LB 
 3011 
 H23 
 .1 
 
 ;-NRLF 
 
 SCHOOL- MASTERS, 
 
 TEACHING, 
 
 BY SAMUEL R. HALL. 
 
 FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
 
 1 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 CARTER, HEN DEE AND CO 
 1833, 
 
GIFT OF 
 Prof. C. . ofoid 
 
 
W 26ft. 
 
 Width, 26 feet 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 W 
 
 A. A. A. Entry 7 feet wide. a. Outer door. S. S. S> Seat on the 
 outside 15 inches wide. D. D. D. Desks having a passage at the end of 
 every second one, for the scholars to pass to their seats. These passages 
 are designed to be only 12 inches wide. The desks are 20 inches wide, in- 
 cluding a horizontal plane 6 inches wide at the top. They are placed one 
 inch from the seats. L L L Aisles 18 inches wide. s. 8. 8. Seats for 
 two scholars each, with a narrow passage to go to the desks. The seat* 
 are 14 inches wide and the backs incline 2 inches. d. d. d. Desks. These 
 are 2 inchces lower than the other desks. C. C. C. Children's seats, 13 
 inches wide, designed for those who are too young to write. 2 2. Two 
 steps to go up to the Master's Desk. M. Master's Desk elevated 22 
 inches above the floor. W. W. W. Windows. B.'B. Space seven 
 feet wide. It increases the ease of sitting, to have the forward edge of 
 the seat one iuch higher than the back side. 
 
LECTURES 
 
 SCHOOL-MASTERS, 
 
 TEACHING. 
 
 BY. SAMUEL R. HALL. 
 
 JfourtJ) 3Ettftfon* 
 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED* 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY CARTER, HENDEE & Co< 
 
 At Faust Statute, 131, Washington-Street. 
 
 1833. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1833. 
 
 By CARTER, HENDEE & Co. 
 in the Clerks's office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 
 
 B. B. MUSSEY, PRINTER, 
 
 29, Cornh ill, Boston. 
 
 a 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 OF nothing are the people of the United States more disposed 
 to boast, than of the free government, free institutions and free 
 schools, which they have established. By the latter, in many of 
 the states it is designed to place within the reach of every child, 
 the means of acquiring an education, sufficient to prepare him 
 for the duties and responsibilities of a citizen. In a large num- 
 ber of the states, the establishment and support of free schools, 
 have been a prominent object with the Legislatures. In some, 
 the system adopted is, perhaps, better than in any other part of 
 tne world. 
 
 But there is still a very general opinion, that the amount of 
 benefit desirable, is not obtained from these primary fountains 
 of knowledge. Many plans have been formed to increase their 
 usefulness. Some of these have been put in operation, and 
 others have ended in theory. 
 
 It is the ardent wish of every patriot, philanthropist and 
 Christian, that ' the strong desire manifested to render this moral 
 engine of social happiness and political security, as extensive, 
 as complete and efficacious, as the vast resources of our intelli- 
 gence and wealth will permit,' may not cease, till something ef- 
 fectual shall be accomplished. No subject has stronger claims 
 upon us, * for on the correct and early education of youth, de- 
 pend the ultimate success of every rational enterprise for the 
 intellectual and moral improvement of man.' 
 
 In order to raise common schools to that standard of excel- 
 lence which it is desirable they should attain : their defects, in 
 plan and execution, must be carefully sought out. Nothing ef- 
 fectual can be done till these defects and their causes, are clear- 
 ly ascertained. The remedies may then be proposed, applied 
 and tested. 
 
 There is a very general f belief, that one of the most common 
 defects is the improper character and superficial qualifications 
 of teachers. It is well known, that many who are employed to 
 
 Mil 1481 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 teach our primary schools, are deficient in almost every neces- 
 sary qualification. While this defect is so prominent, all the ef- 
 forts to increase the usefulness of schools, can be attended with 
 only partial success. But let the character of teachers be im- 
 proved, and improvement in the schools will follow of course. To 
 accomplish this object, it is desirable that institutions should be 
 established for educating teachers, where they should be taught 
 not only the necessary branches of literature, but, be made ac- 
 quainted with the science of teaching, and the mode of govern- 
 ing a school with success. The general management of a 
 school should be a subject of much study, before any one en- 
 gages in the employment of teaching. 
 
 However important such institutions are to the success of 
 common schools, as yet, very few of them exist. This has led 
 to the inquiry whether a publication of a very practical character, 
 containing such directions to instructors, as may be easily un- 
 derstood and applied, would not be of essential service. This 
 inquiry has led to the publication of the following treatise. 
 
 The substance of these Lectures, has been given at various 
 times, to classes of young men, who were qualifying themselves 
 to become teachers, in the Institution of which the Author had 
 charge. He has selected such subjects of remark, as have ap- 
 peared to him the most important, and has endeavored to give 
 all the directions as much of a practical character, as possible. 
 
 The object, in lecturing and writing, has been to present the 
 nature of their employment, to those who are preparing them- 
 selves to instruct ; and to impress them with the importance of 
 being properly qualified, to discharge their duties and faithful in 
 their employment, as well as to give such directions for govern- 
 ing and teaching as might be useful to them. 
 
 The Author does not expect that all will correspond with him, 
 in the views he has taken of various subjects, nor, does he dare 
 to believe that all his directions are the best that could be given. 
 But, they are the best that he could give. And he does firmly 
 believe, that by attentively folio wing 'them, teachers will be able 
 to accomplish much more than has been usual, in training child- 
 ren and youth to habits of application, and in assisting them to 
 gain necessary knowledge. 
 
 The work is designed not only to be studied by those at 
 Academies, who are preparing for the employment of teaching, 
 but to be carried by the master into his school, and to be a di- 
 rectory in the performance of his daily labor. 
 
 The Author solicits the candid remarks of such as have had 
 extensive acquaintance with the business of teaching, and hopes 
 thereby to improve the character of the work in a subsequent 
 edition. He contemplates the work as an experiment, and as 
 he has had no track to guide him, and only his own judgment and 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 experience to depend on, he is solicitous for the result. Be that 
 what it may, he will have the pleasure of reflecting, that he had 
 a sincere desire to see the character of teachers improved, and a 
 more practical method of teaching adopted. If he has failed of 
 furnishing such a work as is needed, it is owing to want of ca- 
 pacity not to want of a desire to benefit the rising generation, 
 and through them, to be useful to his country. 
 Boston, August, 1829. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 THE questions in italics are designed to call the attention of 
 those, who are qualifying themselves to become teachers, to a 
 practical application of the directions given in the body of the 
 work. They must of course form the answers according to 
 their own judgment. Answers to many of the questions will 
 be better given in the scholar's own words, than by committing 
 to memory the sentence or sentences, to which the question re- 
 fers. The questions are made very general, in order that they 
 may not be too much depended upon. The intelligent instruct* 
 er, who employs them will not be confined to them, but will ask 
 many others. 
 
 It may be useful for such as are employed in teaching, to have 
 occasional meetings, and question each other on a given portion 
 of the book. Those in the same town, may conveniently meet 
 for this purpose. By such meetings they will be able to make 
 each other acquainted with the results of their experience and 
 efforts, and mutually benefit each other. 
 
 NOTE TO THE FOURTH EDITION . 
 
 IT is a high source of gratification to the Author to acknowledge the 
 kindness with which many teachers in every part of the United States and 
 Canada, have regarded this little Work, "the confidence in its usefulness, 
 , which he is justified in feeling, has been augmented by the decision of the 
 Legislature of New York, to furnish it to every district in that State, for 
 which purpose ten thousand copies have been required. 
 
 The work has been carefully revised, and a Lecture on the Com- 
 mencement of a School, added. Also, An Abstract of a Lecture on 
 the duties of School Committees and Superintendents, delivered before the 
 American Institute of Instructors, at Boston, August 1832, by the Hon. 
 WILLIAM B. CALHOUN. For this valuable article I am indebted to the 
 kindness of the Author. s. R. H. 
 
 SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS. 
 
 Andover, August, 1833. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Indifference to the importance, character and usefulness 
 
 of common schools its origin and influence. L3 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 Obstacles to the usefulness of common schools. 20 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 Requisite qualifications of teachers. 31 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 Practical direction to teachers. 42 
 
 1. The importance of studying the art of teaching 
 
 means of information. 
 
 2. Responsibility of the teacher importance of realiz- 
 
 ing and understanding it. 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 Practical directions continued. 5 1 
 
 1. Importance of gaming the confidence of the school 
 
 means to be employed. 
 
 2. The instructor should be willing to spend all his time, 
 
 when it can be rendered beneficial to the school an 
 indolent teacher, a great evil. 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 PAGE. 
 LECTURE VL 
 
 Practical directions continued. 58 
 
 Government of a school. 
 
 1. Prerequisites in order to govern. 
 
 2. Manner of treating scholars uniformity in govern* 
 
 ment firmness s. 
 
 LECTURE VII. 
 Practical directions continued* 68 
 
 Government, continued partiality regard to the future 
 as well as the present welfare of the scholars mode 
 of intercourse between teacher and scholars punish- 
 ments rewards. 
 
 LECTURE VIIL 
 
 Practical directions continued. 75 
 
 1. General management of a school, 
 
 2. Direction of studies. 
 
 LECTURE IX. 
 Practical directions continued. 80 
 
 Mode of teaching manner of illustrating subjects* 
 
 1. Spelling. 
 
 2. Reading. 
 
 LECTURE X. 
 Practical directions continued. 9 
 
 Mode of teaching continued* 
 
 1. Arithmetic* 
 
 2. Geography. 
 
 3. English Grammar. 
 
 4. Writing. 
 
 5. History. 
 
Xli CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 LECTURE XL 
 
 Practical directions continued. 102 
 
 Mode of teaching continued. 
 
 1. Composition. 
 
 2. General subjects, not particularly studied. 
 
 3. Importance of improving 1 opportunities when deep im- 
 
 pressions are made on the minds of the school. 
 
 LECTURE XII. 
 
 Practical directions continued. 110 
 
 Means of exciting the attention of scholars*- 
 
 1. Such as are to be avoided. 
 
 2. Such as are safely used. 
 
 LECTURE XIII. 
 
 On the importance of establishing a Lyceum among the 
 members of a school. 
 
 LECTURE XIV. 
 On the location and construction of school houses. 127 
 
 LECTURE XV. 
 Manner of commencing a school or first day's work. 138 
 
LECTURE I. 
 
 YOUNG GENTLEMEN, 
 
 I am induced by various considerations to address to 
 you the following course of Lectures. You expect soon 
 to assume the responsibilities, and care of the schools in 
 which your services may be needed. It is, therefore, 
 highly important, that a portion of your time now should 
 be devoted to the subject, which is about to occupy your 
 whole, attention. Indeed, all the progress you may be 
 able to make in science will not be a sufficient prepara- 
 tion for the work before you. Without some knowledge 
 of the nature of your business, bow can you be qualified 
 to engage in it 1 Without having made the ' science of 
 teaching' a study, how can you be better prepared for 
 success in it, than the physician or lawyer are without 
 appropriate study ? It is true, that many have engaged 
 in teaching school, without having gained any knowledge 
 of the nature of their work, except what they had acquir- 
 ed in the schools, which they attended while children. 
 But if others have pursued a course inconsistent and 
 unreasonable, this is no reason why you should follow 
 their example, and thus render your labours useless or 
 even injurious, to the children placed under your care. 
 A moment's attention to the subject, is, it would seem to 
 me, sufficient to show you that no one ought to assume 
 the office of a teacher, without having endeavored first 
 to obtain some correct views of its duties, of the obsta- 
 cles in his way the manner in which they may be over- 
 come the labour he is to perform and the most probable 
 means of benefiting, in the highest degree, his youthful 
 charge. 
 
 I engage in the labor before me, with interest, as in- 
 volving that which is highly necessary to you, and im- 
 portant to the community through which you will shortly 
 be dispersed. 
 
14 uErn/REs TO 
 
 }}( f<,iY ;>ro. c eiiing to tre subject more particularly 
 lHore u>. it \\ili be aQge^atyJfor me to call your atten- 
 tion to some circumstances, in the existing state of our 
 schools, which have an important bearing on their char- 
 acter and success. 
 
 There is generally no want of conviction, that educa- 
 tion is important. Very few are found, even among the 
 ignorant, who are slow to acknowledge, that learning is 
 necessary both to enjoyment and usefulness. Among 
 the well educated, no remark is more frequently heard, 
 than that a good education is necessary for every citizen, 
 in a land of civil arid religious freedom. But it is equal- 
 ly obvious to rue, that while the importance of education 
 is generally acknowledged, the immense value of common 
 schools is not realized. When it is recollected, that from 
 these minor fountains of knowledge, and from these on- 
 ly, the great mass of the community receive all their 
 instruction, the marked indifference to their character 
 and usefulness which so often appears, is truly astonish- 
 ing. ' Most of bur legislators, our judges and governors 
 have commenced their preparation for the high stations 
 they have filled in society, by drinking at these simple 
 springs of knowledge. We see the magic influence of 
 our schools in the habits, industry, sobriety and order 
 which prevail in the community ; in the cheerful obe- 
 dience yielded to the laws, and in the acts of charity and 
 benevolence, which are every day multiplied around us. 
 Rarely have we seen a native of our state, paying his 
 life to her violated laws,'* if his early years were spent 
 in her schools. These are facts known and generally 
 acknowledged. But still, with many, there is a criminal 
 indifference to the character and usefulness of common 
 schools. 
 
 This is not an indifference which the stranger would 
 so readily discern ; for much is said in public bodies of 
 their importance, and much interest is felt by learned 
 men in the cause of popular education. But still, there 
 i a degree of indifference not hard to detect, exhibited 
 in various ways one of which is, inattention to school 
 
 * Burnsidc's Address, at Worcester, Massachusetts. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 15 
 
 meetings, at which arrangements are made for the schools 
 of the year. When such a meeting is notified, but very 
 few attend. From one tenth to one half of the voters 
 may be present. Almost any article of business is suffi- 
 cient to prevent a voter from attending. When the 
 meeting is organized, some arrangements are made in 
 relation to the board of the teacher and fuel for the 
 school ; and a committee is appointed to provide a mas- 
 ter. This committee is often directed by a vote, not to 
 employ an instructer above a certain price, which is fre- 
 quently very inadequate as a compensation to a teacher 
 of real value. The instructer is engaged with a refer- 
 ence to cheapness, or he is selected on account of rela- 
 tionship, or something equally unconnected with his 
 character for morality, learning or ability to teach. The 
 school commences, and parents seem to feel quite satis- 
 fied without further effort, or even inquiry, unless it be 
 to know whether their children are severely punished. 
 The business of the shop or the farm, claims as usual, 
 the chief attention ; and the question, whether their 
 children are making all the progress they ought, is very 
 seldom asked. Little is known of the character of the 
 school, beyond the report of the children themselves, or 
 perhaps the remarks of the visiting committee. 
 
 I am happy to say that there are many exceptions to 
 the above remarks ; but I am constrained to believe, 
 from actual observation, in the Eastern and some of the 
 Middle States, that the exceptions are not sufficient to 
 make this picture fake. Whole towns may be found 
 where an interest has been excited on the subject of 
 schools, commensurate with their importance. I am 
 happy to believe that this is true of the city of Boston. 
 Some others have set a good example. But these are 
 not a majority ; alas, only a small minority. 
 
 The indifference complained of, and which is so per- 
 ceptible after all that legislatures have done, is yet great ; 
 and requires only to be mentioned, to be condemned by 
 the reflecting and judicious. It may have its origin in 
 habit, in ignorance, or in want of reflection. 
 
 2. A part of this indifference is owing to habit. The 
 parent who never visits the school which his children 
 
16 LECTURES TO 
 
 attend, will perhaps hardly give as a reason, that he 
 never saw his father within the walls of a school room, 
 though it is very possible that this may be a chief cause. 
 If interrogated on the subject, he will probably say he 
 wants time, or does not feel competent to judge of the 
 character of the school, &c. The fact, however, may 
 be, that he has, from his very youth formed a habit of 
 considering the school a subject of far less consequence 
 than it is. He has imperceptibly imbibed the sentiments 
 of his own parents, and as they appeared but little inter- 
 ested in the character of the schools which they main- 
 tained, so the habit has come down to him. It may also 
 have been induced from others. We are strongly inclin- 
 ed to go with the multitude whether right or wrong. 
 When the greater part of parents are indifferent to the 
 character of the school, this feeling is very naturally 
 extended to those who at first might have felt some so- 
 licitude on the subject. Thus habits of indifference have 
 extended from family to family, from neighborhood to 
 neighborhood and from district to district. The, effect 
 becomes permanent, and year after year increases or 
 continues it. 
 
 But other circumstances have an influence in produc- 
 ing this criminal indifference. It is very apparent that 
 the value of primary schools is not duly considered. A 
 large proportion of parents very seldem sit down to re- 
 flect on the influence, which their own actions will have 
 on the general happiness of the country, or that to be 
 exerted by themselves on the character, usefulness and 
 enjoyment of their children. Few realize as they ought, 
 that their indifference to these subjects is a sin ara'msi 
 their country's welfare, their own, and that of their i 
 ilies. They see not the connection between the insrihs- 
 tions in which the character of their children is moulded, 
 and the future welfare of their offspring. There an- 
 men, who would consider themselves deeply insulted, if 
 accused of wanting patriotism ; men, who at the ! 
 eiirroachment of a foreign foe, would seize the sword 
 and ' shoulder to shoulder* rush impetuously on the 
 sailant, men, who would not turn away from the field 
 of battle, while they hud blood to shed arid an enemy to 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 17 
 
 face, but who still are suffering an enemy to make fear- 
 ful inroads on the happiness and safety of the republic ; 
 an enemy more dangerous than a Cataline, a Burr, or a 
 Bonaparte. Inattention to the means of extending 
 knowledge through the land, is undermining the beauti- 
 ful pillars of our republican government. But we have 
 reason to believe numbers never think of this. Reflec- 
 tion is wanting ; hence they do not discover the effect, 
 which their indifference to these subjects may produce 
 on the welfare of the country. It should be known by all, 
 that the best institutions of our country can be perpet- 
 uated no longer than intelligence arid virtue continue 
 among the common people. We may as well expect 
 liberty in Turkey, as in these United States, when the 
 common people cease to be enlightened. We may as 
 well expect virtue in a band of robbers, as among our 
 citizens, when the common people are vicious. 
 
 If, 4 to send an uneducated child into the world is like 
 turning a mad dog into the street,'* all are under obli- 
 gation to regard with high interest, those institutions 
 which furnish the means of mental culture to the great 
 mass of the people. That parent, who is indifferent to 
 the intellectual aliment of his children, is certainly as 
 guilty, as he, who, through an unnatural indifference, 
 should suffer his offspring to feed on poisonous food, or 
 should disregard the" calls of nature, and make no pro- 
 vision for them in meat and drink. He disregards his 
 own happiness as well as that of his children. What 
 comfort can he expect to take in them in age, if he ne- 
 glect to lay the foundation of their usefulness while they 
 are under his control ? Parents can rationally expect 
 but little from children of riper years, if they have ne- 
 glected to furnish them when young, with such knowledge 
 as would direct them in the path of virtue and filial duty. 
 I see no object more revolting to me, than an undutiful 
 and unkind son. I see no distress more acute, than that 
 of a parent, whose child is brought into shame and dis- 
 grace. Parents who are indifferent to the character of 
 the schools which their children attend, do not reflect 
 
 * Parkhurst'g Moral Philosophy, 
 
 2* 
 
18 LECTURES TO 
 
 Ikow severe the consequences may be to their own hap- 
 piness. How pungent have been the feelings of a lather 
 or mother, when attending the trial of a son, indicted 
 for some high crime, who after conviction, has upbraided 
 them as the cause of his ruin, by having been negligent 
 of his education ! 
 
 It is unquestionably the duty of every one, to promote 
 as far as may be the happiness of those around him. 
 But those who disregard the character and usefulness of 
 primary schools, are neglecting to secure the happh; 
 of the neighborhood. Slander is often owing to the 
 want of mental culture, and hardly tiny thing produces 
 greater misery, where it extensively prevails. Insubor- 
 dination and a disregard to every law and to the neces- 
 sary regulations of society, is always the result of ignor- 
 ance and vice. By these, the peace of society is disturb- 
 ed and its quiet broken up. The effect is not less 
 unfavourable to domestic peace for he who enters the 
 family state uncultivated, ungoverned, and unqualified 
 for its duties, will make others unhappy as well as him- 
 self. 
 
 Want of reflection on these subjects, certainly occa- 
 sions some, but not all, of the indifference exhibited with 
 regard to schools. A want of natural affection has its 
 share of influence. There are parents, so greedy of 
 gain, that this becomes the all absorbing object, and when 
 the child is found to afford the least aid in accomplishing 
 this object, to this sendee he is dedicated, and very little 
 time is allowed for any other purpose. In such a man's 
 estimation, to clothe and feed his children seems to be 
 the whole of the parent's duty, and when that duty is 
 performed, he rests contented, as to them ; but seems to 
 consider it a duty to himself to obtain as much benefit as 
 is possible- from their earnings before manhood. I am 
 happy to believe that the remarks here made are not 
 applicable in their full extent, to a majority of parents. 
 But I am forced to believe, that with many, there is ;i 
 \vant of proper love to their children, which shows n 
 by the entire unwillingness manifested to give the time, 
 furnish the books, or provide the instruction needed. 
 Can that parent be said to /arc his child who seerns 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 19 
 
 to have little thought about his future character or use- 
 fulness ? 
 
 Many, it is to be feared, have no proper sense of the 
 moral obligation resting upon them, in relation to teach- 
 ing their children those things which are most important 
 for them to know. If we are to judge from the conduct 
 of many, we shall be led to conclude they have never 
 seen that requisition in the word of God, ' Train up a 
 child in the way he should go ;' and that the apostolic 
 injunction, 'Bring up your children in the nurture and 
 admonition of the Lord,' has never fallen upon their 
 ears. Will not facts and common observation justify me 
 in saying, that multitudes of parents seem to realize very 
 little of the moral obligation that rests upon them, or, 
 of their accountability to God ! The fact that they must 
 soon meet the children, God has committed to them, at 
 the bar of Infinite Justice, and render a full and impar- 
 tial account to Him for the manner of treating them 
 while under their care, is not so often considered as its 
 solemnity requires. The intimate connexion also be- 
 tween the character of paternal intercourse and the hap- 
 piness or misery of the child, is as little considered. 
 That man who regards it as a matter of indifference, 
 whether or not his children can read the sacred Scrip- 
 tures understandingly, whether they form their moral 
 taste from the writings of inspired men, or heathen phi- 
 losophers, must be considered as not realizing his own 
 moral accountability. When a man appears to have 
 very little concern whether his children form such habits 
 of mental discipline, as will enable them to investigate 
 the evidence of those things, which have the most im- 
 portant bearing upon their present and future welfare, it 
 cannot be that he has a proper sense of his moral obliga- 
 tion or accountability. 
 
 To some or all of the above causes, is to be attributed 
 a large part of the manifest public indifference to the 
 character and usefulness of common schools. There are 
 however, others which have a share of influence, but 
 which will be more properly embraced in the subjects of 
 the next Lecture. When so many circumstances com- 
 bine to produce indifference to the subject, it is- not strange 
 
20 LECTVRES TO 
 
 that a great part of the benefit, that might be derived 
 from schools, is lost to the community. In order to point 
 out a remedy, the nature of the disease should bj fully 
 known. However malignant it may be, it cannot be 
 presumed to be without remedy, till antidotes have been 
 faithfully employed. That there is a remedy, lias, 1 
 conceive, been fully proved, by the fact in some places, 
 where the school once seemed to be a nuisance rather 
 than a blessing where many within sight of the school 
 room were growing up in utter ignorance, and in habits 
 of insubordination and crime ; such a change has been 
 effected as to put a new face on almost every tiling con- 
 nected with education. Disorder has given place to 
 decorum ; idleness to industry ; and misimprovement of 
 time has been succeeded by a faithful application to 
 books, and to the means of intellectual culture. Similar 
 results may be obtained in other places. 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 I HAVE in a preceding lecture adverted to the fact, 
 that there is an error on the part of many parents, in 
 considering the value and importance of primary schools. 
 This is owing to various causes, and has the effect to 
 render schools far less ^useful than they otherwise might 
 be. In connexion with the former remarks, I shall now 
 advert to several other causes, which have had an influ- 
 ence to prevent the usefulness of our schools. 
 
 1. There is a backwardness on the part of many pa- 
 rents to furnish the necessary apparatus.* It is not 
 known or not realized, that a few dollars expended in 
 obtaining seme very cheap apparatus, would probably 
 add very greatly to the usefulness of the institutions, at 
 whicli their children are placed, to obtain the first rudi- 
 
 * See Lee. xvi. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 21 
 
 ments of knowledge. Hence the house is left empty 
 there are no globes or maps, nor any other means for 
 illustrating those common things, which every child 
 should be made fully to comprehend. Curiosity is not 
 excited, and there is but a dull and formal round of 
 labor, in which young and volatile minds appear to feel 
 but very little interest. I am led to believe that a fe\y 
 dollars applied yearly in supplying a general apparatus 
 for the use of all the scholars, would frequently do more 
 to increase the usefulness of a district school, than five 
 times the amount expended in lengthening the school 
 without it. While with some parents there is a continual 
 thirst for innovation, with many, there is a fixed aversion 
 to change. ' There was no such thing when I was young 
 no such thing when I attended school, therefore it is 
 not necessary now.' Such is the thought, and sometimes 
 the language of parents, when the necessity of furnish- 
 ing means for the benefit of schools is urged upon them. 
 The books, to be used by the scholars themselves in pur- 
 suing their studies, are frequently inadequate. Whatever 
 may be their character, if they are possessed, they 
 must be used. In the estimation of many, it is an object 
 of greater consequence to save a dollar, than to facilitate 
 in an important degree, the progress of children t in 
 knowledge. Thus, there is often important loss both to 
 parents and children. If the child might make double 
 the progress in the same time, there is a loss of half his 
 time, his board, his tuition and the wear of his apparel ; 
 all of which might be saved to the parent, and the child 
 be as well instructed, if there were a due attention to fur- 
 nishing things necessary for him in the school. This, in 
 a series of years, would amount to no inconsiderable 
 sum. The direct effect is to retard the progress and 
 prevent the usefulness of the school ; the indirect effect 
 to injure both child and parent. 
 
 The evil now under consideration proceeds sometimes 
 from ignorance and sometimes from parsimony. There 
 are not a few ignorant of this subject, who, were they 
 made fully acquainted with it, would at once be engaged 
 to make the necessary provisions for the usefulness of 
 their school. They read no works on education they 
 
2'2 LECTURES TO 
 
 date very little with men of scienee. and especially 
 with those who arc taking a deep interest in making pro- 
 vision for the improvement of youth. So complete 
 lias this ignorance appeiired in some instances, where 
 1 have had personal acquaintance, that the smile of de- 
 rision could scarcely be witheld, \\hen I have urged the 
 subject of furnishing means for rendering the school use- 
 ful, and have mentioned certain articles of apparatus that 
 ought to he furnished in every district. 
 
 Parsimony has its effect. The very thought of expend- 
 ing a few dollars in this way is sufficient to call forth the 
 strongest opposition to every proposal for supplying the 
 school with what is necessary for the benefit of its mem- 
 bers. I could feel better reconciled to this state of things, 
 if there were consistency in it. But when I see a father 
 prevailed on to purchase finery for his children, to five 
 times the amount asked, for tins object ; or furniture, not 
 to add to the comfort of his family, but only for display ; 
 or, for luxuries, which, instead of benefiting any one, 
 injure the health of all, I am inclined to a severity of 
 of reprehension, which prudence perhaps would not 
 justify. I once solicited a parent to furnish his son with 
 nothing more than a necessary book, and was repulsed 
 with a sigh and the plea of poverty ; the next hour I 
 heard the poor man giving orders to go to the store and 
 get a quantity of rum for family use, which would cost 
 three times the amount of the book. The next hour, he 
 did not hesitate to furnish money to this very son to at- 
 tend a party of pleasure, to double the amount I had 
 asked him to pay for the book, and for all this and much 
 more he was rich enough. i Will you take this little pa- 
 per for your children ?' I said to /mother, 4 it will cost 
 but a dollar.' ' No, I am not able.' ' But I am per- 
 suaded you will find it a very great benefit to your family, 
 and you may contrive to save the amount in some way 
 by curtailing expenses less necessary.' i I should be 
 glad to take it, but I am in debt, and I cannot.' The 
 n.'-xt day the same parent was able to pav two dollars 
 for his children and himself to see the fc */unr*' > which 
 were exhibited ten miles off, besides the loss of a day, 
 from their accustomed labour. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 23 
 
 I might, were it necessary, mention a hundred illus- 
 trations of a similar kind, which have occurred under 
 my own observation. But they will be observed by 
 yourselves, and I need only advert to them in this 
 place. 
 
 2. Another cause of injury to the usefulness of district 
 schools is the existence of parties within the district. 
 There are few places where there is not from some cause 
 or other, a disagreement among parents, that eventually 
 grows into a ' party thing.' This has originated, often, 
 from causes at first very trifling) and has been in some 
 instances continued from father to son. Sometimes dif- 
 ference of religious opinions, has caused it. Sometimes 
 parties have arisen from different political views at oth- 
 er times, merely the location of the school Rouse, or of 
 the families that compose the district, has originated 
 difficulties and divisions that have been kept up for many 
 years. One part of the district is more wealthy than 
 another, or more enlightened ; or, a part of the families 
 may be connected with each other by consanguinity, and 
 combine to form a party, and in this way strife is engen- 
 dered. There is sometimes a party that wishes great 
 severity in the school, and another that wishes great 
 laxness of government ; one party is in favor of having 
 an instructer from college, and another wishes one who 
 has never been in sight of it ; one party wishes to give 
 high wages, and another cares only for an instructer who 
 will keep ' cheap.' A thousand trifling causes give rise 
 to these ever varying divisions ; and, go where you will, 
 you may be told of the ' Congregational party,' the 
 ' Baptist party,' the ' Presbyterian' or ' Methodist' or 
 1 Universalist,' or some other party, formed by disagree- 
 ment in religious opinions. You will be told of the 
 * Democratic party,' the ' Federal party,' the * Adminis- 
 tration party,' or some other, growing out of political 
 disagreement. You will be told of the 'hill party,' the 
 'meadow party,' the 'river party,' the 'school house 
 party,' &c. &c. Now the influence of all these party 
 divisions and feelings, is to prevent the usefulness of the 
 school. Happy would it be if they were confined to 
 parents ; but children imbibe the same feelings ; these 
 
24 - LECTURES TO 
 
 are carried to the school, and cause dissension there. 
 All are seldom pleased with the same instrueter, or, with 
 the same mode of teaching. Where such things exist to 
 any considerable extent, the effect is unhappy, and the 
 benefit derived from the school is comparatively very 
 small. 
 
 3. Another source of injury to common schools is the 
 disposition of the more wealthy to place their children 
 at some Academy or High School. Many are able to 
 incur the expense of sending their children to some semi- 
 nary of higher order, and feel but little interest in 
 the common school. Hence its character is a subject of 
 little solicitude. A few unsuccessful efforts, to have the 
 school what they wish, end in discouragement, and they 
 often say, ' Well, if we cannot have a good school at 
 home, we can send to the Academy.' Such institutions 
 are now so numerous, that there is little difficulty in car- 
 rying into execution this resolve. In this respect, it is 
 undoubtedly true, that Academies and Grammar schools 
 are exerting an, unfavorable effect on the common schools 
 of our country.* In many other respects their influence 
 is favourable. It is certainly a subject of great import- 
 ance to the success of elementary institutions, that the 
 wealthy should strive to increase their usefulness, and 
 elevate their character. The influence of the example 
 of this class does a great deal to injure these institutions, 
 for many are governed very much in their estimate of 
 
 * A committee of the legislature of Massachusetts, in their report on 
 education, have the following remarks on the influence of multiplying 
 Academies. 
 
 * The legitimate effects of such institutions are to engross the attention 
 and care of the mere wealthy and influential portions of the community, and 
 proportionally to withdraw their aid from the common free schools^ The 
 free schools in conssqucnce, languish under the feeble and irregular efforts 
 to maintain them, of the poorer and less enterprising portions of the com- 
 munity. It is with learning as with riches, the higher it is prized, the 
 more it is accumulated, and as the poorer part of the community, is also in 
 general the less learned, the stimulus toenterprize in this behalf, as well as 
 the pecuniary ability, is altogether inadequate. Had the same efforts of 
 the more wealthy, interested, and enterprising portions of the community, 
 which have been devoted to the interests of academies and incorporated 
 seminaries, been directed to the interests of the common schools, who will 
 l>elieve that they would not, long since, have attained a much higher char- 
 acter, than they now sustain 1 It is by no means improbable, that the 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 25 
 
 things, by the opinion and conduct of the rich. By 
 withdrawing their influence and assistance, the work is 
 left to those who have not the means, and often to those 
 who have not sufficient weight of character, to afford the 
 requisite support. Hence the public sustain much injury, 
 and, though it is not the design of the rich to do wrong 
 in this way, yet a very little reflection must show, that 
 an evil to the community of considerable magnitude, is 
 unquestionably the result. Every thing is a public evil 
 that serves to depreciate the value of those institutions, 
 by which the right stamp of character is fixed on the 
 great mass of the people. 
 
 4. I wish here to allude to another cause, which has 
 appeared to me to have an influence in preventing the 
 usefulness of primary schools. It is an evil of a nega- 
 tive character, and will receive but a moment's attention. 
 There is a want of Christian effort to raise the standard 
 of moral influence in schools. The impulse of Christian 
 enterprise, at the present day, has led to associations for 
 benevolent effort on almost every subject but this. We 
 hear it mentioned, as a cause for lamentation and regret 
 by Christians and clergymen of almost every denomina- 
 tion, that common schools are so often seminaries of 
 vice. It is a remark which has often fallen upon my 
 ear, 'Our children learn more of evil, than of good; 
 increase in vice, faster than they gain in knowledge.' 
 Indeed, so general is this feeling in many places, that 
 Christian parents are accustomed to say, when any new 
 vicious habit is discovered in a child, ' He learned it at 
 school.' Is it not surprising, that, with these facts so 
 prominent, no combined effort among professed Christ- 
 ians has been exerted on this subject ? Is it one, on 
 which effort would be hopeless 1 Is there no ground to 
 
 combined efforts of the whole community, to elevate the character of the 
 common schools, might ere this, have rendered them as profitable for the 
 acquisition of a good practical education, as are now the incorporated 
 academies. But while that class of the community, which has enlisted its 
 principal efforts in favor of those academies, has by those efforts, thus in- 
 directly injured the cause of common education ; and also, while it has 
 least needed the fostering care of the government, it has largely shared in 
 its munificence, to the utter exclusion of the poorer class of the com- 
 munity.' 
 
 3 
 
26 LECTURES TO 
 
 believe, that exertion, on the part of Christians, 
 be successful in raising the >moral character of our 
 schools ? I know that some individuals have felt, and 
 have acted. Individual districts have used their best 
 -efforts to obtain moral instructers. But this is by no 
 means sufficient. ' Union is strength? United and per- 
 severing effort is needed on this, as well as on other sub- 
 jects, with which the happiness of society is so intimately 
 connected ; and deserves attention, if the literary im- 
 provement of the young is alone regarded. The most 
 orderly, the most moral school, will make the best pro- 
 gress in study. Moral motives are the best inducements 
 to a faithful improvement of time. It may always be 
 expected by committees of visitation, to find the most 
 subordination, the best progress in learning, and the 
 most correct deportment, where the greatest interest has 
 been awakened in regard to the moral character of the 
 school. I will not undertake to say, that every effort of 
 combined Christian influence would be productive of all 
 the effect desired. But it does seem to me just, to attri- 
 bute a portion of the defect, in the usefulness of schools, 
 to this cause. 
 
 5. A very prominent reason, why common schools are 
 not more useful, is the imperfect qualifications of in- 
 structers.* I shall, in another lecture, dwell on the re- 
 quisite qualifications of persons employed in the import- 
 
 * A writer in the Journal of Education, No. 65, p. 163, uses the follow- 
 ing language : 
 
 ' The ultimate and fruitful source of all these evils is found in the rejec- 
 tion of correct principles in the science of education. The artizan adopts 
 with eagerness any new principle in mechanics; men of the highest attain- 
 ments and skill in every department of professional life, are alone employ- 
 ed and liberally rewarded ; and a long course of study is thought necessary 
 in every science. Not so in this science which is to* lay the foundation of 
 every other. Every stripling who has passed four years within the walls of 
 a college, every dissatisfied clerk, who has not ability enough to manage the 
 trifling concerns of a retail shop, very young farmer who obtains in the 
 winter a short vacation from the toils ot summer, in short, every person 
 who is conscious of his imbecility in other business, esteems himself fully 
 competent to train the ignorance and weakness of infancy, into all the virtue 
 and power and wisdom of maturer years to form a creature, the frailest 
 and feeblest that heaven has made, into the intelligent and fearless sove- 
 reign of the whole animated creation, the interpreter and adorer, and al- 
 most the representative of Divinity. 9 
 
SCBOOL-MASTERS. 27 
 
 ant business of teaching, and shall here advert to the 
 character of different classes who resort to this employ- 
 menu A portion of those who engage in teaching are 
 such as have received no instruction, except what they 
 derived from common schools. Having pursued the 
 studies usual in the school, and having become so far 
 advanced as to derive but little benefit from attending 
 longer, they are desirous of teaching. The employment 
 is a little more respectable, in their estimation, than 
 manual labor, and they inquire for, and usually find a 
 backward school. If sufficient success attend their first 
 engagement, to enable them to keep the school the speci- 
 fied time, it is usual for them to continue the employment. 
 Such may perhaps have studied the branches required 
 by law, but have not a thorough knowledge of any. 
 They have 'gone through' arithmetic, while probably 
 scarcely a rule is understood. Scarcely one in a thou- 
 sand of this class, have been found able to explain the 
 principles on which the simple rules are founded, Of 
 English grammar, their knowledge is equally superficial. 
 The nature of language, 'the philosophy of grammar,' 
 has claimed as little attention as the most abstruse 
 branches of physics. The more common rules of syn- 
 tax, they may be able to apply, but other parts of gram- 
 mar have been almost or entirely neglected. Other 
 branches may have been attended to in the same super- 
 ficial manner. Now,, how is it possible for such an in- 
 structer to benefit a school extensively ? There may be 
 found some exceptions to these, but, so far as my ac- 
 quaintance has extended, they are very few. 
 
