SB llfl b?2 o EXCHANGE BIOLOGY LIBRARY G Ar BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY) SPECIAL GUIDE N6; ?: GUIDE TO THE SPECIMENS AND ENLARGED MODELS OF INSECTS AND TICKS EXHIBITED IN THE CENTRAL HALL ILLUSTRATING THEIR IMPORTANCE IN THE SPREAD OF DISEASE LONDON PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM 1916 ("PRICE SIXPENCE] l)c THE BRITISH MUSEUM. RITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY) SPECIAL GUIDE No. 7 (iLJIDE TO THE SPEC ij;?^ AM) EXLARGED MODELS OF INSECTS VXD TICKS EXHIBITED IN THE CENTRAL HALL ILLUSTRATING THEIR IMPORTANCE IX THE SPREAD OF DISEASE LONDON PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM 1916 (A/I rights reserved) I'l BIOLOGY LIBRARY G rill.NTKD liV \VIL1.IAM CI,ii\\KS AM' SONS, I.IMITKI>, iKEET, STAMFUKD STKEET, S.E., AND GREAT WINDMILL EXCHANGE PREFACE. THE method of explaining to visitors the general appearance and the details of the external features of insects by means of models on a large scale, rather than by the more customary drawings, was first adopted by Sir E. Kay Lankester, Director of the Museum, in the year 1900. The earliest models were those of two mosquitoes and a tsetse-fly. After Sir Ray Lankester's retirement in December 1907, the method was followed up by the preparation of a model of a flea (presented by the Entomological Eesearch Committee) ; more recently, models of a house-fly and a tick have been added. During the present year the series of disease- spreading insects and ticks has been further increased by placing on view a collection of specimens and models of tsetse-flies, tabanid flies, mosquitoes and ticks ; this collection was prepared, on behalf of the Exhibitions Branch of the Board of Trade, in 1913, under the direction of Mr. E. E. Austen, Assistant in the Department of Entomology, and was shown in the " Tropical Diseases " Section of the International Exhibition at Ghent in the summer of that year. The models have been kindly lent to the Museum by the Board. Only those insects and ticks that are of importance in the spread of disease have been selected for exhibition in the middle of the Central Hall ; the general series of insects and ticks is to be found in the Arthropod Gallery; in the West Wing of the Museum ; the collection of insects injurious to crops is exhibited in the North Hall. The large models shown in the Hall were constructed under the supervision of expert entomologists by Mrs. E. D. Blackman and Miss Grace Edwards, and so far as is possible they are correct in the smallest details. The present guide-book is to a large extent a compilation, made by Dr. W. G. Eidewood, of the exhibited labels that accompany the insects and the models. The acknowledgments of the Trustees are due to Drs. Castellani and Chalmers for permission to use the figures of the house-fly, bed-bug and tick given in their Manual of Tropical Medicine. L. FLETCHER, Director. BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTOBY), December, 1915. 941397 TABLE OF CONTENTS. FAGK INTRODUCTION ........ 7 MOSQUITOES AND MALARIA ...... 8 MOSQUITOES AND YELLOW FEVER ..... 18 MOSQUITOES AND FILARIASIS ...... 20 FISHES THAT FEED UPON THE LARVAE OF MOSQUITOES . 21 TSETSE-FLIES AND TRYPANOSOMIASIS .... 22 TABANID FLIES AND " CALABAR SWELLINGS " . . .26 HOUSE-FLIES AND INTESTINAL DISEASES .... 27 SHEEP BOT-FLY 31 FLEAS AND PLAGUE ....... 32 BED-BUGS AND DISEASE ...... 37 LICE AND DISEASE ....... 38 TICKS AND DISEASE 40 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 1. Organisms of Malaria . . . . . .11 2. Resting Attitudes of Anopheline and Culicine Mosquitoes 13 3. A Mosquito, Anopheles maculipennis ; Carrier of Malaria 15 4. A Mosquito, Stcyomyia fasciata ; Carrier of Yellow Fever 19 5. Organisms of Sleeping Sickness .... 23 6. A Tsetse-Fly, Glossina palpalis ; Carrier of Sleeping Sickness ........ 25 7. Organisms of Typhoid Fever ..... 28 8.- House-Fly, Mitsca domcstica ; Carrier of Various Intestinal Diseases ...... 29 9. A Eat-Flea, Xenopsylla clicopis ; Carrier of Plague . 33 10. Organisms of Plague ...... 34 11. Bed-Butf, Clinocariv Icctuluruix .... 37 12. Clothes-Louse, Pcdicidna humanus ; Carrier of Typhus Fever .39 13. Organisms of Relapsing Fever . . . . .41 14. A Tick, Orniihodoros mnnlmtii ; Gamer of African Relapsing Fever ...... 42 INSECTS AND : r AND THEIE IMPORTANCE 'ifr SPEEAD OF DISEASE. INTRODUCTION. THE entrance to the museum is at the South end of the Central Hall, and the main staircase at the North end ; the side of the Hall to the right of the visitor as he enters is the East. The Bays or Recesses around the Hall are designated by numerals, painted below the end windows. On the East side the most southern bay, that near the statue of Prof. Huxley, is No. X ; on the West side the southern bay, with the bust of Sir William Flower against the arch, is No. I. The grouping of the objects in the following pages is one based upon the systematic, position of the insects themselves, and not according to the sequence of the show-cases in which they are exhibited. This arrangement has the effect of causing a visitor who reads the pages consecutively to walk away from a case before exhausting it, and to return to the case later in order to see other insects contained in it ; but the method has the advantage of preventing any mental confusion that might possibly arise from a study of both mosquitoes and tsetse-flies in one show-case, followed by an examination of mosquitoes and tsetse-flies in other cases. It is preferable to complete the examination of all the mosquitoes exhibited, and then to commence the study of the tsetse-flies, and to pass on subsequently to other groups of insects in their turn. While most of the specimens are displayed in ordinary museum show-cases, a few, mainly fleas, are shown under two microscopes of special construction which permits of the examination of several specimens in succession. The slides are 8 , Guide to Insects and Ticks attached to a drum, whieh rotates upon its axis by menus of a milled wheel operated 1>\ the visitor. Another milled \vheelat the <>[' tin.' ii^i; un.ent enables the visitor to adjust the focus to .soil his cwr, eyesight. The microscope on the West side of the Hall parries twelve slides, that on the East live slides. MOSQUITOES AND MALAWI A. MVLAKIA is a disease of man caused by minute parasites that invade the red corpuscles of the blood. The parasites belong to a very low grade of animals, and are included in the division of the Protozoa known as Haemosporidia. Formerly malaria, commonly known in this country as ague, was thought to be contracted by breathing the air of marshy districts, but it is now proved that it is due to these parasites, transmitted from man to man by the bite of certain kinds of mosquitoes or gnats. Although there are many hundreds of species of mosquitoes, it is only those belonging to the genus Annjilirles, and only certain species of that genus, that are capable of conveying malarial parasites to man. The parasite multiplies not only in the human blood, but also in the walls of the stomach of the mosquito. Various forms of malaria are distinguished by medical men according to the frequency of the recurrence of fever and other symptoms, as tertian, quartan, etc. Each is due to a distinct species of parasite, though the visible differences between the species are very slight. The parasite of pernicious or aestivo- autumnal fever is known under the name of Pl introduced into the blood of man by :i female anopheline mos.jnito at the time \\hen it is sin-kin-.: Mood; b, gporo/oite after cut ry into a blood-corpuscle of man; r, growth of the spoi-o/oite into an amocbiila ; l ftt a late Hta ; ment . containing eoiintle- ne.