 
 
 Themistocles, an Athenian general and 
 statesman, 147. his character, ib. prose- 
 cutes the design of Miltiades against 
 the islands, ib. and pursues the plan of 
 making Athens a maritime power, ib. 
 the glory of defeating the second Persian 
 invasion his alone, ib. victory off Salamis, 
 ib. his expulsion, 150. and flight to the 
 Persians, ib. 
 
 Theodoric, 2)11. 
 
 Theodosius the Great, a Roman emperor, 
 371, .372. 
 
 Theodosius II., a Roman emperor, 374. 
 
 Theodotus, the founder of the Bactrian 
 empire, 245. 
 
 Theodotus II., his son and successor, ib. 
 
 Thermusa, a female slave of Arsaces XV. 
 king of Parthia, 242. 
 
 Theseus, son of ^geus, the real founder of 
 the Athenian state, 110. 
 
 Thessalonice, half-sister of Alexander the 
 Great, married to Cassander, 218. mur- 
 dered by her son Antipater, 219. 
 
 Thessaly, the eastern country of Northern 
 Greece, 90. geographical outline, 91. his- 
 torical outline, 120. 
 
 Thrace, its boundaries as a Roman pro- 
 vince, 325, 340. 
 
 Thide, 326. 
 
 Thurii, a city near the ancient Sybaris, in 
 Lower Italy, 135. 
 
 Tiberius Claiidius Nero, the son-in-law of 
 Augustus, 332. his command in Ger- 
 many, ib. leaves the court of Augustus, 
 334. adopted by Augustus, ih. at his 
 accession is called Augustus Tiberius 
 Ca;sar, ib. his reign, 334 — 336. 
 
 Tigranes I., a king of Armenia, 239. 
 
 Timotheus, an Athenian commander, 164. 
 
 Tissaphernes, satrap of Asia Minor under 
 ArtaxerxesII.,86. by his severity against 
 the Asiatic Greeks excites a war with 
 Sparta, in which he falls, 86. 
 
 Titus, Flavins Vespasian, emperor of Rome, 
 341. 
 
 y
 
 INDEX. 
 
 413 
 
 Trajan, M. UJpitts, emperor of Rome, 342. 
 restores the Roman constitution, 342, 
 343. his conquests, ib. 
 
 Tribuni plebis, or Presidents of the Com- 
 motis, among the Romans, their est;ib- 
 lishment, 262. their struggles ^\itll tlie 
 aristocracy 263. 
 
 Trojan War. From this time the Hellenes 
 looked upon themselves as one people, 
 101. 
 
 Troy, its history, 24. 
 
 Tryphon, the name assumed by Diodotus, 
 a dependant of Alexander Balas, the 
 Syrian usurper, 196. excites insurrection 
 against Demetrius Nicator, and seats 
 Antiochus, son of Balas, on the Syrian 
 tlirone, ih. gets into his power Jonathan 
 the J ew, murders Antiochus, and assumes 
 the cro^vu, ih. defeated by Antiochus of 
 Sida, ih. 
 
 Tullius, Servius, the most remarkable in 
 the line of Roman kings, 261. 
 
 Tuscia. See Etruria. 
 
 Tyre, besieged and reduced by Alexander 
 the Great, 174, 175. 
 
 Tyrrhenia. See Etruria. 
 
 Vmbria, a country in Central Italy, 255. 
 
 Valetis, a Roman emperor, 370. 
 Valentinian, Fl., a Roman emperor, 370. 
 Valentinian II., brother of the preceding, 
 
 .371. 
 Valentiniati III., a Roman emperor, 375. 
 Valerianus, Publius Licinius, a Roman 
 
 emperor, 355. taken by the Parthians, 
 
 356. 
 Vandals, the first barbarian nation admitted 
 
 to the Roman empire, 371. seated in 
 
 Pannonia in the time of Constantinc, ib. 
 Vespasian, T. Flavitis, a Roman emperor, 
 
 339. his reign, 340. 
 
 VUidelicia, a Roman province south of the 
 Danube, .323, 332. its boundaries, 323. 
 
 Viriathus, a Spaniard wlio carried on war 
 with the Romans for six years, and was 
 murdered by the treachery of Caepio, 287. 
 
 Visigoths, a division of tlie Goths, 371. the 
 first barbarian nation (except the Van- 
 dals) admitted to the Roman empire, ib. 
 rebel against Valens, and defeat him, jo. 
 established with Alaric tlieir king in the 
 Roman empire, 373. their kingdom found- 
 ed in Spain, 374. 
 
 Vitellius, A., a Roman emperor, 339. 
 
 Volusian, son of Gallus, 355. 
 
 Writing, its place usually supplied among 
 infant nations by poetry, 5. 
 
 Writing, Alphabetical, its invention com- 
 monly ascribed to the Phoenicians, 7. 
 probably due to the interior of Asia, ib, 
 
 Xerxes I., grandson of Cyrus, 81 . nominated 
 by Darius for his successor, ib. his ex- 
 pedition against Greece, ib. retreat, 82. 
 destroyed by intrigues in the seraglio, ib. 
 was he the Ahasuerus of the Jews? ib. 
 
 Xerxes II., son and successor of Artaxerxes 
 I., 84, killed after a reign of forty-five 
 days, ib. 
 
 Zacynthus, a Greek island opposite Elis, 94. 
 
 Zaricle, afterwards called Messana, the 
 earliest Greek colony in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Zariadras, a lieutenant of Antiochus the 
 Great, 239. 
 
 Zelas, a king of Bithynia, 235. 
 
 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, 357. 
 
 Zipcrtas, brother of Nicomedcs I., king of 
 Bithynia, 235. 
 
 Zorohahel heads the colony of Jews who 
 returned to Judaea by permission of Cy- 
 rus, 2 16. 
 
 THE END.
 
 JOHN CHILDS AND SON, BUNGAY,
 
 CENTRAL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 University of California, Saji Diego 
 
 OCT 25 ,9,, • ■ 
 
 
 NOV 99 1070 
 
 
 D£C2ll5>Sf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CI 39 
 
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