 Another class of teachers are those, who, in addition 
 to the benefits of the district school, have resorted to an 
 academy for a single season. Some, after attending but 
 a few weeks, and others after a few months, engage in 
 the capacity of instructers* In this class there is a di- 
 versity. Some are instrumental in raising the character 
 of their schools-, while others do more harm than good. 
 But none have received the least instruction in those 
 things which regard the business of teaching-. 
 
 There is another class who engage in teaching for a 
 season for the sake of pecuniary compensation. This 
 
28 LETTERS TO 
 
 class comprises those who are fitting for or have entered 
 college. It is commonly true, that the course of study 
 pursued by such, is principally classical. Hence a ma- 
 jority have not a thorough acquaintance with the branches 
 required to be taught in district schools. They have not 
 made it a particular object to qualify themselves to teach. 
 They have perhaps fine talents, and are esteemed as 
 young gentlemen of high promise. But their qualifica- 
 tions for instructing a district school with success, arc 
 not better than those who were included in the class be- 
 fore mentioned, and they are perhaps even inferior. An 
 example may serve to show the subject in a clearer light. 
 Mr. Z. is a member of one of our most respectable col- 
 leges. He is a young gentleman of good talents, and 
 ranks among the first in his class ; and to good scholar- 
 ship adds a very amiable temper and strict morality. 
 He was invited to instruct a school and engaged in it. 
 But the first day he entered it, was the first time he was 
 ever in a common school in his life ! After a few weeks 
 of great anxiety and fatigue, he found it impossible for 
 him to benefit the scholars, or to govern them, and asked 
 a dismission from his employment. Similar instances, 
 though not so strongly marked, are often occurring. 
 The deficiency of qualifications for their business, pre- 
 vents the usefulness of many teachers, and has an influ- 
 ence unfriendly to the character and success of our 
 schools. There are many who are well qualified for the 
 office among the two latter classes, but I am induced to 
 believe that they constitute but a minority. 
 
 6. Another reason why the standard of education in 
 common schools, has not been more elevated, 4 is to be 
 found in the unwillingness on the part of school districts, 
 to make adequate compensation to teachers of approved 
 talents and qualifications. How else does it happen at 
 a time when the merchant is overstocked with clerks, 
 and the professions of law and medicine are thronirc <1 
 with students, there is such a lamentable deficiency in 
 the number of those who have the inclination and abilitv 
 to engage in the business of instruction ? Is it not to he- 
 ascribed to the more liberal encouragement offered to 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 29 
 
 other employments, compared with the compensation of 
 school teachers ] Institutions for the formation of 
 teachers are desirable: but the education of teachers 
 would be unavailing, unless the districts could appreciate 
 the importance of affording such compensation as would 
 command their services. There could be no other guar- 
 antee, that those who were educated for the purpose, 
 would engage in the business of teaching. Other causes 
 have their influence, but much of the difficulty may be 
 traced to a disinclination on the part of districts, to 
 make adequate compensation for the required talents 
 and services. This is demonstrated by the fact, that 
 those districts which adopt a liberal course, have able 
 teachers and good schools. The business of education 
 should be committed to the best talents in the country ; 
 and it is vain to expect the choicest fruits without pay- 
 ing the market price. The monthly wages of the teach- 
 ers of district schools, are frequently one third less than 
 the amount paid to experienced clerks and journeymen 
 mechanics in the same vicinity. In consequence of this 
 state of things, many of the schools are taught by those 
 who resort to the employment as a temporary expedient, 
 to help them in acquiring some other profession. These 
 persons are without experience, and can have little ex- 
 citements to establish a character in a business to which 
 they have resorted as a temporary employment. It is 
 desirable that the inhabitants of districts should feel a 
 deeper interest in the character of the schools, where 
 the characters of their children are to be in some meas- 
 ure formed. ' If under the charge of an able instructer a 
 child may be advanced as far as twelve years, as is 
 usual at eighteen, then there is a gain of six years to be 
 devoted to further improvement, or to aid the parent. 
 It is evident that such results are attainable under the 
 improved systems of the best instructer s ; and it is the 
 part of wisdom to adopt such improvements as have been 
 tested and sanctioned by experience.'* When suitable 
 compensation is allowed for the services of teachers, we 
 may expect that there will be a great improvement in 
 
 * A. C. Flagg, Superintendent of Common Schools,. N. Y. 
 3* 
 
30 LECTURES TO " 
 
 the character of those employed, and consequently, in 
 the usefulness of district schools. 
 
 The next thing I shall mention, as having an influence 
 unfriendly to the progress of common school education, 
 is a want of books of the character needed. Many of 
 the school-books in common use in the country, have 
 been, and still are, entirely unfit for use. Many are not 
 adapted to the capacity of children, or do not present a 
 satisfactory view of the subjects on which they treat. 
 
 But this difficulty is in a degree obviated, by improve- 
 ment in the character of some of the books designed for 
 common schools. Could all the best books extant, be 
 introduced extensively, great improvement would ensue. 
 It is a subject of congratulation, that much effort is ma- 
 king for this purpose. 
 
 The last thing of which I shall treat in this connexion. 
 is the improper construction and the inconvenient loca- 
 tion of school-houses. Many are cold, so that in the win- 
 ter a part of the scholars must either be very uncomfort- 
 able, or make constant disturbance by going to the fire. 
 In others the chimney is defective, and the house is con- 
 stantly filled with smoke. The seats and desks, in a 
 majority of school-rooms are badly constructed, so that 
 it is very tedious to occupy them. They are often so nar- 
 row as to make it impossible to write with convenience. 
 The desk is usually put so far from the seat that small 
 scholars can scarcely write without putting themselves 
 in a very uncomfortable posture. 
 
 The location of school-houses is often determined by 
 a regard to the centre of the district, and to no thing else. 
 We often observe them built on some eminence where 
 the bleak winds of winter have no obstruction, and 
 where there is no screen from the intense heat of sum- 
 mer ; when at the same time some inviting grove is near, 
 of which such advantage might have been taken as to 
 have prevented both wind and heat from causing any 
 annoyance. There are but few districts where SOUK 
 convenient place might not be found for the site of tl;e 
 school-house, which would promote the comfort of the 
 scholars in both seasons of the year. 
 
 The health and convenience of the scholars should be 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 31 
 
 regarded as very important objects, in the construction 
 and location of school-houses,' and it is just to attribute a 
 part of the failure in the usefulness of schools, to the 
 negligence in these particulars, manifested by many dis- 
 tricts. As the construction of school-houses will be 
 made the subject of a separate Lecture,* I add no more 
 in this place. 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 
 HAVING adverted in the preceding Lecture, to certain 
 existing evils, unfriendly to the character and usefulnes 
 of common schools, I shall, in this, call your attention 
 to the requisite qualifications of an instructer. This sub- 
 ject is of high importance. All who possess the requisite 
 literary attainments, are not qualified to assume the di- 
 rection of a school. Many entirely fail of usefulness, 
 though possessed of highly cultivated minds. Other 
 things are required in the character of a good school- 
 master. Among these, common sense is the first. This 
 is a qualification exceedingly important, as in teaching 
 schaol one has constant occasion for its exercise. Many, 
 by no means deficient in intellect, are not persons of 
 common sense. I mean by the term, that faculty by 
 which things are seen as they are. It implies judgment 
 and discrimination, and a proper sense of propriety in 
 regard to the common affairs of life. It leads us to form 
 judicious plans of action, and to be governed by our 
 circumtances, in the way which men in general will ap- 
 prove. It is the exercise of reason, uninfluenced by pas- 
 sion or prejudice. It is in man nearly what instinct is in 
 brutes. Very different from genius or talent, as they are 
 commonly defined, it is better than either. Never blazing 
 
 * See Lect. xiii. 
 
32 LECTURES TO 
 
 forth with the splendor of noon, but it shines with a con- 
 stant and useful light. 
 
 2. Uniformity of temper is another important trait in 
 the character of an instructer. Where this is wanting 
 it is hardly possible to govern or to teach with success. 
 He, whose temper is constantly varying, can never be 
 uniform in his estimation of things around him. Objects 
 change in their appearance as his passions change. 
 What appears right in any given hour may seem wrong 
 in the next. What appears desirable to-day, may be be 
 held with aversion to-morrow. An uneven temper, in 
 any situation of life, subjects one to many inconveniences. 
 But when placed in a situation where his every action is 
 observed and where his authority, must be in constant 
 exercise, the man who labors under this malady is es- 
 pecially unfortunate. It is impossible for him to gain and 
 preserve respect among his pupils. No one who comes 
 under the rule of a person of uneven temper, can know 
 what to expect or how to act. 
 
 3. A capacity to understand and discriminate character, 
 is highly important to him who engages in teaching. 
 The dispositions of children are so various, the treat- 
 ment and government of parents so dissimilar, that the 
 most diversified modes of governing and teaching need 
 to be employed. The instructer who is not able to dis- 
 criminate, but considers all alike r and treats all alike, 
 does injury to many. The least expression of disappro- 
 bation to one, is often more than the severest reproof to 
 another ; a word of encouragement will be sufficient to 
 excite attention in some, while others will require to be 
 urged, by every motive that can be placed before them, 
 All the varying shades of disposition and capacity should 
 be quickly learned by the instructeivthat he may benefit 
 all and do injustice to none. Without this, well meant 
 efforts may prove hurtful, because ill-directed, and the 
 desired object may be defeated, by the very means used 
 to obtain it. 
 
 4. Teachers should possess much decision of character. 
 In every situation of life this trait is important, but in 
 none more FO, than in that of which I am treating. The 
 little world, by which he is surrounded, is a minature 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 33 
 
 of the older community. Children have their aversions 
 and partialities, their hopes and fears, their plans, 
 schemes, propensities and desires. These are often in 
 collision with each other and not unfrequently in collis- 
 ion with the laws of the school, and in opposition to the 
 best interest of themselves. Amidst all these, the in- 
 structer should be able to pursue a uniform course. He 
 ought not to be easily swayed from what he considers 
 right. If easily led from his purpose, or induced to va- 
 ry from established rules, his school must become a 
 scene of disorder. Without decision, the teacher loses 
 the confidence and respect of his pupils. I would not 
 say, that, if, convinced of having committed an error, 
 or of having given a wrong judgment, you should per- 
 sist in the wrong. But I would say, it should be known 
 as one of your first principles in school-keeping, that 
 what is required must be complied with in every case, 
 unless cause can be shown why the rule ought, in a giv- 
 en instance, to be dispensed with. There should then be 
 a frank and easy compliance with the reasonable wish of 
 the scholar. In a word, without decision of purpose in 
 a teacher, his scholars can never be brought under that 
 kind of discipline, which is requisite for his own ease 
 and convenience, or for the improvement in knowledge, 
 of those placed under him. 
 
 5. A schoolmaster ought to be affectionate. The hu- 
 man heart is so constituted, that it cannot resist the in- 
 fluence of kindness. When affectionate intercourse is 
 the offspring of those kind feelings which arise from true 
 benevolence, it will have an influence on all around. It 
 leads to ease in behavior, and genuine politeness of man- 
 ners. It is especially desirable in those who are sur- 
 rounded by the young. Affectionate parents usually see 
 their children exhibit similar feelings. Instructors who 
 cultivate affection, will generally excite tlie same in their 
 scholars. No object is more important than to gain the 
 love and good will of those we are to teach. In no way 
 is this more easily accomplished than by a kind interest 
 manifested in their welfare ; an interest which is exhibit- 
 ed by actions as well as words. This cannot fail of be- 
 injr attended with desirable results. 
 
34 LECTURES TO 
 
 6. A just moral discernment, is of pre-eminent import- 
 ance ill the cluiracter of ail instructer. Unless governed 
 by a consideration of his moral obligation, lie is but 
 poorly qualified to discharge the duties which devolve 
 upon him. He is himself a moral agent, and accounta- 
 ble to himself, to his employers, to his country and to 
 his God, for the faithful discharge of duty. If he have 
 no moral sensibility, no fear of disobeying the laws of 
 God, no regard for the institutions of our holy religion, 
 ho\v can he be expected to lead his pupils in the way that 
 they should go ? The cultivation of virtuous propensi- 
 ties is more important to children than even their intel- 
 lectual culture. The virtuous man, though illiterate, will 
 be happy, while the learned, if vicious, must be miserable 
 in proportion to his attainments. The remark of the 
 ancient philosopher, that ' boys ought to be taught that 
 which they will most need to practise when they come to 
 be men,' is most true. To cultivate virtuous habits, and 
 awaken virtuous principles ; to excite a sense of duty 
 to God, and of dependence on Him, should be the first 
 objects of the teacher. If he permit his scholars to in- 
 dulge in vicious habits if he regard nothing as sin, but 
 that which is a transgression of the laws of the school, 
 if ke suffer lying, profaneness, or other crimes, to pass 
 unnoticed and unpunished, he is doing an injury for 
 which he can in no way make amends. An instructer 
 without moral feeling, not only brings ruin to the children 
 placed under his care, but does injury to their parents, 
 to the neighborhood, to the town, and, doubtless, to other 
 generations. The moral character of instructers should 
 be considered a subject of very high importance ; and 
 let every one, who knows himself to be immoral, re- 
 nounce at once the thought of such an employment, while 
 he continues to disregard the laws of God, and the hap- 
 piness of his fellow men. Genuine piety is highly de- 
 sirable in every one entrusted with the care and instruc- 
 tion of the young ; but morality, at least, should be re- 
 quired, in every candidate for that important trust. 
 
 7. Passing over many topics connected with those 
 already mentioned, I shall now remark on the necessary 
 literary qualifications of a schoolmaster. It will at once 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 35 
 
 foe apparent that no one is qualified for this business, who 
 has not a thorough knowledge of the branches required 
 to be taught in common schools. These are Reading, 
 Spelling, Writing, Grammar, Arithmetic, Geography, 
 and in some states the History of the United States. 
 All these branches are necessary, to enable individuals 
 to perform the common business and common duties of 
 life. The four first are requisite in writing a letter on 
 business or to a friend. The fifth is required in the busi- 
 ness transactions of ev r ery day. The two last are neces- 
 sary to enable every one to understand what he reads in 
 the common newspapers, or in almost every book which 
 comes within his reach. Of each of these branches, the 
 instructer should certainly have a thorough knowledge ; 
 for he ought to have a full knowledge of what he is to 
 teach. As he is to lay the foundation of an education, 
 he should be well acquainted with the first principles of 
 science. Of the letters of the alphabet such disposition 
 is made, as to produce an immense number of words, to 
 each of which a distinct meaning .is given. 4 The na- 
 ture and power of letters, and just method of spelling 
 words,' should be very distinctly understood. If there 
 be defect in knoivledge here, there must be a defect in 
 teaching. A man cannot be expected to teach that which 
 he does not know himself. Among all the defects I have 
 witnessed in the literary qualification of instructers, the 
 most common, by far the most common, have been here. 
 Among a great number, both of males and females, I 
 have found very few who possessed the requisite knowl- 
 edge of the nature and power of letters, and rules of 
 spelling. The defect originates in the -fact, that these 
 subjects are neglected after childhood, and much that is 
 learned then is subsequently forgotten. Teachers, after- 
 wards, especially of academies, presume that these sub- 
 jects are familiar, and seldom make the inquiry of schol- 
 ars, whether they have sufficient knowledge on these 
 points. As a considerable part of every school is com- 
 posed of those who are learning to spell and read, much 
 importance is attached to the requisite qualifications of 
 the teacher, to lay a proper foundation for subsequent at- 
 tainments. 
 
36 LECTURES TO 
 
 Every one who teaches school ought to be eminently 
 a good reader. The habit of reading, early formed, of- 
 ten continues through life. It is not to be expected that 
 a child will learn to read with correctness and ease, with- 
 out being well taught. Nor can it be expected that one 
 will teach well, who does not himself know how to read 
 with propriety. Hardly any thing is more difficult than 
 to correct a bad habit of reading, especially after it has 
 been continued for several years. 
 
 The value of the art of reading is well discussed by 
 Dr. Porter, in his Analysis of Delivery. He remarks 
 that * in this country, where literary institutions of every 
 kind are springing up, and where the advantages of edu- 
 cation are open to all, no one is qualified to hold a res- 
 pectable rank, in well-bred socciety, who is unable to 
 read, in an interesting manner, the works of others. 
 They who regard this exercise as a polite accomplish- 
 ment merely, forget to how many purposes of busines, of 
 rational entertainment and religious duty, the talent may 
 be applied. Of the multitudes who are not called to 
 speak in public, including the whole of one sex, and all 
 but a few comparatively of the other, there is no one to 
 whom the art of reading in a graceful and impressive 
 manner may not be of great value.' To the teacher of 
 children, this is an acquirement of very great import- 
 ance ; and no one is qualified to engage in teaching, till 
 he is able to read well and knows how to instruct others 
 to do it. 
 
 A thorough knowledge of Arithmetic is also indispen- 
 sable to the schoolmaster. I do not mean that smatter- 
 ing of the science, which so often passes for a knowl- 
 edge of it ; but a thorough acquaintance with its princi- 
 ples. To be able, by the aid of rules and manuscripts, 
 to solve the question given, is very far from being the 
 knowledge necessary. No one is properly qualified in 
 this branch of science, until able, from his own knowl- 
 edge of its principles, to originate rules, even if they 
 were not given in his book. He should be able to tell 
 the ' why and wherefore' in every operation, else he is 
 not prepared to teach. His pupils will derive but little 
 practical benefit from the study, and every process will 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 37 
 
 be mechanical. As this science is necessary in every 
 condition of life, as it is to be used almost every day, 
 great importance should be attached to the mode of 
 teaching it. Mr. Parkhurst justly remarks, ' It is the 
 practical utility of any branch of knowledge that gives 
 it its chief value. The difference between the practical 
 utility of the various branches of knowledge is very 
 great.' A knowledge of the nature, power and combi- 
 nation of numbers, whether we regard its effects as im- 
 portant to mental discipline, or its use in the business of 
 life, must be considered among the most important ac- 
 quirements. 
 
 The instructer is expected to teach Geography ; and 
 of course he ought to understand it well himself. This 
 science is very interesting and useful, and is studied in 
 nearly all the primary schools. The treatises on the 
 subject, which have been written within a few years, 
 have done something to facilitate the study, and lighten 
 the labor of the teacher ; but no book can supply the 
 place of the living instructer. He should be able to 
 make the study more practical than it is possible for any 
 book to make it, however well written. The scholar 
 may learn many interesting facts in this science, without 
 the aid of an instructer ; but this will not render it pro- 
 per, for one to attempt to teach, without a thorough and 
 connected view of the whole science, and without being 
 able to explain what is doubtful, and illustrate what is 
 obscure. 
 
 English Grammar is made a study in all our district 
 schools, and is a very important branch of knowledge. 
 It is that which teaches how to speak and write correct- 
 ly. If it be an object, then, to be intelligible and cor- 
 rect in conversation and writing, it is certainly important 
 to be well versed in this science. But I am obliged here 
 to remark, that it has appeared to me, many have over- 
 looked the proper definition of grammar, and while pro- 
 fessedly attending to it, have neglected nearly every- 
 thing but syntax. To learn to apply the common rules 
 of syntax, to the written language, which we find in 
 some book, is what is commonly regarded as learning 
 grammar. 
 4 
 
33 LECTURES TO 
 
 But this has certainly little claim to be called the study 
 of grammar, which should always be explained as the 
 study of language. Several things, besides mere syntax, 
 are important. One may have the ability to parse the 
 words in a sentence, may be able to apply rules, rather 
 by habit than otherwise, and yet know but very little of 
 language. As in arithmetic, so here, the teacher who is 
 properly qualified, should be able to originate rules, and 
 to illustrate those principles on which they are founded. 
 If he is not able to explain the propriety of the division 
 of language into parts of speech, if he is not able to ex- 
 hibit the reason of the names applied, and of the divi- 
 sions which are made, he is not able to benefit those ma- 
 terially, whom he is to instruct. The great deficiency, 
 which has been observed in the qualifications of many in 
 this branch, makes it proper to dwell longer upon it. 
 Owing to this, many scholars have imbibed so strong 
 prejudices against the study as to engage in it with great 
 reluctancy, or neglect it entirely, after having devoted 
 some time to it. Hardly any thing is more common 
 than to hear it denominated a dry study, while it is a 
 fact, that if properly taught, scarcely any study is calcu- 
 lated to excite more interest. Instructers should be well 
 acquainted with their own language, in order to inspire 
 a love for the study of it, in their pupils. 
 
 A requisition, I believe, recently made in some of the 
 states, is, that the civil and political history of the United 
 States should be made a branch of study in common 
 schools. This is certainly very proper. Every citizen 
 of a republic, has a deep interest in knowing the history 
 of the country that he calls his own. He ought to know, 
 by what means its civil and religious institutions have 
 been established. He ought to be familiar with the ob- 
 stacles which his fathers found and surmounted, in ach- 
 ieving the blessings of the civil and religious freedom 
 which he enjoys. The names of his country's benefac- 
 tors ought to be indelibly engraved on his memory. 
 Love of country may thus be inspired. A knowledge of 
 many facts in our country's history must be very limited, 
 after its most interesting times shall have gone by, unless 
 the history of these great events is taught in our primary 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 39 
 
 schools. Very soon all the hoary headed patriots who 
 lived and acted in those ' times that tried men's souls,' 
 will have passed away. Instructers, therefore, should be 
 qualified to teach history, and to interest their scholars 
 in it. This they cannot do without a knowledge of it 
 themselves. 
 
 History is the ' school of politics,' and in a govern- 
 ment like ours, it is necessary that every freeman should 
 in some sense be a politician. 
 
 With a knowledge of the above subjects, the teacher 
 may be enabled to answer the letter of the law. But it 
 seems plain to me, that some other branches are requi- 
 site, in order that he may be properly qualified, to en- 
 gage in directing the studies and disciplining the minds 
 of the young. Among these I shall mention Intellectual 
 Arithmetic, the Constitution of the United States, and of 
 the state in which he lives ; Rhetoric, Natural Philoso- 
 phy, Chemistry, and Moral Philosophy. By attention to 
 intellectual arithmetic, he will gain a habit of originating 
 rules, by which he will be able to explain the reasons of 
 the operations in written arithmetic, and exhibit to his 
 pupils the process by which an answer is obtained. 
 
 He should be familiar with the Constitution of the 
 United States, because, it is necessary frequently to re- 
 fer the young, to the bill of rights, by which their privi- 
 leges are secured. The earlier children are made ac- 
 quainted with this, the more likely will they be to re- 
 spect the law, and yield a cheerful obedience to it. It 
 is important, that every child should be told something 
 of the constitution of his own state. The instructer 
 should be acquainted with it, in order to call the atten- 
 tion of his youthful charge to those subjects in which 
 they have a common interest. If Hannibal was old 
 enough at nine years of age, ' to take an oath that he 
 would never be at peace with the Romans,' our children, 
 at school, are old enough to have their attention turned 
 to the principles of the government which they are to 
 support.* 
 
 Rhetoric is a subject with which the instructer ought 
 
 * Mr. Sullivan's Political Class-Book ought to be found in every school. 
 
40 LECTURES TO 
 
 to be acquainted, because he ought to assist his scholars 
 in arranging their thoughts in sentences, and commit- 
 ting them to paper. The older scholars in all our 
 schools should be instructed in letter-writing and compo- 
 sition. To be able to write a letter, or to express one's 
 thoughts on any subject, that may claim attention, is 
 highly important. It is what every one will, more or less 
 frequently have occasion to do. If some attention be 
 not given to this subject in school, there will be mortifi- 
 cation and regret in after life. Our children ought to be 
 taught that at school, which they will most need in the 
 common business and duties of manhood. A knowledge 
 of Rhetoric is necessary to the teacher, to enable him to 
 correct the compositions of his scholars, and to give them 
 such rules for the arrangement of sentences, as may be a 
 guide to them in their early efforts. 
 
 Some acquaintance with Natural Philosophy and the 
 first principles of Chemistry, enables the instructer to 
 explain to his pupils, many facts which will rouse their 
 curiosity and excite a thirst for more knowledge on 
 these interesting subjects. Many facts are frequently 
 observed by young children, the reason of which they 
 are not able to understand, but which they have capacity 
 to comprehend, if a familiar illustration were given. 
 Those appearances, frequently, which excite no atten- 
 tion on account of their commonness, would awaken 
 very high interest, if explained in a familiar manner. 
 Such are the turning of a wheel, the power of a wedge, 
 or screw, the freezing of water the formation of clouds, 
 rain, and snow the transmission of sound, &c. fcc. 
 What the young most need, is to learn to think and to 
 investigate. Whatever serves to fix a habit of reflection 
 is of incalculabe importance. By some simple illustra- 
 tion, the attention of the child may often become inter- 
 ested, and a train of thoughts excited, not less important 
 to himself, than that sublime theory suggested to the 
 mind of Newton by the fall of an apple. The instructer 
 has many opportunities to direct the attention of his 
 scholars to the first principles of natural science, without 
 diverting it from other subjects of study. He should 
 certainly then have that knowledge of these branches 
 
.SCHOOL-MASTERS. 41 
 
 which will enable him thus to impart instruction and de- 
 light. 
 
 I mentioned moral philosophy, as one of the branches 
 with which an instructer should be familiar. I am well 
 aware that this study is much neglected. But, having 
 been neglected, heretofore, furnishes no reason why it 
 should be neglected still. If a man were guided by instinct 
 alone, to the attainment of his best good, the subject would 
 be unimportant. Every one knows he may fail of this, 
 either by inaction, or by ill directed effort. ' He finds 
 himself led astray by his passions, and he looks in vain 
 for a safe guide, to the example of others. It is then the 
 dictate of wisdom, to inquire by what means these way- 
 ward propensities may be subdued, and the feet be guid- 
 ed in the paths of peace, Happy are they who are led 
 to make this iniquiry in their early years. Happier are 
 they, whom the hand of instruction, before they are able 
 to make the inquiry for themselves, has been guiding in 
 the path of knowledge and virtue.'* This is the appro- 
 priate work of the parent and the primary school teach- 
 er, But alas, how many parents wholly neglect it ! 
 Hence a greater responsibility devolves on the teacher. 
 * Moral philosophy,' says Dr. Paley, ' is that science 
 which teaches men their duty, and the reasons of it.' 
 This then is the knowledge ' which the young most need, 
 and which the friendly instructer should sedulously im- 
 part.' It is this which * tends to recall us from low pur- 
 suits to fix our affections on better objects to form us 
 to such a character, and direct us to such a course of 
 conduct, as will secure the divine approbation, and be 
 most promotive of our own happiness, and that of the 
 community of which we are members. It teaches a 
 knowledge of ourselves, of human nature in general, of 
 our Creator, and of the relations we sustain to him, and 
 to our fellow creatures.' Can any one, then be proper- 
 ly qualified to train the infant mind, who has not some 
 acquaintance with this science I 
 
 The instructer ought to gain all the knowledge he can 
 of the nature of his business, in order to be qualified to 
 
 * Parkhurst. 
 
42 LECTURES TO 
 
 commence his important labors. On this subject I 
 shall, however, remark in another place. I have only 
 to add, in conclusion of this lecture, that I have not pla- 
 ced the qualifications necessary for the school-master, 
 any higher than is requisite, in order to make it safe to 
 trust him with the care of young immortals, who are 
 forming characters for this world and the next. 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 To the subjects mentioned in the preceding Lecture, 
 you have given attention, and have been, I trust, led to 
 make the inquiry whether you possess the requisite qual- 
 ifications for the important business to which you have 
 turned your attention. I shall now proceed to give you 
 some general directions, which I consider important both 
 to your success and usefulness. You will expect me 
 to use great plainness, for the subject requires it. 
 
 The first direction which I wish to give is Endeavor 
 to become acquainted with the nature of your employment. 
 
 This is important in order to secure your personal en- 
 joyment. We cannot be happy, when we do not know 
 what to do, or how to act. To engage in a business of 
 which you have no adequate idea, must, therefore, sub- 
 ject you to much unhappiness. 
 
 The situation of an instructer is very responsible. It 
 is exceedingly important that you should be acquainted 
 with the nature and amount of this responsibility, and of 
 the duties which will devolve on you when placed at the 
 head of a school. Without some knowledge of the du- 
 ties you have to perform, the perplexities and difficulties 
 that may arise, and the constant care that must press 
 upon you, you cannot but experience much inquietude 
 and uneasiness. The very different tempers of those 
 you have to teach and govern, and the wide difference of 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 43 
 
 treatment they have received from their parents at home, 
 will give you much trouble, if you awake to the reality 
 of your situation, only when a mountain of care presses 
 upon you. 
 
 Form not expectations that cannot be realized, for dis- 
 appointment will not only make you unhappy at the time, 
 but will unfit you for the duties of the moment. The 
 nature of your business should, as much as possible, be 
 learned beforehand. This is dictated by reason, and ex- 
 perience certainly confirms it. No one engages in any 
 department of manual labor, till he has gained some 
 knowledge of its details. No one commences a journey, 
 till he has learned the direction he is to go, and the prob- 
 able character of the road, and of the people he is to 
 find upon the way. No one proposes emigration to a 
 distant part of the country, till he has made diligent in- 
 quiry as to the conveniences and privileges, as well as 
 the privations and hardships, which will attend a remov- 
 al. * Who goes a warfare, till he has counted the cost, 
 or builds a temple, till he has considered whether he be 
 able to finish it ?' The reason is obvious. When we 
 expect hardship, we are prepared to endure it with pa- 
 tience ; when we look for trial, we can meet it with com- 
 parative composure. If I foresee that the journey, I am 
 to take, will be attended with great fatigue, I can bear it 
 without complaint. If I expect the road I am to travel 
 is one of exceeding roughness, I can endure its asperities 
 without a murmur. 
 
 But if, on the other hand, I reckon upon ten miles and 
 it proves fifteen ; if I expect a good road, and it proves 
 a bad one ; it will appear both longer and worse than it 
 really is ; and what I might have borne with composure, 
 I cannot endure without disquietude and pain. If I ex- 
 pect to arrive at home in an hour, and it takes two, the 
 last hour will seem longer than two, ordinarily, for I am 
 disappointed, and disappointment makes me unhappy. 
 It gives every thing around me an unpleasant aspect. 
 
 In the same way, disappointment in regard to the na- 
 ture of your business as schoolmasters, will have an im- 
 portant effect on your enjoyment. For, if you form on- 
 ly ideal notions if you expect, in spite of evidence to 
 
44 LECTURES TO 
 
 the contrary, that every thing will be l perfectly pleas- 
 ant' if you suppose the labor to he performed is easy, 
 and without any thing to render it difficult and disagree- 
 able, you will be entirely unprepared to bear the trial* 
 invariably attendant upon it. When these trials come, 
 you will experience disappointment, which will make you 
 unhappy at the time, and of course unfit you for the du- 
 ties of the hour. In a discontented state, you are not 
 prepared to proceed with that, which, at another time, 
 would be perfectly easy. Nor, in this state, are you pre- 
 pared to enjoy what is pleasant and agreeable. It is 
 generally true, that we bear unexpected difficulties witli 
 far less composure, than those we had expected, and of 
 course made up our minds to bear them. 
 
 I do not assert, that you can learn every thing perfect- 
 ly in regard to the nature of your employment, without 
 experience. It is not possible in this or other callings. 
 The physician, attorney, and minister, do not expect it. 
 But they still use all the means within their reach, to be- 
 come acquainted with the nature of their several profes- 
 sions, as far as may be, before entering upon them. This 
 is as necessary for the teacher as for them. 
 
 Do you inquire, how this can be done 1 I answer, 
 first, read on this subject whatever has been written, to 
 which you can gain access. Several periodical publica- 
 tions have devoted more or less attention to it. The 
 Annals of Education has thrown much light upon it. 
 This should be found in the hands of every schoolmaster* 
 Though there is, it must be acknowledged, a great de- 
 ficiency in works on this subject, this cannot excuse you 
 from reading to the extent of your ability. 
 
 Again, you may learn something of your business^ by 
 observing the peculiar nature of children. They are 
 men in miniature. Like men they have their preposses-* 
 sions and aversions. Some, that will come under your 
 care, have been governed at home ; others have^ not* 
 Some are quick of apprehension, others, dull. Some 
 will love learning, and desire to make all the improve- 
 ment of which they are capable ; others will have no 
 taste for loam ing, and no desire to be improved. Some 
 will be easily governed ; others will require all your wis- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 45 
 
 dorn, firmness and prudence, in order to restrain them 
 from what is wrong, and lead them in a right course. 
 Some have formed habits of application ; and others, 
 have been brought up in idleness. Some will be too 
 bashful ; others, too bold. Some will be benevolent and 
 affectionate ; others, selfish and unsocial. Some will be 
 found very nearly what you desire them to be ; others, 
 the opposite in every thing. Such are the diversities that 
 will be found in every school. 
 
 You may be equally benefitted, perhaps, in learning 
 the nature of your business, by reflecting on the great 
 variety in the character of parents. 
 
 Some will wish you to govern the school, others will 
 wish to govern you. One parent wishes you to be very 
 strict, another to be very lenient. Some will wish you 
 to whip your scholars, others dread nothing so much as 
 that their favorite children should feel ' the rod of cor- 
 rection.' Some will wish you to pursue a certain favor- 
 ite mode of teaching, others will be strong advocates for 
 a system entirely different. Some will wish you to close 
 early, others will fear that you will not keep your hours. 
 One man will admonish you to show no partiality, and 
 another will solicit very particular attention to his child- 
 ren. Mr. A. is willing to trust the school entirely to your 
 management, while Mr. B. is very jealous, lest you as- 
 sume more than your delegated power. Some will be 
 very anxious to have the school successful, others will be 
 entirely indifferent to the subject. Some will cheerfully 
 furnish all the necessary books, while others will think 
 it enough to send their children without any, or with 
 such as are entirely unfit for use. Some will be ready 
 to listen to every complaint of their children,. and others 
 will teach them to l tell no tales out of school.' The 
 wealthy may perhaps think their children entitled to 
 more attention than those of the poor, and the latter may 
 be ready to imagine such a distinction, even if none 
 really exist. In this enumeration I have not mentioned 
 a single difficulty which I have not had personal oppor- 
 tunity to observe, and in regard to many of them I have 
 noticed the same thing in many different places. This 
 diversity among children and among parents, renders it 
 
46 LECTURES TO 
 
 very necessary for you to reflect much on the manner of 
 securing that influence with both, which will enable you 
 to benefit your scholars in the greatest degree. You must 
 be prepared to govern your scholars at school, and may 
 often find it necessary to exert nearly as much influence 
 with parent* as with them. 
 
 You may also learn something of the nature of your 
 business, by frequent conversation with teachers. They 
 will be able to impart to you the results of their own ex- 
 perience. Be not disheartened if they tell you of ' strong 
 prejudice against every innovation which you may find 
 it necessary to make ; that, with some, reason is but a 
 name, and that every attempt to influence them by it, will 
 be as unsuccessful as that of Canute to rule the sea. 
 There is,' they will tell you, ' an almost universal dispo- 
 sition to believe, that books for study, methods of learn- 
 ing and teaching, common when we were young, must 
 be as good, at least, as any of the newest in use ; that 
 the spirit of inquiry, awakened within a few years past, 
 is entirely unknown to the great mass of the people ; 
 that most men read but little, and have had no opportu- 
 nity to investigate the character of proposed improve- 
 ments, or to witness the results of successful experiments.' 
 Listen not to such language of your brethren so far as to 
 be discouraged, but only for the purpose of knowing the 
 difficulties in your way, in order that you may be prepar- 
 ed to meet them. 
 
 After having gained all the knowledge within your 
 reach, on the subject already mentioned, it is of equal 
 importance for you to understand the nature of your 
 business, as it -regards the mode of teaching. Without 
 this you can hardly hope for success. 
 
 Many have appeared to imbibe the sentiment, that the 
 whole business consists in keeping order in the school- 
 room, and going through a daily round of exercises in 
 reading, spelling and writing, the teacher, meanwhile, 
 furnishing copies, making pens, and performing certain 
 operations in arithmetic, which the students may not be 
 able to perform themselves. But all this lias little better 
 claim to the name of teaching, than the chatter of the 
 has to be dignified with the title of language. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 47 
 
 Such a course may be entirely destitute of intellectual 
 exercise ; and is like the operation of a machine.* 
 
 Let it be well fixed in your minds, that to teach is to 
 communicate ideas. To teach them it is indispensable 
 that you should be understood. The words of an experi- 
 enced teacherf are in point, ' Use language that your 
 scholars can understand. Let your illustrations be drawn 
 from topics within their knowledge. It is entirely out of 
 place in a common elementary school, to use the lan- 
 guage of a professor in the University, or to affect the use 
 of terms understood only by the more advanced student. 
 If you teach children, use the language of children. Let 
 it be pure and grammatical ; but you convey no instruc- 
 tion, if it be above their comprehension. When you com- 
 pare a thing unknown, with another thing equally un- 
 known, how can the child be the wiser for it ! In talking 
 with your scholars, use their own phraseology, and con- 
 descend to their capacities.' As I shall have occasion, 
 in another lecture, to enlarge on this subject, I shall only 
 add here, that you may leani something of the true sys- 
 tem, of teaching by recollecting the manner, in which 
 you have yourselves obtained ideas. The teacher should 
 put himself in the place of the child, and then inquire 
 what course, it would be necessary for him to take, to 
 gain a knowledge of any subject with which he was not 
 familiar. 
 