-dle-ha].ed IpOTM, \\lii--h. s\lien ( he urstB, escape a8I>]-. l /-.ite. int., the oi-an- of the mo-,|uit..- body, and pass through the salivary glauds into the pr..bo,ei^. and IO infect a man bitten (i.e. pricked) by the -I 1,600 -li :- ih-a\\n to a smaller .--ale of ma-_'iiilieation. A i c. V. FIG. l. i 2 Guide to Insects and Ticks 21. On entry into the ovum the microgamcte becomes a nucleus. The two nuclei unite, and the fertilised ovum or ^ygote becomes motile. 22. The zygote elongates and bores its way through the wall of the stomach of the mosquito. Ookinete or vermicule stage (fig. 1, A-). 23. On the outer surface of the stomach of the mosquito the ookinete becomes spherical, and increases greatly in size, the nucleus multiplying at a rapid rate. A protective covering or cyst forms around the sphere. (Only one half of the sphere is shown.) 24. The sphere divides up into sporoblasts, each being a small cell with a single nucleus (fig. 1, /). (Only one half of the sphere is shown.) 25. In each sporoblast the nucleus divides into a great number of small nuclei, and the surface of the sporoblast grows out into a great number of pointed processes, into each of which a nucleus enters. These nucleated processes elongate further, and separate from the central part of the sporoblast, and become motile spores or sporozoites (fig. 1, m). (The model shows only one half of the cyst.) On the bursting of the cyst the sporozoites escape into the various organs of the body of the mosquito. 26. Free motile sporozoites. Such of these as reach the salivary glands pass through the ducts of the glands into the proboscis, and when next the mosquito pricks the skin of a man for the purpose of sucking blood, some of them are left in his body, and develop in the red corpuscles in the manner explained by the models in the upper part of the series. In the large table-case that stands in Bay VI, on the East side of the main staircase, are shown models of the malarial ^ite somewhat similar to those just referred to, but of earlier construction. They illustrate the phases in the life-history of the organism so far as they were known at the time when the models were made (1901) ; the more recent series, in the case near Bay X, embodies the results of investigations up to May 1913. On the sloping panels in this table- case in Bay VI are mounted enlarged models (x 28) of one of the malaria-ram in- mceqmtoes, Anophele* maculipennit M^., similar to tho two models alre;i ID the other case(l';i\ X). Side by side with these are shown, lor p til-poses of comparison, enl.-i r-.'d models of another thai spread Disease. gnat or mosquito, Culc.r pqiiens Linn., an insect which, although it can make itself unpleasant, does not transmit malaria. The models on the South side of the case represent the insects in the resting attitude, and illustrate a characteristic difference between anopheline and culicine mosquitoes. The former have the proboscis, thorax and abdomen set in a straight line, whereas culicine mosquitoes, when viewed from the side, have a hump- backed appearance, owing to an arching of the thorax, so that the line of the proboscis is set at an angle to the axis of the hinder part of the body. When resting on a wall or other flat surface, a FIG. 2. ANOPHELINE ANDTCULICINE MOSQUITOES IN BESTING ATTITUDE. A. AiiupJiele*: maculipeiinix, female, X 4. B. Culex p'qnen-f, female, X 4. culiciue keeps the abdomen more or less parallel to the surface, whereas an anopheline slopes the abdomen away (fig. 2). Anophelines nearly always have spots on the wing. In both sexes of anopheline mosquitoes the maxillary palps are as long as the proboscis, and those of the male are clubbed at the tip. In culicines the palps of the female are much shorter than the proboscis, and those of the male are a little longer than the proboscis, and usually not clubbed at the tip in mosquitoes the male can be reudily distinguished from the female by the more plumose or fluffy antennae. In culicines the abdomen is completely clothed with scales like those on a moth's w r ing, some of the scales forming 14 Guide to Insects and Ticks in many species conspicuous white transverse bands at the base of each segment ; in anophelines the abdomen is without distinct scales, and hence without well-defined markings. In the lower part of the South side of the case are displayed a series of models, enlarged 28 diameters, like those of the adult insects, showing the appearance of the eggs, the larvae and the pupae of O//rr and AnopJu-les. The black threads stretched horizontally represent the surface of the water. The eggs of mosquitoes float upon the surface, and the larvae and pupae move about in the water, breathing by means of their air-tubes, which now and again are caused to project very slightly above the surface. The eggs of Culex are massed into a raft composed of two or three hundred eggs with their more pointed ends directed upwards. The eggs of Anopheles float singly or in small groups easily scattered by the wind, and are disposed on their sides instead of standing erect upon the water. Each egg has a pair of small air spaces, as shown in the upper model ( x 65) at the right hand end of the series, above the group of eggs (X38). The characteristic attitude of the larva of the culicine mosquito is one in which the head is downmost, the body slightly inclined to the vertical, and the extremity of the air tube at the hind end of the body just touching the surface of the water. The larva of the anopheline mosquito rests horizontally just below the surface of the water ; the air-tube at the hind end of the body is very short, and just level with the surface. When feeding, the larva twists its head half-way round, and laps the surface of the water for minute vegetable organisms. Both culicine and anopheline larvae when alarmed strike down into the water with a rapid jerking movement. The pupae of the culicine and anopheline mosquitoes do not differ greatly. In each case the pupa rests with the two horn-like air-tubes on the thorax at the surface of the water, but it can swim rapidly by a jerking movement of the abdomen, which is provided at its extremity with two transparent paddle-like organs. In the lower part of the North side of the case are enlarged drawings of the mouth-parts of the two species of gnat or mosquito illustialrd, the culicine, r//A-.r jiij>icns, and llio iiiiophelinc, .\nnjilirli-fi maculipennis. TIM- proboscis of mosquitoes consists of si long, channelled lahium and six piercing instruments contained that spread Disease. 