 No means within your reach, for learning the nature 
 of your business, should be left unemployed. If all which 
 are desirable be not accessible, those which are so should 
 be used with the greater fidelity. 
 
 A second direction is Consider the responsibility of the 
 station you are to occupy. 
 
 If in deciding to devote yourselves to the employment 
 
 *A writer in the Journal of Education, No. 19, has made some remarks 
 on this mode of teaching, which are worthy of particular attention. Speak- 
 ing of a school conducted in this manner, he says : ' There is something so 
 mechanical in the exercises of a school, that I can never contemplate it 
 without disgust. Even the very books with which our children are furnished, 
 instead of being used as a treasury of materials for mental exercise, are re- 
 garded as so many little machines, by which all the requisite operations of 
 the school are performed. And in the use of them on the present plan, 
 there is very little, if any more intellectual exercise than among the child- 
 ren in a cotton manufactory. 
 
 t Mr. Rand, Christian Mirror. 
 
48 LECTURES TO 
 
 of teaching you have been excited by the hope that it 
 will be less arduous, than other employments in which 
 you have engaed, you have altogether mistaken the na- 
 ture of its duties and cares. The very first day of your 
 trial will dissipate the delusion. The sight of a company 
 of blooming children and youth, 'awed by your presence, 
 waiting for your directions, and turning their inquiring 
 eyes on you, to guide them in acquiring knowledge and 
 forming habits,' will tell you at once, in language more 
 forcible than any I can use, that on you devolves an ar- 
 duous task to you, parents are confiding an important 
 trust to you, your country is assigning a solemn charge. 
 The responsiblity of your situation may be realized in 
 some measure, by considering that these children have 
 minds naturally dark, which are to be enlightened. They 
 are ignorant of that which they most need to know, and 
 must be instructed. They are tender twigs, ready to re- 
 ceive any direction that may be given them. They are 
 miniature men, who are destined to occupy the places of 
 those who are now active on the stage of life. Yes, in 
 the little community with which you are surrounded, there 
 may be a Franklin, or a Washington ; or, on the other 
 hand, a Robespierre or a Bonaparte, according to the 
 cast of character which they take from your efforts. 
 In a country like ours, where character is the passport to 
 the most important stations in society, and where offices 
 are open to every one who shows himself worthy of the 
 confidence of the people, the responsibility of the teach- 
 er is even higher, than in those countries where estate? 
 and offices are hereditary. He who is selected to edu 
 cate a prince, even in the first rudiments of science, con- 
 siders his station as highly responsible. But in a country 
 like our own, every instructor should consider his re- 
 sponsibility equally great, or greater. Yes, you at the 
 same moment, may be educating a president, a governor, a 
 general, a judge, a minister, physician, lawyer, senator, 
 and counsellor. Who can tell what results may be produc- 
 ed by the influence you may exert on either of these 1 
 But, suppose no one of your scholars is to fill such im- 
 portant stations, yet the station of every one, who becomes 
 a voter and sustains simply the character of citizen, isim- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 49 
 
 portant. Such you certainly will have. Over these your 
 influence must be great. 
 
 Hence, you may learn your responsibility by consider- 
 ing the influence which you may exert, over your youthful 
 charge. 
 
 If you succeed in gaining their love, your influence 
 will be greater in some respects, than that of parents 
 themselves. It will be in your power, to direct them in 
 almost any path you choose. You may lead them to 
 form habits of application and industry, or by neglect, 
 permit them to form those of idleness and indiffer- 
 ence. You may win them either to a love of learning 
 and a respect for virtue, or by your negligence and un- 
 faithfulness, may suffer them to become regardless 
 of both. You have power to lead them to a cultivation 
 of the social affections, to make them kind, benevolent 
 and humane, or, by your neglect, they may become the 
 reverse of every thing that is lovely, amiable and gener- 
 ous. It will be in your power, greatly to assist them in 
 learning to make nice distinctions in the examination of 
 moral condnct ; and to govern their own actions accord- 
 ingly ; or you may, by your unfaithfulness, suffer them 
 to contract the habit of pursuing, regardless of conse- 
 quences, every thing they desire, and opposing with tem- 
 per, every thing that counteracts their wishes. You may 
 teach them the duty of yielding submission to proper au- 
 thority, and to equitable law, or by suffering them to 
 disregard authority and trample on laws with impunity, 
 teach them to oppose all restraint, and consider all law 
 as unnecessary and oppressive. You may do something 
 towards leading them to cultivate that public spirit, 
 which is so essential to the well being of a free country, 
 or you may train them in those habits of selfishness, 
 which will unfit them to be citizens of a republic. 
 
 If the consequences of your influence over them were 
 to cease in this world, your responsibility would be less, 
 far less, than it actually is. But, no. Revelation as- 
 sures us, that our future condition will be decided by 
 the character formed here, -that man will be re- 
 warded in the world to come, according to the deeds 
 done in this. The formation of character is not then a 
 5 
 
50 LECTURES TO 
 
 matter important in relation to this life only. The chil- 
 dren with whom you are to be associated, are all the 
 children of one great Creator. They are a part of His 
 extensive kingdom. They are the subjects of His gov- 
 ernment, and are under the highest obligation to obey 
 His wise and holy laws. He has given them such laws, 
 and made such requirements of them, as are necessary 
 for their happiness. He has enjoined upon them to 
 * Remember their Creator in the days of their youth,' 
 'to love their neighbors as themselves,' and to honor 
 their parents. He has prohibited profaneness and false- 
 hood. He has enjoined the duty of gratitude to the 
 Saviour, and of repentance for sin. Each individual 
 committed to your care is liable, every day, to be sum- 
 moned away from this world, to render up an account of 
 the ' deeds done in the body.' Nor is it improbable, that 
 the influence you will exert over them by your example 
 and instructions, may deeply affect them in regard to 
 these solemn considerations. As their happiness, pre- 
 sent and eternal, depends on the temper they exhibit in 
 regard to the character and laws of God, your responsi- 
 bility is indiscribably great. If you are so happy as to 
 lead them to love Him who has said, < suffer little children 
 to come unto me, and forbid them not,' how great the 
 benefit you may confer upon them. But if by your ex- 
 ample and instruction you should lead them away from 
 the paths of wisdom, how great is the injury ! They 
 will be more likely to listen to counsel and advice, from 
 a beloved teacher, than from almost any other person. 
 They will generally be more disposed to regard what you 
 say to them on the subject of their moral obligation, than 
 what is said to them by their parents or their minister. 
 This talent which you are permitted to occupy, is one for 
 the improvement of which, you are accountable to God. 
 And how much does it increase the interest of your call- 
 ing ! Hence I should be guilty of unfaithfulness, if I 
 should neglect to direct your attention to your own moral 
 obligation. You, as well as the youth committed to your 
 charge, have an account to render to Him who gave 
 you existence. If you are put in possession of an 
 influence, which, if properly exerted, may greatly aug- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 51 
 
 ment individual happiness, as well as that of the nation, 
 or, on the other hand, if not properly exerted, may, in 
 the same ratio, increase the amount of human misery ; 
 fail not to ponder well the subject, which is to throw up- 
 on you, so important a responsibility. And fail not to 
 ask wisdom of Him, ' who gives liberally and upbraids 
 not.' He only is able to guide you right and keep you 
 from error. 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 The next direction which I shall give, is Endeavor to 
 ascertain by what means you are to gain that ascendency 
 over your pupils^ which is necessary, in order to confer on 
 them the highest degree of benefit. 
 
 You well know that there is a great diversity in the 
 influence exerted by different individuals in the same cir- 
 cumstances. If you investigate the subject, you will find 
 various degrees of influence exerted by ministers of the 
 gospel. While the congregation of one are ready to 
 pluck out their eyes and give him, that of another are 
 hardly willing to render him that which is his due. Both 
 however, sustain the character of God's ambassadors. 
 If you observe the influence of two military commanders, 
 to the orders of the one, you will see the utmost atten- 
 tion paid, while to those of the other, very little obedience 
 is shown. The same will be observed in two schools. 
 To all that is said by one instructer, the highest defer- 
 ence is paid, while in another school we witness the re- 
 verse. Now it is certain that there must be some reason 
 for this difference. Ineach of these instances, and many 
 more to which I might allude, the same individuals sus- 
 tain the same office or trust. It does not therefore con- 
 sist in the office itself. 
 
 If you look back to the characters of the different in- 
 
52 LECTURES T6 
 
 stmcters, under whom you were placed, you will proba- 
 bly find that to some of them, you listened with great 
 deference, that you were anxious to please them, and de- 
 sirous of gaining their good opinion, while to the esteem 
 of others, you were indifferent, and regardless whether 
 you gained their good will or not. To meet with some 
 of them now, affords you pleasure, while to meet with 
 others is a source of no satisfaction. And what is 
 the reason ? You will answer, that these men had 
 very different characters ; that they showed very differ- 
 ent degrees of interest in their business ; that they pos- 
 sessed very different qualifications and evinced une- 
 qual solicitude for your welfare. . Let me ask, far- 
 ther, wlu'ch were those traits, that pleased you, and 
 pleased the school generally ? Was the master pleasant 
 and obliging, or was he morose and ill-humored 1 and with 
 which was the school better pleased ? Was he affable 
 and condescending, or was he mute and regardless of 
 everything but his own ease ? and on which account did 
 you like him ? Was he punctual to his time, to his prom- 
 ises and to his threats, or regardless of all 1 and on which 
 of these accounts were you willing to be directed by him ? 
 Did he appear affectionate and kind in all his intercourse, 
 or did he seem to delight in giving you pain and fear ? 
 and with which of these traits of character were you 
 better pleased ? Did he convince you that he was your 
 friend, and that he desired your good, even at the expense 
 of his own ease ? or did he act as if he were the friend 
 of no one but himself? Was he ever ready to assist you 
 to the extent of his ability, or did he send you away 
 without answering your questions or solving your doubts ? 
 Did he prove to you by his whole conduct, that he desir- 
 ed to benefit the school in the greatest degree of which 
 he was capable, or did he appear to regard little else 
 than to obtain the stipulated reward ? and on which ac- 
 count do you now remember him with affection and in- 
 terest ? 
 
 You are at no loss to decide these questions. Let 
 them, then, serve as a directory to you, in making the 
 inquiry, how you can secure that degree of confidence 
 on the part of your scholars, which will enable you to 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 53 
 
 benefit them in the degree which you desire. If partic- 
 ular directions on this subject are required, I will say, 
 
 First, Endeavor to convince the scholars that you are 
 their friend, that you aim at their improvement, and 
 desire their best good. It will not take long to convince 
 them of this, if you do so in reality ; and if you pursue 
 the course with them, which would, with your own in- 
 structer, have excited this belief in you, with r.egard to 
 him. Remember, however, that merely a declaration of 
 being their friend, will be very far from proving you to 
 be such, or convincing them of it. You- would not have 
 been convinced by the mere declaration of your instruc- 
 ter, if this declaration had not been supported by his 
 conduct. Expect not then, that telling your scholars, 
 you are a friend, and greatly desire their good, will 
 gain you their confidence. You must prove it to them 
 by showing a greater regard for their welfare than for 
 your own ease. 
 
 Secondly, In order to secure a proper degree of their 
 confidence, you must not be hasty. Be not hasty to re- 
 prove, be not hasty to praise ; be not hasty to promise, 
 be not hasty to threaten ; be not hasty to punish, and be 
 _ not ready to forget a fault. There is somewhere an old 
 proverb, 'Haste makes waste, and waste brings want.' 
 Haste in schools in any of the particulars specified, will 
 bring want of confidence. Whatever is done in haste 
 is seldom done well. In school it must of necessity sub- 
 ject you frequently to the mortification of countermand- 
 ing your order, of failing to fulfil your promise, or of 
 exciting the belief in the minds of your scholars that 
 you are forgetful. It is generally true, that in every sit- 
 uation, the deliberate man accomplishes the most ; but, 
 in none is deliberation more important, than in him who 
 is to exercise authority over a large community. Loss 
 of time is not, however, the greatest inconvenience of 
 being hasty in school ; there must be loss of confidence 
 on the part of the scholars. You are well aware that 
 you place but little confidence in any man who bears the 
 character of being hasty, be his calling or station what 
 it may. 
 
 Thirdly, If you wish to secure the confidence of your 
 *5 
 
54 LECTURES TO 
 
 school, never allow yourself to speak angrily or unusual- 
 ly loud and be sure never to fret or scold. All these 
 things are disagreeable. And surely you cannot expect 
 to secure the confidence of a school, by indulging your- 
 self in those habits which must make you disagreeable to 
 every one. 
 
 Fourthly, You will secure the confidence of the school 
 by being punctual in every thing. Punctuality in busi- 
 ness of every kind, gains confidence. It prevents the 
 loss of time, and secures opportunity for every duty. It 
 is no where more important, than in schools. Without 
 it, you can accomplish but little. If, after due delibera- 
 tion, you make a promise, be sure to keep it. If you 
 say that neglect of duty will be followed by punishment, 
 be sure to inflict it. If you require a child to do this or 
 that, see that it is done exactly as you ^require. To let 
 him go, when he has obeyed you but in part, will be 
 little better, than not to be obeyed at all. By being 
 punctual in fulfilling every promise, you will not be ac- 
 cused of falsifying your word. Your scholars will not 
 ask a second time for any indulgence which you may 
 once have denied them. They will know what you 
 mean, when you say yes, or no ; and thus, you will have 
 their confidence. 
 
 By observing these principles, and acting in a manner 
 corresponding to them, you will be able to gain that as- 
 cendancy over your youthful charge, which is necessary 
 to enable you to benefit them. You will find it impossi- 
 ble to secure their confidence by the opposite course, 
 for it is opposed to the principles of our nature. 
 
 The next general direction which I wish to give, is, 
 Be willing to devote your whole time, and strive to make the 
 most judicious use of it. If you have made no reserve 
 of any part of your time, the whole belongs to your em- 
 ployers. I know not that there is any thing morally 
 wrong in making an agreement to reserve a portion of 
 time, to be devoted to your own purposes. But it does 
 seem to me manifestly wrong, if no such agreement have 
 been made with your employers, for you to use any con- 
 siderable portion of it for your own private benefit, in- 
 stead of that of the school. This rule ought to be ob- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 55 
 
 served) whether the school be large or small ; whether 
 your wages be high or low. If you have made an en- 
 gagement, for even less than a just compensation, this 
 cannot alter your obligation to the children placed 
 under your care. They are not to be injured, if their 
 parents have misjudged in regard to what ought to be 
 your hire. You had your choice whether to engage or 
 not, and if you have consented to work for a less com- 
 pensation than you ought to receive, your obligation is 
 still the same as if you were to receive more. If you 
 have engaged to keep the school, without having made 
 any reserve, you are under obligation to give your pupils 
 all the time which you can render useful to them. This 
 direction may seem to you unreasonable, or impractica- 
 ble. If so, I have only to ask you to examine it attent- 
 ively, and if you shall then conclude, that you cannot 
 bring yourselves to adopt the spirit of it, I hope you will 
 renounce the idea of teaching, and choose some other 
 business. I do not mean by this, to say that you ought 
 not to take the time necessary for exercise and rest, and 
 for answering the claims of friendship. This would be 
 expected under any engagement whatever. It is expect- 
 ed in all other public employments, and it is equally pro- 
 per in yours. 
 
 But you will inquire, how you can spend the whole of 
 your time profitably for your school, when you are with 
 them ordinarily no more than six hours in a day ? I 
 will answer by giving you some account of my friend 
 Benevolus. On commencing his school, his first object 
 was to learn the state of improvement, the capacity and 
 the disposition of every scholar. His next inquiry was, 
 how shall I benefit each scholar, to the utmost of my 
 power ? This inquiry was continued with him, during 
 the whole time he was with them, and excited him to 
 constant effort to do them good. The copy books of the 
 school were all carried to his room, and his first work in 
 the morning was to prepare them for writing through the 
 day. He ruled them himself, and wrote out all the cop- 
 ies. This occupied his time, till it \vas necessary to re- 
 pair to the school room, which he did half an hour be- 
 fore the time of opening school, in order that he might 
 
56 LECTURES TO 
 
 be assured, that a fire had been properly made, and the 
 house suitably prepared for the scholars when they should 
 arrive. When the morning exercises were finished, he 
 retired to his boarding house, or to some house nearer, 
 as might be most convenient. Two or three of his 
 scholars were expected to hand in letters or composi- 
 tions each day, in .their turn ; and the intermission of 
 the regular exercises was devoted to correcting them, 
 and suggesting such improvements as might be beneficial 
 to the writers. After the hour of dismissal had arrived, 
 he secured the fire and left the house. In the evening he 
 met a class or more as might be convenient, and devot- 
 ed his attention usually to a single branch. One even- 
 ing he requested a meeting of his scholars in arithmetic ; 
 the next, he assembled his grammarians, especially those 
 who were beginners. The third evening of the week 
 was devoted to a class in geography ; the fourth to a 
 class in reading, and the fifth to spelling. If, at any 
 time, it was not convenient for a class to meet, or for 
 him to have an evening school, his time was occupied 
 with the children of the family where he boarded, or 
 those of some other family, or in preparing some illus- 
 tration to be used in the school the next day. Thus Ben- 
 evolus found enough to do during the whole day. He 
 was never out of employment. Seeing him so much 
 engaged for them, the scholars became as much engaged 
 for themselves. Parents also became awake to the in- 
 terest of the school, and used every effort to produce an 
 early and a constant attendance of their children. Ben- 
 evolus taught not only in a single district, but successive- 
 ly in several, and in different states, and the same means 
 were used by him and the same results were experienc- 
 edr He found but very few who did not become greatly 
 interested in their studies. The spirit of the instructer 
 seemed to be infused into the whole school, and parents 
 were commonly forward to acknowledge that the school 
 made more than double the progress it had usually made 
 before. It seemed to my friend a thing highly ridiculous 
 to hear a schoolmaster say, he could not find enough to 
 occupy all his time, when he was surrounded with twen- 
 ty young persons of various ages. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 57 
 
 If it be true that double the usual improvement might 
 be made in district schools generally, (I speak of schools 
 in the country and not of those in cities and large towns) 
 the subject is one of no ordinary importance. Let me 
 ask you then to reflect on it a moment longer. Suppose 
 the number of scholars in a school amount to forty. 
 The time, board, wear of apparel and use of books, can- 
 not be estimated at less for each than $1,50 a week. 
 The wages and board of the master will at least amount 
 to six dollars a week, and probably more, if we include 
 the expense of fuel for the school. The school then 
 costs sixty-six dollars a week, or two hundred and sixty- 
 four dollars a month. If there are six such schools in a 
 town, the expense of them is fifteen hundred andxeighty- 
 four dollars a month. Suppose each school is to contin- 
 ue two and a half months, the cost to the town is three 
 thousand nine hundred and sixty dollars, for a single 
 season. Now if there is but half the improvement made, 
 that might be made, we cannot consider the actual loss 
 at less than half this sum. 
 
 'If any, after looking at the subject in this light, are 
 unwilling to devote their whole time to the work, I would 
 again make the request, that they turn their atten- 
 tion to some other employment, and not occasion so 
 great a loss to the community. Leave the work to those 
 who will enter upon it with greater spirit and who are 
 willing to spare no pains. 
 
 I have been led to the direction last given from having 
 the conviction forced upon me, that many who have of- 
 fered their services as teachers, have had no higher mo- 
 tives in so doing, than the attainment of a pecuniary re- 
 ward. But while I am firm in the belief that ' the la- 
 borer is worthy of his hire,' and while I am as firmly of 
 the opinion that the ordinary compensation is lower than 
 it ought to be, I cannot conceive that any one ought to 
 engage in this highly responsible business, merely for the 
 purpose of compensation. In business less responsible, 
 it may be justifiable to make that the first object. But 
 where an influence so important is to be exerted an in- 
 fluence that will probably affect the character and hap- 
 piness of many, during the rest of their lives; it does 
 
53 LECTURES TO 
 
 seem to me that patriotism, to say nothing of higher in- 
 ducements, requires that the first object of a teacher 
 should be to do good, and that those only should engage 
 in teaching, who are willing to devote the largest portion 
 of their time, that can be rendered beneficial to the 
 school. How often is it said in our hearing, 'that our 
 school has done us no good,' that 4 it has been worse 
 than none' that * the money might as well have been 
 thrown away.' I will not charge every failure on the in- 
 structer. It does not always belong to him ; but I am 
 persuaded, that a large majority of the instances of fail- 
 ure in the success of schools, is to be in part attributed 
 to the teacher. Let every one engage heartily in his 
 work, and devote his whole time to his business, and 
 instances where the school does more evil than good, will 
 be very rare. 
 
 LECTURE VI. 
 
 The preceding Lectures have regarded subjects, which 
 ought to claim your attention previous to entering the 
 school-room. This, and the several following, will relate to 
 your more immediate duties as teachers. The next di- 
 rection therefore is, GOVERN YOUR SCHOOL. This is a 
 direction of great importance. Unless you govern those 
 placed under your care, all your other exertions will be 
 nearly or quite in vain. 
 
 ' Order is Heaven's first law.' 
 
 Without subordination on the part of your scholars, 
 without good government on your own, you may as well 
 expect the course of nature to change, as that your school 
 will make any considerable progress. In order to be 
 able to govern your pupils, remember you must govern 
 yourselves, If the instructer have but little command 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 59 
 
 over his own feelings, if he be angry at one time, fretful 
 at another, easily excited to laughter at another he can- 
 not exhibit that firames of purpose, which always com- 
 mands respect. ' Correction administered in anger has 
 no effect to humble or reclaim the offender.' It shows 
 even to a child, that he who administers it, is guilty of a 
 fault as great as his own. Temptations to excitement 
 will undoubtedly occur. A scholar may be impudent ; 
 from his ignorance of good manners, or in a sudden gust 
 of passion, he may, perhaps, grossly insult you. Hard- 
 ly any thing is more apt to call forth anger, than an in- 
 sult from an inferior. But still the indulgence of anger 
 is very unwise. If a pupil commit a fault he ought cer- 
 tainly to be called to an account ; but if the teacher, by 
 an unmanly indulgence of passion, descend to the level 
 of a child, he cannot expect to benefit him materially by 
 any correction administered in such a state of mind. 
 
 There is another particular, in which it is very impor- 
 tant you should govern yourselves. Be careful to make 
 no contemptuous remarks concerning any of your pupils. 
 Such remarks may excite a smile from the rest of the 
 school, but it will not be the smile of approbation. The 
 affections of that pupil, you have lost ; and every effort, 
 to benefit him by your instructions, will do him very little 
 good. You may, and will often see things that might 
 seem to give occasion for such remarks but as your de- 
 sign is to benefit your scholars, use a proper method to 
 correct the fault, and there let it rest. If the pupil make 
 a blunder, he may be reproved calmly for his careless- 
 ness, but never should he be made the butt of ridicule. 
 
 It is of equal importance that you should govern your- 
 selves in regard to such speeches as may hold up families 
 to derision. You may see many things, in family man- 
 agement to excite a smile, and many things which really 
 deserve censure. But such censure does not come well 
 from the instructer of their children. To be ridiculed 
 by the schoolmaster will have very little effect to correct 
 improprieties. If you say any thing at all let it be sim- 
 ply a remark on what has been the mode or what has 
 been the opinion of others, and leave the school to draw 
 the inference for themselves. I will not blame you for 
 
60 LECTURES TO 
 
 being diverted, sometimes, at what you may observe in 
 family management. I know well that the eccentricity^ 
 sometimes observable, cannot fail to amuse or to vex 
 you. But still, keep your reflections to yourselves. 
 
 Some of these points may appear of very trilling im- 
 portance to you, out much of your success, in the busi- 
 ness of teaching, depends on little tilings. 
 
 After having used proper exertions to govern your- 
 selves, you will be prepared to govern those placed un- 
 der your care. An important object will have been gain- 
 ed, when you have brought yourselves to feel that to gov- 
 ern the school is of primary importance, and that you 
 can and will have proper discipline and order. When 
 you have imbibed these feelings, your scholars will read 
 them in your countenance, and will expect nothing else. 
 But the moment the instructor indulges in the apprehen- 
 sion, that he cannot govern that it is impossible for him 
 to have proper order, he may just as well tell his feelings 
 to the whole school ; the scholars will not be slo\fr to 
 read his thoughts, and will ' govern themselves accord- 
 ingly. 1 
 
 It is not my design to say, that all have equal ability 
 to govern, or that the object is accomplished when the 
 teacher has made the decided resolve to be master ; but J 
 wish to be understood to say, that no one can exercise a 
 proper and uniform authority, any longer than he be- 
 lieves he can do so. This is a natural principle. When 
 we believe we can obtain a desired object, we try, but 
 when we think we cannot, our efforts are feeble. 
 
 The next direction in regard to government is, Con- 
 sider your scholars as reasonable and intelligent beings. 
 As such, they will be influenced by motives, when prop- 
 erly presented. They may easily be brought to know; 
 that they are happier when they do right than when they 
 do wrong. And when the right and the wrong are both 
 placed distinctly before them, they will seldom call the 
 wrong object the right, or the reverse. Right and wrong 
 may be exhibited to the child of very few years, and he 
 may be required to decide which he will pursue. This 
 appeal will usually exert a far better influence upon him, 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 61 
 
 in leading him to duty, than any that can be effected by 
 the infliction of stripes.* 
 
 I shall be better understood in what I wish to say on 
 this point by an example. 
 
 A complaint is made to the instructer, by George 
 against John. John is accused of having struck and 
 otherwise injured his school-fellow. After ascertaining 
 the fact, and finding that the complaint is not without 
 foundation, let a course like the following be pursued. 
 
 Instructer. John, I am sorry to find a complaint of 
 this kind brought against you. You have been so unwise 
 as to make yourself unhappy, and to make others un- 
 happy also. You may stand up and answer some ques- 
 tion, which I wish to ask you. Is it right for one schol- 
 ar to beat or abuse another 7 
 
 John. No, sir. 
 
 Inst. Do you think that the school could make any 
 good progress in study, if all the scholars should treat 
 each other, as you have treated George 1 
 
 John. I think not. 
 
 Inst. Are you willing that one of the larger boys 
 should beat you, or otherwise abuse you ? 
 
 John. No, sir. 
 
 Inst. Well, do you think it is right for you to do to 
 others, as you are unwilling they should do to you 1 
 
 John, I do not think it is. 
 
 [This answer will, almost invariably, be given. Not 
 one child in a thousand would give a different one, where 
 the teacher commences with him in a deliberate and 
 gentle manner. Conscience tells him he has done wrong, 
 and he must be uncommonly hardened, to say that he 
 has done right. If he be inclined to excuse himself, be- 
 cause George said or did something that displeased him, 
 he should be shown that he is accountable for his own 
 conduct, and that misbehaviour in another person does 
 not alter the nature of his own offence. That the of- 
 fence of one, does not justify a far greater error in an- 
 other, may be shown by reference to any judicial pro- 
 ceeding.] 
 
 * See Lect. xi of this edition. 
 
 6 
 
62 LECTURES TO 
 
 Inst. When one scholar injures another, ought he to 
 make any satisfaction for it ? 
 
 John. I suppose he ought. 
 
 Inst. Well, do you think that you ought make any 
 satisfaction to George ? 
 
 John. I don't know but I ought. 
 
 Inst. I wish you to give me a definite answer. Is it 
 right or is it wrong for you to make satisfaction 1 
 
 John. It is right. 
 
 Inst. Are you willing to do right when you know 
 what is right ? 
 
 John. [After some hesitation,] Yes, sir. 
 
 Inst. Are you willing then to go to George and 
 make satisfaction ? 
 
 [Here he will probably hesitate again, but after re- 
 peating the question several times, will probably say 
 that he is. In pursuing a mode similar to this, a great 
 many times, I have scarcely found an instance where 
 the culprit has not said he was willing to make satisfac- 
 tion to the injured party. He may then be sent to 
 George, to ask what satisfaction he shall make. George 
 will probably say, ' ask forgiveness,' or something simi- 
 lar. If such a course appear reasonable, he should be 
 required to do so, and then to return to the master.] 
 
 Inst. You have done what is right, in regard to 
 George, but that does not make satisfaction to others 
 who have been injured. You have set a very bad exam- 
 ple, have broken the rules of the school, and have 
 caused the loss of time, which might have been improved 
 in gaining knowledge. Is it not right, therefore, that I 
 should have satisfaction in behalf of the school ? 
 
 John. I suppose it is. 
 
 Inst. Yes, it is right that every offence should be 
 suitably atoned for. And this must be complied with in 
 your case. I have not, however reflected on the subject 
 sufficiently, and shall defer it till two o'clock to-mor* 
 row, and shall attend to it precisely at the time ap- 
 pointed. I hope you will yourself reflect much on the 
 subject, and be able to tell me what is right for me to 
 require. 
 
 It has ever appeared to me, that punishment, if it be- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 63 
 
 come necessary in any case, should be deferred for a sea- 
 son. But precisely at the time set, it should be attended 
 to. By deferring the subject, as in the case above-men- 
 tioned, the pupil has opportunity to reflect. He is in- 
 duced to reflect on the nature of his offence, that he may 
 form an idea of the punishment he shall probably re- 
 ceive. Such reflection will be of more service to him, 
 than any severity whatever. Indeed, I have seldom 
 been obliged to call a scholar to account more than 
 once, where I have pursued the course here recom- 
 mended. 
 
 I will suppose another case, to illustrate the direction 
 to treat the scholars as moral and intellectual beings. 
 
 Laura comes to the master and wishes to be excused 
 from writing a composition, which has been required of 
 her. 
 
 Instructor. Why do you wish me to excuse you, 
 Laura ? 
 
 Laura. I don't know what to write I cannot write 
 any thing fit to be seen. 
 
 Inst. Well, Laura, we will converse about it. Do 
 you wish to be excused from spelling, reading, or writ- 
 ing ? 
 
 Laura. No, sir. 
 
 Inst. Why not from these as well as from writing 
 composition ? 
 
 Laura. They are easy, arid besides we could not do 
 without them. 
 
 Inst. Could you always read, Laura ? 
 
 Laura. No, sir. 
 
 Inst. How is it that you can read now ? 
 
 Laura. I have learned how. 
 
 Inst. How long were you in trying to read, before 
 you could read with ease ? 
 
 Laura. I do not know, it was a long time. 
 
 Inst. Did you tell the master that you wished to be 
 excused, and that you never could learn, and that you 
 could not read in a way fit to be heard ? 
 
 Laura. No, I did not. 
 
 Inst. I saw you knitting and sewing the other day : 
 could you always knit and sew ? 
 
64 LECTURES TO 
 
 Laura. I could not. 
 
 In st. How then, can you now? 
 
 Laura. Because I have learned. 
 
 In st. How did you learn ? 
 
 Laura. By trying. 
 
 Inst. Did you tell your mother she must excuse you 
 from knitting and sewing, for you did not know how ? 
 
 Laura. I did not. 
 
 Inst. Why did you not ? 
 
 Laura. I knew if I did not keep trying I could never 
 learn, and so I, kept on. 
 
 Inst. Do you think it is necessary to know how to 
 write letters, and to express ourselves properly when 
 writing ? 
 
 Laura. O yes, sir. 
 
 Inst. You expect to have occasion to write letters, do 
 you not ? 
 
 Laura. I presume I shall, for I have written to my 
 brother and cousin already. 
 
 Inst. Then you think if I should help you learn to 
 write a letter or other piece of composition properly, 
 that I should do you a great benefit. 
 
 Laura. I suppose, sir, you would. 
 
 Inst. Is it right for me to benefit the school as much 
 as I can, or only in part ? 
 
 Laura, I suppose, sir, you ought to help them all you 
 can. 
 
 Inst. Ought I to help you as much as I can, in learn- 
 ing that which wHl be a benefit to you ? 
 
 Laura. Yes, sir. 
 
 Inst. Now I will answer you. You asked if I would 
 excuse you from writing ? 1 will do so, if you think I 
 could be justified in neglecting to benefit you all that I 
 can. If you can say sincerely, that you believe it is my 
 duty to do wrong to the school by indulging them in ne- 
 glecting what they ought to learn, then I will comply 
 with your request. 
 
 By a course like the above, the scholar is led to see 
 that you act on principle that you wish the best good of 
 those committed to your care. The child whom you 
 treat in this way will be led to reflection, and will inquire 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 65 
 
 what views the instructer will take on the subject, before 
 he concludes to come to you with it. As far as prac- 
 ticable, explain to the school the reason of every thing 
 you do. Let them know, that you regard their good in 
 all the regulations you may make. Explain to them the 
 reason why you consider one thing right and anoth- 
 er wrong, and they will understand you, and will be 
 governed far more easily than by the whip and ferula. 
 In no way can you so readily conciliate the willing obe- 
 dience of your scholars, as by pursuing this course, and 
 in no way can you sooner make them your enemies, than 
 by the opposite. Reason should be equally your guide in 
 making laws and in executing them in granting the re- 
 quests of your scholars and refusing them. First ask 
 yourself, is the request a reasonable one ? and after using 
 proper means to know, and taking time to decide, let the 
 decision be such as duty requires. You may not always 
 be able to decide in a moment ; if not, take time, remem- 
 bering that no decision at all, is preferable to a wrong 
 one, and while the scholar is waiting to know the opin- 
 ion you entertain, he will generally be led to reflect on 
 the principles by which you will be governed, and will 
 commonly be prepared to submit to your decision. 
 
 The next direction on the subject of government is, let 
 it be uniform. Many fail on this "point. I am willing to 
 confess it is very difficult to be so, while the health and 
 spirits of most men fluctuate so much as they do. But 
 still, uniformity is indispensable. I have seen some men 
 very strict one day, and very indulgent the next. I have 
 myself been called to account for doing that, which at 
 some previous time had appeared to please the master. 
 To approve to-day, what you punish to-morrow, is cer- 
 tainly very bad management. But to something of this, 
 every teacher is in a greater or less degree exposed, from 
 the different states of temper and spirits in which he finds 
 himself. We can bear fatigue at some times better than 
 at others. When suffering under a head-ache, a school 
 may appear to us very noisy, which at another time would 
 appear very still, so different are the states of the nervous 
 system at different times. 
 
 Another fault to which this direction has special refer- 
 6* 
 
66 LECTURES TO 
 
 once, is one that exists in many schools, where the 
 ttndl/ scholars are strictly governed while the larger do 
 nearly as they please. 1 have often seen the child of MX 
 years punished severely lor a fault, that was hardly noticed 
 when committed by a young man of eighteen. This i> 
 unreasonable it /.< wicked. If there is to be any diii'er- 
 ence in the treatment of the two cases it should be on 
 the other side. But I would still say, govern the lar^<- 
 and small scholars by the same general rules. The el- 
 der ones should never be suffered to transgress laws which 
 you have made for the government of the whole. They 
 will respect you the less, for indulging them in what is im- 
 proper ; and will show a growing disregard for your feel- 
 ings, authority and usefulness. 
 
 Do you say the oldest scholars are to govern themselves. 
 and that your business is only with the younger ones 1 
 Presume not on this. Those who have arrived at years 
 of manhood, ought to govern themselves ; but they must 
 be different from the great mass of youth, not to need 
 much restraint. When it becomes necessary to establish 
 a rule in the school, see that it is regarded by all ; and 
 you will find your task much easier, and will gain the 
 confidence of the whole school more, than by the oppo- 
 site course. 
 
 Another direction on the subject of school-government 
 is, let it always be characterized byjirmness. This is 
 connected with the preceding direction, but it means 
 more than to govern merely with uniformity. The first 
 question to be decided is, whether the rule you have 
 established be a reasonable one. In regard to this, great 
 care should be taken that you do not misjudge. Your 
 rules should not be numerous, and those which are estab- 
 lished, should be well understood. When this is done, 
 see that all your requisitions are strictly complied with. 
 Partial obedience is but little better than disobedience 
 If you direct a scholar to come to you, and he come* 
 halfway and stops, your command is not complied with; 
 he has not obeyed you. Now, if you dispense with your 
 order, after a partial obedience, he must either suppose 
 your command an unreasonable one, or that you have not 
 resolution to see it fully obeyed. The impression on his 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 67 
 
 mind will, in either case, be unhappy ; and you had bet- 
 ter issue no orders than command and then dispense with 
 a full obedience. Let it be known as your established 
 rule, that every reasonable requisition must be fully com- 
 plied with, and you will find it far easier to secure im- 
 plicit obedience, than, in the other case, to have a partial 
 regard paid to your orders. If a scholar ask of you some 
 indulgence, be sure to examine its propriety before you 
 say no or yes, to his request. But when you have said 
 yes or no, adhere to this one answer. To deny the re- 
 quest of a scholar when it is first made, and then in a few 
 minutes, grant what he desires, because he continues ask- 
 ing, is certainly injudicious. If he give a good reason 
 for repeating his request, you may change your direction. 
 But the reason ought to be known atjirst, and then the 
 answer given with reference to it. 
 
 I have not unfrequently visited schools, where if a 
 scholar asked leave to go out the answer was instantly 
 given, 4 No ; sit down.' Within a minute the request 
 was repeated the answer again was * No.' But after 
 the question had been repeated half a dozen times, the 
 patience of the master seemed to be exhausted, and he 
 replied, ' Yes, yes, I had rather you would go, than to 
 keep asking all the time.' Now the impression was left 
 on the mind of that scholar, that the teacher had less re- 
 gard to what was right or wrong in the case, than he had 
 to his own convenience. He must have considered his 
 teacher as fickle in mind, and therefore his respect for 
 him must have been diminished. 
 
 The schoomaster, harassed by the many questions 
 asked him during the day, is in danger of forming the 
 habit of answering them without consideration, and 
 merely to be rid of them. But instead of preventing, this 
 greatly adds to his inconvenience. The school ought to 
 be taught, that 4 no means no, and yes means yes, and must 
 means must.' You pronounce a word to a scholar for 
 him to spell, and he says he cannot. You tell him to 
 4 try,' but he still says he cannot spell it. Now if you 
 put it to the next, and suffer him to disobey your order, 
 the influence is decidedly bad. It is reasonable that he 
 should try, if you have ordered him to do so ; and your 
 
68 LECTURES TO 
 
 requirement should not be abandoned. Shew a deter- 
 mination to be exactly obeyed in every reasonable direc- 
 tion, and let this determination be constant, whether the 
 requirement be trifling or important. Hardly any thing 
 can have a worse elicct than to command and not be 
 obeyed to threaten or promise and not to perform to 
 make laws and not to insist on their execution. Disorder 
 and confusion must be the consequence. Scholars will 
 very soon learn to disregard all that you say will disbe- 
 lieve your promises and neglect your commands. If you 
 punish disobedience, this will excite anger, because you 
 had threatened a punishment for the same offence before, 
 but had not inflicted it. When punishment excites anger 
 only, it does no good. I will only add that, without firm- 
 ness of purpose in the government of a school, it will be 
 impossible to make that school pleasant to the teacher, 
 or profitable to the pupil. 
 
 LECTURE VII. 
 
 THE subject of government was commenced in the last 
 Lecture, and will be continued in this. The next direc- 
 tion to which I wish to call your attention is Lei the 
 government of the school be impartial. In this direction I 
 do not wish to imply that you are to exercise the same 
 feelings towards every individual in the school. The 
 good instructer will love, and he ought to love, the good 
 scholar more than the bad. He cannot, and he will not 
 feel an equal regard for the obedient and the disobedient, 
 for the docile and the perverse. But, notwithstanding 
 this, he should be impartial. The law for one should be 
 the law for all. Though you cannot love an idle, heed- 
 less, unmannerly boy, so much as the affectionate, studi- 
 ous, and obedient one, still you should govern them alike. 
 When the good scholar commits a fault, if you neglect to 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 69 
 
 call him to account for it, and punish a less agreeable 
 scholar for a similar offence, the latter will accuse you of 
 injustice, and with good cause. For if you have made a 
 law, it is for the whole school, and should be regarded by 
 all. 
 
 No complaint is more frequently heard, than that the 
 instructer is partial, that he treats one better than another, 
 <fcc. This sometimes proceeds from distrust on the part 
 of parents, occasioned sometimes by listening to the tales 
 of children, told when they have been punished. With- 
 out great care on the part of the master, he will be be- 
 trayed into a greater or less degree of the fault above 
 every day named. There may, indeed, sometimes be a 
 propriety in making a difference in the treatment of the 
 same crime under different circumstances. The same 
 law may be broken by two persons, and very different 
 degrees of criminality be attached to them. The man 
 who passes you a counterfeit dollar ignorantly, breaks 
 the letter of the law, as much as the knave who passes it 
 knowingly. But the first is guilty of no intentional fraud. 
 One scholar may transgress a reasonable rule of the 
 school, and may have been led to it by the persuasion of 
 those older or better informed than himself; w r hile 
 another is guilty of the same offence, without any pallia- 
 ting circumstances. There may be a propriety in trea- 
 ting them very differently, and in so doing you need not 
 be guilty of partiality. When the circumstances are the 
 same, the treatment should be uniform. 
 
 Partiality, if exhibited in your treatment of scholars, 
 will deprive you of their confidence. Children are not 
 slow to discover it, where it exists, and when they be- 
 lieve that one of their number may do wrong and go un- 
 punished, while another will be treated with severity for 
 the same offence, it is impossible to exert much useful in- 
 fluence over them. There is a lack of improvement to 
 them, and much inconvenience to the master ; and not 
 only this, but he is guilty of doing wrong, and must suf- 
 fer the reproof of his own conscience. 
 
 Finally, in the government of the school, consult not 
 only your own convenience and the present welfare of 
 the scholars, but pursue that course which shall produce 
 
70 LECTURES TO 
 
 the most lasting and beneficial results. To do this, the 
 instructer must he matter in all places and at all hours. 
 It is not enough that you govern and restrain them dur- 
 ing school hours ; but you must regard their conduct, at 
 all other times when they are not under the care of their 
 parents. I have sometimes been acquainted with instruc- 
 tors, who seemed to care for the behavior of their pupils 
 only while they were in school. By a proper course the 
 master may as easily direct the amusement and play of 
 his scholars, as their studies, and it is hardly less impor- 
 tant that he should do so. For this purpose, he ought to 
 show an interest in their sports, and a willingness that 
 they amuse themselves during the usual intermissions of 
 study. The difference between different kinds of exer- 
 cise or amusement should be carefully pointed out, and 
 such as may be injurious should be prohibited. Those 
 which may corrupt the morals or the taste, and have 
 a tendency to injure the health or limbs, should be 
 discountenanced. In general, such exercises as tend to 
 excite jealousies and hatred, or to interest the mind so 
 much as to divert it from books and study, together with 
 all the games of hazard and chance, are prejudicial, and 
 should be forbidden. The tendency of all such, is bad. 
 Many of them prevent progress in study, and all of them 
 are injurious to the morals of the scholars. In those 
 districts, where the male and female members continue 
 at the school-room, during- intermission, the subject of 
 proper exercise requires much more attention, than in 
 villages where scholars return to their parents. Every 
 exercise that is immodest or unbecoming should be pro- 
 hibited, and whatever would give offence to delicate 
 minds, of either sex, cannot be approved. 
 
 In order to be able to exercise a full^and judicious con- 
 trol, it will be very important that the school should know 
 what you approve and ,what you disapprove, and the rea- 
 sons on which your opinion is founded. Exercise or 
 play, proper in one school, may be impracticable or in- 
 expedient in another. There may be circumstances 
 that will have a very important influence in directing 
 your recommendation of exercise. It should be your ob- 
 ject to examine what may be attended with the fewest 
 evils and the greatest good, 
 
SCHOOL-MASTEfcS. 71 
 
 There is another point on which I wish to make a 
 passing remark. It relates to the manner of speaking in 
 the school, proper to be observed both by teacher and 
 pupil. 
 
 It will generally be found true, that the mode of ad- 
 dress adopted by the teacher in speaking to the scholars, 
 will be copied by them in addressing each other. Every 
 thing dictatorial, lordly and austere should be avoided. 
 A spirit of affection should be infused into the whole 
 school. Ask a scholar to do what you desire, in just 
 such a tone as you would naturally use in asking a favor 
 of a superior. Never command till the pupil has ne- 
 glected to do as you requested him. It is very ill-judged 
 to display your authority before there is any encroach- 
 ment upon it, or any disposition shown to disregard it. 
 
 Perhaps there is no way, in which the children may 
 be led to speak kindly and affectionately to each other, 
 so easily, as by the example of the teacher in speaking 
 kindly and affectionately to them. And if any suppose 
 that they are adding to their dignity and importance in 
 the estimation of their scholars, by assuming airs of 
 great superiority or lordliness, such persons must have 
 very little knowledge of human nature, and of the art 
 of pleasing. President Monroe lost none of his dignity, 
 when, during his tour to New England, he cordially took 
 the children by the hand, and spoke kindly and affection- 
 ately to them. 
 
 If it is ever necessary to call a child to account for 
 improper conduct, the same affectionate manner is re- 
 commended. I would much rather say to a child whom 
 I saw breaking some important rule of the school - 
 * John, you may come to me,' than to say ' Come here, 
 John.' The more he sees you benevolent, kind and af- 
 fectionate, the more plainly will he see the impropriety 
 of breaking those laws, which are designed by you for 
 his own benefit. 
 
 In this connection, it will be expected, that I say some- 
 thing on the subject of punishments ; for, after the great- 
 est fidelity and discretion on the part of an instructer, 
 there will be some, who will not yield a reasonable and 
 cheerful obedience. Such must be punished both for 
 
72 LECTURES TO 
 
 their own reformation and as a warning to others. It 
 would be doing injustice to those who are well disposed, 
 to sutler the bad, by their frequent misconduct, to pre- 
 vent them from making the progress they desire. 
 
 I have already supposed a case, where a scholar was 
 found guilty of doing wrong, and have pointed out the 
 way iu which I would proceed in that particular case. 
 I shall now give you a few general directions, with reirurd 
 to government. Let me ask you to examine them atten- 
 tively, and if reasonable, adopt them. 
 
 1. Never be in haste to believe that a pupil has done 
 wrong ; and be not in haste to accuse him. If not guilty, 
 he feels grieved that you should suppose him to be so. 
 After having been wrongfully accused, he will probably 
 have less dread of doing wrong than before, for he al- 
 ready feels in some measure degraded, in having been 
 supposed guilty. It is a principle in the civil law, 4 to 
 suppose every man innocent till he is found guilty.' In 
 every case, an inquiry for evidence of the fact, ought to 
 precede our accusation. To make inquiry for evidence 
 to prove the innocence of a scholar, may often be attend- 
 ed with happy consequences. If acquitted by the evi- 
 dence adduced in his favor, he will love his teacher the 
 better for having pursued this course ; and if proved 
 guilty, he will be more likely to be affected by what you 
 may say to him. 
 
 2. Be not in haste to punish, when a fault is committed. 
 Your first object should be, to converse with the scholar, 
 to show him the nature of his crime, and to convince 
 him that he has done that which, if every one followed 
 his example, would destroy the usefulness of the school. 
 If his crime be that of profaneness, lying, or any thing 
 in direct violation of the laws of God, to those all-wise 
 laws he should be referred. The awful consequences of 
 these vices to himself, should be expressly shown. Their 
 effect on the school, if others should follow his example, 
 and their effect on every community, if all should be 
 guilty of them, ought to be clearly exhibited. After this, 
 he may be required to commit to memory those passages 
 in Scripture, which show with what abhorrence the Su- 
 preme Being looks upon these enormities, and when he 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 73 
 
 has had sufficient time to reflect on the subject, he will 
 be in a state to be profited by the punishment. I would 
 recommend to you never to punish an offence the same day 
 on which it is committed. The scholar will usually en- 
 deavor to forget the subject, when the punishment is 
 over, but he cannot, when he knows it is to come. It 
 may, at times, be proper to defer it for two or three days, 
 or a week. Whenever the time arrives, it should be at- 
 tended to, to the exclusion of every thing else. Before 
 being punished, he should be interrogated concerning the 
 degree of punishment, which he thinks his crime de- 
 serves, and if he appears to view his offence as more 
 trifling than he ought, it is important to make him sensi- 
 ble, if possible, of his error. If you must punish, do it 
 with seriousness. To exhibit any levity, to laugh while 
 you are inflicting punishment, must always be attended 
 with bad consequences. The sufferer cannot feel oth- 
 erwise than indignant. He will have good reason 
 to accuse you of a wanton delight in cruelty, rather 
 than give you the credit of having a desire to do him 
 good. 
 
 3. Decide on such a mode as will be most likely to 
 benefit the scholar, and prevent a repetition of the crime. 
 Those punishments, which kave an effect on the body 
 only, usually do little to prevent crime, or reclaim the 
 guilty. As far as possible strive to have it a punishment 
 that will affect the mind, rather than the body. To re- 
 quire the delinquent to ask forgiveness of the master, or 
 of the school sometimes to require him to read a writ- 
 ten confession to the school, parents, or guardians, 
 will have the desired effect. Much must be left to the 
 judgment of the master at the time. Punishment should 
 be varied with the disposition, age, or circumstance of 
 the scholar, or the nature of his offence. It is undoubt- 
 edly true, that corporal punishment should be the last 
 resort. When every thing else fails, you may have re- 
 course to that. It is sometimes necessary it sometimes 
 does good. But yet I am fully persuaded it is seldom 
 necessary. Where a reasonable, calm, and decided 
 course is adopted, where an instructer makes an ap- 
 peal to the moral sensibility of the child, and shows him 
 7 
 
74 LECTURES TO 
 
 the nature of his fault, experience has satisfied me, that 
 recourse to it will not be necessary, except in a few in- 
 stances, where the child seems devoid of sensibility, or 
 where he has been neglected till his passions are too 
 strong to be controlled by his reason. 
 
 4. Always make the punishment effectual. This rule 
 is important, whether the punishment be of one kind or 
 another. If the child deserves the punishment, it should 
 not pass off, till he is brought to feel it as such, and to 
 realize the nature of the crime, which he has committed. 
 It is sometimes true, that a child punished but slightly, is 
 only injured, and not benefitted by it. He boasts that 
 his chastisement did not hurt him that he does not care, 
 and sometimes, that he loves to be punished. Now if 
 the subject passes off in such a way, it would have been 
 better, probably, to have neglected punishment entirely. 
 His chastisement does him no good, if it does not hum- 
 ble him, and cause him to fear being brought again un- 
 der the censure of his instructer. 
 
 Connected with punishments, is the subject of rewards. 
 These may sometimes be beneficial, but, as they are 
 usually bestowed, they probably do as much harm as 
 good. To promise a reward is often an excitement to 
 study, for the sake of the reward ; not as a duty, or from 
 a love of learning, or a desire to merit the approbation 
 of the wise and good. 
 
 When a single prize is offered to a number of com- 
 petitors, those who hope to gain it, will be excited to 
 emulation and to envy ; and those, who have no such 
 hope, will usually be discouraged, and probably make 
 less progress, than if none had been offered. I would 
 advise you to promise no rewards, and if you ever give 
 them, let such honors be grounded on the excellence of 
 the scholar, his industry, and faithfulness, rather than 
 the amount of knowledge he obtains in a given time. 
 One scholar may require a week to learn, what another 
 will accomplish in a day. If the former perseveres and 
 is faithful in his slow and toilsome progress, he is to be 
 commended" rather than the other, for he has greater 
 obstacles to encounter, and has succeeded in surmount- 
 ing them. It is not impossible, but he may be the most 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 75 
 
 benefitted of the two. For it is commonly true, that 
 those who learn very easily, forget as easily, while those 
 who learn slowly, remember what they have acquired. 
 It is not unusual for the slow gains of the mechanic, to 
 be eventually more productive than the rapid and golden 
 streams of the merchant. 
 
 If rewards are given at all, let them be ' rewards of 
 merit? and not rewards of intellectnal capacity. The 
 dull of apprehension are not to be punished for being 
 so, neither do the more gifted merit praise, for what they 
 have received from the hand of God. And on the whole, 
 I am inclined to believe the safest way is to dispense with 
 rewards altogether, when they eannot be equally offered 
 to all. 
 
 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 IN the present Lecture, I wish to call 'your attention 
 to the general management of your schools. This is a 
 subject of much consequence ; for though you may be 
 able to govern with ease, yet it is possible that you may 
 fail, by ill-directed effort, of accomplishing all that is 
 reasonably expected of you. Though you must fail in 
 every thing without good government, yet government 
 alone will hot accomplish all the objects for which a 
 school is designed. 
 
 In the general management of a school, it is import- 
 ant to keep in mind always, that the great object is to 
 prepare children to be happy ; and to be useful to them- 
 selves and others to teach them how to acquire knowl- 
 edge and to apply it. In a word, the purpose of educa- 
 tion is to teach how to think and how to act right in all 
 the vicissitudes of life. The general management of a 
 school, then, must be guided by a reference to these ob- 
 jects. It should regard both the present enjoyment, and 
 
76 LECTURES TO 
 
 the future good of its members. Let me say to everj 
 teacher : 
 
 1. Endeavor to adopt such a course as shall render 
 the school pleasant to those who compose it. If children 
 are brought to associate with it, a variety of agreeable 
 objects, they will be led to think of study as a pleasure. 
 We are all much affected by the objects around us : if 
 these are pleasant, we are pleased ; if gloomy or dis- 
 gusting, it is hardly possible for us to be cheerful. If we 
 see others smile or weep, we are disposed to do the 
 same. Let the teacher of a school wear a smiling coun- 
 tenance, let him appear happy, and desirous of making 
 others so, and he will hardly fail of seeing smiling faces 
 and contented looks around him. 
 
 2. Reduce every thing to system. This will have a 
 great tendency to promote what is required in the pre- 
 vious advice. By means of system much more can be 
 accomplished than is possible without it. Irregularity is 
 the enemy of happiness, and where it extensively pre- 
 vails, it entirely prevents success in any business. By 
 having a time for every thing, and doing every thing in 
 its season, you will be enabled to avoid confusion, to 
 know what to do, and to take pleasure in doing it. But 
 if you wait for the subjects to present themselves before 
 you think what to do, twenty things may sometimes come 
 up at once, and in your perplexity to choose among them, 
 you are unprepared to attend to any. He who tries to 
 do many things at once, will accomplish nothing. * He 
 that has many irons in the fire must let some of them 
 burn,' says an old, but true proverb. 
 
 In order to introduce system, do only onl thing at a 
 time. 
 
 An instructer called a class to read, and in a moment 
 a scholar wished for a copy ; the master neglected his 
 class and prepared to set one ; while doing that, a boy 
 came with a pen to be mended, and before this was done, 
 another Avished to be assisted in his arithmetic. While 
 mending the pen and looking at the slate, another came 
 and wished to be shown some place on his atlas ; the 
 pen and the slate were neglected, and the copy and the 
 class, and two or three minutes were devoted to finding 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 77 
 
 the name on the map. Several other calls were now 
 made at once, and the master neglected all the former to 
 scold the latter for making him so much trouble. Here 
 were ten or twelve scholars, all waiting all doing noth- 
 ing excepting the class which had kept on reading, pro- 
 nouncing half the words wrong, and neglecting every 
 rule which would have rendered the exercise useful. 
 They were then told they had read enough, and that 
 they might sit down. The other matters were despatch- 
 ed after a while, another class was called to read, and a 
 similar course was pursued ! ! 
 
 Now, how, in the name of common sense, can a mas- 
 ter endure this ? what benefit can the scholar derive 1 
 The teacher had no plan no system no order. Hence 
 he could not avoid confusion and perplexity. In all 
 sorts of business, system is of great consequence ; in 
 schools, it is indispensable, if the happiness of either 
 teacher or pupil is sought. 
 
 In order to have system, it is necessary to do but one 
 thing at a time ; to have a time for every thing, and to 
 attend to it at that time. While the class is reading, the 
 entire attention of the teacher should be given to that 
 exercise. He will thus be able to give useful instruc- 
 tions. When a class is called to spell, let this receive 
 the entire attention of both master and scholars. The 
 same should be observed in regard to writing, grammar, 
 arithmetic, geography, &c. In this way, every thing 
 will be done, and done without confusion. But by hav- 
 ing no system, much must be neglected, that should re- 
 ceive attention, and that is poorly done which is not en- 
 tirely neglected. 
 
 3. Another direction, which I wish to give in regard 
 to general management, is, let every thing be done thor- 
 oughly, when commenced. It may be said, perhaps, 
 that there is not time ; and that the school is so large, it 
 is impossible to go through with the required exercises. 
 Now if this be true, I still insist on the direction to do 
 every thing thoroughly, when it is commenced. If a 
 subject of study can be attended to but once a day, or 
 but once in two days, the scholar will derive more ad- 
 vantage from one lesson in two days, if well recited and 
 7* 
 
78 LECTURES TO 
 
 properly explained, than he can from half a dozen, if 
 but half recited and not explained. In teaching, as in 
 other matters, the old adage is true, that ' work once 
 well done is twice done.' 
 
 4. Let subjects be classed according to their import- 
 ance, and receive a proportionate attention. Some in- 
 structers have been known to spend a large part of their 
 time, in teaching a small class who were pursuing a fa- 
 vorite branch. In this manner studies vastly important 
 to the majority of scholars have received very little at- 
 tention. If the master is himself much better pleased 
 with grammar than with arithmetic, and has a class of 
 five in that, while there are fifteen in this, he does great 
 injury to the fifteen, if he spends double the time with 
 the five, that he does with the fifteen. And yet if he 
 happen to be more fond of teaching grammar than arith- 
 metic, he is very prone to do so. 
 
 Those subjects which we have occasion most frequent- 
 ly to use, are more important to us, than those which we 
 seldom wish to employ. Reading and spelling are more 
 important than geography, because without a knowledge 
 of the former, we are deprived of the means of knowl- 
 edge, more than by a want of acquaintance with the lat- 
 ter. We have occasion to employ our knowledge of 
 reading much more frequently than a knowledge of geo- 
 graphy. So arithmetic is more important than gram- 
 mar, because we find occasion to use it in the business of 
 life, much oftener, than we do the rules of syntax, to 
 which we attend at school. The instructor should en- 
 deavor to divide his time so as to give to each particular 
 subject, that degree of attention which properly belongs 
 to it. It is- manifestly wrong for him to give an undue 
 portion of his time to some one subject, merely because 
 he has a greater taste for it than for some other. 
 
 The direction of studies, will next claim your atten- 
 tion. The best rule I can give on this point is, to follow 
 the order of nature. Let those subjects receive attention 
 first, which may be most easily understood and compre- 
 hended by children and then let others follow in the 
 order, which common sense would dictate. All the child- 
 ren, placed under your instruction, will ordinarily be such 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 79 
 
 as have received some instruction in reading, and will be 
 able to call the letters of the alphabet, and perhaps pro- 
 nounce them when united in easy syllables. At least I 
 sLall suppose this in the following remarks.* When the 
 child has acquired so much knowledge of reading as to 
 be able to give a proper pronunciation to syllables and 
 words, his attention should be directed to their meaning. 
 Words are signs of ideas, and it is an object of high im- 
 portance that a very early habit should be formed, of 
 knowing their meaning. He is not able to have recourse 
 to a dictionary, and of course it must devolve on the 
 teacher to explain them. This should, as much as pos- 
 sible, be done by means of sensible objects. Some little 
 story, in which the word occurs, may be related to the 
 child, which will often fix the meaning permanently in 
 his mind ; or the word may be explained by its opposite. 
 
 Much attention should be given at this time to pro- 
 nunciation. This will be learned mostly from the exam- 
 ple of the teacher. His pronunciation will be theirs. 
 Great care is necessary here because it is as easy to learn 
 right, as wrong, at first, and when one has learned 
 wrong, it requires much time and care first to unlearn, 
 and then to learn anew. 
 
 Children are capable at a very early age, of under- 
 standing something of numbers. They can be taught to 
 enumerate and to read figures, much earlier than many 
 suppose, as has been fully proved in infant schools. 
 They should be taught to add, subtract, multiply and di- 
 vide, by the aid of corns, and other tangible or visible 
 objects. By this process they will be able to form dis- 
 tinct ideas of the nature and combination of numbers. t 
 
 I would not be understood to imply, that children at a 
 very early age will be able to comprehend the more 
 complex operations of arithmetic, but the simple rules, 
 are easily made intelligible, to children of four or six 
 years. 
 
 Geography may be an early study. Having a picture 
 
 * Full directions for teaching the Alphabet &c. may be found in my 
 Lectures to Females on School-keeping. 
 
 t See the concluding Lecture in this edition, on APPARATUS. 
 
80 LECTURES TO 
 
 or map before him, the child will be able to understand 
 what he could not without such occular demonstration. 
 Children are almost always pleased with maps. Hence 
 they are interested in this study at an age when it would 
 be impossible to engage their attention in the exercise of 
 memory alone. 
 
 History may be an early study of children. They are 
 commonly pleased with stories, and where the terms 
 made use of in little histories, are such as they can com- 
 prehend, and the facts in the narrative are prominent, 
 they will be amused and interested. It is desirable, that 
 the geography and history first used should be of one's 
 own town, state, or country. 
 
 After some attention has been paid to these subjects, 
 the scholar will be prepared to attend profitably to arith- 
 metic and geography in a more thorough manner, and to 
 pursue those parts, which would not at first have been 
 intelligible or interesting. 
 
 Grammar may, in its most simple parts, be early un- 
 derstood and rendered interesting. But the child re- 
 quires judgment, to be able to apply syntactical rules to 
 language. After some knowledge of these branches has 
 been gained, it is not so important, what others shall fol- 
 low them. It will be important, however, to have re- 
 gard constantly to the probable destination of the child. 
 To direct the preparatory studies of a merchant or me- 
 chanic, in the same manner as of a schoolmaster or phy- 
 sician, is not judicious. Some ground is, indeed, com- 
 mon to all. But particular branches may essentially 
 benefit one which may be dispensed with by another. 
 
 LECTURE IX. 
 
 THE manner of teaching will now claim your attention 
 and is a subject of very gn;at importance. Though 1 
 may fail of giving you the best directions, I shall en- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 81 
 
 deavor to suggest to you some valuable thoughts, to 
 which I ask particular attention. 
 
 In the first place, I would have you guard yourselves 
 against supposing that your whole duty consists in ena- 
 bling your scholars to acquire a knowledge of the books, 
 put into their hands for the purpose of study. This will 
 be but a part, and sometimes the least part of your du- 
 ty. It is the subject, not the book, which is more im- 
 portant. The book is the instrument, which you are to 
 teach them how to use, in order to obtain the knowledge 
 desired. To direct and assist them in this, and to teach 
 them to exercise their own powers, and elicit their own 
 strength, is the principal duty of an instructer. 
 
 In teaching, let it be your first object to have ever^r 
 thing understood. In perusing any book, if the language 
 is unintelligible, or even some of the most important 
 words are not understood, we obtain no distinct- ideas* 
 
 But let the thoughts be clothed in language with which 
 we are familiar, and our attention is fixed we are pleas- 
 ed and instructed ; we then obtain ideas, and may re- 
 ceive some benefit. 
 
 Hardly any thing is more common, than for instruc- 
 ters to presume that their scholars understand a subject, 
 when they do not. This error is increased by the de- 
 cision of the pupil himself. * Do you understand this 1' 
 is often asked, and he answers ' yes.' No effort is made 
 to know whether he understands it or not. The pre- 
 sumption that he Hoes, satisfies the instructer, and the 
 benefit the child might derive, is lost. The master 
 should interrogate the scholar, till he knows whether he 
 understands the subject, and if it should be found that 
 he does, there will be an additional benefit to the pupil 
 in this very exercise of his powers in explaining it. 
 
 4 1 know, but cannot tell,' is a reply which has been 
 given a thousand times, by children and youth, when I 
 have asked a reason for rules and principles. Why will 
 it prove your sum, to reject the 9s after performing an 
 operation in one of the simple rules ; and how do you 
 know that this is a proper mode of proof?' *I know, 
 but cannot tell.' The scholar is honest. He supposes 
 he does know, because he finds that the directions of hi* 
 
82 LECTURES TO 
 
 rule will be proved correct by the operation. But still 
 he has not a single distinct idea upon the subject. 
 
 A willingness to trust to the scholar's own opinion, has 
 led many instructers, qualified to be useful, to fail in do- 
 ing them that service which they might otherwise have 
 done them. Take nothing on trust, but question and 
 examine till you know that they understand the princi- 
 ples,, and have correct views. When this is done, you 
 will have performed your duty, and not till then. 
 
 2. In your teaching, use the most simple mode of 
 illustration. If an illustration be as little understood a.* 
 the thing to be illustrated, the scholar remains as igno- 
 rant as before. If even only one or two of the import- 
 ant words in the illustration are unintelligible, the schol- 
 ar still remains ignorant. ' Will you please to tell me 
 why I carry one for every ten V said little Laura to her 
 instructer. ' Yes, my dear,' said he, kindly. * It is be- 
 cause numbers increase from right to left in a decimal 
 ratio.' Laura sat and repeated it to herself two or three 
 times, and then looked very sad. The master, as soon 
 as he had answered, pursued his other business, and did 
 not notice her. But she was disappointed. She under- 
 stood him no better than if he had used words of anoth- 
 er language. l Decimal' and ' ratio' were words that 
 might have fallen on her ear before, but if so, she un- 
 derstood them none the better for it. She looked in the 
 dictionary and was disappointed again, and after im<> 
 time put away her arithmetic When. asked why she 
 did so, she replied, < I don't like to study it, I can't un- 
 derstand it.' 
 
 Now the injury to little Laura was very great. She 
 had commenced the study with interest ; she had learned 
 to answer many questions in arithmetic, and had been 
 pleased with it. She was now using a slate, and had 
 found the direction to carry one for every ten. This 
 she might have understood. The master loved his schol- 
 ars and wished to benefit them, but forgot that terms per- 
 fectly plain to him might be unintelligible to thv. child. 
 From that moment, Laura disliked arithmetic, and every 
 effort used with her, could not efface the impression, that 
 it wag a hard study, and she could not understand it. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 83 
 
 Unimportant as this circumstance may appear to you, 
 it made an impression on my own mind, which will not 
 be effaced, while I am engaged in teaching youth. In- 
 deed the importance of the last direction will be illus- 
 trated to you by a reference to your own history. You 
 perhaps recollect many efforts to explain a thing to you, 
 which have left you no wiser than before. Fail not then 
 to use such language, as can be understood by the child 
 or by the class. Be very careful lest they associate the 
 idea of study with that of hard unintelligible words, and 
 thus become discouraged in their attempts to learn* It 
 is of great importance, that the objects used to illustrate, 
 should be those, with the properties of which the pupil 
 is acquainted. If you employ, in the way of illustra- 
 tion, any object, with the character of which, the scholar 
 is unacquainted, he is not in the least assisted. But if 
 you can seize on something that he can see, or that he 
 can recollect, or something with which he is familiar, 
 and then make a just comparison, by which the idea is 
 brought distinctly to his view, he derives not only a last- 
 ing benefit, but present pleasure. For example -James 
 came to his teacher and told him he could not under- 
 stand his map. He had just begun to learn the geogra- 
 phy of his own state. The master called him to the 
 desk and took up a slate, and gave him a pencil, and 
 then asked him if he could draw a picture of the school- 
 room floor. James at once made his lines for the boun- 
 daries. * Now which is the east end ]' James told. 
 4 Which is the west V This he told also. This is the 
 north and that is the south.' ' Now,' said the instructer, 
 
 * we will mark them E. for east,' &c. l Now in what 
 part is my desk, James T 'There,' said the little fellow. 
 
 * Where is the fire place ?' ' There,' said James. * Now 
 James, make marks for the boys' seats, and the girls' 
 seats.' He did this. ' Now make marks for the doors 
 and windows.' This was done. ' Now,' said the mas- 
 ter, James, do you think you could make a map V ' No, 
 sir,' he replied. 'Why yes you can, you have made 
 one already,' said the master. This is a map of the 
 floor. Now the map, which you said you could not un- 
 derstand, is nothing more than this. There is a line for 
 
84 LECTURES TO 
 
 the east side, and there is another for the west side, and 
 there is one for the north, and there is another for the 
 south. Now these lines go round the whole state. This 
 river is put down here, because it is in the northern part, 
 and that river is represented there, because it is in the 
 western. This river is drawn here because it makes the 
 eastern boundary of the state. Now look along here, 
 and see if you can find the name of the town in which 
 we live.' * O yes,' said James, * here it is.' ' Why is it 
 put down here V * Because it is in the east part of the 
 state and touches the river,' said the child. The master 
 asked him half a dozen similar questions, and James re- 
 turned to his seat delighted. The simple illustration 
 made every thing easy. The other scholars were as 
 much pleased as he, and when they were dismissed, were 
 in high spirits, saying they would make a map of their 
 gardens, orchards, &c. when they got home. 
 
 3. My next direction is, Let it be your object to make 
 every study as pleasant as possible. Nor do I conceive, 
 that this direction implies any thing impracticable or ev- 
 en difficult, though the inquiry has been made, how it is 
 possible to create a love of study in those who have no 
 taste for it 1 ( I feel little hesitation in asserting, that no 
 such scholar ever existed,' says Parkhurst, ' unless he has 
 been brought to feel this indifference or aversion, by in- 
 judicious treatment on the part of parents or instructers. 
 If parents or instructers love knowledge for its own sake, 
 and always speak of study as a privilege and a source of 
 pleasure, children will be prepossessed in favor of it be- 
 fore they begin ; and if at school they receive easy les- 
 sons, and such as they can understand ; if these lessons 
 are explained to them in language adapted to their ca- 
 pacity, and if questions are asked which will bring other 
 faculties of the mind as well as the memory into exer- 
 cise, they will find study as pleasant as they anticipated. 
 If teachers expect it to be pleasant to their scholars, they 
 will endeavor to present the subject to them in such a 
 light that they may find it so.' This is always an object 
 of importance, and * even in cases where parents coun- 
 teract the impression, which the teacher wishes to make, 
 he may, by well directed efforts, notwithstanding these 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 85 
 
 discouragements, generally "meet with success, which will 
 confirm his opinion,' that children may be brought to 
 love learning for its own sake, and be pleased with the 
 acquisition of knowledge. * If the scholar is enabled to 
 gain new ideas, or to form new combinations of those 
 already gained,' he cannot avoid being pleased. Hence 
 it is an object of primary importance' to teach them such 
 things as ' they can understand either by their own re- 
 flections, or by the explanations and illustrations given 
 them. What I recommend in this and in several pre- 
 vious directions, appears to have been achieved by Pes- 
 talozzi. Madame de Stael, in speaking of his school, 
 says, ' It is a remarkable circumstance, that neither pun- 
 ishment nor reward is necessary to excite his pupils in 
 their labors. This is perhaps the first instance, where a 
 school of one hundred and fifty children has succeeded 
 without having recourse to the principles of emulation or 
 fear. How many bad feelings are spared, when every 
 emotion of jealousy and disappointed ambition is remov- 
 ed from the heart, and when the scholar sees not in his 
 companions rivals, or in his teacher a judge. Here the 
 object is not to excel, not to succeed in a competition for 
 superiority, but to make a progress, to advance towards 
 an end, at which they all aim with equal integrity and 
 sincerity of intention.' 
 
 If one teacher has succeeded in making every thing so 
 pleasant, that his scholars are interested and delighted 
 with their studies, the same end may be, and, indeed, it 
 has been accomplished in other cases. Let it then be the 
 endeavor of every one employed in teaching to render 
 the lessons of his pupils pleasant. It will be done by ex- 
 hibiting the importance of the study showing its use- 
 fulness exhibiting its connexions with business and en- 
 joyment, and, making it plain and intelligible, by familiar 
 illustration and explanation. This will not be done 
 without effort and persevering effort ; this is necessary 
 where so much is dependent on k. 
 
 After the preceding remarks, it will be my next object 
 to point out to you, that course in treating the different 
 branches of study which may be best calculated to ben- 
 efit those placed under your care. I may not be able 
 8 
 
86 LECTURES TO 
 
 perhaps to give you the best opinions on this subject, but 
 I shall venture to offer those I have formed in the course 
 of my own reading and experience. 
 
 Jt should be one of your first objects to teach correct 
 spelling. Spelling is an exercise of so much importance, 
 that to teach it should be a part of your daily business. 
 In order to impress the school with a just sense of its 
 value, you should often speak of its importance, and 
 press it upon their attention. Incorrect spelling is often 
 the source of much mortification, and of real inconven- 
 ience. Let your own example be such as to excite oth- 
 ers to regard the subject properly, and to pay that atten- 
 tion to it which its importance demands. If you write 
 copies for your scholars, be very careful to avoid bad 
 orthography in them. They will copy the spelling of 
 words, as well as the form of letters. I have not unfre- 
 quently found ridiculous errors in copy books, which 
 have been handed me for inspection, and have sometimes 
 found shameful spelling monstrously united with very good 
 penmanship. The following is a specimen of hundreds, 
 which have fallen under my observation. A goode schol- 
 ler rites slow.' 1 Now where there is such carelessness on 
 the part of the teacher, it is not to be expected, that he 
 should pay that attention, which is desirable to the blun- 
 ders and errors of others. 
 
 There are many derivitive words in very common use, 
 which are not to be found in the spelling book or dic- 
 tionary.* In order to know how to spell these, the schol- 
 ar must learn such rules as will apply to them, and by 
 impressing these rules indelibly in his memory, he will 
 not hesitate when he wishes to write a word, that may 
 vary in its orthography from the simple word, from which 
 it is derived. There is also a class of words having the 
 same pronunciation, but which differ in meaning and 
 spelling. The importance of learning to spell these cor- 
 rectly, should be distinctly explained by every teacher. 
 
 A moment's reflection will be sufficient to convince 
 every one of the great importance of this branch, and I 
 need not dwell on it, farther than to point out one error, 
 
 *Grimshaws's < Ladies' Lexicon and Parlor Companion,' is an exception 
 to this remark. It is valuable. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 87 
 
 which extensively prevails in the habits of country school- 
 masters. It is this. In order to make the word easier 
 to be spelled, it is given out with a pronunciation differ- 
 ent from that used in reading or conversation. For ex- 
 ample the master puts out the word immediate. The * 
 in the third syllable, has the sound of e in common pro- 
 nunciation. Instead of sounding it as he ought, he gives 
 the i a distinct long sound, in order that the scholar may 
 know that it is not e. Thus, im-me-dz-ate. Now this 
 habit is very injurious to the scholar, for when he wishes 
 to write the w^ord, he will hesitate. The common sound 
 will be on his mind, and he will be very liable to spell it 
 wrong. Let this be a uniform rule : Pronounce all words 
 for a class to spell, just as you would pronounce them in 
 reading or conversation That is, pronounce them right. 
 
 Reading is a subject that will claim much of your at- 
 tention at school. To read with propriety and elegance 
 is an interesting and valuable accomplishment. It should 
 be the object of every instructer, to have his scholars at- 
 tend to all the principles exhibited by the best authors. 
 By care, he may accustom his scholars to read with a due 
 degree of loudness, distinctness and slowness ; and to re- 
 gard the importance of accent, emphasis and cadence. 
 I shall give but few directions on this subject, but ask 
 you to consult the suggestions made to females, on teach- 
 ing the art of reading.* The following must suffice. 
 