15 within it a labrum, a hypopharynx, a pair of maxillae, and a pair of mandibles. The labrum of mosquitoes is generally long, slender, and pointed, and grooved beneath for the re- ception of the hypopharynx, which lies immediately below, and has its apex more or less wrapped round by the inflected margins of the labrum. The two maxillae are long, and each tapers gradually to the apex, which is provided with fine teeth. The two mandibles are of the same length as the maxillae, and their tips partially embrace the apices of the maxillae. All these FIG. 3. A MOSQUITO THAT SPREADS MALARIA, Anopheles maculipcnnis, female, X 4. parts when at rest lie concealed in the labium, which is deeply channelled for their reception, and is furnished at its extremity with two fleshy lobes, the labella. The labium does not enter the skin of the animal attacked, but bends back beneath the body of the insect, the labella acting as guides to support the piercing organs. In male gnats the mandibles are absent, and the maxillae are very short, and cannot be used as piercing instruments. The maxillary palps of the male Culex are as long as the proboscis, 1 6 Guide to Insects and Ticks and are somewhat brush-like, but in the female they are very short and simple. In Anopheles the maxillary palps are long in both sexes. In the male the apical joint is thickened and hairy, and diverges from the proboscis, while in the female the palps are straight and lie close to the sides of the proboscis for their whole length. The first three drawings exhibited show the head, as seen from above, of the female Anopheles maculipennis, and the female and male Culex pipiens. In order that the six piercing instruments may be clearly seen, they are represented as dislodged from the gutter-like labium, within which they are concealed in the living insect. The next two drawings show the forms of the extremities of the labrum, hypopharynx, maxillae and mandibles of female specimens of Anopheles maculipennis and Culex pipicns. The lubrum is viewed from beneath, the other parts from above. The sixth drawing is that of a cross-section through the proboscis of a female Culex pipiens, showing the relative positions of the piercing organs when at rest; and the last is a diagram of the terminal portion of the labium of the same insect showing the form of the labella as viewed from above and from below. On the sloping panel above the drawings are two diagrammatic models of the head of a female culicine mosquito or gnat, viewed from the side. The upper model shows the proboscis as it appears when beginning to pierce, the lower one shows the disposition of the parts when the lancets have penetrated a short distance into the skin. The labium does not enter the skin, but loops down- ward and backward beneath the body of the gnat, so that the six lancets are no longer enclosed in its gutter-like groove ; the apposed labella continue to surround the lancets, and slide along them from point to base as the skin is penetrated. For comparison with the culicine and anopheline mosquitoes there is shown, at the East end of the case, a model, enlarged 28 diameters like those of the mosquitoes, of a common midge, OhironOTMU jilnumxux Linn., a harmless insect, not to be mistaken for a mosquito or gnat. The model represents the female midge ; the differences between tin: heads of the two sexes are illustrated in the two drawings above the model. An arlnal specimen of u niid^'- is also exhibited, ('hiromnmifi JI/HIHVXIIX is one of the large- ami occurs in swarms in the air from April to August. The larger midges may be distinguished from tJial spread Disease. i 7 mosquitoes or gnats by the absence of the long proboscis, by the length of the front legs, and by their habit of resting with the front legs raised in mosquitoes it is the hind legs that are raised when the insect is resting (see the models on the South side of the case). In the lower part of this (East) end of the case is a model of the larva of Ch-ironomus plumosus, a red, caterpillar-like, aquatic form sometimes termed a blood-worm. The larva lives in a tunnel which it makes at the bottom of some ditch, pool or rain- water butt. It breathes by means of four filaments, or blood-gills, at the hind end of the body, on the last segment but one, and four thicker processes on the last segment. Crawling movements are effected by a pair of foot-like organs beneath the head, and a pair at the hind end of the body. At night, and sometimes by day, the larva sw T ims freely, jerking the body suddenly to the right and to the left in such a manner as to present the appearance of a figure of eight. When in its tunnel the larva imparts to its body an undulating movement, thus creating a flow of fresh water through the tunnel. The series is completed by a model, enlarged 28 times linear like that of the larva and adult, of the pupa of the midge Chironomus plumosus. While still within its tunnel the larva turns into a pupa, and remains there, lying on its side and imparting an undulating movement to the body. The pupa breathes by means of a pair of tufted tracheal gills on the thorax. When approaching the stage of the imago or perfect insect, it leaves the tunnel and swims to the surface of the water ; the skin splits along the back, and the winged midge emerges, and flies away almost immediately. In the table-case that stands at the entrance to Bay I, near the bust of Sir William Flower, are shown dipterous insects of various kinds, tsetse-flies, tabanids and mosquitoes, selected because of their capacity for spreading diseases, and mounted together with examples of their near relatives, which, so far as our present knowledge goes, are harmless. Since almost all insects associated with maladies are of small size, the specimens are mounted close to the glass of the case, in order to enable visitors to see as much as possible of their general appearance and external characters. The mosquitoes of this series are on the West side of the case, away from the middle of the Hall. Examples are show r n of both males and females, and the c i S Guide to Insects and Ticks geographical distribution of each of the species of which examples are shown is explained by means of a small map, with the regions in which the insect is found marked in red. The following species of mosquitoes are exhibited, all known to convey the parasites of malaria from man to man, and thus to disseminate the disease: Anopheles maculipennis Mg. (fig. 3, p. 15), A. bifurcatns Linn., Europe and North America A. (M'l/zomyia) listoni Liston, A. (M.) culicifacies Giles, A. (Mi/z<>- rhi/nchus) barbirostris v.d. Wulp, A. (M.) sincnsis Wied., A. Nco- cellia steplicnsi Liston, A. (N.) willmori James, A. (Nyssorhyncluts) tlicobaldi Giles, A. (N.)fuliginosus Giles, Asia A. (N.) maculipalpis Giles, Asia and Africa A. (Myzamyia) funcstus Giles, A. (P//rctt>- phorus) costalis Loew, A. (Myzorhynchus) mauritianus Grandpre, A. (AT.) paludis Theob., A. (Cellia) pharoensis Theob., Africa A. (Nyssorhynchus) aunitlipcs Walker, Australia A. (Myzomyia) lutzi Theob., A. (C cilia] albimanus Wied., A. (C.) argyrotarsis Rob.-Desv., South America. Disregarding for the present the mosquitoes that spread yellow fever and filariasis, these being dealt with in this guide-book under subsequent headings, the visitor arrives at a selection of " apparently harmless " mosquitoes those which do not, or at all events are not known to, disseminate disease, namely : -Anopliclt's (Christya) iinplrxus Theob., Mcgnrhimtn xcpunttn* Arrib., To.ro- rlupicliitcs speciosus Skuse, Janthinosoma sayi Dyar and Knab, Stnjomyia scutfUttris Walk., S. apicoar(ililia spathipalpis Eond., Culcx concolor Eob.-Desv., C. (innidirostris Skuse, C. tigripcs Grandpr6> var. fusciis Theob., MimiHiiifiii jiliunosa Theob., Harpagomyia (jnmruxlris Leic., in IJH id iim chrysogaster Graham, Wyeomyia communis Leic., . 