 1. When a class is called out to read, devote your 
 whole attention to it. It is a great error to let them 
 read as they please, and disregard the pauses and sense 
 entirely. Let it be known as a regulation of the school, 
 that when a class is reading no one has leave to ask a 
 question, or to change his place. 
 
 2. Require every scholar to pronounce every syllable 
 so distinctly, that you can hear and understand the words. 
 Many instructers fail here, from the fact that they hold a 
 book, and have their eyes on the word that the scholar is 
 pronouncing, and understand what it is from reading it, 
 and not from hearing it read. Hence, if may be well, to 
 hear a class read at least once every day, without taking 
 
 * Lectures to Females on School-keeping. 
 
8S LECTURES TO 
 
 a book. It will then be easily learned, how many sylla- 
 bles are not distinctly sounded by the young scholar. 
 He should be required to read every sentence till he reads 
 it right. In this way he will be made to improve more in 
 reading a single page, than he otherwise would ki reading 
 half his book. It will be advantageous for the master to 
 question the class on the subjects of distinctness, slowness,, 
 emphasis, &c. before the lesson is commenced. 
 
 3. Be careful to show every scholar the importance and 
 use of the stops or points in reading, and require him to 
 observe them. The pauses and inflections are of very 
 great consequence. Without attention to them, no one 
 can be a good reader. If children form a habit of neglect- 
 ing them, when young, it will be very hard to correct this 
 habit afterward. What is more disagreeable than monot- 
 ony ? What more unpleasant than to hear all the words 
 of a sentence pronounced alike, or with so rapid an utter- 
 ance that none are distinct 1 Much attention should be 
 paid to these directions. 
 
 4. Be careful to lead the attention of your class to the 
 character of the lesson to be read ; and to make the man- 
 ner and tone of voice correspond to it. To this direction, 
 a degree of attention adequate to its importance, is seldom 
 paid in district schools. To read a pathetic piece in the 
 same manner as you would read one of ^Esop's Fables 
 or, to read a prayer in the same tone of voice that you 
 would one of the humorous essays of Addison, is certainly 
 unnatural and improper. And yet in many of the schools 
 which I have had occasion to visit, I have heard pieces of 
 very different characters read in the same manner, and I 
 have scarcely ever observed much attention paid to the 
 subject. The fault lies with teachers. The directions 
 given in books are disregarded, and the same monoto- 
 ny is permitted, which was probably common in the 
 schools they attended when young. I would not say 
 that this remark is Universally true. There are excep- 
 tions, and I believe there is an increasing attention to 
 this particular. But the remark will hold true in re- 
 lation to a great part of the instructers of district schools, 
 especially in country towns. 
 
 5. Let it be the object of every teacher, to copy na- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 89 
 
 ture in his own reading, and then he will be sure to read 
 with ease to himself and pleasure to his hearers. Scholars 
 will readily copy his tones of voice and manner, and be led 
 to form a taste for this important acquisition. In reading 
 on a mournful or playful subject, the manner and tone of 
 voice will correspond to it, and the sense of the writer be 
 obtained. As far as possible, we should enter into the 
 feelings of the writer, and utter his words very nearly as 
 we suppose he would utter them, if he were reading his 
 own language to us. 
 
 LECTURE X. 
 
 THE study of arithmetic will next claim your attention. 
 It is one which may be very early commenced. Indeed 
 as soon as the child has learned to count twenty, he may 
 be taught to add, subtract, multiply and divide. He may 
 thus at a very early age form distinct ideas of the ' ground 
 rules of arithmetic.' As far as intellectual arithmetic is 
 concerned, I would recommend the use of Mr. Colburn's 
 excellent little work. 
 
 I shall now confine my remarks to the subject of writ- 
 ten arithmetic. 
 
 1. Let it be a first object to lead the learner to inves- 
 tigate the reasons on which the rules are founded. This 
 is a direction of great importance. If he forms the ear- 
 ly habit of inquiring why the direction is given for each 
 step in his operation, he will be likely to proceed under- 
 standingly from the beginning. But if he is directed to 
 go to his rule, or to commit it to memory, and then ap- 
 ply it to the performance of his operation, he will prob- 
 ably be led to suppose, that when he has obtained a cor- 
 rect answer, he understands his subject. He may go 
 through with a common treatise on arithmetic in this 
 way, and yet not understand the reasons on which the 
 8* 
 
90 LECTURES TO 
 
 directions in the 'ground rules' are founded. 4 I have 
 cyphered through,' is often said by a young man, who in 
 fact would find it very difficult to explain the reasons of 
 the rule given for multiplication or division. 
 
 With all the attention such pay to arithmetic, they are 
 but poorly prepared for the common business transactions 
 of life. Many persons are aware of this, and therefore 
 provide themselves with a ' cyphering book,' and write 
 down the operations in that for future use. In this way 
 much more time is spent, than would be necessary for 
 gaining a knowledge of arithmetic, adequate to the wants 
 of life. 
 
 When any engage in this study, whether they are be- 
 ginners or not, it is proper for you to begin with the sim- 
 ple rules, and question them on all the principles which 
 have led to their formation. If the pupil can give you 
 proper answers, it is well ; if not, let him confine his at- 
 tention till he can. Afford him assistance if he cannot 
 find out the principle for himself. If possible, let that 
 assistance be given in such a way, as shall make him his 
 own teacher. What I mean, is, ask him questions which 
 will lead him to the right track, and will make him ne- 
 cessarily come to a satisfactory conclusion. 
 
 I may be better understood, perhaps, by an example. 
 A class is called to recite the rule of multiplication. 
 
 Inst. What is multiplication 1 
 
 Class* ' Multiplication teaches, having two numbers 
 given, to find a third, which shall contain either of the 
 given numbers, as often as the other contains a unit.' 
 
 Inst. Well, so your book says, but what does it mean ? 
 Can either of you explain it so that John, who has just 
 commenced the rule, can understand it ? 
 
 Class. [After hesitating some time.] No, sir, we can- 
 not. 
 
 Inst. Think : cannot you use some other language 
 which will make it more intelligible ? 
 
 Class. May it not be called a short way of adding ? 
 
 Inst. Yes, and that explains it much better than the 
 long definition which you recited. Can you tell me now 
 why it may be be called short addition ? 
 
 Class. Because it is the same as adding one of the 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 91 
 
 numbers as many times to itself as there are units in the 
 other. If we wish to multiply 3 by 5 it will be the same 
 as writing three 5 times, or five 3 times and adding them 
 together. 
 
 Inst. Very well, now tell me why two numbers are 
 given, and not any more, to perform the operation ? 
 
 Class. If there be more than one multiplicand, there 
 must be two answers, and if there be more than one 
 multiplier, the multipliers will be component parts of 
 each other, and therefore would in reality be but one. 
 
 Inst, Why do you place one under the other 1 
 
 Class. To make the operation more convenient. The 
 work might be done, if the numbers were differently 
 placed. 
 
 The instructer may proceed to ask the following ques- 
 tions. Why do you begin at the right hand to multiply ? 
 Why do you multiply the whole multiplicand, with the 
 right hand figure of the multiplier, before you multiply 
 with the others 1 When you begin to multiply with the 
 second figure, why do you put the product one place to 
 the left of the first figure of the line above it ? What is 
 the value of the first product figure, in the second line ? 
 is it units or tens ? When you have taken the third fig- 
 ure of the multiplier, why do you set the first figure of 
 the product still farther to the left, and under the figure 
 by which you multiply ? What is the value of the first 
 figure in the third line of the product ? is it units, tens, 
 or hundreds 1 Why do you add all the lines of the pro- 
 duct, in order to get your answer ? 
 
 How do you prove the result ? How do you cast out 
 the 9s 1 Why will this prove it 1 Will it prove it to cast 
 tut the 7s or 8s 1 Why not T Why do you take 9 rather 
 :han another number ? Is there any other number that 
 frill prove it ? Why will three answer as well as 9 1 
 
 If the multiplier be 9, how can the work be shortened ? 
 Why will the placing as many cyphers at the right of the 
 tnultiplicand, as you have 9s in the multiplier, and then 
 Subtracting the multiplicand once out, give the same an- 
 swer as to muliply by the 9s contained in the multipli- 
 er ? 
 
 Answers to all these questions will be necessary, in 
 
92 LECTURES TO 
 
 order to make the rule intelligible. But many of them 
 are those that the scholar will not, perhaps, think of, un- 
 less they be asked him by the teacher. 
 
 Let every one proceed in a similar way through every 
 rule. And if any of the answers cannot be given by your 
 scholars, after opportunity is afforded them to try, let 
 your own explanation be as simple as possible. 
 
 It is a useful exercise for a pupil to form a set of ques- 
 tions to each rule for himself, before being examined up- 
 on it. After he has thus formed all the questions he is 
 able, you may make such additions as you think requi- 
 site. In this way he will be led to reflect on the given 
 rule, and will strive to understand the principles on 
 which it is founded. He will not only gain more knowl- 
 edge, but he will gain it in a way that will enable him to 
 retain it longer, and apply it more readily, than by the 
 common method.* 
 
 Geography is a subject, which will undoubtedly claim 
 considerable attention in your schools. To teach it in 
 the best way is desirable, and though I may not adduce 
 any new thoughts on the subject, I still wish to call your 
 attention to it a moment. 
 
 The mode generally pursued is to present a child with 
 a map of the world ; to teach him its general divisions, 
 and how to distinguish them on the map, bound them, 
 &c. This mode has been approved by most instructers, 
 but I am willing to confess, it has appeared to me the 
 very opposite of the course, that nature would dictate. 
 Why should we attempt to teach a child what he cannot 
 comprehend ? Why should he learn the names of conti- 
 nents, islands, oceans, seas and lakes, rivers and moun- 
 tains, many thousands of miles distant, before he is 
 taught the geography of his own town, county, state, 
 and country ? 
 
 But a want of suitable works on this subject will ren- 
 der it impossible to adopt a course such as I shall rec- 
 ommend, expect in a few states. t 
 
 * See IntroJuction to the Arithmetical Manual by the Author of these 
 Lectures. 
 
 t Works have been published containing the geography of several of the 
 States, designed for the bcneiit of children. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 93 
 
 Where it is practicable, let the child be taught some- 
 thing of the geography of his own neighborhood and es- 
 pecially of his own state, before he commences the study 
 of it r in a more extended manner. Let him be taught 
 the boundaries of his own town ; the names and situa- 
 tion of its mountains, rivers, ponds, and other interesting 
 particulars. Then the same things may be taught him 
 of the adjoining towns, the county and state. By this 
 mode, he will be led to form some ideas of distance and 
 the size of places. He will be prepared to learn the 
 same things in regard to other states, and his country 
 and continent. From his own he may pass to other 
 countries and continents, until the features of the world 
 are in succession brought distinctly to his view. 
 
 As the above course would be a novelty in many pla- 
 ces at the present time, I shall not dwell upon it, but 
 give few general directions. 
 
 1. Endeavor to have the outlines, the more general 
 parts in this study, very thoroughly acquired. These 
 should always be distinguished from the subjects in de- 
 tail. They will be a guide to other knowledge, and will 
 without doubt be better remembered, than if associated 
 with a multiplicity of facts in detail. 
 
 2. Prominent facts in geography may be learned in 
 such a way as to be remembered with greater ease. As 
 far as practicable, let this be done. The mode pursued 
 by Mr. Woodbridge, may be adopted even if it should 
 not be convenient to use his works. By being furnished 
 with the works yourselves, you may use them so as to 
 benefit a class furnished with some other. 
 
 3. Make it an object to exhibit the facilities of obtain- 
 ing the necessaries and conveniences of life, furnished by 
 different climates and countries, also the inconveniences 
 and privations peculiar to any section of the world, on 
 which the lesson of the class may be. This is recom- 
 mended for the purpose of comparison with our own 
 happy land, and for showing the general providence of 
 God, which has so constituted things, that one part of the 
 world is dependent on another for some of the conven- 
 iences of life ; also, for exhibiting the fact, that no part 
 of the world is unprovided with the means of promoting 
 
94 LECTURES TO 
 
 human happiness. To illustrate : where the soil is of 
 the best quality, we seldom find mines of the rich or use- 
 ful metals. Where these are found, the soil is often 
 such, that agriculture cannot be employed as a source of 
 wealth. The most productive regions of the earth are 
 often visited with dreadful storms and tempests. Trou- 
 blesome insects, poisonous serpents, and the most fero- 
 cious beasts annoy the inhabitants of some parts, where 
 otherwise a residence might almost be compared to one 
 in the Elysian fields. 
 
 Scholars will ahvays be interested by remarks on sub- 
 jects of this kind, and not only so, they will derive last- 
 ing benefit from them. 
 
 Accustom your scholars to draw maps on slates, from 
 recollection. If they know this will be required of them, 
 they will examine the situation of places, mountains, riv- 
 ers, &c. with much more attention than otherwise, and 
 will probably retain the knowledge which they acquire, 
 much better than if not requested to attend to this exer- 
 cise. The instructer, at the close of the recitation, 
 should examine the slates, and point out the deficiencies 
 or errors. The outline maps in the improved Atlas, ac- 
 companying Morse's Geography, may be used with great 
 advantage. 
 
 English Grammar is a study important to all, and is 
 one which you will be expected to teach. The modes 
 pursued by instructers are so various, arid the views en- 
 tertained by writers so different, that we are very far 
 from having arrived at any uniform system. Unques- 
 tionably each author supposes his own work complete or 
 nearly so. Some authors have written much better than 
 others, but while there is such a diversity, I shall not se- 
 lect any one on which to apply the few directions for 
 teaching, which I propose to give you. 
 
 To say that the mode of teaching grammar, most usual 
 in district schools requires correction, is saying merely 
 what is proved by the fact, that it is usually considered 
 dry and uninteresting by a great majoritv \v 1m attend to 
 it ; and of course very little advancement is made in it. 
 The more usual method is to put a book into the hand of 
 the scholar, and require him to commit certain parts of 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 95 
 
 it to memory, and, when this is done, he is called upon 
 to parse sentences and apply the rules of syntax. Pars- 
 ing is continued year after year, without much attention 
 to any thing but deciding on the parts of speech, and 
 applying rules. When he is able to tell the part of speech 
 at sight,, and refer to rules applicable to the several words, 
 he is often called a good grammarian, and is not unfre- 
 quently considered qualified to be an instructer of oth- 
 ers. But after all, it may be doubted whether he is bet- 
 ter acquainted with grammar, than some have been, who 
 have never studied the rules of syntax. That this mode 
 oucupies much time, to little profit, I think must be con- 
 ceded by all. While I make this remark I wish not to 
 be considered as a convert to the doctrine of those mas- 
 ters who have professed the ability to teach grammar 
 in a month, or even half of that time. The call for re- 
 form in teaching this branch is loud. Much time is 
 spent, to very little purpose, both in common schools and 
 academies. 
 
 If a better mode of teaching than the following can 
 be adopted, I would advise you to pursue it. If you are 
 inclined to judge favorably of the directions I shall give, 
 it will probably be found by you, that the system con- 
 tains one advantage, at least ; that of making the study 
 pleasing. Among a very large number with whom I 
 have pursued it, I have seldom found any, who complain- 
 ed that grammar was unpleasant or dry, 
 
 1. Let it be an object to explain to your scholars what 
 grammar is, and the importance of understanding the 
 nature of their own language. This must lead them to 
 see that in attending to this study, they are not learning 
 that which is useless or unnecessary. They will be made 
 acquainted with its usefulness by familiar illustration, 
 and when this is accomplished, they will commence the 
 study with far more interest than otherwise. The exact 
 meaning of the four subjects, on which it treats, should 
 be fully explained. The child often has not the most 
 distant idea, that while he is learning to spell words, he 
 is learning grammar. Etymology is often unintelligible ; 
 but show him how words are derived from each other, 
 and how the part of speech is effected by varying the 
 
LECTURES TO 
 
 and he will become interested. To illustrate : 
 Take the word man, and show him how many words 
 come from it, or require him to tell all the words which 
 he can recollect, and then explain the meaning which 
 each has, and why they are classed with different parts 
 xrf speech; as, man, a noun ; to man, a verb; manning, 
 a participle ; manful, an adjective ; manfully, an adverb ; 
 4ind manliness, another noun. By an exercise of this 
 kind he will be pleased, and will be obtaining the mean- 
 ing of many words, which he otherwise would not learn. 
 
 After he has formed the habit of distinguishing the 
 derivative from the primitive, the scholar may be told that 
 this, as well as spelling, is a part of grammar. 
 
 2. When it becomes proper to have a scholar begin 
 the grammar or text book, let him first learn the defini- 
 tion of the most common parts of speech, as, the noun, 
 pronoun and verb.* Then let him take a sentence and 
 select all the nouns in it, and tell why they are nouns, 
 all the pronouns, and tell why they are pronouns, and 
 all the verbs, and tell why they are verbs. The next 
 lesson may. be to learn the different kinds of nouns, and 
 articles, and what belongs to each, and then he should 
 select the nouns in a sentence, and tell why they are 
 nouns ; what kind and why what number and why 
 what gender and why what person and why ; also, the 
 articles, and tell why they are articles, what kind, and 
 why of that kind. Let the scholar proceed in this way 
 through the pronoun and through the verb, and then 
 learn the other parts of speech. He should then be 
 taught to parse all the words of a sentence in course, 
 and tell what each word is, and give his reason for eve- 
 ry thing he says about it. In this way he will learn un- 
 derstandingly, and will be able to see why those defini- 
 tions and rules have been given, which he has been call- 
 ed upon to commit to memory. 
 
 After he can demonstrate easily, he may be directed 
 to commit to memory some of the most important rules 
 of syntax, and to apply them to the language which he 
 parses. He should be asked when he says ' the nomina- 
 
 *The reader is referred to the Grammatical Assistant, Second Edition 
 by the Author, for a full account of this mode of teaching. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 97 
 
 tive case governs a verb,' or a ' verb agrees with its nomi- 
 native case,' how the rule applies to the phrase in ques- 
 tion, and on what principle it is founded 1 and, though 
 he may not be able to give an answer, yet, by having 
 been asked the question, he will be more likely to recol- 
 lect the explanation which you may give, and be able to 
 repeat it when you ask him again, 
 
 A mode like the above, pursued through the whole 
 course of grammar, will leave nothing dark to the mind 
 of the scholar. He will understand as fast as he pro- 
 ceeds, and will find nothing hard. 
 
 3. When the rules of syntax are acquired and he can 
 apply them with facility, he will be prepared to analyze 
 sentences, and should be taught to distinguish between a 
 sentence and phrase a simple and compound sentence, 
 and also to know what are the principal parts of a sen- 
 tence, as, the subject, attribute and object. 
 
 The exercise of showing how words are derived one 
 from another should be continued, and the pupil be ac- 
 customed to point out the different parts of speech, which 
 may come from a single word. He will, by this, be able 
 to see the dependence of one word upon another, and 
 learn to discriminate the character of each. 
 
 In this connexion I would recommend giving him sen- 
 tences, in which there is some grammatical error, for him 
 to detect, and to give his reason for thinking it an error. 
 This exercise is very important, as it will lead him to 
 guard against errors in the formation of sentences, and 
 will help him to apply the knowledge which he has ac- 
 quired, to practical purposes. In selecting sentences for 
 this purpose, it will be well to take them from the con- 
 versation of the scholar himself, or such language in 
 common use, as is ungrammatical. This will lead him 
 to examine his own language by the rules which he has 
 learned, and enable him to detect his own errors. 
 
 It will be expected that you should instruct your schol- 
 ars in Penmanship. This is a very necessary accom- 
 plishment, but it would be better, if it could be taught in 
 a school, where it should be the only branch. Yet long 
 custom has placed it among the requisitions of a com- 
 mon school. It is not possible, I think, at present, .to" 
 9 
 
98 LECTURES TO 
 
 obviate this inconvenience, and the only inquiry is, how 
 we may make it the least injurious to other branches of 
 study, and secure the greatest improvement therein. 
 
 The result of my own experience has been, that three 
 quarters of an hour, devoted once a day exclusively to 
 this exercise, is better than a longer period, and is the 
 least likely to interfere with other studies. The follow- 
 ing are all the directions for which I have time. 
 
 1. Prepare all the books for writing at your own room, 
 and furnish the copies which will be necessary for the 
 day. If any books are not ruled for writing, I would 
 recommend to the instructer to do it himself, when he 
 prepares the copies. This will save much time to the 
 school, and prevent much disturbance from the noise of 
 borrowing rules, or frequent removals to get and use 
 them. The copies ought to be prepared before you^come 
 into school, in order to have your whole time when there, 
 to devote to other objects. 
 
 When the hour appointed for writing arrives, let every 
 thing else be dropped by -those who are to write , let 
 them take their books and pens, and attend only to their 
 writing. 
 
 2. While the scholars are writing, devote your whole 
 attention to them. See that every one sits in an easy 
 and proper posture. Attend to the manner in which 
 every pen is held, and be careful that all write slowly. 
 The master should go from scholar to scholar, and give 
 directions, as he may .find them necessary. If the house 
 is properly constructed, he will be able to go to every 
 scholar in the class once in two or three, or at most, in 
 five minutes, and will be able to direct, in regard to the 
 writing of every line to point out errors and defects to 
 be avoided. The progress of the pupil will depend very 
 much upon the interest he is made to feel in the subject. 
 Without attention, no progress of importance can be 
 made. 
 
 3. When the time for writing has expired, let all the 
 pens be cleaned at once, and the books returned. If 
 scholars are. permitted to continue writing, after the at- 
 tention of the instructer is turned to other exercises of 
 the school, they will often write carelessly, and make no 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 99 
 
 improvement. When one ceases, all should cease, and 
 direct their attention to other things. 
 
 By pursuing a course like the above, there will be very 
 little loss of time, and very little danger of the forma- 
 tion of careless habits. But if scholars are permitted to 
 call for copies when they please, and to write as much 
 and as carelessly as they please, they will greatly disturb 
 the course of the school, and probably contract habits 
 which will be broken up with difficulty ; they will waste 
 paper and time, and make very little progress either in 
 writing or in their other studies. 
 
 4. In preparing copies, it is important to have a sys- 
 tem. The easiest parts of letters should be first made, 
 and a regular course of lessons given. Unless some sys- 
 tem is adopted, it will be impossible for the teacher to 
 be uniform with himself. He will be liable to neglect 
 some letters, while others are very frequently used in the 
 copies. Every one who pretends to teach without fol- 
 lowing some system, will fail of teaching well. 
 
 I conclude this Lecture, with a few remarks on teach- 
 ing History.* This is a study which ought to be pursued 
 
 * The following remarks on this point are from J.he Journal of Educa- 
 tion, and better than any that I have seen. 
 
 ( The teacher's first duty, o,n this plan is to make himself familiar with 
 all the details of the history of 'the city, town, or village in which he teaches, 
 and to take particular notice of every spot or object which is linked with 
 an historical association, with the occurrence of any remarkable event. 
 The second step in this practical method of teaching, is, to carry the young 
 learners to as many as possible of these places or objects, and to fasten on 
 the youthful mind a correct and abiding impression of them, as connected 
 with the event which gives them their celebrity or interest. Here are sev- 
 eral great points gained : the health of the pupils is benefitted by the fresh 
 open air, and the invigorating exercise of walking; the corporeal effort 
 and enjoyment produce an active, and excited, and happy state of mind;- 
 every thing wears the aspect of reality, and of nature, and of life, curios- 
 ity is excited to the highest pitch, and receives the amplest gratification; 
 from the living voice of the teacher, the ear drinks in instruction with fde- 
 light, in the scene of the strange, or romantic, or glorious action which has 
 left its indelible impress on the spot; the teacher too looses the character 
 of the task-master, and becomes the living and venerated oracle of his young 
 circle of listeners, he becomes one of their sources of pleasure and is lov- 
 ed accordingly. These results are brilliant; but they are not imaginary : 
 they are those which took place in the early lessons received in childhood 
 by the individual who writes this article, and which he has had the happi- 
 ness of seeing realized in the young listeners to his own words. 
 
 ' Here a person who is unacquainted with this mode of instruction may 
 
100 LECTURES TO 
 
 in all your schools, at least so far as relates to the histo- 
 ry of our own country. Every teacher should speak of 
 it as a necessary study, and as one which will be very 
 pleasant. Though there is no text-book, which seems 
 to me exactly fitted for common schools, yet there are 
 many that contain valuable information, and by selecting 
 subjects from them of the most interest, and making 
 these plain to the understanding of the scholar, by such 
 illustration as the nature of them will admit, the children 
 will be highly interested. 
 
 I would recommend to you to commence with a class, by 
 giving them several lectures on the history of their own 
 town or state, or the places where they are most ac- 
 quainted. Then lessons from books in regard to partic- 
 ular events, which have taken place. Such should be 
 selected as have been connected in an eminent degree 
 with the welfare of the country. When subjects are 
 given them, instead of requiring them to take all the 
 events in their connexion, the class will be more likely to 
 engage with interest, and to retain what they learn. If 
 these lessons are given, following the order of time in 
 which the incidents occurred, a connected history of the 
 most prominent events will be obtained, and each gener- 
 al subject will remain firmly fixed in the mind. 
 
 To illustrate more fully what I mean. After a few 
 general subjects, such as may regard the history of the 
 town, neighborhood or state, I would recommend that 
 
 start an objection. But what if there is no high, romantic, or kindling in- 
 terest in the scene where you teach ! The simple answer is, it is not ne- 
 cessary that there should be. The interesting details of humble adventure, 
 the narrative of domestic life, the tale of the early settlers, all of which 
 have a poetic charm for the young, will serve the same purpose, will en- 
 kindle curiosity, secure attention, and convert the study of history, from a 
 task or a book-dream, into a pleasing reality. Another objection may be 
 that, with young pupils, this method of instruction is necessarily circum- 
 scribed ; they cannot walk or travel so far as to embrace a very wide cir- 
 cle of classical or historic ground. Granted : still, every village has the 
 little story of its early settlement, and its spots or objects noted for some- 
 thing which took place in days gone by ; and should there be but one such 
 spot or object, it will serve, to begin with, to give the study of history the 
 aspect of reality. For every event read in a wider circle of historical nar- 
 rative, will by association be made to bear a resemblance to this. The 
 young pupil will be made to realize that such things toere. 
 
 1 After such a beginning, the teacher transfers as far as he can, the same 
 method to the study of the history of the country or state in which his pu- 
 pils reside, and afterwards to that of their native country in general.' 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 101 
 
 the lessons be given oui: in^aMoapti^r soniewhat like the 
 following. * You may take your histories and learn, so 
 that you can relate to me, the most important particulars 
 relative to the first discovery of the country. I shall 
 ask you these questions : Who discovered America 1 
 From what country was he 1 How many ships had he 1 
 What happened on the voyage 1 After his men had 
 grown disaffected how long did Columbus persuade them 
 to sail ? What happened during that time 1 What did 
 Columbus do when he arrived at the shore 1 What name 
 did he give to the place ! Whom did he find there 1 
 What was it that interested very much the attention of 
 his men 2 What did the natives think of Columbus and 
 his crew 1 What happened when they were on their 
 homeward passage ? How were they received ? &c.' 
 The next subject may be the first settlement of James- 
 town ; then, that of New England ; the next, the history 
 of the settlement of New-York, and of its being taken 
 by the English. * Now,' you may say to them, 4 1 wish 
 you to tell me for your next lesson, about the contest be- 
 tween the Colonies and England, and what was the con- 
 sequence ! Afterwards, the particulars of the battle of 
 Lexington, then, that of Bunker Hill, &c.' 
 
 By proceeding in this way, and directing the pupil to 
 fix his mind on but one subject, for each lesson, he will 
 be able to understand his lesson fully, and will read at- 
 tentively every thing that regards the subject on which 
 he is to be examined. I am confident that two objects 
 will be secured Jby this mode, which are not gained as 
 well by putting a book into the hands of a scholar and 
 requiring him to learn the whole : viz, He will be better 
 pleased, and will gain a more distinct knowledge of the 
 most interesting facts. I would not say positively that 
 the mode I have recommended is the best ; but it has 
 succeeded better than any I have known adopted in our 
 schools. If the members of a class have different books, 
 it will not be very material, as each author treats of all 
 the most interesting facts in history.* 
 
 *The First Book of History by Peter Parley is finely adapted to the- 
 mode recom mewled above. 
 9* 
 
104 LECTURES TO 
 
 ing the most prominent ideas, so as to treasure them up. 
 But as. they will not be likely to retain any full sentence, 
 it leads them to the exercise of arranging ideas in sen- 
 tences, nearly as much as writing an original composi- 
 tion. They will not he discouraged on account of not 
 knowing what to write, and will probably be amused and 
 pleased with the exercise. 
 
 4. General subjects may afterwards be given them on 
 which to write. These should be those with which they 
 are familiar, or may become so by reading. 
 
 It is always better to give subjects than to let the pu- 
 pil select for himself; for he will often choose without 
 judgment, and is frequently unable to decide on any one. 
 He will often select the hardest subjects, thinking them 
 the easiest. Of this kind, are such as the following ; 
 friendship, love, hope, spring, summer, autumn, winter, 
 youth, &c. 
 
 In selecting subjects it is very important they should 
 be such as will benefit the scholars in a moral point of 
 view, or in supplying rules and precepts for the transac- 
 tions of life. If a young person can be excited to a 
 proper course of reflection on the influence which differ- 
 ent habits will have upon his happiness and usefulness, 
 he will be much more likely to form Correct ones, than 
 he would without such reflections. It is therefore of 
 very great importance to lead the young to such reflec- 
 tions as shall be of the greatest benefit in the formation 
 of correct habits. Such questions as the following, when 
 given, as subjects of composition, have been found very 
 useful. What four things ought the young to seek first, 
 in order to promote their happiness ? What six habits 
 may I form while young, that will secure to me the great- 
 est personal enjoyment, and respectability ? By the for- 
 mation of what five habits can I do the most good to my 
 fellow-creatures? By what five habits can I most in- 
 jure society ? Describe the character of such persons or 
 families as you would wish for your neighbors. Must tin 
 drunkard be an unhappy man? if so, why ? Do you be- 
 lieve the thief, liar, &,c. can be happy ? if not, why ? 
 
 Questions on subjects of this kind may be multiplied 
 and varied according to the judgment of the teacher, and 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS.^ 105 
 
 may be rendered easier or harder according to the abili- 
 ty of the class. The scholars thus, not only derive sat- 
 isfaction from the easy accomplishment of their tasks, 
 but are excited to reflect, and to make up their opinions 
 on subjects very important to them, while forming habits 
 and characters for life. 
 
 5. Recommend to your pupils to correspond with each 
 other by letters to ask each other questions to be an- 
 swered in writing, also to write down their own reflec- 
 tions for their own private use. 
 
 The effect of this course will unquestionably be salu- 
 tary. They will not only be excited to a cultivation of 
 the social affections, but will undoubtedly be much ad- 
 vanced in the art of composition. This knowledge, how- 
 ever, will not long be retained without practice. The 
 necessity of this should be constantly urged. Every 
 thing, which has a tendency to call forth their own pow- 
 ers of mind, is important, and will be productive of 
 good. 
 
 After composition, or in connexion with it, it is highly 
 important, that you should lead the scholars to become 
 interested in the subject of moral philosophy. It may 
 not indeed be practicable in some, perhaps a majority of 
 schools, to introduce the regular study of this branch, 
 but you may make your scholars acquainted with some 
 of its important principles, and teach them to examine 
 the reasons of moral distinctions. You may direct them 
 to examine the character of the things they approve, and 
 of those they disapprove ; why some things please and 
 others displease them. They may be taught that in all 
 there is implanted a moral sentiment, and this has a ma- 
 terial influence on human happiness. You may inform 
 them what feelings and what actions are virtuous and 
 what are vicious by referring them to the great rule of 
 of duty, as presented in the law of God. 
 
 It is important for every one to have some acquaint- 
 ance with some of the first principles of Natural Philoso- 
 phy and Chemistry. With the results of these principles 
 every one is daily acquainted. But of the principles 
 which produce these results multitudes are totally igno- 
 rant. 
 
106 LECTURES TO 
 
 They are of course unable to apply these principles to 
 the practical purposes of life. The production of some 
 of the most common phenomena is often as mysterious 
 to them, as the most abtruse principles of science. Now 
 it certainly would add to their happiness, and often to 
 their success in life, if many of these phenomena wen- 
 explained to them. Every child knows that water will 
 rise in a pump, but why or how it gets up is often a mys- 
 tery to him he knows that wood, when put upon the 
 fire will burn, and that a stone will not, but why one 
 should burn rather than the other he cannot tell. He 
 knows he can raise a weight by a lever, which, without 
 it, would resist his strength, but why he gains power he 
 does not know. He sees .one piece of land productive 
 and another barren, but what should occasion the differ- 
 ence is, not unfrequently, a mystery. 
 
 Now, what I wish on your part is, that some of these 
 principles should be familiarly explained, for the purpose 
 of correcting wrong ideas and leading scholars to attend 
 to principles of daily interest and occurrence. This you 
 ought to be able to do. 
 
 In regard to these and other subjects on which you 
 may have opportunity to remark, let it be your undevia- 
 ting rule to impart all the knowledge within your power. 
 
 I wish to add a direction here, for which I have found 
 no better place in these Lectures ; viz. study to seize on 
 and improve favorable moments to impart valuable instruc- 
 tion, or important practical knowledge. 
 
 There are some seasons when impressions may be 
 made on the minds of the young, much more readily 
 than at others. The attention is awake, the mind be- 
 comes aroused and impressions then made will be more 
 lasting, than when the mind is not excited. Such H-.-I- 
 sons should be regarded as a seed-time, which if improv- 
 ed by the teacher, may be the means of producing very 
 important fruits. 
 
 I shall be best understood, by examples. An eclipse 
 occurred during the hours of the school. The darkness 
 occasioned a suspension of labor for a season. After 
 permitting the scholars to go and look at it, and at the 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 107 
 
 objects around shrouded in gloom, the teacher returned 
 with them to the school-room, and addressed them in the 
 following manner. 
 
 ' You have seen,' said he, * a most interesting sight to- 
 day, and one which may lead you to some profitable 
 reflections. The moon is a planet very small when com- 
 pared with the earth, or sun, and yet by being near us, 
 and coming between us and the sun, has obscured that 
 light which is so cheerful and necessary. I wish to turn 
 your thoughts for a moment to the interesting nature of 
 the study of astronomy, by which the motions of the 
 heavenly bodies may be perfectly known, and their size 
 and distance determined with certainty. I wish you to 
 know also, the importance of this science to us. If as- 
 tronomers had not been able to tell us of this eclipse and 
 had not we expected it to-day, how great must have been 
 our terror ! We might have been as much frightened as 
 some of the ancients are said to have been at similar ap- 
 pearances. But now we look upon it with . the utmost 
 delight, as a rare exhibition of the effect of planetary 
 motion. Had you seen an astronomer calculating this 
 eclipse five years ago, you might have said he was not 
 surely doing any thing to benefit you ; but you now see 
 how much terror and fear he has saved you, by telling 
 you beforehand of the sublime spectacle of to-day. All 
 the art, which lie had, is what you may easily acquire, by 
 attending to the study of astronomy. Who is there that 
 would not delight in a study so sublime and important ? 
 He who .first learned that this eclipse would happen to- 
 day, was once a little child, and knew no more, than the 
 most ignorant of you. You may, like him, become 
 learned and wise. By resolutely and faithfully pursuing 
 your studies you may be able to understand all, that oth- 
 ers know of astronomy, or any other of the sciences 
 which man has acquired. But he, among you, who is 
 unwilling to persevere in obtaining knowledge, must con- 
 tinue to be ignorant of that which others know. Now 
 who of you will choose to be ignorant, and who of you 
 will endeavor to be wise 1 I shall know your individual 
 determinations, by observing who of you are, hereafter, 
 faithful in improving your time, and who among you 
 
108 LECTURES TO 
 
 choose play and ignorance, in preference to application 
 and wisdom.' 
 
 Take another example ; one of actual occurrence. It 
 was a chilly day of wintei^ and we were all seated in a 
 comfortable school-room. A man of most wretched ap- 
 pearance was seen passing by, drawing a hand-sled, on 
 which were several bundles of woolen rags* the remnants 
 of garments worn till they could be of no further use. 
 He was clad in those but little better, and was apparent- 
 ly so weak as to be scarcely able to draw his sled. Some 
 looked out of the window and began to laugh. The in- 
 structer saw him, and remarked, ' you may all rise up 
 and see that wretched man passing by.' All did so, and 
 nearly all were diverted to laughter. After all had seen 
 him, the master told them they might take their seats, 
 and then remarked : ' I was willing you should look at 
 that man, but possibly my object was very different from 
 yours, as I see the effect on your feelings was very dif- 
 ferent from what was produced on mine. That misera- 
 ble man, you at once perceive, is crazy. He has bundles 
 of rags on his sled, which, perhaps, he values, though 
 they can be of no service to him. You perceived he 
 looked pale and emaciated ; he was so weak as scarcely 
 to be able to draw his load. He is very poorly shielded 
 from the cold of winter, and will very probably perish in 
 the snow. Now tell me, my scholars, does this man ex- 
 cite your laughter ? He was once a school-boy ; spright- 
 ly and active as any of you ; his return from school was 
 welcomed by joyful parents, and his presence gave plea- 
 sure to the youthful throng, who met each other in a 
 winter evening for merriment and sport. Look at him 
 now, and can you sport with him, who has lost his rea- 
 son, and, in losing that, has lost all ? Should I point to 
 one of you, and be able by looking down into future 
 years, to say to the rest, your associate here will hereaf- 
 ter be insane and roam around a wretched maniac, would 
 you not rather weep than laugh ? You saw me affected 
 when I began to speak I will tell you why. I once had 
 a friend. He was dear to me as a brother ; he was eve- 
 ry thing I could wish in a friend. The character of his 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 109 
 
 mind was such, as raised in his friends high expectations. 
 I have indeed, seldom, if ever seen his equal. He could 
 grasp any subject, and what others found difficult, only 
 served as amusement for him. I have many of his let- 
 ters which would not disgrace any well educated man, 
 although written by him, when he was a school-boy. I 
 expected to see him taking a lead in the affairs of men, 
 and that his opinions would be quoted by others. I saw 
 him after an absence of two years where, do you ask ? 
 it was in a cage, and even then he was chained ! He 
 was a maniac of the most decided character. The mo- 
 ment he saw me, he seized my hand, with wild joy, and 
 for a while refused to release it. He had in his madness 
 worn the skin from his own, and when I freed myself, 
 my hand was reddened by his blood. For years, he has 
 wandered about, when it was safe to liberate him. But 
 he is now, and he always will be a miserable maniac. 
 