1'abr. MOSQUITOES AND YELLOW FEVER. So far as is at present known, yellow fever is disseminaicd solely by the mosquito ,S/(lexi<'inse Stephens and Fantham, in West and Central Africa and North-east Rhodesia respectively. In the same case are shown actual specimens of the tsetse- flies (iltwinu mom'tnns and G. palpalis, and enlarged coloured drawings (x 2) of the under and side views of a specimen of the former species, showing the collapsed and the gorged condition of the abdomen before and after a meal of blood. Another drawing, of the natural size, shows how the wings of a tsetse-fly overlap one another above the abdomen when the insect is at rest. In the s vessel are four larvae at different stages of growl h, and a pupa, of (rluxxiiiii /HiljHilifi. The end of the pupa-case that be.-n-s the two projections is the hind end, as is explained in Hie enlarged drawing ( x 12) placed alongside. Sketches are exhibited of a horse and a dog suffering from tJiat spread Disease. 23 nagana or tsetse-fly disease. In the horse the onset of an attack may be detected by the coat staring, and by a watery discharge from the eyes and nose. Shortly afterwards there appears a general swelling of the belly and hind extremities, which fluctuates from day to day. The animal hangs its head, and there is a general emaciation, sometimes accompanied by blindness. Death results from exhaustion ; there are no symptoms of pain, and the appetite continues good till the last. In the dog the disease runs a rapid course, and is invariably fatal. The chief symptoms are extreme emaciation, swelling of the extremities, eruption over the body with the formation of blebs and pustules containing more or less purulent matter, and finally milky opacity of the cornea giving rise to blindness. FIG. 5. ORGANISMS OF SLEEPING SICKNESS, Trypanosoma gambiense, and red blood -corpusc les ; X 1,500. A map of Central and Southern Africa is exhibited, showing our knowledge of the distribution of the tsetse-flies (Glossina) in 1911, at the time of the issue of Mr. E. E. Austen's " Handbook of the Tsetse-Flies," published by the Trustees of the Museum. Around the lower part of the case are shown enlarged coloured illustrations ( X 6) of the ten species of tsetse-flies that were known at the time of the publication of the book in 1911. Displayed upon the glass shelf in the case are greatly enlarged transparent models ( x 6,000) of red blood-corpuscles and a form of trypanosome (T. Icwisi Kent) found commonly in the blood of rats. Trypanosomes are small, elongated, parasitic animals occurring in the fluid part (plasma) of the blood; they have an undulating membrane or longitudinal fin which runs along the 24 Guide to Insects and Ticks body, and is continued forwards into a filament or flagellum. In an allied genus, Trypanoplasma, there is a flagellum at each end of the body. Although many forms of trypanosomes are spread from one vertebrate host to another by tsetse-flies, some are spread by other blood-sucking invertebrates, such as gnats, fleas, leeches, etc. ; the trypanosomes that are found in skates and similar fishes, for instance, are known to be conveyed by marine leeches. In the case is shown a specimen of an African fly, Hippobo&ca r//jij>es von Olfers, allied to the forest-fly of Britain, Hippobosca cquimi Linn, (see enlarged photograph ( x 6) below the glass plate), and respon- sible for the spread of the blood-parasite Trypano&oma the Her/ Bruce, causing gall-sickness among cattle in the Transvaal. Other trypanosomes of interest in connection with disease are T. cquinum Vosges, causing " mal de caderas " of horses in South America, T. evansi Steel, causing surra of horses and cattle in India, and T. equipcrdum Doflein, causing dourine in horses in the countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and T. cruzi Chagas, the cause of the fatal disease barbeiro in man, particularly children, in South America, and conveyed by a hemipterous insect or bug, Li units megistus Burmeister, more than an inch in length. In the large case that stands at the entrance to Bay I, near the bust of Sir William Flower, is shown a selection of tsetse- flies, together with enlarged coloured drawings ( x 6), and maps showing the distribution of the several species. Tsetse-flies may l>e said to be African insects, although one species is met with in south-western Arabia, and in former times tsetse-flies existed in North America. The first examples shown are those of Glossina pal pa Us Rob.-Desv. (fig. 6) of West and Central Africa, the principal disseminator of Trypanosoma i<'tiM Dutton, causing sleeping sickness in man. These tsetse-flies exist only in shady places, and haunt the margins of lakes and water-courses where the banks are covered with vegetation. Specimens are shown of young and full-grown larvae (in the small glass vessel of alcohol), and of pupae, together with some of the soil in which they \\vn> found (in the glass-topped box). (Uoxxiiin /xi/jxilis, like other -flii'S but unlike; the vast majority of flies in general, docs not lay eggs; the Irmalc produces ill intervals ;i single larva, or got, Which 18 retained within the body of ihe mother until I'nll tliat spread Disease. 25 grown. The maggot of G. palpalis is dropped by the mother in a shady place near water, where the soil is loose or sandy, moderately dry, and often consisting of crumbling vegetation. On being deposited, the maggot buries itself in the loose earth ; its skin then becomes dark in colour, contracts, and hardens into a barrel- shaped puparium or case, within which the change to the pupa or chrysalis takes place. A female fly of this species may produce from eight to ten larvae altogether, one at a time at intervals of nine or ten days. FIG. 6. A TSETSE-FLY THAT SPREADS SLEEPING SICKNESS, Glossina palpalix, female, X 5. Specimens of Glossina palpalis are shown in the attitude in which they rest. A resting tsetse-fly can be distinguished from any other blood-sucking fly with which it could possibly be confused by the fact that the wings, instead of diverging at the tips, lie closed flat over one another down the back like the blades of a pair of scissors, while the proboscis with which the bite is inflicted projects horizontally in front of the head. Glossina morsitans Westw. is a widely distributed tsetse-fly (see map), spreading nagan.i jmioiitf domestic animals, and i Ny.isuhuid and Northern Rhodesia conveying to man th 26 Guide to Insects and Ticks form of sleeping sickness caused by Tnjpanosoma rhodcsiensc Stephens and Fantham. This species of tsetse-fly is usually confined to definite tracts of country, known as " fly-belts," often of very limited extent. Unlike G. palpalis, G. morsitans is not confined to the immediate vicinity of water. The female deposits its maggot or larva in hollows about the roots of trees, and not in the soil under bushes, where it might be found by the scratching of guinea-fowl and other birds in search of food. Some empty pupa-cases are shown. In the larger of the two glass vessels are specimens of tsetse- flies (Glossina palpalis, G. morsitans and G. tachinoides) before and after a full meal, showing the extent to which the abdomen can be distended with blood. Tsetse-flies are dependent for their continued existence upon the blood of vertebrate animals, including man, wild and domesticated mammals, birds and reptiles. Contrary to what is the case in the majority of blood-sucking flies, such as mosquitoes and horse-flies, in which the females alone suck blood, in tsetse-flies the habit is common to both sexes. The amount of blood imbibed at one meal is relatively considerable, the fly's abdomen originally empty and flat becoming swollen out like a bead in consequence. The tsetse-flies on the second panel are examples of species which have not been proved to convey sleeping sickness to man, though many, if not all, are concerned in the dissemination of trypanosomiasis among domestic animals. The species exhibited are: Glossina caiiijincti Austen, G. palliccra Bigot, G. tachinoidcs Westw., G. imllitUjH's Austen, G. longipalpis Wied., G. austcni Newst., G. fusca Walk., G. niyrofusca Newst., G. brevipalpis Newst., G. mcdicorum Austen, and (/. It m) ha Stiles, the larva of which undergoes its morphoeifl in the salivary glands of female tabanid flies of the # MIUS tliat spread Disease. 27 Tabanid flies are large flies, sometimes termed horse-flies or mangrove-flies, widely represented in tropical, subtropical and temperate parts of the world. Only the females suck blood. The larvae of the flies are carnivorous, and live in water, wet sand or mud, earth or decaying vegetable matter. In the table-case that stands at the entrance to Bay I are shown examples of Chrysops diniidiata v. d. Wulp and Chrysops silacca Austen, both of which are known to be instrumental in the spread of the disease. Both species occur in West Africa, the former ranging from Portuguese West Africa to Ashanti, the latter through Southern and Northern Nigeria and the Belgian Congo. For comparison with the two foregoing species are shown some tabanid flies that do not, or, at all events, are not definitely known to disseminate disease, although certain of them are suspected of spreading forms of trypanosomiasis among domestic animals. In many parts of tropical Africa tabanid flies are abundant at certain seasons, when owing to the bloodthirstiness and pertinacity of the females, the insects become an intolerable pest, both to man and to stock. The exhibited specimens belong mainly to the genera Chrysops, Silvias, Panyonia, Tabanus, ILtonatopota and Hippoccntrum, and in each case the range of the species and any features of interest in their natural history are mentioned. HOUSE-FLIES AND INTESTINAL DISEASES. Many of the diseases broadly termed filth diseases are spread by house-flies; some of them are skin-diseases, others are diseases of the alimentary canal, such as enteric or typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery and infantile summer diarrhoea. House-flies are something more than disagreeable com- panions and pertinacious nuisances of the hot weather; they are dangerous by reason of their habit of settling upon food and contaminating it with such disease germs as they may happen to be carrying. In America the common house-fly has been termed the typhoid-fly, an unfortunate expression implying that typhoid fever is the principal, if not the only, disease that 28 Guide to Insects and Ticks is spread by the insect ; in large towns, where the arrange- ments for the disposal of sewage are good, the greatest harm done by the house-fly is in the dissemination of infantile summer diarrhoea, with a large death rate. In camps and other places away from towns, where it is difficult to secure adequate disposal of human excreta, the danger of the spread of gastro-intestinal diseases by flies becomes very considerable. The organisms causing these diseases are mostly of a bacterial nature ; enteric or typhoid fever is due to a motile bacillus (Bacilliix iiiphosus Eberth- Gaffky), which in certain conditions exhibits from eight to twelve delicate threads or cilia projecting from the body (fig. 7). In a table-case that stands on the East side of the Hall, between the statue of Sir Richard Owen and that of Prof. Huxley, are models of the common house-fly, Musca domestica Linn., adult female (fig. 8), and a group of eggs, a larva and a pupa, all FIG. 7. ORGANISMS OF TYPHOID FEVKK, Bacillus typhosus ; X 1,500. enlarged 28 diameters. Actual specimens are also shown of the common house-fly and of three other species of house-fly, the most abundant of which in houses is the lesser house-fly, Fann'nt run irul aris Linn. The lesser house-fly is smaller than Musca domes lira, and is often taken by the ignorant to be a common house-fly that has not yet grown up. As a matter of fact, a fly that has once emerged from its pupa-case does not increase in size. Occasionally small specimens of Musca dmm'xlit'a are met with, but these are undersized flies whose small dimensions are due to insufficiency or excessive dryness of food during the larval or maggot stage, lesser house-fly differs in its hahits Irom the common house- fly, and rarely n wiih the latter. While Ihr common house-fly is found largely in ihe kitchen and dining-room, and settles indiscriminately on the wall, the tahle, exposed lo:,d, and that spread Disease. 29 one's hands and face, the lesser house-fly remains mostly on the wing, flying about with a curious darting movement beneath the gas-bracket or electrolier in the middle of the bedroom. The lesser house-fly appears earlier in the year than the common house-fly, and persists later, being still found in dwelling rooms as late as November. The lesser house-fly is closely related to the latrine-fly or privy-fly, Fannia scalaris Fabr., but the latter, although a dangerous disseminator of intestinal disease in villages and camps, is scarcely a house-fly ; it rarely enters houses. FIG. 8. COMMON HOUSE-FLY, M iisca domestica, female, x 6 ; largely responsible for the spread of typhoid fever and summer diarrhoea. Shown in the same case are specimens of two other house-flies, Muscina stabulans Fin., a large fly, not frequent in its occurrence, and Stomoxys calcitrans Linn., commonly termed the stable-fly. This last is a biting, blood-sucking fly, common in the country and in suburbs, and met with sometimes in the middle of large towns. People who do not discriminate between the different kinds of house-fly imagine, when bitten by a Stomoxys , that it is an ordinary house-fly that has become particularly vicious. Critical examination 30 Guide to Insects and Ticks of the insect shows that it 1ms a straight piercing proboscis projecting forwards from the lu-ad. The common house-fly is incapable of biting ; its proboscis is large and soft, and is situated on the under side of the head, and contains numerous minute tubes through which fluid nutriment is sucked. A fly cannot take in solid food ; if the food is dry, as for instance a piece of sugar, the fly moistens it by ejecting salivary fluid or by regurgitating the fluid contents of its storage-stomach or crop. It is in this way, among others, that the fly infects food with disease organisms, for flies are indiscriminate in their habits, and the previous meal of the fly in question may have been made upon the excrement of a person suffering from typhoid, or of an infant ill with summer diarrhoea. The mere walking of a fly upon food may infect it with microbes, for the feet are hairy, and readily carry minute droplets of substance that the fly has recently been visiting. At one end of the case is shown a representation of a tray of food such as might serve for a light lunch a plate of ham, a roll, a few plums and a jug of milk looking repellent by reason of the house-flies that swarm upon it. At