 I have known sorrow have seen friends die that 
 were as near as friends could be ; but the hour that I sat 
 by the confined and crazy Bernet, was an hour of the great- 
 est anguish I ever knew. 
 
 Remember, my pupils, from what has passed this hour, 
 to render unfeigned thanks to God, for continuing your 
 reason hitherto, and if ever again you are disposed to 
 laugh, when a crazy man passes, remember what may be 
 your own condition hereafter.' 
 
 Many occasions will occur, when you may make salu- 
 tary and lasting impressions on the minds of those plac- 
 ed under your instruction. Seize these precious occa- 
 sions, and improve them with a high regard to the best 
 interest of your pupils. In all your intercourse with 
 scholars, it is incumbent on you to make use of every 
 means not only to promote their present welfare, but to 
 lay the foundation of those habits of thinking and acting, 
 which will promote their greatest happiness hereafter. 
 By keeping this constantly in mind, you may be the oc- 
 casion of lasting benefit to them, and have the satisfac- 
 tion of reflecting that you have done your duty. If you 
 fail of doing your duty faithfully, conscience will upbraid 
 you, whether others do or not 
 
 10 
 
108 LECTURES TO 
 
 choose play and ignorance, in preference to application 
 and wisdom.' 
 
 Take another example ; one of actual occurrence. It 
 was a chilly day of winter* and we were all seated in a 
 comfortable school-room. A man of most wretched ap- 
 pearance was seen passing by, drawing a hand-sled, on 
 which were several bundles of woolen rags* the remnants 
 of garments worn till they could be of no further use. 
 He was clad in those but little better, and was apparent- 
 ly so weak as to be scarcely able to draw his sled. Some 
 looked out of the window and began to laugh. The in- 
 structer saw him, and remarked, .' you may all rise up 
 and see that wretched man passing by.' All did so, and 
 nearly all were diverted to laughter. After all had seen 
 him, the master told them they might take their seats, 
 and then remarked : ' I was willing you should look at 
 that man, but possibly my object was very different from 
 yours, as I see the effect on your feelings was very dif- 
 ferent from what was produced on mine. That misera- 
 ble man, you at once perceive, is crazy. He has bundles 
 of rags on his sled, which, perhaps, he values, though 
 they can be of no service to him. You perceived he 
 looked pale and emaciated ; he was so weak as scarcely 
 to be able to draw his load. He is very poorly shielded 
 from the cold of winter, and will very probably perish in 
 the snow. Now tell me, my scholars, does this man ex- 
 cite your laughter ? He was once a school-boy ; spright- 
 ly and active as any of you ; his return from school was 
 welcomed by joyful parents, and his presence gave plea- 
 sure to the youthful throng, who met each other in a 
 winter evening for merriment and sport. Look at him 
 now, and can you sport with him, who has lost his rea- 
 son, and, in losing that, has lost all 1 Should I point to 
 one of you, and be able by looking down into future 
 years, to say to the rest, your associate here will hereaf- 
 ter be insane and roam around a wretched maniac, would 
 you not rather weep than laugh ? You saw me affected 
 when I began to speak I will tell you why. I once had 
 a friend. He was dear to me as a brother ; he was eve- 
 ry thing I could wish in a friend. The character of his 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 109 
 
 mind was such, as raised in his friends high expectations. 
 I have indeed, seldom, if ever seen his equal. He could 
 grasp any subject, and what others found difficult, only 
 served as amusement for him. I have many of his let- 
 ters which would not disgrace any well educated man, 
 although written by him, when he was a school-boy. I 
 expected to see him taking a lead in the affairs of men, 
 and that his opinions would be quoted by others. I saw 
 him after an absence of two years where, do you ask ? 
 it was in a cage, and even then he was chained ! He 
 was a maniac of the most decided character. The mo- 
 ment he saw me, he seized my hand, with wild joy, and 
 for a while refused to release it. He had in his madness 
 worn the skin from his own, and when I freed myself, 
 my hand was reddened by his blood. For years, he has 
 wandered about, when it was safe to liberate him. But 
 he is now, and he always will be a miserable maniac. 
 
 ' I have known sorrow have seen friends die that 
 were as near as friends could be ; but the hour that I sat 
 by the confined and crazy Bernet, was an hour of the great- 
 est anguish I ever knew. 
 
 Remember, my pupils, from what has passed this hour, 
 to render unfeigned thanks to God, for continuing your 
 reason hitherto, and if ever again you are disposed to 
 laugh, when a crazy man passes, remember what may be 
 your own condition hereafter.' 
 
 Many occasions will occur, when you may make salu- 
 tary and lasting impressions on the minds of those plac- 
 ed under your instruction. Seize these precious occa- 
 sions, and improve them with a high regard to the best 
 interest of your pupils. In all your intercourse with 
 scholars, it is incumbent on you to make use of every 
 means not only to promote their present welfare, but to 
 lay the foundation of those habits of thinking and acting, 
 which will promote their greatest happiness hereafter. 
 By keeping this constantly in mind, you may be the oc- 
 casion of lasting benefit to them, and have the satisfac- 
 tion of reflecting that you have done your duty. If you 
 fail of doing your duty faithfully, conscience will upbraid 
 you, whether others do or not. 
 
 10 
 
110 LECTURES TO 
 
 LECTURE XII. 
 
 I HAVE hitherto said but little to you upon the propel- 
 method of exciting the attention of scholars to their 
 studies. I now call attention to it. 
 
 In the sentiments advanced, you will probably observe 
 a wide difference from those that may have been exhib- 
 ited to you, by instructers heretofore. I am persuaded 
 however, you will give them an attentive examination, be- 
 fore you judge them unworthy of attention. If this is 
 done I have no fear of the results. 
 
 What are proper inducements to be made use of, in 
 gaining the attention of scholars, and leading them to 
 improve their opportunities for acquiring knowledge ? 
 
 In answering this question, it must, I think be con- 
 ceded, that those inducements should be used, which will 
 lead to the happiest result, and not be attended with 
 particular or general evil ; and those methods of excite- 
 ment are censurable, which are attended with evils great- 
 er than the amount of good they are intended to effect. 
 That some of this character are often used, I am con- 
 vinced by observation. The character of the motives in 
 question, will here be presented to your attention. 
 
 1. Are the principles of emulation and ambition safe- 
 ly employed for the purpose of excitement ? In order 
 to answer this question, we must examine the character 
 and influence of both. ' The meaning of emulation,' 
 says Par/khurst,* ' is a desire to excel) for the sake of the 
 gratification of being superior to others.' This gratifi- 
 cation includes both the pleasure of reflecting on our 
 own superiority, and also that of seeing and thinking 
 that this superiority is known to our companions and the 
 world. The votary of emulation loves to look down 
 upon others ; and the greater the number he sees below 
 him, of those who were once his equals or superiors, the 
 more exquisite is the gratification he feels. He is will- 
 
 * Moral Philosophy, p. 149. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. Ill 
 
 ing that others should stand high, if he can stand still 
 higher, but, if he must stand low, he wishes others to 
 stand still lower. This principle of action seems some- 
 times to become so strong, as to swallow up all others. 
 Of this a striking instance is offered in the language 
 which Milton ascribes to Satan : 
 
 'Belter to reign in Hell, than serve in Heaven.' 
 
 'He who is actuated by a principle of emulation, 
 chooses to obtain a superiority to others, rather by ele- 
 vating himself, than by depressing them : First, because 
 he will in this way, not only become superior to his com- 
 petiters, but also to others at a greater distance, and will 
 thus hold a more elevated station in the view of the 
 world ; and, secondly, because he will gain more ap- 
 plause and admiration, if he raises himself by fair means, 
 than if he retards or sinks others, in order to get above 
 them. 
 
 ' The word ambition is frequently synonomous with 
 emulation ; but it is also used in a sense in which emu- 
 lation is not. The latter term is confined chiefly in its 
 application to children and youth, while ambition is used 
 chiefly to denote the operation of the same principles in 
 men, especially those who signalize themselves in a mili- 
 tary and political capacity. Emulation has respect 
 chiefly to rivals near at hand ; ambition seeks a superi- 
 ority which has no limits. Emulation seeks to excel in 
 things, chiefly, which are of a personal nature ; as in 
 bodily strength and agility, or in mental attainments and 
 powers. Ambition, besides seeking to excel others in 
 the same endowments, exercised on a larger scale, also 
 seeks to exceed them in grandeur, wealth and fame. 
 The principle in all these cases is the same. It is a de- 
 sire of superiority for the sake of the gratification and 
 personal advantage it affords.' 
 
 I know that the word emulation is not always used in 
 the sense 7 given to it by the author quoted ^ but, still I 
 am unable to disprove the general correctness of his 
 definition. We sometimes hear the expressions, ' virtu- 
 ous ambition,' 'just ambition,' ' proper ambition,' &c. 
 The word is sometimes used to express an ardent desire 
 
112 LECTURES TO 
 
 after an object, without reference to the means, or to 
 riv alship and competition. ' Thus a child who studies 
 alone is said to be ambitious to learn, meaning merely 
 that he is very anxious to learn and to acquire knowl- 
 edge. Thus a man sometimes says it is his 4 highest 
 ambition,' to please another, meaning that he has a very 
 strong desire to please another and to gain his approba- 
 tion. In this case ambition is totally distinct from emu- 
 lation. I am not certain, however, that this use of the 
 word is found in any good writer.' 
 
 You will understand me to use the words ' emulation 
 and ambition, as denoting the same principle.' In order 
 more fully to answer the question, whether it is proper 
 to employ the principle of emulation in exciting atten- 
 tion to study, it will be necessary to consider with what 
 it is connected, and also, from what it is distinct, 
 
 1. It is very evident that it is intimately associated 
 with both pride and vanity. Here the author before 
 quoted, speaks my own sentiments. 'Pride is the think- 
 ing of ourselves more highly than we ought to think.' 
 Emulation, by leading a person to think frequently of 
 his own attainments and excellencies, cherishes pride. 
 Vanity is a desire of admiration, and this is an essential 
 ingredient of emulation. The votary of emulation usual- 
 ly receives his chief pleasure from being admired and 
 commended. Here and there an individual may be sat- 
 isfied with a proud consciousness of a superiority ; but 
 there are few who would desire any great superiority to 
 others, unless their superiority were known and noticed. 
 
 2. ' Emulation is intimately connected with hatred and 
 envy.' ' Plato makes emulation the daughter of envy ;' 
 but I would rather say, she is the mother of envy, since 
 it appears to be a desire to possess the superiority and 
 advantages which we see another possess, that leads us 
 to envy him these advantages. Envy appears not to be 
 a simple principle, but compounded of a desire to de- 
 prive some other of a good which he possesses, because 
 we do not possess the same ourselves, and hatred of that 
 other, because he enjoys something which we do not. 
 The connexion between emulation and envy is, there- 
 fore, that of cause and effect. Emulation if unsuccess- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 113 
 
 fill always produces envy ;* and of course hatred, that 
 being an essential ingredient of envy. Sometimes the 
 envy that is produced by unsuccessful competition, is 
 small in degree and transient in duration, being over- 
 come by other principles ; and sometimes it rises into 
 anger and revenge, or settles into inveterate hatred and 
 malice. And any one who has made use of emulation 
 in the education of children, must have had opportunity 
 to notice these unhappy effects,' 
 
 Emulation is entirely distinct from some other princi- 
 ples, which are virtuous, or at least innocent, with which 
 it is sometimes compounded. 
 
 1. 4 It is distinct from a desire to make great attain- 
 ments in virtue and knowledge. A person may desire 
 knowledge and make great efforts to attain it, because 
 he loves it ; because every new idea which the mind ac- 
 quires is a source of pleasure ; and because he derives a 
 satisfaction from the exercise of his mental faculties in 
 acquiring ideas, and in afterwards recollecting and com- 
 paring them. Again, he may desire knowledge for the 
 sake of becoming more useful in the world, of promot- 
 ing the happiness of others in a greater degree. This 
 is a virtuous motive. In the same manner he may de- 
 sire any virtuous endowment whatever of body or mind, 
 not because it will render him superior to others, but be- 
 cause it is valuable in itself, and may promote his own 
 good or that of the public, 
 
 2. ' Emulation is also distinct from a comparis9n of 
 ourselves with others, for the sake of judging more cor- 
 rectly what progress we have made in knowledge and 
 improvement. If emulation exists, a eomparason of 
 ourselves with others is sure to fan the flame, and if it 
 does not yet exist, such a comparison is likely to enkin- 
 dle it. But this comparison is not emulation itself, and 
 may be made without exciting it. Suppose that a youth 
 is pursuing his studies, actuated by a desire to do good. 
 He observes that he naakes greater progress than his fel- 
 lows. This gives him pleasure, not because he excels, 
 
 *This has been denied by one teacher of some reputation. But I must 
 think him in an error. 
 
 10* 
 
114 LECTURES TO 
 
 but because his prospect of being useful in the world is 
 brightened. If, however, he believes their object the 
 same as his own, and reflects that their inferiority in tal- 
 ents and learning will render them less useful than they 
 might otherwise be, this reflection will give him more 
 pain than he will derive pleasure, from the prospect of 
 his own superior usefulness. But after all, a frequent 
 comparison of our own talents and attainments with 
 those of others, is a dangerous experiment : and a dis- 
 position, frequently to make it, is almost a sure sign of a 
 spirit of emulation. 
 
 3. Emulation is distinct from a desire to do much good 
 in the world. Distinguished activity to do good, let it 
 proceed from one in a station ever so high, may spring 
 from the purest bonevolence, and is therefore no evidence 
 of a spirit of emulation, or an ambitious principle. A 
 man who thus distinguishes himself is not to be called 
 ambitious, unless he appears fond of being known to be 
 eminently useful, and gives evidence of the love of fame 
 and applause. 
 
 4. 4 Emulation is distinct from a desire to imitate the 
 virtuous deeds of another, or to resemble him in virtuous 
 character. Virtue appears more amiable, exhibited in a 
 living character, when its happy fruits are actually seen, 
 than it can appear, when viewed in the abstract. Who- 
 ever loves virtue, therefore, will feel a stronger desire to 
 possess and practise it, in proportion as his perceptions 
 of its excellence are more distinct and lively.* A desire 
 to imitate the wise- and good is easily distinguished from 
 emulation, because it involves no desire of superiority. 
 There is an instance in scripture where this desire to 
 imitate the virtues of another, is spoken of under the 
 name of emulation. But in this place, Rom. xi. 14, the 
 term, is evidently used in a good sense r for it was Paul's 
 object to persuade the Jews to imitate the Gentiles by be- 
 lieving in Christ. The appropriate use of the word may 
 be seen in Gal. v. 20, where it is classed with 'hatred va- 
 riance, wrath, strife, envyings, murders.' &c. its com- 
 mon associates/ 
 
 *See Kame r s Elements of Criticism, voli i. p. 55. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 115 
 
 5. 4 Emulution rs distinct from the desire of having a 
 good name and enjoying the approbation of the wise and 
 good. A good name is to be desired for the sake of in- 
 creasing our influence and usefulness in the world. The 
 approbation of the wise and virtuous is to be desired for 
 the same reason, and also because it assures us of the 
 friendly regard of those whose approbation we enjoy. 
 There is an innocent and lively pleasure in being belov- 
 ed by those we love ; and some degree of this pleasure 
 is felt, when we learn that we have gained the approba- 
 tion of good men, even though we have no personal ac- 
 quaintance with them. This is totally distinct from the 
 love of praise and the desire of admiration and ap- 
 plause.' 
 
 Such being the character of emulation, the conclusion 
 must b$ obvious, that its tendency is injurious. ' The en- 
 couragement of emulation, cannot fail to strengthen the 
 selfish principles of our nature. That all selfish and 
 malevolent principles have a hurtful tendency is evident. 
 
 * Instead of having a good effect, emulation has an in- 
 jurious one, on the acquisition of knowledge, and the im- 
 provement of the mind. In order to have a scholar un- 
 derstand and remember what he learns, it is necessary 
 for him to love learning for its own sake. And he who 
 studies diligently, because he derives pleasure from it, will 
 not while studying think of any other motive. The con- 
 stant pleasure he derives from the exercise of his mental 
 faculties and the acquisition of new ideas, is a stimulus 
 that makes him diligent and persevering, and impresses on 
 his memory, that which he learns. But emulation af- 
 fords a motive entirely different from this. This pleas- 
 ure is the reward to which he looks forward as the fruit 
 of his application. Just so far then as the mind dwells 
 on this subject, it is withdrawn from its present employ- 
 ment. And just so far as the desire of excelling others 
 has a place in the breast, it excludes the love of study 
 for its own sake. If the scholar, while studying is con- 
 stantly calculating how far he has got, and how far he 
 can get, and anticipating a triumph over his rivals, or 
 fearing that they will triumph over him, it is next to im- 
 possible that he should get his lesson well, or remember 
 
116 LECTURES TO 
 
 it long. He exercises his memory while studying in or- 
 der to recite as much as possible, but does not bring his 
 judgment or discrimination into exercise. When his 
 lesson is recited he thinks of it but little, and applies 
 himself as before.' This is an evil much worse in com- 
 mon schools, than in seminaries where there are varions 
 examinations afterwards, for which the scholar is requir- 
 ed to be prepared. But it is undoubtedly, on the whole, 
 an evil wherever it is made the exciting principle in 
 schools of any description. ' This will be very apparent 
 when we bear in mind that the successful votaries of 
 emulation must be few.' There is but one head to a 
 class, and after trial, all but one or two will be liable to 
 feel a discouragement, which will dampen the ardour of 
 study, and diminish the amount of knowledge gained. 
 
 Again, the use of emulation as a stimulus in schools 
 lays the foundation for ambition in the pursuits of life, 
 ' I wish to beat' ' I'll try to beat' 'I can beat' < I did 
 beat,' is language you will hear from children and youth 
 as common as any language, where emulation is the in- 
 strument of excitement in any institution of learning. 
 It is introduced into amusements, and leads to all those 
 games where the trial of agility or strength is, to see r 
 who will beat. A foundation is thus laid for what we so 
 often see in after life, of the race of popularity, office- 
 seeking, management and mao3uvres, and efforts to ele- 
 vate one's self by the downfall of others. And 'let it be 
 remembered that the ambition which has so often tram- 
 pled on the rights of mankind, which has reduced mill- 
 ions of freemen to the condition of slaves, which has- 
 shed so much blood, and sacrificed so many lives is only 
 the principle of emulation, acting on a larger scale.* 
 The child in whose breast it is cherished, is prepared, if 
 circumstances are favorable, to be numbered among 
 * those who have been scourges of mankind. Happily, 
 few have the opportunity of seeking an immortality of 
 fame in this way. The principles of government and 
 civil liberty are so well understood, and civil institutions 
 are so firmly established,' in the present age of the world 
 that ambition finds itself restrained in a great measure ; 
 but this does not change its character, or prevent minor 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 117 
 
 efforts unfriendly to the welfare and happiness of the 
 community. It cannot, therefore, with me, be any longer 
 a question whether the instructer ought to make use of 
 this principle to excite his scholars to application and 
 study. It is often injurious to those who are successful, 
 and has a bad effect on the unsuccessful. Connected 
 with pride, vanity, envy, hatred and slander, it is in op- 
 position to real nobleness of character. 
 
 I am now prepared to point out to you some of those 
 means, which may be employed to stimulate the student 
 to make vigorous application to his studies. 
 
 1. Present the 'importance of knowledge and mental 
 improvement as qualifications for respectability, useful- 
 ness and happiness in future life,' This direction regards 
 rather a preparation of the mind for study, than an in- 
 ducement while the scholar is actually engaged in study- 
 ing. It would then, like the motives of emulation, serve 
 only to divert the mind. But it may be highly useful to 
 excite perseverance in acquiring knowledge.' 
 
 2. A desire to gain the approbation of friends and in- 
 structers is a motive of the same kind. It ought not to 
 be thought of while the scholar is studying ; but it may 
 incline him to be more economical of his time, may asso- 
 ciate some pleasing ideas with the thought of taking up 
 his book and obtaining a lesson, and in the intervals of 
 study, may produce an excitement which will prepare 
 the mind for renewed application, He is not to be told 
 he has done better than others, this would be making use 
 of emulation, but he may be told he has done well has 
 done better than usual, or that he has not done as well 
 as he ought, when he has been negligent. For the most 
 part, however, the countenance of the instructer will ex- 
 press sufficient approbation or censure, without the aid 
 of words. If he loves to teach, and to see the improve- 
 ment of his scholars, they will readily perceive his feel- 
 ings, and the liveliest emotions will be excited in their 
 breasts. The pleasure which the good scholar feels, 
 when he sees the smile of approbation is innocent, so 
 long as the principle of emulation is excluded. 
 
 3. A love of learning for its own sake is a very power- 
 ful stimulus. This is a motive which will not only draw 
 
118 LECTURES TO 
 
 the pupil from amusements or other employments to his 
 studies, but will operate powerfully while he is studying 
 to produce intense application and perseverance. The 
 scholar who derives a pleasure from the acquisition of 
 new ideas, and the exercise of his mental powers will be 
 far more likely to understand thoroughly what -he learns ; 
 will find the new ideas he has gained, frequently revolv- 
 ing in his mind afterwards from day to day, and will re- 
 tain them in his memory, ready for use, whenever occa- 
 sion may require. 
 
 4. Present to your scholars their obligations to study 
 as a duty, which if properly regarded will add to their 
 happiness, but if disregarded will subject them to the 
 reprehension of their own consciences. 
 
 It is a duty which they owe to themselves. They are 
 under obligation to regard their own happiness, and to 
 make all reasonable preparation for it. They have an 
 opportunity to add to their enjoyment by increasing their 
 knowledge. To disregard it and to misimprove the op- 
 portunity afforded them, will lay the foundation for sub- 
 sequent sorrow and regret. 
 
 It is a duty, they owe to their teacher, to make the 
 best use of his instructions. His time is devoted to them. 
 He is anxious to help them, and affords every reasonable 
 assistance in the acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 It is a duty they owe their parents, to make the best 
 improvement of the facilities furnished them for gaining 
 knowledge. They have furnished the means for making 
 , improvement in that which will be useful to them in al- 
 ter life, and it is an abuse of parental solicitude and anx- 
 iety, not to make all the advances in knowledge of which 
 they are capable. 
 
 It is a duty they owe to their country, to qualify them- 
 selves to be useful citizens ; and this cannot be done, if 
 they remain ignorant and uncultivated. The country 
 has a claim on all to be as useful as they have the means 
 to be ; this claim reaches children, as well as those of 
 maturer years. 
 
 Lastly, it is a duty they owe Him who made them. 
 He requires them to make a due improvement of their 
 time, and promises his favor to those who obey, and 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 119 
 
 threatens his displeasure against those who disregard his 
 command. 
 
 ' Take fast hold of instruction, let her not go; keep 
 her for she is thy life. Get wisdom, get understanding 
 and forget it not. Wisdom is better than rubies, and all 
 the things that may be desired are not to be compared to 
 it.' Such are the declarations of the book of God, and 
 they require serious attention from the youthful scholar. 
 
 To conclude: Make use of every proper motive to 
 lead the scholar to just views of the value of knowledge, 
 the best means of gaining and using it when acquired. 
 Point out plainly the consequences which must result to 
 himself and others, from indifference and inattention to 
 the opportunity he has of gaining knowledge. 
 
 It is believed that such inducements will be found 
 abundantly sufficient to excite all the attention and ap- 
 plication necessary to insure success in acquiring knowl- 
 edge, except in instances, where there is an entire want 
 or perversion of every common principle. There may 
 be instances where every thing will fail, but extreme se- 
 verity. But such are very uncommon and owe their ex- 
 istence to the neglect or imprudence of parents or teach- 
 ers. If such instances, occur, it may be necessary to re- 
 sort to unusual means, and these must be left to the 
 judgment of the instructer to apply, as the exigences of 
 the case may require. 
 
 LECTURE XIII, 
 
 STRICT attention to all the subjects discussed hereto- 
 fore is indispensable, if you would benefit the scholars 
 placed under your instruction. But other means than 
 those already mentioned must be employed, or you will 
 fail of accomplishing all that is desirable. 
 
 Your work is not done, when you have adopted a ju- 
 
l&O LECTURES TO 
 
 dicious mode of governing and teaching. The charac- 
 ter of the age, and the daily advancements making in 
 your profession particularly, call for something further. 
 Popular education is exciting new interest in the coun- 
 try ; and many, who once looked upon themselves as 
 having out lived the time of improvement, are now learn- 
 ing that they may, by efforts easily made, retrieve some 
 of the losses heretofore sustained. 
 
 The spirit of improvement ought certainly to be car- 
 ried into your schools. In accomplishing this, you are 
 to take the lead in the districts to which your labors are 
 devoted. Every school may become a LYCEUM. It may 
 not, indeed, assume all the features of a town or coun- 
 ty society, but still be a society for mutual improvement. 
 The well directed efforts of primary instructers may in- 
 troduce the general system of Lyceum operations, into 
 every school and every family ; and lay a foundation for 
 constant mental cultivation, during the long period 
 which elapses between schools. An easy and certain 
 method may be devised for awakening an interest in ev- 
 ery neighborhood. 
 
 When we recall to mind the names of a long list of 
 self-taught and self-made men, and examine the results 
 of their efforts and labors, we have the strongest encour- 
 agement to direct the attention of those under our influ- 
 ence, to what they may achieve. It is unquestionably 
 true, that many, who otherwise would be discouraged by 
 the difficulties which they meet, or observe in the pros- 
 pect before them, may however, be stimulated and as- 
 sisted to pursue such a course, as will lead them, by an 
 easy road, to respectability and usefulness : this is to be 
 done by the intellectual discipline and the practical 
 knowledge which they may acquire at the period, and 
 especially by the means just alluded to. I was lately 
 amused by the conversation of two pedlars, who chanced 
 to meet within my hearing. The story, notwithstanding 
 its humble source, may serve as an illustration of the 
 course I wish you to take, in promoting popular educa- 
 tion. 
 
 One, who had not been fortunate in his business, in- 
 quired of his more successful brother, what was the se- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 121 
 
 cret of his success. He replied, 'it is merely this. You 
 call at a house and ask whether any thing is wanted in 
 your line ; the good people say < no, 1 and you leave them 
 and go on. On the contrary, / inquire whether they 
 possess one article or another ; and when I find them 
 without this or that, I immediaiely go to my carriage, 
 select that one and others also, and present them to the 
 view of my customers ; I then state the convenience of 
 possessing the articles, assure them they are excellent, 
 and finally convince them that they cannot do without 
 my wares. Now in this way, I trade at almost every 
 house. The other day I called, and met with the usual 
 answer, 'we do not wish to buy.' Not at all discourag- 
 ed, I told them I would merely show them some articles 
 better than they had ever seen ; accordingly I carried in 
 a quantity of wares, explained their uses, and so per- 
 suaded the people, without much difficulty, that they 
 must have them ; thus I finally sold more than ten dol- 
 lars worth, and took my money. You must convince peo- 
 ple that they can't do without your goods, and then you 
 will trade.' 
 
 Now, I would apply this story to you, in regard to 
 promoting a wish amongst your scholars to possess many 
 tilings, without which they are very well contented, till 
 persuaded that they ought not, and cannot do without 
 them. Show them the value of knowledge, and convince 
 them of their opportunity for gaining it, for you can 
 prove to them that they may obtain it, as well as remain 
 ignorant. When this is done, the most prominent diffi- 
 culty will be removed ; and you will then be prepared to 
 labor with success. 
 
 But, you will ask, * by what means shall this be accom- 
 plished V I will suggest some of those which occur to 
 me as easy and practicable. 
 
 In the first place, having succeeded in establishing or- 
 der in your school, extend an invitation to those scholars, 
 to meet you on some evening, who are willing to make 
 uncommon efforts for acquiring knowledge. Say to them 
 expressly, you wish none to attend, but those who are 
 willing to exert themselves, to make attainments in use- 
 ful knowledge, beyond the usual subjects introduced into 
 
LECTURES TO 
 
 school. In this way, attention will be excited, and you 
 will find but few who will stay away. When you meet 
 them, it may be useful to read or repeat to them the his- 
 tory of some individual, like Franklin, or Rittenhouse ; 
 or, perhaps give account of some of the improve- 
 ments, which have been made in facilitating labor or pro- 
 moting the convenience of man. The wonderful powers 
 of steam, and the uses to which it can be and is applied, 
 in propelling vessels, conducting rail-road cars turning 
 machinery forging anchors spinning cotton printing 
 books or any of its thousand well-known uses, will be to 
 the point. The object is to arouse attention and pro>- 
 mote thought. If you can excite young persons to think, 
 a most important object is gained, and the door is effec- 
 tually opened for improvement. Till this is done, but 
 little can be accomplished, towards benefiting them in 
 any important degree. 
 
 After you have gained this point, you may next present 
 some particular subject for an exercise. It may be con- 
 nected with the studies of the school, or business of life. 
 It ought not, however, to interfere with the school exep- 
 cises ; or tend to take off attention from those subjects 
 which are of primary importance. The following out- 
 lines of a system upon this subject are offered for the 
 consideration of teachers. 
 
 On the first evening, let those who are disposed to at- 
 tend, be requested to state every thing they can concerning 
 the history of the town in which they live ; and if any 
 are sufficiently acquainted with drawing they can give a 
 map of it. As a preparation for this historical exercise, 
 they may be requested to visit, and converse with some 
 of those who have been inhabitants of the place for a 
 long period of time. The oldest residents will be able 
 to relate many particulars, very interesting to the young. 
 This exercise, attended with suitable remarks from the 
 instructer, will be both pleasant and useful to the school, 
 and others who attend. It would certainly add to the inter- 
 est of the exercise on the part of the pupils, if an intelligent 
 citizen well acquainted with the history of the town, or 
 neighborhood, should attend and relate the most impor- 
 tant parts with which he is familiar. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 123 
 
 Then let one be requested to write an account of some 
 interesting historical event, such as the discovery of this 
 country, the Battle of Lexington, Bunker Hill, Benning- 
 ton, Saratoga, &c. To a second may be assigned some 
 other historical subject. It will be necessary to assign 
 exercises sufficient to occupy the evening. Another ev- 
 ening, Jet each one be requested to give as far as proper, 
 an account of the business in which he, or the family to 
 which he belongs, may be engaged, stating its profits, 
 and its difficulties or facilities. A third evening may be 
 devoted to rhetorical exercises, and another, to free re- 
 marks on some important question. Another may be 
 spent in reading interesting accounts of some parts of 
 our own country, or of some other part of the world, 
 time being allowed for making remarks on the subjects. 
 Let an evening be assigned also for the purpose of an- 
 swering questions proposed to you by the pupils. 
 
 It will not be necessary to have these exercises con- 
 fined to males. The females have often more knowl- 
 edge, and are better scholars, than any of the young 
 men found in a district. In all cases, where practica- 
 ble, females should be urged to take a part in the school- 
 Lyceum, and to be present at the meetings. 
 
 It will be useful to them, and interesting to others, to 
 give some account of housewifery. A description of the 
 process of making cheese, an account of the best mode 
 of making butter, or even of the manner of making a 
 loaf of bread, or of brewing beer, would be heard with 
 pleasure and not without advantage, in almost any place. 
 Domestic economy generally, is a proper subject of at- 
 tention, and one on which they may, with the utmost 
 propriety, be requested to read compositions. Many 
 other exercises will claim the attention of females, as 
 much as that of young men. All the subjects, which I 
 shall hereafter mention, are of this class. 
 
 I have been the more particular in these remarks, from 
 the fact, that sufficient attention is not usually paid to 
 female improvement. 
 
 After proper attention has been given to the exercises 
 already mentioned, and others of the same kind, you 
 can proceed to introduce some of the more important 
 
124 LECTURES TO 
 
 principles of Natural Philosophy, and Chemistry, with 
 simple experiments. Moral Philosophy claims particular 
 attention. The younger members may, at the same 
 time, have lessons in Geometry, and its applications to 
 the business and purposes of life. ' Holbrook's First 
 Lessons,' accompanied with a card of diagrams, will 
 afford great amusement, and be highly profitable to 
 scholars of eight or ten years of age. By the same class, 
 the ' Little Philosopher, or Infant School at Home,' 
 might be used with great advantage. It is an admirable 
 work. 
 
 ; When sufficient attention has been given to such stu- 
 dies, the way will be prepared for the regular formation 
 of a Lyceum, on the general principles of these institu- 
 tions. The importance of apparatus will now be per- 
 ceived. You will, of course, make it a subject of early 
 attention. To obtain this will be an object of high im- 
 portance, as it will be a means of facilitating the opera^- 
 tions of the Lyceum, and will make it a common prop- 
 erty. 
 
 Another means of increasing the interest felt by your 
 scholars in these subjects, will be to give, or engage oth- 
 ers to give familiar lectures, furnishing food for reflec- 
 tion, and throwing light on the subjects of study, con- 
 nected with the business and the \vants of life. Is there 
 a physician in your vicinity ? engage him to give some 
 familiar lectures on the human system, the means of pre- 
 serving health, or some other theme within the range of 
 liis profession. Is there a lawyer ? he may point out the 
 several principles of the common law the distinction 
 between this and statute law, the necessity to every citi- 
 zen of a certain amount of legal knowledge, &c. Ig 
 there an ingenious mechanic 1 he may telf something 
 about the nature, importance and uses of his trade. The 
 minister may be requested to give a lecture on the im- 
 portance of Moral Philosophy, or he may explain the 
 nature of the Christian religion,'the value and influence 
 of the Bible, &c. &c. By thus engaging foreign assist- 
 ance, you will be conferring a double benefit. First, the 
 instruction given will be important and highly useful of 
 itself; and secondly, by engaging the attention of those, 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 125 
 
 who take a lead in society, you will render the Lyceum 
 popular. 
 
 You may also confer an important benefit on the 
 neighborhood in which you are employed, by promoting 
 the formation of a library of scientific and useful books. 
 The attention of the young is not sufficiently given to 
 reading of the most useful kind. Young persons are 
 generally better pleased with works of fiction, than with 
 those best calculated to discipline their minds, and to 
 cultivate a good taste. The prevalent taste for read- 
 ing is, in a degree, vitiated ; and whoever is instrumen- 
 tal of correcting it, in a single neighborhood, will un- 
 questionably be a public benefactor. The proportion of 
 tight reading, which has been patronized for a few years 
 past, is altogether too large, The 'Annuals,' c Albums, 1 
 Novels, &c. &c. which have recently been eagerly sought 
 after and read, are exerting a ruinous influence, espe- 
 cially by becoming the occasion of corrupting the taste, 
 and leading the young to neglect those books which 
 would be highly beneficial. I cannot but urge it, there- 
 fore, as highly important, that you exert an influence in 
 favor of a more useful kind of reading ; whenever you 
 can direct the attention of your scholars to those books 
 which will lead to a habit of close thinking, you will de- 
 serve the thanks of every friend to the young. I am 
 fully persuaded, that neither parents nor instructers are 
 sufficiently awake to the effects of the prevalent light 
 reading of the present day. Nothing is accounted in- 
 teresting, to a class of readers, but that which abounds 
 with incident, adventure and catastrophes A love-tale, or 
 something of similar character, is woven into almost ev- 
 ery thing written for the young, and has charms for 
 many, (must I say for some professedly pious youth?) 
 greater than a book of travels, voyages, history or geo- 
 graphy. To such, a scientific book, has ordinarily few 
 charms. Is there not danger on the whole, that what 
 has been gained on the score of a bettef mode of teach- 
 ing, is in danger of being counterbalanced and lost by 
 an injudicious course of reading T Is there not room to 
 fear, that a desire to please the young, has overbalanced 
 a desire to instruct them 1 If my fears are well found- 
 11* 
 
126 LECTURES TO 
 
 ed, you will confer a great benefit on those whom you 
 can persuade to provide, and read attentively, books cal- 
 culated to promote a knowledge and excite a love of the 
 sciences. 
 