the other end of the case is a representation of a heap of kitchen refuse which, by being allowed to accumulate for some time in the dustbin, forms a suitable breeding-ground for house-flies ; for flies, although an indoor pest, do not breed indoors. In this exhibit are shown the four chief phases in the life-history eggs, larvae or maggots, resting pupae in their brown coats, and adult flies. In the heap of rubbish can be recognised cinders, feathers, egg-shells, fish- bones, mouldy bread, vegetable refuse and tea leaves, the last two being particularly harmful because, by keeping the whole mass damp and in a state of fermentation, flies are attracted to lay their eggs in it, their instinct prompting them to deposit the eggs where the maggots, on hatching out, will find themselves in surroundings most suitable for their development. Flies breed also largely in heaps of stable manure, and any decaying and fermenting vege- table refuse in the fields. lust us the mosquitoes that carry malaria and yellow fever can le. kept in check by attacking their breeding haunts, by preventing accumulations of rain-water, by draining marshes and by spraying with paraffin oil tracts of stagnant water, so as to prevent the development of eggs and larvae that would grow into mosquitoes, that spread Disease. 3 1 so in the case of house-flies, it is more practicable to attack the next generation than the present generation, that is to say, to prevent the development of the larvae rather than to attempt to destroy the winged flies, and this can be done by taking measures such that moist rubbish and stable manure are not allowed to accumulate and serve as breeding places for the flies. A single female of the common house-fly lays from 120 to 150 eggs at a time, and may deposit five or six batches during its life ; and since in very hot weather the entire life-cycle may be com- pleted in about three weeks, it is easy to account for the enormous swarms of flies sometimes seen. The attention of visitors is drawn to a pamphlet entitled " The House-Fly as a Danger to Health," which can be purchased in the Museum for a penny. Blow-flies are not included in the series exhibited, for although they are flies that enter houses and settle on food, particularly cold meat and fish, they are not dangerous in the same sense as the common house-fly. They are not attracted to dung-heaps and other exposed faecal matter, and they breed in flesh, such as the carcase of a recently dead animal. Blow-flies are a nuisance principally from their habit of laying their eggs in any cold joint of meat to which they have access. The eggs soon develop into maggots or gentles, and owing to the power which these larvae have of liquifying the meat around them, the joint becomes putrid much more rapidly than if it had not become " fly-blown." SHEEP BOT-FLY. In one of the two sloping-faced table-cases in the middle of the floor of the Hall are shown a specimen of the bot-fly of the sheep, Oestrus avis Linn., three larvae, and enlarged coloured drawings ( x 6) of the larva, pupa and adult female. The larvae or maggots of this fly live parasitically in the cavities in the front part of the head of the sheep, and when about to become pupae, escape from the nostrils and fall to the ground. After a time the winged flies escape, and lay their eggs in the nostrils of sheep. In Algeria, especially in districts in which sheep are few and the human population fairly dense, the sheep bot-fly attacks the 32 Guide to Insects and Ticks Kabyl shepherds, laying its eggs, while flying, in the eyes, nostrils iiiul lips; the larvae, when hatched, cause intense irritation of the conjunctiva, and of the cavities and sinuses of the nose and throat. The disease lasts about twelve days, and is known locally as thim'ni. FLEAS AND PLAGUE. Plague or bubonic pest is a disease of tbe rat, communicated from infected to healthy rats by fleas, of which Xcnopsylla clirojiix Rothsch. is the most important in tropical and subtropical countries. On the death of an infected rat the fleas leave the body, and if other rats are not available, will fasten upon man, and may communicate the disease. In man bubonic plague proves fatal in a large percentage of cases, and a marked feature of the disease is the enlargement of the superficial glands, such as those of the groin and armpit, into painful swellings or buboes. Another type of plague, known as pneumonic plague, affects the lungs. The Manchurian epidemic of 1911 was of this type. The infection in this case appears to have originated from plague among the Mongolian marmots or tarbagans, Marniota bobac Pallas, that are trapped by the Manchurian hunters for the sake of their fur. The flea found upon the tarbagan is Ceratophyllus fiildntirn-i Wagn. In one of the table-cases in the middle of the floor of the Hall there are shown selected specimens and enlarged models of the tropical rat-flea, Xcnopsylla cheopis Eothsch. (fig. 9), which, as stated above, is most responsible for the spread of plague in hot countries. The tropical rat-flea is found on several other mammals besides the rat ; the hosts are mostly rodents, but include a few shrews. This species of flea has been spread by rats to such an extent that it is now found all over the world ; it does not flourish, however, in cold climates. The model on the pedestal is that of a male, enlarged 200 diameters. The names of the parts of the insect, so far as external features are concerned, are given in the coloured drawing below. At the ends of the case are shown enlarged models of the head ami tin- hind end of a female tropical rat-flea (x 250), so in-ranged that spread Disease. 33 that they may be readily compared with the corresponding parts of the male. Models are also shown of the egg and larva of the tropical rat- flea, enlarged 150 diameters. The eggs of fleas are ellipsoidal in shape, similar at the two ends, and of a translucent appearance, suggesting thin china. The eggs laid by the rat-flea fall out of the fur of the host, and remain on the ground, usually within the FIG. 9. TROPICAL BAT-FLEA, Xenopsylla cheopi*; male, X 36 ; largely responsible for the spread of plague. nest, run or burrow of the rat, until in about a week they hatch out into active, maggot-like larvae. The larvae of fleas are not parasitic ; they live on the ground either in the nest or the run of the host, and feed on all kinds of refuse that may occur there, their mouth-parts being adapted for chewing, and unlike those of the adult. They have no eyes, and no legs, but move about by means of the hairs or bristles projecting from the body, and the pair of processes or " struts " at the hind end. After spinning cocoons and passing through a pupal or D 34 Guide to Insects and Ticks resting phase, they become slowly transformed into fleas, which finally emerge from their cocoons, and invade the fur of new hosts. On the small glass table in the case are shown transparent models of human red blood-corpuscles and plague bacilli, enlarged 6,000 diameters (fig. 10). Bubonic plague, the disease that is transmitted by the bite of various kinds of flea, of which Xenopsylla chcopis is the most important in tropical regions, so that it is sometimes termed the plague-flea, is due to the presence of minute bacterial organisms, known as Bacillus pestis Kit., occurring in the blood. These organisms were first discovered during the epidemic of plague in Hong Kong in 1894. The bacilli occur in the fluid part (plasma) of the blood, and not in the FIG. 10. ORGANISMS OF PLAGUE, BaciUu* pestis, and red blood-corpuscles; X !,."< ID. corpuscles ; they may have the form of small rods with rounded ends, and sometimes show a constriction across the middle. Occasionally they are found in chains or series set end to end ; each bacillus repeatedly elongates and divides across, thus increasing the total number at a rapid rate. On the floor of the case are shown actual specimens of the tropical rat-flea and its larva, mounted on slips of glass. The specimens are so small that no details can be seen ; they an; introduced into the series merely to give a correct impression of the real size. I nder the microscope that is set upon the fable at tho entrance to Bay X on the East side of the Hall, near the statue of Prof. Huxley, :iro shown specimens of tho tn>]>i<-;il rat-flea, AV///////// flu-tipix, in fivo shines of its life-history. Slido A show* that spread Disease. 35 the eggs ; the thinness of the translucent shell is seen in the two broken eggs. Slide B shows the larva, stained red with carmine solution ; the head end is to the left. The body of the larva is seen to be sparsely covered with stiff hairs or bristles, and there are no eyes nor legs. Slide C shows an early pupa, shrinking in length while still within the hairy larval skin. The first traces of the legs can be seen. Slide D shows a later pupa, very transparent and delicate in texture, owing to a reconstruction of all the internal parts of the body which takes place at this period of development. The legs are of considerable length, and the body is assuming the size and shape of the flea. Slide E shows an adult male ; the body is now yellow, with an external hard casing of chitin, produced into numerous hairs and spines. Returning to the middle of the Hall, the visitor will see in one of the two sloping-faced table-cases an enlarged, coloured drawing ( x 40) of a female specimen of the human flea, Pulex irritans Linn. The flea of man is larger and darker in colour than the tropical rat-flea (Xenopsylla cheopis), and has larger stigmata or breathing pores, larger claws on the feet, and much larger eyes ; the piercing mouth-parts, also, are stronger and broader. The long bristle which in the rat-flea passes backwards across or near the eye is much lower down in the flea of man ; and in the latter there is no internal bar extending from the mid-coxa into the thorax this last feature can only be seen in specimens that have been made transparent so as to render the internal structures visible. Other differences between the species occur in the sexual organs. Under the microscope placed on the West side of the Hall near the entrance to Bay I. are shown twelve slides, of which nine are preparations of adult fleas of general interest. A is a male tropical rat-flea, Xenopsylla cheopi-s Rothsch. (fig. 9). As already explained, this flea is common on rats (and other rodents) in warm countries, having become almost cosmo- politan in distribution. It is known to transmit the bacillus of bubonic plague from infected rats to man, and is frequently termed the plague-flea. B is a male flea of the species Ctenophthalmus /uln'x'm and Xntfiillid), which cause redwater or Texas fever of cattle in man\ of the warmer parts of the world, malignant jaundice of dogs in India and South Africa, biliary fever of horses in Africa and India, and canjeag of sheep in Southern Europe, all transmitted by ticks of the genera y/////mvy>//(////.s, Mtu-ijtn-ujHi*, and their allies. In one of the two sloping-faced cases in the middle of the Hall, that spread Disease. 41 between the main staircase and the statue of Sir Richard Owen, there is shown, on the North side, a series of ticks arranged in three groups. The first group consists of ticks that convey disease to human beings, and includes Omithodoros moubata Murray, Omithodoros savignyi Aud. and Dermacentor remistus Banks. Omithodoros moubata (fig. 14) is very widely distributed in Africa, and the regions where it is known to occur are marked in red in the map that is placed by the side of the specimens. This tick, which sometimes attacks domestic animals as well as human beings, transmits the blood-parasite Spirochaeta duttoni Novy and Knapp, the cause of the human relapsing fever of tropical Africa. FIG. 13. ORGANISMS OF AFRICAN RELAPSING FEVER, Spirochaeta duttoni, and red blood-corpuscles ; X 1,500. The larval stage of the tick is not well developed in this species, and is inert, the tick emerging from the eggshell as a nymph. After freeing itself from the larval skin, the nymph is ready to feed. It casts its skin several times before becoming adult, a moult taking place after each meal of blood. The female tick does not lay eggs until it has fed on blood. The spirochaetes are taken up by the tick whilst sucking blood from an infected person. They make their way into the ovaries of the tick, penetrating into the undeveloped eggs and multiplying within them. The first nymphal stage that develops from these eggs is capable of conveying the disease. The spirochaetes can be transmitted to the third genera- tion of ticks, even if the second generation was fed on blood free from spirochaetes. Guide to Insects and Ticks Omithodoros .sv/ r/f////// is very widely distributed in Africa, from Egypt to Cape Colony, and is also recorded from Southern India. It occurs on both man and domestic animals, and experiments have shown that the species is capable of transmitting the human relapsing fever of tropical Africa. Dermacentor retnixtux is a North American form, ranging from British Columbia southwards to Northern New Mexico, and from the foothills of the Eocky Mountains in Colorado to the base of the Cascade Eange, in Oregon and California (see map). Almost all the small mammals found in the localities in which this tick occurs serve as hosts for the larvae and nymphs. The adult tick is +JP FIG. 14. AN AFRICAN TICK, Oniithodoros moubata, female, under surface, X 4; largely n-sponsible for tin spiv.-nl t the relapsing fever of Africa. nearly always met with on the larger domestic animals, especially on horses and oxen. The species also attacks man, and transmits the spotted fever of the Kocky Mountains, a disease with a high rate of mortality. According to some authorities, more than one species has been included under the name D. rr;///.s///.s, and the species conveying Kocky Mountain fever should be called ]). umliTsoni Stiles. The second group exhibited comprises examples of ticks that, convey disease to domestic animals, but not to human beings; it includes the following species : Hit ijiicr/ilniltix rrrrlsi Nn. is a tick found in most parts of Africa (see map), and transmits East Coast fever of cattle and the that spread Disease. 