 It is my purpose, at this time, to make suggestions 
 only ; your own reflections will furnish you with many 
 things connected with the subjects on which I have spok- 
 en. Let it be an object with you to adapt your mode of 
 operations to the exigencies of your situation. I am 
 aware, that the directions which I have given cannot be 
 followed in all cases. If a Lyceum already exists, or if 
 a course of exercises has been marked out, you will need 
 to pursue that mode which will have the best effect, con- 
 sidered with reference to existing circumstances. In 
 some cases, it may be impracticable to attempt any thing 
 more than to call your scholars together, and instruct 
 them in Geometry, by the help of the First Lessons and 
 cards before mentioned. But, by all means, do some- 
 thing towards effecting the objects contemplated by Ly- 
 ceums. All of you may do something, and must be gov- 
 erned by circumstances as to the best mode. Let not 
 the season pass, however, without making the attempt. 
 Absolute failure, on your part, is preferable to inactivity. 
 Should you not succeed, you will have the pleasure, at 
 least, of reflecting that you have tried to benefit the 
 members who compose your important charge. It will 
 certainly be in your power to disseminate some important 
 intelligence on the subject of popular education. The 
 seed thus sown, may spring up hereafter, under the in- 
 fluence of a warmer sun. Discouragement is not to be 
 indulged, till your efforts have absolutely failed ; and if 
 you go forward with your work steadily, manfully and 
 perseveringly, you may be assured that they never will 
 faiL 
 
 Permit me to say, in the conclusion of this lecture, 
 that much will depend on the impression you make on 
 the parents of your scholars. If you can interest them, 
 there will be but little doubt of your success in interest- 
 ing their children. Be careful, then, to have your ob- 
 jects thoroughly understood by them in the first place. 
 A demand on their purses would be improper, till you 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 127 
 
 have convinced them both that they ought to do some- 
 thing more to benefit their scholars, and also how this 
 may be effected. 
 
 Having once convinced them of the utility of appara- 
 tus, the means for procuring it will generally be obtained 
 without great difficulty. Let the scholars themselves be- 
 come the advocates for appropriations. Some encour- 
 agement from yourself, will afterwards be necessary ; 
 and, in a majority of cases, I have no doubt it will be 
 attended with success. If parents are parsimonious 
 here, their unreasonableness ought to be fully shown. It 
 is certainly true that parsimony is frequently bad econ- 
 omy ; and it may be made to appear so. A few dollars 
 expended for apparatus or judicious books, for example, 
 may prevent the young from forming a habit of seeking 
 amusement in a more expensive manner. In a word 
 satisfy parents what is their true interest, in regard to 
 their children, and your work is accomplished. 
 
 Yield to no discouragements which you may encoun- 
 ter. The object you have in view, is too important to be 
 abandoned in consequence of small obstacles. Remem- 
 ber the maxim, ' labor conquers all things.' If success 
 does not attend your first efforts, let it be a stimulus to 
 greater exertion, rather than a reason for discourage- 
 ment. Resolve to succeed, and maintain your determi- 
 nation ; if your efforts are discreetly directed, some 
 success will inevitably follow, 
 
 LECTURE XIV. 
 
 IN a former Lecture, I attributed the failure of district 
 schools partly to the improper location and inconvenient 
 construction of school-houses. I think the subject so 
 important, that I shall call your attention to it again. 
 Satisfactory evidence is furnished to me, that neither in- 
 
128 LECTURES TO 
 
 structers nor parents are sufficiently sensible of the loss 
 which is sustained from uncomfortable school-rooms. I 
 "will state some of the most common defects, and then 
 give some directions for constructing school-houses. My 
 remarks will have entire reference to the country. 
 
 Most school-houses are improperly located. When 
 one is to be built, the first inquiry usually is where shall 
 it be placed ; each parent wishes it as near his own door 
 as possible. This leads the district to ascertain the geo- 
 graphical centre, and-there erect it. It makes little diff- 
 erence whether on a hill or in a valley ; whether it is so 
 placed, as to be beat upon by bleak winds of winter, or 
 whether it is exposed to the burning rays of a summer's 
 sun, or situated in a shady grove ; whether it is furnish- 
 ed with water or whether the children must suffer from 
 the want of it. All other considerations are lost in the 
 determination to have a house in the centre, and to have 
 a cheap one. Any person who takes the pains to exam- 
 ine the situation of country school-houses, will, I am 
 confident, justify these remarks. 
 
 But to ascertain the centre of a district is far from be- 
 ing the most important object. If tho house can be pla- 
 ced near the centre without sacrificing more important 
 objects it is well ; but other considerations are still more 
 important.* 
 
 *< Great effects result from little causes.' For this reason,, if for no 
 other, special pains should be taken to render every thing connected with 
 early education such as it should be. It is now generally the opinion of 
 the "best judges of human character, that different degrees of intellectual 
 strength and excellence, depend more upon the circumstances under which- 
 individual minds have been developed, than upon any difference in natural 
 endowments. There are, however, no means by which we can certainly 
 know whether or not, all minds are originally alike ; but, be this as it 
 may, no one can doubt that circumstances go very far in making every man 
 what he is, in respect to intellectual, as well as moral character. 
 
 On this principle, I believe, that too much pains cannot be taken to ren- 
 der the place of a child's education a pleasant and delightful spot. The 
 objects by which he is surrounded should be such as to make the most val- 
 uable impressions upon his mind. Every man who has the slightest ac- 
 quaintance with the philosophy of mind, knows that it takes a cast much in 
 accordance with the objects, which are most familiar. If they are of a 
 cheering and sprightly character, the mind of the child will be formed to 
 cheerfulness and vivacity. But, if the objects, which he is accustomed 
 most frequently to behold, are dark and gloomy in their aspect, the mind 
 will consequently become gloomy and dejected. 
 
 For these reasons then, great care should be taken to select the most de- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 129 
 
 No provision is usually made to furnish the means for 
 obtaining water ; and the bad consequences of this de- 
 ficiency are by no means inconsiderable. I can remem- 
 ber suffering more from thirst, while a child at school, 
 than at any other period of my life. If the advantage of 
 a spring or running stream cannot be secured, a well 
 should always be provided, and furnished with a pump, 
 so that young children can procure drink for themselves. 
 This convenience is required in the winter, scarcely less 
 than in the summer ; for a large portion of the scholars, 
 in most schools, do not return home at noon, but make 
 their dinner of dry food, which they carry to the school. 
 
 2. School-houses are usually too small. This is a 
 very important fault, and is almost universal. Many 
 were erected while the districts were small and ther.e 
 were few scholars. After the number has doubled, or 
 more than doubled, the same houses are occupied, let the 
 inconvenience be ever so great. I have not unfrequent- 
 ly seen from sixty to eighty children, crowded into a 
 
 lightful situation for the location of a school-house. This subject, however 
 seems to have excited, comparatively, but little interest. But were I to 
 educate a child who should possess the most happy temperament, and the 
 most valuable traits of intellectual character, this should be one of the first 
 objects of attention. 
 
 The spot where the child is to spend those days and months in which his 
 mind its to be most rapidly developed and expanded, should be such as to 
 present the charms of nature in their loveliest aspect. After having select- 
 ed a pleasant situation for the location of a school-house, the hand of art 
 should not be wanting to enrich and embellish it. These objects should be 
 attained, even if they require a considerable sacrifice of time and money. 
 
 The above remarks have been suggested, partly by my own experience, 
 and partly by observation. The spot, where I received the rudiments of 
 education, possessed some peculiar charms. It was not in all respects the 
 most pleasant ; but the scenery was romantic and cheerful. The house was 
 situated in one of the richest groves that nature ever reared; this grove 
 served as a barrier against the stormy winds of winter, and a shield from 
 the piercing rays of the summer's sun; and when the time for the * singing 
 of birds had come,' the sweet songsters that caroled there, shed an air of 
 inexpressible delight over the place. 
 
 The ground sloped gently for some distance towards the east, and then 
 descended more abruptly to the borders of a deep valley, through which 
 flowed a meandering and beautiful stream. The impressions which this 
 scenery made upon my mind are even now exceedingly distinct, and the re- 
 collection of that spot always awakens a train of delightful associations. 
 
 But I have since spent many months, as a teacher, in situations the very 
 reverse of what I have above described, and have often been forcibly struck 
 with the want of taste and judgment in the location of these earliest homes 
 of the forming mind.' 
 
130 LECTURES TO 
 
 room hardly large enough for forty. The scholars can- 
 not write without jostling each other, and cannot even 
 sit without great inconvenience. Hence, an almost con- 
 stant complaint is carried up to the master, of injury 
 sustained from one another. This is entirely unavoida- 
 ble when twenty must occupy a desk and seat furnishing 
 only sufficient accomodations for ten. Improvement in 
 writing, even under the best instructers, is not, in such 
 circumstances, to be expected. When a scholar is ex- 
 posed to be jostled or crowded while making every let- 
 ter, there is hardly an inducement for him to try to make 
 improvement. 
 
 This is not all the inconvenience resulting from such 
 narrow accommodations. Children are accustomed to 
 associate the disgreeable circumstances, in which they 
 are placed, with the studies they are required to pursue ; 
 and thus are led to dislike what they ought to love. In- 
 stead of associating every thing that is agreeable with 
 the idea of learning, they connect with it every thing un- 
 pleasant and uncomfortable. Excepting the opportunity 
 it furnishes for meeting their associates and enjoying the 
 society of their play-mates, the school can have very few 
 charms for them. I am inclined to think, on the whole, 
 that the indifference, often manifested by the young, to 
 learning, arises in no small degree from the want of 
 proper accomodations while attending school. 
 
 3. School-houses are cold, as well as otherwise un- 
 comfortable and inconvenient. This remark has some 
 exceptions, yet they are few. When such a house is to 
 be built, it is common for a district meeting to be called. 
 The first thing is to agree on the size and location, and 
 the next is to let the job to the lowest bidder. It mat- 
 ters not how ignorant he may be of the wants of a 
 school, or the best mode of constructing a school-house. 
 He must make the offer to build it cheap,' because sev- 
 eral are desirous of doing it. It follows, as a necessary 
 consequence, that the work must be done in the cheap- 
 est manner : and, accordingly, the builder makes his 
 calculations, to slight it in every part where it can be, 
 without a very manifest danger of failing to have it ac- 
 cepted by the district. It will of course lack every thing 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 131 
 
 which is not absolutely indispensable : and in its con- 
 struction, little, very little reference will be made to the 
 convenience and wants of scholars. The desks, seats, 
 and every other part, are made by one who is either ig- 
 norant of the manner in which they ought to be made 
 or interested to make them in the worst manner and 
 perhaps both. Wherever these remarks hold true, it 
 cannot be considered strange, that school-houses are en- 
 tirely unsuitable for the purposes to which they are ap- 
 plied. They must be cold, uncomfortable and inconve- 
 nient. The consequent loss both to parents and children 
 requires but little illustration. A child cannot learn, 
 when he is uncomfortable ; his health often suffers very 
 much, and his attention is necessarily and very unplea- 
 santly withdrawn from the subjects of study. The addi- 
 tional quanity of wood consumed, amounts in a few 
 years, to a sum more than sufficient to pay the expense 
 of making the house comfortable. 
 
 I have often seen houses where glass to a large amount 
 was wanting, and must every morning be supplied by 
 hats, coats, slates, &c. Sometimes this has been known 
 to continue year after year. If I wished to amuse you, 
 I have ample materials in the reports which pedagogues 
 have given me of their accommodations in some places. 
 They were, nevertheless, expected to cause the scholars 
 to make rapid advances in their studies. * The tale of 
 brick must be furnished, though straw is denied.' One 
 Master says 'My school-house would afford a fine 
 opportunity to winnow grain, for the wind passes in very 
 fine currents in all directions. Twenty panes of glass 
 are broken or gone, and the holes are nearly large 
 enough to force one's head through. A few crazy, desks 
 ;and rickety seats furnish fine accommodations for writ- 
 ing. The fire place makes no little show as you enter. 
 It is about as wide as a volcano's crater : being shrewdly 
 "designed to favor the boys about chopping fire wood. 
 When filled with wood, and well ignited, an ox might be 
 roasted before it with very little inconvenience.' 
 
 Another makes the following report. I like Arith- 
 metic, and, therefore, will just inform you, that nine 
 tenths of the broken glass will precisely equal eighteen 
 
lE<rr*JRES TO 
 
 twentieths of 'what remains. Some of our doors deserve 
 mention, as furnished with one convenience not very 
 frequent ; in the upper half are two large apertures, 
 where I suppose pannels were, in days of yore. These 
 holes answer an excellent purpose in letting out the 
 heated air, while they also supply us with a fresh and 
 strong current from out-of-doors, which, you know, is 
 quite healthy. The outside door, being without hinges, 
 is^of course, used only on the occasion of North-east 
 storms. At such times, we get plenty of fresh air by 
 taking out a few hats from the windows or by not being 
 able to keep them in, as the case may be. 1 
 
 Another says. ' You would be somewhat amused to 
 pay me a visit this winter. We have from 50 to 70 
 scholars our room would seat 40 or 45 by the help of a 
 few back-logs laid around in the area. A numerous class 
 are constantly enjoying the privilege of a roasting fire 
 closely applied, when we get it to burn, which, (as we 
 have only green wood,) is usually about 11 o'clock. I 
 should not forget the music made by incessant appeals 
 to the master, in bass, tenor and treble tunes, set to words 
 somewhat like the following : ' John has got my seat 
 Mercy crowds me Charity won't let me sit down, &c. 
 &c. Fine accommodations for sliding are furnished. 
 The house being on the lower side of the road, the first 
 snows are blown down so as to fill the entry, and prevent 
 closing the door. Thus the scholars have an inclined 
 plane, at an angle of 30 degrees, extending from the 
 road to the middle of the entry, they have only to put 
 themselves at the end of it, therefore, and they are 
 brought into the house in a moment. I might tell you 
 several other things which would make you envy my ac- 
 commodations ; but I withhold them.' 
 
 Such are the accommodations still found in some districts. 
 But I forbear to amuse you with any farther accounts of 
 them. I shall conclude with the following directions for 
 furnishing a suitable school-room. 
 
 After the place is selected, the next thing is to build 
 the house. The first object in doing this should be, to 
 have the work thoroughly done from the foundation, 
 in order to make the building as tight and warm as pos- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 133 
 
 sible. The underpinning requires particular attention, 
 to prevent the wind from penetrating under the floor. 
 It would make the house much warmer if two floors were 
 laid, and the space between them filled with tan. This 
 may easily be done. Three or four inches will be suffi- 
 cient distance between the floors. The upper floor should 
 press very hard on the tan. This will also serve to pre- 
 vent a great part of the noise made by walking and 
 moving the feet on the floor. The additional expense of 
 this will be small, and the advantages important. Let 
 equal pains be taken with every part. The wainscoting 
 and ceiling, the plastering, within, and clapboarding on 
 the outside, should be made as tight as possible. The 
 lumber ought to be seasoned in the most thorough man- 
 ner. 
 
 If a school-house is erected in a place where it will 
 be exposed to strong winds, it would be well to furnish 
 windows, to be put on the outside of the window frames 
 in the winter, making the glass double. These may be 
 removed in the summer, when it is necessary to open 
 the windows. This will occasion some additional ex- 
 pense ; but it will be saved again in the diminished quan- 
 tity of fuel necessary to warm the room. A hundred 
 dollars, in addition to the usual cost, would make the 
 building much more comfortable, and would add greatly 
 to the improvement made by the scholars. And let me 
 ask, will not every parent who has a proper regard for 
 the comfort, health and progress of his children, be will- 
 ing to bear his , proportion of expense with others, in 
 providing these necessary conveniences for them ? 
 
 2. Let the seats and desks be constructed in the most 
 convenient and most thorough manner. It will be ask- 
 ed, what is the best mode of making and placing them I 
 In order to answer this question satisfactorily, I must 
 mention some of the usual defects. 
 
 1. The seats are commonly much too narrow to per- 
 mit scholars to sit comfortably on them. I have exam- 
 ined many houses, in which the seats are not more than 
 ten or twelve inches wide, while the backs are perpen- 
 dicular. On a seat of that width, no one can sit six or 
 seven hours without great fatigue. Scholars will be 
 12 
 
134 LECTURES TO 
 
 wearied and noisy therefore, and cannot be very much 
 blamed for it. The seats ought to be from 14 to 16 
 inches wide, made of plank and hollowed out in the form 
 of a chair. They may be of less width if the backs incline 
 and are not perpendicular. But when this is not the 
 case, they should never be less than I have stated. 
 
 2. Another common error is committed in making the 
 desks too narrow, and placing them too far from the 
 seats. The inclined part of the desk ought not to be 
 less than 15 or 16 inches in width, and the horizontal 
 plane not less than from four to six inches. On the out- 
 side there should be an elevation of an inch in height, to 
 prevent inkstands from being crowded off. The edge of 
 the desk nearest the seat, ought not to be more than one 
 inch from a perpendicular, which would touch the forward 
 part of the seat. This, I know, will not furnish conve- 
 nient room for standing up at the desk. But as no one 
 wishes to stand but a very small part of the day, (and it 
 is not necessary that any exercise should be performed 
 standing,) it cannot be wise to construct the desks so as 
 to be inconvenient during the whole time scholars wish 
 to be seated at them. When the writing tables are from 
 four to eight inches from the seat, the scholar must as- 
 sume an uncomfortable and awkward posture, whenever 
 he wishes to write. 
 
 Much has been said in regard to the most convenient 
 mode of locating the seats and desks : The opinions of 
 teachers are very various on this subject. I can give you 
 only the results of my own experience and observation, 
 and am not disposed to say, that the plan I shall pro- 
 duce, is certainly the best. If a better one is known, or 
 can be found, I shall be glad to adopt it. 
 
 The convenience of both master and scholar, must be 
 consulted, in the internal arrangement of a school-house. 
 The desk for the master should be placed where it will 
 be of easy access, and where he can see the whole 
 school. The seats and desks for the scholars should be 
 so arranged that each one can go to his seat, and can 
 leave it without jostling any other. The seats should be 
 as comfortable as possible, and the desks made conve- 
 nient for writing. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 135 
 
 In the plan for a school-house which follows, I have 
 aimed to obtain all these objects, without making the 
 house too large, and without making the finish more ex- 
 pensive, than is obviously necessary. The aisle, which 
 passes between the desks, extends around the whole 
 house. It may be entered on either side of the door, 
 and on either side of the master's desk. While the 
 school is writing, the instructer can go to every scholar, 
 and examine his posture, manner of holding his pen, 
 &c. in a very short time. The space in the centre is 
 sufficiently wide for all the purposes for which it is ne- 
 cessary. 
 
 If it is wished to warm the house by a fire, a small 
 chimney may be erected where the door, from the entry 
 is placed, in the plan ; and doors may open into the room 
 on each side of it. The entry should be made a little 
 wider, if a chimney is erected, in order to furnish suffi- 
 cient room to hang up hats and clothes. A stove may 
 still be put in the place designated in the plan, and the 
 funnel be conducted into the chimney. 
 
 If a house of smaller dimensions is in any place de- 
 signed, the number of seats and desks may be diminish- 
 ed, by lessening the length of the building. The num- 
 ber of desks and seats in the plan, is sufficient for 60 
 scholars, 56 of whom can write at the same time. The 
 seats designed for small scholars are not included, so that 
 about 80 can be conveniently accommodated in the room. 
 This number is too large for a school, under one teach- 
 er; and it is often desirable to have two rooms instead of 
 one. The younger members will, then occupy one, un- 
 der the care of a monitor or assistant teacher, while 
 the others receive the undivided attention of the mas- 
 ter. 
 
 I have been led to this minute detail, from the fact 
 that very much, in the formation of character and pro- 
 gress in acquiring knowledge, must depend on the con- 
 veniences furnished to children, at the district school. 
 I hope the time is not distant when the subjects of this 
 Lecture, will claim the attention which their importance 
 demands. 
 
136 LECTURES TO 
 
 NOTE. The following 1 remarks from a valuable REPORT on 
 school-houses, read before the Essex Co. Mass. Convention of 
 Teachers and published by their order, I beg leave to add to 
 the foregoing remarks* The whole Report ought to be read in 
 every school district. 
 
 As the situation should be pleasant and healthy, so there 
 should be sufficient space around the building. With the num- 
 ber who ordinarily attend these institutions, not less than a 
 quarter of an acre should ever be thought of as a space for their 
 accommodation, and this should be enclosed from the public 
 highway, so as to secure it from cattle, that the children may 
 have a safe and clean place for exercise at recess and at other 
 
 times. Every School House, beside the public room, should 
 
 have an apartment in which the apparatus, library, &c. may be 
 placed ; for with an apparatus and library, every school ought 
 to be furnished. No building designed as a place of pub- 
 lic assembly, should be destitute of an accommodation of this 
 
 kind. Attached to all School Houses, there should be 
 
 sheds, as a store-house for wood, and shelter to the children from 
 the violence of the storm, and the burning heat of the sun, at 
 
 recess and intermission at noon. Means of ventilation 
 
 should be provided in every school room. Various methods 
 may be adopted ; such as letting down the windows from the 
 top, or small openings in the upper ceiling of the house. It is 
 thought, however, that in most instances, where a fire is kept in 
 the room, the easiest, and the most effectual, is a small opening 
 into the flue of the chimney, or through the stove pipe, (where 
 there is no chimney,) near the upper ceiling. 
 
 If the room be large, it will require more than one vent to 
 convey off the impure atmosphere effectually. And even in 
 small rooms, other ways should be resorted to, besides these 
 openings, or the air will not be preserved in a healthful state. 
 We recommend the opening of windows for a few minutes at 
 recess, every half day, and when the atmosphere is particularly 
 close, at other and shorter intervals. Connected with eve- 
 ry School House, there should be a good well, furnished per- 
 haps with a pump, as the safest way for the children to get their 
 water. Water for drink and other purposes, children need, and 
 must have ; and no neighbor ought to be subject from year to 
 year, to constant and numerous inconveniences of having the 
 children drawing at his well. 
 
 There should also be a sink and other conveniences for wash- 
 ing, belonging to each house. Scrapers and mats ought like- 
 wise to be kept at the doorv. > -Though Instructers may, or- 
 dinarily, have no direct agency in erecting and repairing the 
 buildings where they are employed to keep school, yet by a lit- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 137 
 
 tie carefulness, ingenuity and enterprise, they can do much to 
 avoid some of the evils connected with them. When about to 
 open a school they can look at the house, as a mechanic at his 
 shop, and adapt their system to the building, and not carry into 
 a house ill adapted to its developement, a system of operations, 
 however speculatively just it may appear in their own minds. 
 The buildings are already constructed, and of materials not 
 over plastic, and often as incapable of accommodating a system 
 got up in some other place, as the house of the Vicar of Wake- 
 field was, for the family painting. Instructers should make the 
 most of what is comfortable and convenient, and remedy as far 
 as possible what is bad. If the pupils are uncomfortably seat- 
 ed, they can allow them occasionally to change their seats, or 
 alter their position, which, though attended with some inconve- 
 nience, cannot be compared with the evils growing out of pain 
 and restlessness, and the effects which are likely to be produced 
 upon the health, the disposition, morals, and progress in learn- 
 ing, from a long confinement in an uneasy position. Instructers 
 can and ought to use their influence and authority, to preserve 
 the buildings from injuries, such as cutting the tables, loosening 
 and splitting the seats, breaking the doors and windows, by 
 which most houses of this class are shamefully mutilated, and 
 their inconveniences, great enough at first, are increased. The 
 extent to which injuries of this kind are done, and the incon- 
 veniences arising from it, in respect of writing bo6ks and 
 clothes, are great beyond what is ordinarily thought ; and as it 
 it is possible in a considerable degree to prevent them, they 
 should not be tolerated. So far as the scholars are concerned, 
 it may arise from a mixture of causes ; thoughtlessness, idle- 
 ness, a restless disposition or real intent to do injury. . 
 
 Teachers should take the management of the fire entirely under 
 their own control. We will close these remarks by observ- 
 ing that after an extensive and careful examination of the state 
 of a great number of school houses in this and other States, we 
 are constrained to believe^ that in regard to accommodation, the 
 convicts in the State Prisons, except those condemned to solita- 
 ry and perpetual confinement, and we are not certain that in all 
 cases these should be excepted, are better provided for, than the 
 dear children of New-England, the glory of the present, and 
 the hope of the coming age. And when we regard the delete*- 
 reous effect which the want of accommodation and other imper- 
 fections in and about these buildings, must have upon the 
 growth, health, and perfectness of the bodily system, upon the 
 mental and moral power, upon the tender and delicate feeling 
 of the heart, we must suppose there is as pressing a call for the 
 direct interference of the wise and benevolent, to produce an 
 improvement, as there is- for the efforts of the Prison Discipline, 
 
138 
 
 LECTURES TO 
 
 Society, or for many of the benevolent exertions of the day. 
 And we do most solemnly and affectionately call upon all, ac- 
 cording to their situation in life, to direct their attention to the 
 subject ; for the bodies, the minds, the hearts of the young and 
 rising generation require this. It is a service due to the pres- 
 ent and future generation. A service due to their bodies and 
 souls. 
 
 LECTURE XV. 
 
 [The substance of the following Lecture has been repeated 
 several times, before teachers and others. A few of the thoughts 
 may be found in some of the preceding pages, yet there is not a 
 sufficient degree of similarity, to make it improper to give it in 
 this place. No one will understand me to say that the course 
 marked out can be literally followed under all circumstances. 
 But the principles, are of general application.] 
 
 I CAN introduce the subjects to which your attention is 
 now called, in no way better than by giving an extract 
 of a letter, which is a specimen of many received from 
 former pupils. 
 
 ' Pray tell me how to begin my school. What 
 
 is thejirst thing to be done 1 the second, third, &c. 
 
 The remark ' much depends on the manner in which you 
 begin, 1 I believe is true, and I wish to begin right. Any 
 information on this will be very gratefully received by 
 your QUONDAM PUPIL. 
 
 While I attempt to make some suggestions with re- 
 gard to the FIRST DAYS WORK in a school, it may be well to 
 introduce you into one, and let you hear I he remarks of 
 the teacher, and observe the replies of the scholars. 
 The instructer has studied human character; he has ta- 
 ken pains to digest such a system as will meet the wants 
 of his youthful charge. He knows there are obstacles 
 to his success, and has made them familiar, as the na- 
 ture of the case will admit. He has thought much, very 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 139 
 
 muck, on the most judicious means of surmounting them. 
 Willing to labor for the good of his scholars, he will not 
 inquire when he has ' kept his hours,' but, when he has 
 done all that duty suggests and love prompts. 
 
 He enters the school-room, revolving in his mind the 
 probable consequences of his connexion with the group 
 of children and youth committed to his care. Finding 
 thirty or forty scholars, who retire to their seats, as he 
 enters the school-room, he addresses them with a cheer- 
 ful ' good morning,' and continues, 
 
 ' I am happy to see so many together. I hope all of 
 you are pleased to have your school commence : for it 
 is always pleasant to teach those who love to receive in- 
 struction. I shall wish to converse with you about sev- 
 eral things, this morning, but first it may be proper to 
 read a chapter from that Book, which contains the in- 
 struction of Him who is the great Creator and Instruc- 
 ter of us all.* 
 
 1 presume all of you have attended school be- 
 fore. Have you always had a good school 1 
 
 Scholars. ' No sir, not always.' 
 
 Well, which did you like best a good school, or a poor 
 onel 
 
 S. [smiling] a good school. 
 
 That certainly is right, and if you can now tell me 
 what you mean by a good school, perhaps we can con- 
 trive to have one this winter. You may tell me there- 
 fore what you mean by a good school. 
 
 (The scholars look at each other and at the teacher, 
 but remain silent.) 
 
 Is it hard to tell what you mean by a good school ? 
 Some of the older scholars can give me some account of 
 one. 
 
 (The scholars still remain silent-) 
 
 Perhaps you will understand me better if I make some 
 direct iniquities. Is that a good school where scholars 
 are permitted to play whenever they choose and be as 
 idle as they please ? 
 
 *No teacher can be justified in neglecting to make this his first and 
 last work every day in school. A reverence for the BIBLE is one of the 
 greatest safeguards which the young can have, and he who does not aim to 
 cultivate this,, fails of accomplishing his whole duty. 
 
140 
 
 LECTURES TO 
 
 S. No sir, certainly not, for nothing would be learn- 
 ed. 
 
 It seems then, that you think a school, in order to be 
 a good one, must be such as to secure the acquisition of 
 knowledge. Is it important that there should be order 
 and regularity, in a school ? 
 
 S. Yes sir. 
 
 In a good school, does the master obey the scholars, 
 or do they obey him ? 
 
 S. The scholars obey their teacher ? 
 
 Can the teacher make the school a good one, if the 
 scholars do not try to aid him, or can they make it good 
 if he does not aid them ? 
 
 S. We think not : it is necessary both should try. 
 
 I wish to ascertain how many of the scholars are suffi- 
 ciently desirous of having a good school to be willing to 
 aid me therein. All who are so, may raise their hands* 
 I am happy to see so many hands up- 
 
 It will be very convenient for me to know the names 
 of all who wish to have a good school. I shall therefore 
 write a sentence, in a small book which I have, express- 
 ing the wish just intimated. Each one who approves of 
 it may write his name under it. 
 
 On the opposite page I will write another sentence 
 and those who have no wish to have a good school may 
 place their names under that. 
 
 The book will be upon my table and can be examined 
 at any time. If any scholar wishes to transfer his name 
 from one page to the other, permission will be cheerfully 
 given, whenever this is intimated to me. 
 
 FIRST PAGTE. 
 
 We, whose names are belmv, 
 wish to have a good school, and 
 are willing and promise to do 
 all which is reasonable, to aid 
 the teacher in securing the ben- 
 ejiis of it. 
 
 NAMES, 
 
 SECOND PAQE-. 
 
 We t whose names are below, 
 frankly say, we have not suffi- 
 cient anxiety about acquiring 
 knowledge and making progress 
 in our studies, to make us will- 
 ing to aid the teacher in his 
 ejj'orts to secure it. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 141 
 
 [The teacher reads each sentence, and then commenc- 
 ing with the older scholars, asks each one on whicfo 
 page his name shall be placed, or, as many times may 
 be preferable passess the book, for each one to sign for 
 himself. No one can object on the terms proposed te 
 have his name registered under one sentence or the^ 
 other. And very few will be willing on the Jirst day of 
 the school, to sign the latter. Public opinion may thus 
 be secured in favor of a good school and the teacher is 
 prepared to proceed to make other arrangements.] 
 
 I am happy, to find that so many are willing to second 
 my efforts. My object, in coming here as your teacher, 
 is to benefit YOU to the extent of my ability. For this, I 
 am willing to devote my whole time and talents. If I 
 can be secure of your efforts, I have no doubt the time 
 will pass, both pleasantly to me, and profitable to you. 
 
 On several other subjects it is important that I should 
 become acquainted with the opinion of the scholars. 
 
 How many think that vulgar, profane or obscene lan- 
 guage ought to be allowed, in order to have a good 
 school 1 1 see no hands up. 
 
 How many wish to be allowed to use such language T 
 No one votes for it ? 
 
 How many think that such language is wrong, and 
 
 ought not to be permitted ? 1 am happy to see s& 
 
 many raise their hands now. Will it be right for one 
 scholar to strike, or in any way injure another? 
 
 S. No sir. 
 
 Will it be proper for one to whisper to an other or in 
 any way injure him while studying and especially, do it 
 without permission ? If any think it right, they may 
 raise their hands. 
 
 If any think it wrong, they may give the sign. 
 
 I am happy to find so many, that think such a prac- 
 tice wrong. 
 
 Perhaps it will help to secure correct conduct, if I 
 write some of the opinions which have been expressed, 
 in the same book, in which you have already written 
 your names ; you may subscribe them or not, just as you 
 choose. Those who do not wish such things discounte- 
 nanced can put their names on the fourth page. 
 
142 
 
 LECTURES TO 
 
 THIRD PAGE. 
 
 We, whose names are below, 
 agree that any profane, vulgar, 
 indelicate, obscene language, or 
 any unkind expressions towards 
 each other, ought not to be toler- 
 ated in this school. We also 
 agree that scholars ought not to 
 interrupt each other. 
 
 FOURTH PAGE. 
 
 We, whose names are below, 
 are unwilling to be restrained 
 from using profane vulgar, in- 
 delicate, and obscene language. 
 
 Nor are we willing to oe pre- 
 vented from interrupting each 
 other. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 [The instructor reads each page, and then proceeds.] 
 
 Each scholar is at liberty to have his name recorded 
 on the third page, or the fourth. And any one who may 
 hereafter desire to transfer his name from one to the 
 other, will have free permission. It is, by no means, my 
 wish to have any one tell me he wishes to have a happy 
 and profitable school, if he does not desire it. And if 
 any scholar does prefer to be idle and consequently 
 wicked, it is very important that I should be apprized of 
 it, so that I may use proper efforts to convince or re- 
 claim him. 
 
 I shall now pass the book for each scholar who can, 
 to write his own name. If any have not learned to 
 write, they can tell me where they wish to have it writ- 
 ten. 
 
 [When this subject is dismissed, the instructor proceeds.] 
 
 I have been conversant with some schools where very 
 few benefits were secured, because the scholars were sel- 
 dom ready to recite together. If half of a class obtain 
 a lesson, and the other half fail, both parts must suffer. 
 If those recite who are ready, they ought not to be hin- 
 dered by the others. If the tardy half continue in the 
 class, they do it with great disadvantage, for they must 
 omit a lesson which may prevent them from understand- 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 143 
 
 ing the next. This evil may be avoided by adopting a 
 rule to have a time for each exercise, and having all in 
 a class prepared at the time. At least, to establish 
 this, with regard to all the larger classes is highly neces- 
 sary. The rule of a very wise man, the great Washing- 
 ton was, to have a * time for every thing, and every thing 
 done in its time.' How many think it will be expedient 
 for us to adopt this as a standing rule in the school ? 
 
 I am happy to see a large majority are in favor of it. 
 
 Perhaps it will be beneficial to converse on another 
 subject a moment. In many district schools, some of 
 the scholars are tardy in getting in at the proper time to 
 commence. It may be impossible for every one to be 
 punctual. But I have commonly found that those who 
 come late do so from their own indolent habits. They 
 are commonly better friends to their pillows than they 
 are to their books. If they lie in bed late, it is impossi- 
 ble, as the mornings are short, that they should arrive at 
 school early. 
 
 If a school does not commence till ten in the morning, 
 a sixth part of the time is lost. If a few are early, while 
 the majority are late, the former are injured by the lat- 
 ter, as they are constantly disturbed and hindered. 
 
 If we desire to have a good school, I think we must 
 devise means to secure an early attendance. I shall be 
 here, before it is time to commence the exercises, and 
 shall be happy to meet as many as possible in season to 
 give an account and an illustration of several things, 
 which do not come within the range of our studies ; but 
 about which it is very important for you to gain some 
 knowledge. 
 
 How many think that our school ought to meet punc- 
 tually at nine o'clock in the morning? All who do, 
 may give the sign. 
 
 How many are willing to use uncommon efforts to be 
 at school early ? 
 
 [In different places, there will be different answers to 
 these questions, and the teacher will have occasion to 
 vary his remarks according to them. I have in other in- 
 stances given or implied the answer of the scholars. It 
 
144 LECTURES TO 
 
 could be done with safety, as nothing but common sense 
 is requisite to insure them.] 
 
 The particular location of the school may sometimes 
 render other regulations indispensable. If it be near a 
 tavern or store, or if it is near a hill, where sliding will 
 be dangerous or on the margin of a pond or river, where 
 scholars may be in danger of breaking through the ice, 
 particular provision may be made, as the nature of the 
 case may require. 
 
 If members of the school have before accustomed 
 themselves to devote their evenings to parties or other 
 recreations, incompatible with their studies, the impro- 
 priety of continuing such exercises can be easily pointed 
 out, or the scholars may be required to decide on the 
 comparative value of mere amusement and solid intellec- 
 tual improvement. Far gone in dissipation, must be 
 that young person, who in the presence of his teacher 
 will assert that amusement is more valuable than know- 
 ledge, and few will be found^in districts schools, willing 
 to confess such an opinion. 
 
 [Having disposed of the subjects already mentioned 
 the instructer proceeds :] 
 
 I hope from what I have seen this morning, that I 
 shall be spared the pain of witnessing a neglect of the 
 duties of the school ; and particularly do I hope, none 
 will be so regardless of their character and happiness as 
 to become guilty of any of those things which most of 
 you have acknowledged ought not to be tolerated. But 
 still it is possible some may be so forgetful or regardless 
 of duty as to do those things which are wrong. What 
 ought to be done under such circumstances? Will it be 
 right for me to overlook such conduct ? 
 
 8. No sir. 
 
 T. Why not ? 
 
 S. Because, others will be less afraid to do wrong. 
 
 How many of you think those who do things which 
 they know to be wrong, ought to be corrected 1 All, 
 who do, may give the usual sign. 
 
SCHOOL-MASTERS. 145 
 
 I am happy to see so great a uniformity in school on 
 this subject. And as it will be convenient for me to 
 know the names of each one whose opinion is correct 
 on this subject, I shall write the opinion, in my book, 
 and you may record your names under it. If any pre- 
 fer to subscribe to a different sentiment they can do it on 
 the sixth page. 
 
 FIFTH PAGE. 
 
 We agree that scholars, ivho 
 willfully act in opposition to 
 what they know is right, deserve 
 and ought to receive due pun- 
 ishment for such offences, and 
 that we shall justify our instruc- 
 ter in administering it. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 SIXTH 
 
 We, ivhose names are on this 
 page, do not wish the instructer 
 to punish the offences commit- 
 ted by those ivho wish to do 
 wrong. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 In ordinary circumstances, this may be sufficient, for 
 the first arrangements, on the subject of government &c. 
 and the instructer will be prepared to proceed to other 
 departments of his labor, on which sufficient directions 
 have been before given. 
 
 If any teacher is ready to inquire why I recommend 
 a course like the preceding, I answer : the scholars will 
 be led by it, to reflect on the character of the school, the 
 nature of its duties, and their personal responsibility. 
 They will readily perceive that the instructer is acquain- 
 ted with his employment, is qualified to confer benefit 
 upon them. 
 
 This course will, also, lay a heavy restraint on the ex- 
 ercise of those passions, which are ruinous to both their 
 happiness and improvement. He must be a very hard- 
 ened boy, who will afterwards justify himself for doing 
 things, which, on ihejirst day of the school, he acknowl- 
 edged wrong and incompatible with a good school es- 
 pecially when he had his choice to record his name 
 where he chose. 
 
 Whenever a course, similar to the above, has been 
 pursued, very few cases of serious discipline have ever 
 13 
 
 
14G LECTURES ON, &C. 
 
 been known, and I am confident that human nature 
 must change, before they will, under such circumstances, 
 become frequent. 
 
 Lastly, the labors of the teacher are rendered much 
 more pleasant, by using preventives of indolence and 
 crime, in this early stage of his efforts. So far as his 
 labors are made pleasant to himself, they will be likely 
 to be so, to the school ; for, in the presence of a Iw^mi 
 teacher, it is hardly possible to find ari unhappy school. 
 PREVENTION is BETTER THAN CURE. 
 
 [Lecture XVI, on the MANNER OF USING APPARATUS, 
 will be published in a separate pamphlet, as s.oon as the 
 health of the Author will permit.] 
 
QUESTIONS. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE I. 
 
 1. Is a person properly qualified to become a teacher 
 bj the acquisition of science merely 7 
 
 2. What else ought he to study ? 
 
 3. What has been the practice of many who have tried 
 to teach ? 
 
 4. What ought every one to obtain, who means to 
 teach school 1 Why ? 
 
 5. Of what is there a general conviction ? 
 
 6. Is the value of common schools sufficiently realiz- 
 ed? 
 
 7. What shows the importance of district schools ? 
 
 8. Who exhibit a high degree of interest in the char- 
 acter and usefulness of schools ? 
 
 9. What is one way in which indifference is exhibted ? 
 
 10. Do you ihiuk that every parent ought to attend the 
 district school-meeting in his neighborhood ? 
 
 11. What vote is sometimes passed by a district 1 
 
 12. How is indifference shown by parents, after a 
 school has commenced ? 
 
 13. Is the indifference universal, of which the Author 
 speaks ? 
 
 14. From what may indifference to the character, and 
 usefulness of schools originate ? 
 
 15. Is that person a real friend to his country, who 
 has but little regard to the character of the schools, 
 which his children attend 1 
 
 1 6. What must be the effect of ignorance on the wel- 
 fare of our country 1 
 
148 QUESTIONS. 
 
 17. How do parents endanger their own happiness? 
 
 18. What is the duty of every parent ? 
 
 19. How is it sometimes shown that parents do not 
 have a proper affection for their children 1 
 
 20. What do such seem to consider most important 1 
 
 21. Are there exceptions to what is said? 
 
 122. Is any part of the indifference to common schools, 
 the result of not realizing moral obligation ? 
 
 23. Is it to fye considered strange, that schools are not 
 more useful, when so many things exist that are injuri- 
 ous to them ? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE II. 
 
 1. What are many parents backward to furnish ? 
 
 2. Would some cheap apparatus be highly useful in 
 every school ? 
 
 3. Why are some parents unwilling to furnish new 
 books for their children ? 
 
 4. How do both parents and children suffer loss ? 
 
 5. From what two things, does the unwillingness of 
 parents to furnish proper means to their children, for 
 making progress in acquiring knowledge, arise ? 
 
 6. Are parents sometimes more willing to spend mo- 
 ney for things useless or even hurtful, than, for furnish- 
 ing their chilciren with the means of making their studies 
 pleasant and profitable? 
 
 7. What stories are told to illustrate this ? 1st ? 2d ? 
 
 8. W^hat is the next thing mentioned, that has operat- 
 ed extensively to prevent the usefulness of schools ? 
 
 9. How do * district parties' sometimes originate ? 
 
 10. Have you ever known any such, which have been un- 
 favorable to the schools in your neighborhood 1 
 
 11. If you find parties in the districts where you may 
 be employed, what will be their effect on the usefulness of 
 your labors 1 
 
 12. Will it be your duty to strive to unite such parties, 
 in efforts to benefit the school 2 
 
QUESTIONS. 149 
 
 13. By what means do parents sometimes injure the 
 usefulness of common schools ? 
 
 14. Are academies ever injurious to district schools ? 
 
 15. What observations are made in the note on this 
 subject ] 
 
 16. Would united Christian effort be productive of 
 good, and is it just to attribute a part of the failure in 
 the usefulness of schools to a want of it 1 
 
 17. What is the fifth reason mentioned why schools 
 are not more useful ? 
 
 18. What is said of the qualifications of the first class 
 of teachers 1 
 
 19. What is said of the next class ? 
 
 20. What is said of the third class of those who en- 
 gage in instructing 1 
 
 21. Why are many of this class deficient in qualifica- 
 tions 1 
 
 22. What is the sixth obstacle to the usefulness of 
 schools ? 
 
 23. What is the seventh thing mentioned ? 
 
 24. Are school-houses badly constructed, and often 
 badly located? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE III. 
 
 1. What is the first requisite in the qualifications of a 
 good schoolmaster 1 
 
 2. What does the author mean by common sense ? 
 
 3. What is the second requisite 1 
 
 4. Why is this important ? 
 
 5. What is the third qualification ? 
 
 6. Why is this necessary ? ' 
 
 7. What is the next requisite trait in a teacher ? 
 
 8. Is decision of character important to persons in 
 every situation in life ? 
 
 9. Why ought a schoolmaster to be affectionate 1 
 
 10. Is it important that teachers should have a just 
 moral discernment ? 
 
 11. What is of even more importance to children than 
 intellectual culture 1 
 
150 QUESTIONS. 
 
 12. What studies does the law require to be taught in 
 common schools 1 
 
 13. What is said of the four first? of the fifth ? of 
 the two last ? 
 
 14. In a proper knowledge of what are most teachers 
 deficient ? 
 
 15. What remarks are made on the subject of read- 
 ing ? of arithmetic ? of geography 1 of English gram- 
 mar ? of the history of the United States ? 
 
 16. With what other studies ought the instructor to be 
 familiar ? What is said of each ? 
 
 17. Do you believe that all these studies are requisite, 
 to qualify you to teach with success ? 
 
 Have you evidence of possessing the necessary qualified" 
 tions ? 
 
 19. Are you willing to engage, if unqualified ? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE IV. 
 
 1. What is the first practical direction to teachers ? 
 
 2. Is this important to the personal enjoyment of the 
 master ? 
 
 3. Can the nature of your employment be fully learn- 
 ed without experience ? 
 
 4. From what publications may something of the na- 
 ture of teaching be learned ? 
 
 5. W r ill you learn anything of the nature of your busi- 
 ness, by reflecting on the common nature of children 1 
 
 6. What varieties may you expect to find among 
 them ? 
 
 7. What is said of parents 1 
 
 8. Will it be a benefit to converse with experienced 
 teachers ? 
 
 9. Should yon be discouraged by what they may tell 
 you ? 
 
 10. What have some considered the business of teach- 
 ing ? 
 
 11. What remarks are made in the note, on this sub- 
 ject ? 
 
 12. What is teaching ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 151 
 
 13. What language should the teacher use 1 
 
 14. For the purpose of knowing how to teach, what 
 should you recollect 1 
 
 15. What is the second general direction ? 
 
 16. How may you learn your responsibility as a teach- 
 er 1 
 
 17. What is said of the influence a teacher may exert ? 
 
 18. What consideration shows the importance of this 
 influence ? 
 
 19. What has God enjoined upon the young ? 
 
 20. What is the last suggestion to show the responsi- 
 bility of the instructor I 
 
 ' QUESTIONS ON LECTURE V. 
 
 1. What is the next general direction? 
 
 2. Is there a wide difference in the amount of influ- 
 ence exerted by individuals sustaining the same office 1 
 
 3. With what particular trait of character, in a teach- 
 er, is it natural to suppose the scholars will be pleased ? 
 
 4. What is the first requisite for gaining the confidence 
 of a school 1 
 
 5. What should you remember ? 
 
 6. What is the second direction of gaining the confi- 
 dence of scholars ? 
 
 7. Wliat is the third direction on this subject ? 
 
 8. Will you endeavor to remember this ? 
 
 9. What, fourthly, is necessary ? 
 
 10. What is the fourth general direction ? 
 
 11. Why should you be willing to devote your whole 
 time to your school I 
 
 12. What account is given of the course pursued by 
 Benevolus ? 
 
 13. What seemed to him highly ridiculous 
 
 14. How is the importance of this direction further 
 illustrated 1 
 
 15. What request is made of such as are unwilling to 
 devote their whole time T 
 
QUESTIONS 
 
 16. What is said of the compensation allowed to 
 teachers ? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE VI. 
 
 1. What is the next general direction? 
 
 2. In order to be able to govern others, what is first 
 necessary ? 
 
 3. Against what must the teacher be well guarded ? 
 
 4. Is it injurious to make contemptuous speeches about 
 scholars ? about parents ? 
 
 5. After being able to govern himself, what is of great 
 importance to the teacher, as a first step towards govern- 
 ing the school ? . 
 
 6. What will be the effect on the school, if the master 
 believes he cannot govern the scholars ? 
 
 7. How ought the teacher to consider and treat his 
 scholars 1 
 
 8. How is the mode recommended by the Author, il- 
 lustrated ? 
 
 9. What is said of being uniform in the government of 
 a school ? 
 
 10. What is the first species of irregularity, to which 
 this direction has reference 1 the second ? 
 
 11. Ought the large and small scholars to be required 
 to obey the same laws in school 1 
 
 12. What is the next direction on school government ? 
 
 13. What is said of the practice of some teachers ? 
 
 14. What must this course lead the scholar to sup- 
 pose 1 
 
 15. Of what is the master in great danger ? 
 
 16. Is it proper to excuse the scholar from trying to 
 do what the teacher directs, because he says he don't 
 know how ? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE VII. 
 1. What is the next direction on government 1 
 
QUESTIONS. 153 
 
 2. Can a master have the same feelings towards a 
 good and a bad scholar,? 
 
 3. Ought this to effect his government? 
 
 4. Is a complaint of partiality in school very common ? 
 
 5. Is it often too well founded ? 
 
 6. What will be the effect of partiality if it exist ? 
 
 7. What is the last direction on governing a school ? 
 
 8. Ought the teacher to direct the amusements and 
 play of a school ? 
 
 9. What amusements ought to be prohibited ? 
 
 10. What other subject is mentioned ? 
 
 11. Is it commendable for the teacher to assume a 
 lordly or commanding^ mode in addressing his scholars ? 
 
 12. What effect does this mode of speaking to scholars 
 have upon them in their intercourse with each other ? 
 
 13. What general rule, for speaking to a scholar, is 
 given ? 
 
 14. How may scholars most easily be led to speak 
 kindly to each other ? 
 
 15. Is the dignity of a person lessened by adopting a 
 kind and affectionate mode of speaking to inferiors ? 
 
 16. Is the same mode recommended, even when a 
 scholar is to be called to an account for improper con- 
 duct 7 
 
 17. Is it wrong to be hasty in believing a scholar has 
 done wrong, or in accusing him ? 
 
 18. What is a principle in law ? 
 
 19. Is it a proper mode to make inquiry for evidence 
 to prove the scholar innocent, when a complaint is 
 brought against him ? 
 
 20. What is the second direction ? 
 
 $1. What ought to be the first object with the master, 
 when the scholar has done wrong ? 
 
 22. Why is it considered better to defer punishing a 
 fault for a season ? 
 
 23. What is the third direction on the subject of pun,- 
 ishment ? 
 
 24. Do you think this is a reasonable direction ? 
 
 25. What modes of punishment are recommend ed ? 
 
 26. What should be the last resort in choosing a mode 
 of punishing ? 
 
154 QUESTIONS 
 
 -27. What is the fourth direction in regard to punish- 
 ment ? 
 
 28. May rewards ever be serviceable 1 
 
 29. Should they be promised 1 
 
 30. For what ought they to be given, if ever employed? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE VIII. 
 
 1. Is the general management of schools highly im- 
 portant ? 
 
 2. What is the first direction on the subject ? 
 
 3. What is the second ? 
 
 4. Can much be accomplished without system ? 
 
 5. What must be observed in order to have a system 1 
 
 6. What story is told to illustrate the importance of 
 attempting to do but one thing at a time 1 
 
 7. What is the third direction 7 
 
 8. What is the fourth direction ? 
 
 9. What has been the practice of some instructers ? 
 
 10. Can a teacher be justified in pursuing this course ? 
 
 11. What subject ought to receive the greatest share 
 of attention 1 
 
 12. What does the Author consider the best rule in di- 
 recting the studies of scholars ? 
 
 13. What is recommended as soon as a child can read ? 
 
 14. How should a child be taught the meaning of 
 words ? 
 
 15. To what should great attention be paid ? 
 
 16. Can children very early understand the first prin- 
 ciples of arithmetic 1 
 
 17. W T hat is said of geography ? 
 
 18. What study may next claim attention ? 
 
 19. What remarks are made on the study pf grammar? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE IX. 
 
 1. Is the manner of teaching of very great importance ? 
 
 2. Against what should the teacher guard 1 
 
QUESTIONS. 155 
 
 3. What should be the first object in teaching I 
 
 4. Why is this necessary ? 
 
 5. What is a common fault with teachers ? 
 
 6. What is the second direction in regard to teaching ? 
 
 7. What story is told to illustrate the importance of 
 this direction ? 
 
 8. Against what should the instructer guard ? 
 
 9. What objects should be used for the purposes of il- 
 lustration 1 
 
 10. Was the teacher judicious in the mode taken to assist 
 James to understand his map 1 
 
 11. What is the third direction given 1 
 
 12. If the scholars are not pleased with their studies, 
 what is the reason 1 
 
 13. How should teachers and parents speak of study 
 before children ? 
 
 14. What is said of the school of Pestalozzi ? 
 
 15. How can studies be rendered interesting and 
 pleasant ? 
 
 16. What remarks are made on teaching how to spell? 
 
 17. What error is mentioned on the part of the in- 
 structer ? 
 
 18. How do many teachers pronounce words to a class? 
 
 19. What rule is given for pronouncing words to be 
 spelled by a class ? 
 
 20. What is the first direction on teaching scholars to 
 read ? 
 
 21. What is the second ? 
 
 22. Do you consider this important ? 
 
 23. What mode is recommended to insure distinctness 
 in reading ? 
 
 24. What is the third direction ? 
 
 25. To what should particular attention be paid ? 
 
 26. What is the fourth direction ? 
 
 27. What is the fifth ? 
 
 28. Are these important 1 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE X. 
 1. When may the child b^'ia *-* learn arithnSetic \ 
 
156 QUESTIONS. 
 
 2. In teaching written arithmetic, what should be the 
 first object 1 
 
 3. May a scholar perform all the given operations in 
 arithmetic, and yet not understand it 1 
 
 4. How is it best to commence with scholars whether 
 they are beginners or not ? 
 
 5. What mode should be adopted in assisting a schol- 
 ar ? 
 
 6. By what example is this illustrated 1 
 
 7. Is it important to go over every rule, as in the in- 
 stance given ? 
 
 8. What course should the teacher adopt with a class 
 before calling on them to recite a rule ? 
 
 9. What benefit will result from it to the scholar ? 
 
 10. What is the common mode of teaching geography 1 
 
 11. Is this a natural mode ? 
 
 12. What is the first direction for teaching geography? 
 
 13. What is the first direction, where such a mode is 
 not practicable ? 
 
 14. What is the second ? 
 
 15. What is the third ? 
 
 16. Will scholars be interested in this mode ? 
 
 17. What exercise is recommended in the fourth place? 
 
 18. What proves that the common mode of teaching 
 grammar is not a good one ? 
 
 19. What is that mode ? 
 
 20. To what parts of grammar is the chief attention 
 usually paid ? 
 
 21. What is the first direction given ? 
 
 22. What is the second? 
 
 23. What is the third ? 
 
 24. What exercise should be continued ? 
 
 25. What is recommended ? 
 
 26. Does the Author consider writing as properly be- 
 longing to the subjects of attention at a district school? 
 
 27. What is the first direction ? 
 
 28. What is the second ? 
 
 29. What is the third ? 
 
 30. What will be prevented by pursuing this mode ? 
 
 31. What is the fourth direction ? 
 
 32. How is it recommended to begin witn a class in 
 teaching history ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 157 
 
 33. After these lessons, how is it proposed to proceed ? 
 
 34. How may a connected historical view be obtained 
 in this way? 
 
 35. What may be a first lesson? 
 
 36. What questions may be asked upon it ? 
 
 37. What other lessons in their course are mentioned ?* 
 
 38. What will be the result of pursuing such a course 
 in teaching History ? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE XL 
 
 1. What is a subject of great importance, to be intro- 
 duced into district schools ? 
 
 2. Why is composition necessary ? 
 
 3. Does writing composition have a good effect in dis- 
 ciplining the mind ? 
 
 4. What is sometimes the effect of neglecting it in 
 common schools ? 
 
 5. What is the first direction on teaching composi- 
 tion. 
 
 6. What has been found a useful mode of commencing 
 with a class ? 
 
 7. What is next recommended ? 
 
 8. What will be one benefit of this mode ? 
 
 9. Is it better to give subjects, than to let scholars se- 
 lect for themselves ? 
 
 10. What subjects are commonly selected by scholars ? 
 
 11. Are these easy to write upon ? 
 
 12. What should be kept in view in selecting subjects 
 for composition ? 
 
 13. What should the teacher recommend to scholars ? 
 
 14. What benefit will result from this ? 
 
 15. Besides composition, what is important ? 
 
 16. Why ought they to be taught something of moral 
 philosophy ? 
 
 17. Ought every one to have some acquaintance with 
 natural philosophy and chemistry ? 
 
 18. What is the next direction given ? 
 
 19. Why should opportunities, which occur, that pro- 
 * 14 
 
158 QUESTION* 
 
 duce considerable excitement of mind, be improved for 
 making lasting impressions on the minds of scholars ? 
 
 20. What is the first illustration ? 
 
 21. What is the second story designed to illustrate 
 what the Author means ? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE XII. 
 
 1. What inducements should be made use of, to excite 
 the attention and promote application to study ? 
 
 2. What does emulation mean 1 
 
 3. What does ambition mean ? 
 
 4. Is ambition ever used in a different sense ? 
 
 5. How will the Author use the terms 1 
 
 6. With what is emulation connected ? 
 
 7. With what secondly connected ? 
 
 8. What does Plato call emulation ? 
 
 9. What is it better to call it ? 
 
 10. From what, first, is emulation distinct ? secondly ? 
 thirdly ? 
 
 11. What is the conclusion on emulation as an induce- 
 ment to study ? For what does it lay the foundation ? 
 
 12. What is a proper subject to be made use of as an 
 inducement to study 1 second ? third ? fourth ? 
 
 13. Are scholars under obligation to themselves to 
 make a proper improvement of their time ? to their 
 teachers ? to their parents 1 to their country ? to their 
 Maker ? 
 
 14. What is recommended to teachers ? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON LECTURE XIII. 
 
 1. What is the subject of this Lecture ? 
 
 2. What is said with regard to the spirit of improve- 
 ment ? 
 
 3. What encouragement does the success of self-made 
 men furnish to us ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 159 
 
 4. What story is told to illustrate the course the in- 
 stracter should pursue 1 
 
 5. What is first recommended, after the teacher has 
 obtained attention to order 7 
 
 6. What is recommended for a first exercise 1 
 
 7. What may be done the next evening 1 
 
 8. Mention each direction in course. 
 
 9. Whom should you engage to give lectures to your 
 school-Lyceum ? 
 
 10. In what exercises may female members engage ? 
 
 11. What other studies are recommended? 
 
 12. How may teachers confer important benefit on 
 the neighborhood ? 
 
 13. What does the Author say about light reading ? 
 
 14. To what must the teacher adapt his mode of oper- 
 ations ? 
 
 15. What are the Author's concluding remarks 7 
 
 NOTE. Questions on Lecture XIV and XV are not impor- 
 tant, and are not given. To the last Lecture, instructers are 
 requested to give particular attention. 
 
ABSTRACT OF A LECTURE 
 
 UPON THE 
 
 'DUTIES OF SCHOOL COMMITTEES:', 
 
 DELIVERED BEFORE THE 
 
 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION IN BOSTON, 
 AUGUST, 1832. 
 
 BY WILLIAM B. CALHOUN. 
 
 EACH Town in Massachusetts is required, at its annu- 
 al meeting, to choose by ballot a School Committee, who 
 shall have the general charge and superintendence of all 
 the public schools. 
 
 The leading duties of this Committee are three fold : 
 
 They are to require full and satisfactory evidence of 
 the good moral character of all instructers employed in 
 the public schools. 
 
 They are to satisfy themselves, by personal examina- 
 tion or otherwise, of the literary qualifications of the in- 
 structers. 
 
 And they must be assured, that the instructers possess 
 a capacity for the government of schools. 
 
 The subsidiary duties of the Committee are, 
 
 To direct and determine the class-books to be used in 
 the respective classes in all the schools kept in the town, 
 
 To determine the number and qualifications of the 
 scholars to be admitted into the school kept for the use 
 of the whole town, 
 
 And to visit all the schools regularly and systemati- 
 cally. 
 
 They are required to visit the town school at least 
 qu ater-yearly, and each of the district schools during the 
 first and last two weeks of the term. 
 
SCHOOL-COMMITTEES. 161 
 
 They must also visit all the schools, once in each 
 month, without giving previous notice to the instructors- 
 
 The purpose, in visiting the schools, as laid down in 
 the law, is, 
 
 To make a careful examination thereof: 
 
 To see that the scholars are properly supplied with 
 books: 
 
 To inquire into the regulation and discipline of the 
 schools: 
 
 And to be satisfied as to the proficiency and habits of 
 the pupils therein. 
 
 Finally, the Committee are required annually to make 
 a report to the Secretary of the Commonwealth, setting 
 forth, distinctly, the following particulars : 
 
 The amount paid for public instruction annually : 
 
 The number of public school districts : 
 
 The aggregate time of keeping schools during the year: 
 
 The whole number of pupils attending the schools : 
 
 The number of Academies and private schools, and 
 of pupils therein, with the estimated amount of compen- 
 sation to the Instructers : 
 
 The number of persons, over fourteen years of age 
 and under twenty-one^ unable to read and write. 
 
 Such is a condensed view of the whole duty of School 
 Committees. The importance of the duties thus sketch- 
 ed cannot easily be over-rated. Upon the faithful and 
 independent discharge of them essentially depends the 
 character of our public schools. Towns, therefore, should 
 be exceedingly cautious and discriminating in the selec- 
 tion of their School-Committees. The single considera- 
 tion should be, the fitness of the individuals for the per- 
 formance of the duties required. Nothing of a local, 
 sectarian, or partizan character should be countenanced 
 for a moment. 
 
 A School-Committee is invested, rightfully and neces- 
 sarily so, with very considerable power. They who 
 compose it, therefore, should be men of prudence, dis- 
 crimination, sagacity, and firmness, in addition to their 
 being well qualified intellectually. 
 
 They should have a sound knowledge of the various 
 systems of common school education. Sensible of the 
 14* 
 
16*2 LECTURE TO 
 
 deficiencies which have heretofore prevailed, they should 
 be intimate with the improvements, which wise and ju- 
 dicious men have introduced of late years. In a special 
 manner should they keep in view the pervading and 
 all-important distinction, that the great object of every 
 true system of education is, to discipline the mind and 
 to communicate ideas. 
 
 In former years, it has been deemed sufficient to fill 
 the mind with a knowledge of icords. The child has 
 been taught to spell and to read words, and to store them 
 up in the memory, without attaching any meaning to 
 them. And thus has the great fact been utterly disre- 
 garded, that the memory is to be improved mainly by 
 enlightning the mind. 
 
 A wise Committee, therefore, will see to it, that no 
 scheme of education is admitted into the schools, which 
 is not based upon the ground-work now stated. Ideas 
 must be conveyed to the mind, adapted to its gradual 
 expansion, in order, even, that words may make a secure 
 lodgement in the memory and certainly, in order that 
 all the powers may gain strength, and be properly disci- 
 plined and matured. 
 
 This is to be regarded as the rule, to which the atten- 
 tion of School-Committees should invariably be directed, 
 and by which they should be guided, in the performance 
 of their duty. 
 
 If, upon examination they find a school teacher defi- 
 cient in the capability set forth in this rule, they may rest 
 assured, that he is essentially and radically deficient, and 
 that his presence will only be a dead weight upon a 
 school. 
 
 So, if they find an elementary book, in any of the 
 ordinary branches of instruction, deficient, on the applica- 
 tion of the same rule, their only course will be, to re- 
 ject it. 
 
 And if, upon visiting a school, they satisfy themselves, 
 that this movino power is wanting, to keep the machine- 
 ry of instruction in operation, they may rely upon it 
 ti.at such a school will be entirely unavailable. 
 
 This in a word, is a test-rule. And it is far better to 
 have one such rule, by which every tiling may be tried, 
 
SCHOOL-COMMITTEES 163 
 
 than to run the hazard of producing irretrievable eonfu* 
 ' sion in the minds of Committees, by spreading out this 
 very rule or its substance into an endless variety of dis~ 
 tinctions. 
 
 If School-Committees in all our towns, being duly and 
 amply qualified for the purpose, should uniformly act 
 upon the spirit of this rule, conforming rigidly to its re- 
 quirements, an entire and most fortunate revolution 
 would be the consequence in the whole system of educa- 
 tion. Without a constant and efficient supervision, on 
 the part of School-Cemmittees, no system will ever 
 answer the purpose, or produce practical and useful 
 results. Committees, therefore, should be acquainted 
 with the business and principles of education, in all their 
 simplicity and directness. 
 
 In the examination of candidates for teachers so far 
 as their moral character is concerned no definite rule 
 can be given. It is an inquiry, however, of the deepest 
 moment. No Committee, of sound principles and con- 
 scientious feelings themselves, will ever suffer a doubt to 
 remain upon their minds in this regard. They will be 
 satisfied, that the instruction of the young is entrusted 
 not merely to adequate capacity, but to pure hearts. 
 The usual testimonial is a certificate of moral character 
 from gentlemen, whose standing in the community is 
 known to be abeve reproach. This answers the purpose 
 very well in most cases; but caution is always necessary 
 to guard against imposition. 
 
 The inquiry into the literary qualifications of the can- 
 didate should have reference not merely to an acquaint- 
 ance with the usual branches of study in the schools, but 
 to the general subject and objects of education, and par- 
 ticularly to facility in the communicating of knowledge. 
 The test-rule, already adverted to, should here be the 
 unvarying guide. 
 
 It is not sufficient, that the candidate be well educated 
 himself; he should know intimately, aptly, and, if pos- 
 sible, practically, what is meant by educating others. 
 He must be able to convey what he knows into the minds 
 of his pupils to teach them ideas to make them un- 
 derstand what is presented to them. A satisfactory 
 
164 LECTURE TO 
 
 result, in regard to such qualifications, can be attained 
 only by a careful, thorough, and faithful examination 
 personally. 
 
 As to capacity for government, it is impossible to lay 
 down any uniform rule of inquiry. Some idea may be 
 formed of the capacity of a teacher in this respect, by 
 obtaining his views of the necessity and objects of disci- 
 pline in a school. These however, it is easily seen, may 
 be very correct, and yet the teacher be entirely unfit for 
 the task of administration. No adequate judgment can 
 be formed, until he is seen putting his maxims in prac- 
 tice. Where a teacher is untried, in this indispensable 
 particular, the safest course for a School-Committee will 
 be, to give him a certificate, with a condition annexed, 
 that it shall be withdrawn, if, upon personal examination 
 of his School, it shall appear that he is deficient in good 
 government. 
 
 The importance of a Seminary for School teachers, 
 having experimental schools of every description attached 
 to it, and fully embraced in the system, must, in refer- 
 ence to this point, be obvious at once. The combination 
 of theory and practice, upon this subject, will supply a 
 deficiency, which is every where felt most seriously. 
 The question, concerning the best mode of governing a 
 school, is at the present time occupying the thoughts and 
 attention of some of the soundest minds in the commu- 
 nity, and is full of the deepest interest. School-Commit- 
 tees should be almost sensitive in regard to it : for they 
 must be aware, that it is in vain to look for usefelness in 
 a School, where discipline is either neglected or perverted. 
 
 The duty of visiting the Schools is equal in importance 
 to any which the law devolves upon Committees, and 
 should be discharged faithfully and conscientiously. 
 Committees should take an active part in the examination 
 of the pupils, and be certain, at each visit, to obtain 
 satisfactory information upon all the points set forth in 
 the law. This is their true and sufficient directory. 
 
 They should see that the Scholars are properly siippfi- 
 ttt tfffak books. Having, under another branch of their 
 duty determined what cinss-books .shall boused, they are 
 to require each scholar to be provided with them. The 
 
SCHOOL-COMMITTEES. * 165 
 
 obligation upon Committees, in regard to this matter, is 
 not to be escaped from. No room is left for doubt or 
 even for the exercise of any discretion. The require- 
 ment is distinct : all must have the requisite books. And 
 where there is on the part of parents or masters, an in- 
 ability to procure them, they are to be furnished at the 
 expense of the town. The reasonableness of the law 
 upon this subject needs not a word of comment. A 
 School-Committee, that is faithless here, is culpably and 
 shamelessly faithless, and stands subjected to the strong- 
 est reprobation. Books are the tools of the pupil ; 
 without them, he is a burden upon the School. 
 
 In the next place, the regulation and discipline of the 
 School are to be inquired into. This duty applies to all 
 the internal arrangements of the school-room, so far as 
 the pupils themselves are affected involving every thing 
 pertaining to classification and government. In these re- 
 spects, the Committee have full power. The formation 
 of classes is a difficult and delicate task. Facility in 
 the progress of instruction .depends upon it primarily 
 and essentially. Whether the classes shall be arranged 
 according to the arbitrary distinction of age, or accord- 
 ing to attainments, and the power of acquiring knowl- 
 edge and whether they shall consist of pupils of each 
 sex separately, or of both sexes indiscriminately are 
 nice questions, demanding the exercise of sound judg- 
 ment and much discretion, on the part of School-Com- 
 mittees. They will often find it necessary to contend 
 with the partialities and jealousies of parents, and not 
 unfrequently with the favoritism of teachers. 
 
 The attention of Committees is required to be directed, 
 again, to the proficiency and habits of the pupils. This 
 is a large and most weighty consideration. Here is a 
 wide field, for one who means to observe and examine 
 carefully, honestly, and effectually. It covers every 
 thing that relates to the intellectual and moral being. The 
 Committee ought to satisfy themselves, that the pupil is 
 doing and. learning all which he ought to do and learn, 
 in order to insure respectability of character in future 
 life. To this point every thing must tend. Beyond this 
 the provisions of the law do not seek to go. And this 
 
166 LECTURE TO 
 
 limit has been established most wisely the use of all 
 school-books, and of course all instruction, being pro- 
 hibited, which may be calculated to favor any particular 
 religious sect or tenet. Within this limit a Committee 
 will never fail to find enough to absorb their attention. 
 In the prosecution of their duty under this head, partic- 
 ularly in reference to the proficiency of the pupils, their 
 labors will be much abridged, and their object be attain- 
 ed with great directness, by following, as a guide, the 
 test-rule, which has already been commented upon. 
 
 A remaining duty of the School-Committee is, to make 
 out, and transmit annually to the Government of the 
 Commonwealth, a statement, exhibiting the condition of 
 the schools in certain enumerated particulars. Every 
 Committee, that feels a proper interest in the general 
 subject of education, will fulfill this duty with alacrity. 
 Where there is a want of ambition, on the part of a 
 Committee, to promote sound learning within its special 
 jurisdiction, this duty will always be neglected, because 
 the performance of it will point at once to the source of 
 a meagre exhibition, and slender details. 
 
 In a town, disposed to be parsimonious and disregard- 
 ful of the interests of school education, a Committee, 
 . even with circumscribed means, may, by earnest and 
 anxious efforts, accomplish so much afs to quicken the 
 ambition and raise the hopes of the community, and 
 thereby lead to competent and even generous appropria- 
 tions. In not a few towns, such is known to have been 
 the result of zeal well directed and persevering. Be the 
 discouragements, therefore, what they may, let Commit- 
 tees do their whole duty faithfully, and their reward will 
 be neither distant nor uncertain. 
 
 In addition to the direct requirements of the law, 
 School-Committees can do very much to advance the 
 great objects entrusted to their care, without an undue 
 encroachment upon their time. They may exert them- 
 selves to inspire confidence amongst the people in the 
 operations of the School system, to instil into them a 
 higher and higher degree of ardor and devotedness in 
 the. cause of general education, to quiet jealousies, and 
 to prevent those acerbities of feeling, which will show 
 
SCHOOL-COMMITTEES. 167 
 
 themselves in the best ordered communities, even in ref- 
 erence to the holiest of purposes. 
 
 With regard to School teachers, Committees may form 
 associations amongst them, to meet at stated periods, for 
 the purpose of improving themselves in the business and 
 principles of education, by the discussion of questions 
 connected therewith, by collating the experience of all, 
 and by examining theories and bringing them to the test 
 of experiment. By such Associations, zeal will neces- 
 sarily be quickened, and a proper ambition be kept alive, 
 
 With a view to the same result, libraries may be col- 
 lected, consisting of books upon the various subjects of 
 education, and devoted specifically to the use of the 
 teachers. No town, that paid a suitable regard to its 
 best interests, would hesitate to appropriate annually an 
 adequate sum of money for the increase of such a 
 library. 
 
 In these and similar ways, may Committees give a 
 tone and vigor to the School system every where, and 
 so enhance its usefulness, and fix it the more deeply in 
 the affections of the people. 
 
 The duties of School-Committees have now been stated 
 succinctly and plainly. 
 
 How are these duties to be discharged? 
 
 They are to be discharged with prudence. 
 
 The power, granted by the law upon this subject, is 
 very great. Its operation is upon man, standing in a 
 large variety of relations. The very fact of its being an 
 exercise of power, sufficiently indicates the necessity of . 
 discretion in the exercise of it, if beneficial effects are 
 expected therefrom. Our communities are of very 
 peculiar structure; they are full of conflicting tenden- 
 cies, and are easily excited. They will not endure any- 
 thing arbitrary or dictatorial. They must be satisfied, 
 not only that great good is to be accomplished, but also 
 that the means of accomplishing it are accordant, and 
 in unison with their feelings and sympathies. By a dis- 
 regard of these obvious considerations, and by an indis- 
 creet exercise even of plainly delegated power, the very 
 best plans have frequently been defeated. 
 
 Again, sagacity is requisite in the discharge of these 
 duties, 
 
163 LECTURE, &C. 
 
 Iii the examination of candidates for teachers, decep- 
 tion and imposition are sometimes practiced. Consid- 
 erations of friendship and local attachments too, -are 
 often pressed unreservedly, but more often insidiously. 
 Much caution,- therefore, is necessary, lest the great ob- 
 ject be lost sight of. 
 
 Sagacity however, will be more particularly demanded 
 in the selection of class-books. In this book-making 
 age teeming, every day, with something professing to 
 be new it will be difficult, without extraordinary care, 
 to do justice in the selection. No better guide can be 
 followed than the test-rule, before laid down. 
 
 Discrimination, in the discharge of these duties, will 
 be found quite as important as prudence, and sagacity, 
 and is, indeed, an indispensable adjunct. In the exami- 
 nation of teachers, and of schools also, there will often 
 be pretenders to be detected, and crafty devices to be 
 laid bare. In the distribution of rewards, and the be- 
 stowment of praise, care must be taken not to lose the 
 end, by a want of harmony and appropriateness in the 
 means. 
 
 Above all, firmness will contribute more than all el?e 
 to the faithful and eifectual discharge of these duties. 
 In every department of them, from the beginning to the 
 end, firmness will be found absolutely indispensable 
 that firmness, which is the very antipode of obstinacy ; 
 a firmness, uniformly accompanied by prudence and a 
 discriminating sagacity. 
 
 What has thus been offered, upon this important sub- 
 ject is intended simply as an outline of the duties of 
 School-Committees. From these hints, a judicious Com- 
 mittee will easily be enabled to fill up the outline, and 
 to adapt it to every peculiarity of cirumstaix 
 
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 SMITH'S INTRODUCTORY ARITHMETIC; the cc LITTLE FEDERAL 
 
 CALC-LATOR," designed to go before the slate, and to prepare for it. 
 
 WALSH'S MERCANTILE ARITHMETIC. 
 
 FROST'S ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR ; with Exercises in Parsing. 
 BLAKE' j GEOGRAPHY FOR CHILDREN; with Maps and Cuts. 
 THE ACADEMICAL SPEAKER; i. B. .D. EMERSON. 
 
 " Th- irit, of unquestionable moral tendency, 
 
 ;ng a c )iupi< 
 tu an andie:>ce." Education Rei,' 
 
 THE POLITICAL CLASS Boo-;; designed to instruct the higher 
 
 ! of Political Porn ; 
 
 VOSE'S ASTRONOMY ; For Common and High Schools. New work. 
 THE YOUNG ASTRONOMER. For Schools. By S. \Vorcc 
 ELJ P GEOMETRY. For Schools. By T. Walker. 
 
 ELE31E\TS OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. By F. J. Gl'Ulld. 
 
 GOODRICH'S HISTORY OF THE U. S. Emerson's Questionstodo. 
 
 WHELPLLY'S COMPEND OF HISTORY. Emersoi 
 
 PARLEY'S FIRST BOOK orHisTOK . Second do. 
 
 PETER PARLEY'S TALES ABOUT ROME. Ditto GREE 
 
 Bo LOGY, FOR ScrcoLs. Infant School Manual. 
 
 LATIN IV-.A-J-.R, WITH A ' -y S. G. WALKER. 
 
 FT By D. CLEAVET 
 
 for Schools. By M. Walsh. Child's Botany. 
 
 OF THE ES. Sequel to do 
 
 CHILD'S HISTORY OF THE STATES. 
 
 AN KL> TREATISE ON GEOMETRY. Bv F. J. GRUND.