43 South African biliary fever of horses. It is known to attack oxen, sheep, horses and dogs, and has also been met with upon antelopes, giraffes and elephants. Ixodes ricinus Linn, is apparently the chief carrier of red water fever, a form of piroplasmosis, in cattle in Northern Europe. It ranges through Europe, North Africa, Transcaucasia, Arabia, China, Japan and North America. It is met with upon sheep, cattle, goats, horses, dogs, deer, hedgehogs, and many other mammals, also lizards, and occasionally on man. Amblyomma hebraeum Koch is known as the bont tick ; it is a common species in South Africa, and is distributed as far as Central Africa. Owing to the fact that it transmits heartwater in sheep, goats, and sometimes in cattle, this tick is of considerable importance to agriculturists. Further remarks upon the bont tick are given below. The third group includes examples of ticks that are not known to convey disease to man or other vertebrates ; three species are shown, as follows : Amblyoinma cohaerens Donitz is found in Uganda upon buffaloes. Dcrmaccntor rliinocerotis de Geer ranges from South Africa to Uganda and British East Africa, and is found usually upon the rhinoceros, but sometimes on antelopes. Dermacentor circumguttatus Nn. is met with upon elephants in Uganda and West Africa. In one of the table-cases in the middle of the floor of the Hall is a series of specimens and enlarged models of the bont tick, Amblyomma hebraeum Koch, an African tick parasitic upon sheep, goats and oxen. The exhibited series includes a drawing of a small group of eggs, a model of a larva enlarged to the same size as the models of the adult, namely 20 diameters, and another model of the same larva still further enlarged ( x 120) to show the details of structure. Models are shown of an adult male and female (x 20), and actual specimens are mounted on the tablet between them. The great model in the middle of the case repre- sents the female when fully gorged and distended with blood and eggs, magnified to the same extent ( x 20). Two actual specimens of gorged females, of the size of cherries, are shown in the small glass vessel of alcohol. The bont tick is capable of transmitting to sheep, goats and 44 Guide to Insects and Ticks. oxen the deadly disease known as heartwater, when it bites a healthy animal after having fed upon one that is suffering from 1 1 it- disease. The organism that causes the disease has not been seen in the blood of the vertebrate host, but experimental investigation shows that it is not transmitted through the egg of the tick as aro some other tick-borne blood-parasites of the genera Piroplasma and Sj)inn-]i(ti'tn. The larva, nymph and adult of the bont tick feed on three different individual hosts, dropping to the ground after each meal ; the organisms imbibed with the blood of an infected host by tlu- larva are transmitted to the second host by the nymph ; and similarly, if a nymph' feeds on an infected host it may, when adult, transmit the organisms to the third host. Mating of the ticks occurs on the skin of the third host, and the female then feeds until fully gorged; afterwards it drops to the ground, and in course of time produces a vast number of eggs. INDEX. Amblyomma, 40, 43-44 Anopheles, 8-18, 20 Babesia, 40 Bacillus pestis, 34 Bacillus typhosus, 28 Bed-bugs, 37 Blood-worm, 17 Blow-flies, 31 Bont tick, 40, 43-44 Bot-fly, 31 Calabar swellings, 26 Ceratophyllus, 32, 36 Chironomus, 16-17 Chrysops, 26-27 Cimex, 37 Clinocoris, 37-38 Crab-louse, 38-39 Ctenocephalus, 36 Ctenophthalmus, 35 Culex, 13-16, 18, 20-21 Dermacentor, 40-43 Dermatophilus, 36 Diarrhoea, 27-30 Dourine, 24 Elephantiasis, 20 Enteric fever, 27-30 Fannia, 28-29 Filaria. 20, 26 Fishes that devour the larvae of mosquitoes, 21 Fleas, 32-36 Forest-fly, 24 Gall-sickness, 24 Gambusia, 21 Glossina, 22-26 Gnats, 8-20 Haplochilus, 21 Head-louse, 38 Heart-water, 40, 43-44 Hippobosca, 24 Horse-fly, 27 House-flies, 27-31 Ixodes, 43 Jigger flea, 36 Kala-azar, 38 Laverania, 8 Lebistes, 21 Leishmania, 38 Leptopsylla, 36 Lice, 38-40 Malaria, 8-12 Mangrove-fly, 27 Margaropus, 40 Microscopes, 7, 34-38 Midge, 16-17 Millions, 21 Mosquitoes, 8-20 Musca, 28-31 Muscina, 29 Nagana, 22-23, 25 Nuttallia, 40 Oestrus, 31 Ornithodoros, 40-42 Pediculus, 38-40 Phthirus, 38-39 Piroplasma, 40 Plague, 32, 34, 41 Plasmodium, 8-12 Pulex, 35-36 Rat-flea, 32-36 edwater, 43 Kelapsing fever, 38,40-42 Rhipicephalus, 40, 42 Sheep bot-fly, 31 Sleeping sickness, 22-26 Spirochaeta, 40-41 Stable-fly, 29 Stegomyia, 18-20 Stomoxys, 29 Summer diarrhoea, 27- 30 Surra, 24 Tabanid flies, 26-27 Theileria, 40 Ticks, 40-44 Tiger-mosquito, 18 Top-minnows, 21 Trypanosoma, 22-24 Tsetse-flies, 22-26 Typhoid fever, 27-30 Typhus fever, 37-39 Xenopsylla, 32-35 Yellow fever, 18-20 GUIDE-BOOKS. 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Hume, C.B.,to the British Museum (Natural History). 16 Text-figures and a portrait. 1913, Svo. 2s. Birds. Vols. X.-XXVII. Woodcuts and Coloured Plates. 1885-98, Svo. 14s. to 36s. a volume. (Vols.I.-IX. out of print.} General Index to a Hand-list of the Genera and Species of Birds. 1912, 8vo. 10s. Catalogue of Birds' Eggs. Vols. I.-IV. Coloured Plates. 1901-12, 8vo. 1 5s. to 2 7s. 6d. a volume. Lizards. 2nd Edition. Vols. IT., III. Plates. 1885-87, Svo. 20s. and 26s. (Vol. I. out of print.) - Snakes. Vols. I.-III. Woodcuts and Plates. 1893-96, Svo. 17s. Gd. to 1 6s. each. Fishes. 2nd Edition. Vol. I. Woodcuts and 15 Plates. 1895, Svo. 15s. the Freshwater Fishes of Africa. Vol. I. 270 Text-figures. 1909, imp. Svo. 1 12s. Gd. Vol. II. 382 Text-figures. 1911, imp. Svo. 2 5s. Vol. III. 851 Text-figures. 1915, imp. Svo. 2 5s. The British Species of Pisidium (Recent and Fossil). 30. Plates. 1913, Svo. 10s. Gd. Spiders of Burma. 1895, Svo. 10s. Gd. A Revision of the Ichneumonidae. Parts I-IV. 1912-15, Svo. 4s. to Gs. apart. Monograph of Culicidee, or Mosquitoes. Vols. IV., V. Woodcuts and Plates. 1907-10, Svo. 1 12s. Gd. and 1 5s. a volume. (Vols. I.-III. out of print.} Handbook of Tsetse-Flies. 10 Coloured Plates, 24 Text-figures, and a M:i|>. 1911, roy. 8vo. 5s. Gd. Illustrations of British Blood-sucking Flies. 34 Coloured Plates. 1906, roy. Svo. 1 5s. Catalogue of Lepidoptera Phalsense (Moths). Vols. I.-XTII. Woodcuts and Atlases of Coloured Plates. 1898-1913, Svo. 1 5s. to 2 2s. Gd. a volume (including the Plates). Orthoptera. Vols. I.-III. 1904-10, Svo. 10s. to 1 a volume. Homoptera. Part I. Cicadidac. 1906, Svo. 5s. - British Hymenoptera. 2nd Edition. Part I. New Issue. 11 Plates. 1891, Svo. 6s. Chaetopoda. A Polychseta : Part I. Arenicolidse. 15 Plates. 68 Text-figures. 1912, roy. Svo. 1 7s. Gd. British Echinoderms. Woodcuts and 16 Plates. 18'Ji' 12s. 6d. - Madreporarian Corals. Vols. I.-VI. Plates. 1893-1906, 4to. 18s. to 35s. a volume. Illustrations of Australian Plants collected in 1770 during Captain Cook's Voyage round the World in 1 1. M.S. 'Endeavour.' Part I. 101 Plates. 1900, fol. 1 5s. I 'art II. 142 Plates. 1901, fol. 1 15s. Part III. 77 Plates and 3 Maps. 1905, fol. t Synopsis of British Basidiomycetes. 5 Plates and 145 Text-figures. 1908, Svo. 10s. Monograph of British Lichens. Part II. 59 Plates. 1911, Svo. 1. the Mycetozoa. 2nd Edition. 201 Plates and 56 Woodcuts. 1911, Svo. 1 lO.s. The above-mentioned Catalogues may l>e purchased of Messrs LONI. KBH& Co.. - Bow; Mr. P.. 'Ji Ai:n< ii, 11, Crufton Street, New BonULAU & Co., I/in., ::7, Hnfa> Xi/mire; or at the NATURAL HISTOI ' >nd<>n, N.H'. A more (k-tailtrrl list may be obtained on application to the DIRECTOR of the Museum. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book iprkiTPlinn f h p lafetti&tfi stamped below. it date LD 21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6)476 .May to August (inclusive) September October ... November and December 2.30 7 2 5.30 ..2 ,,4 The Museum is closed on Good Friday and Christmas Day. 1'y Order of the Trustees, tt. FLKTCHER, Director , I...MH.N : i'.v W1LLU Ifl LTD i ' Photomount Pamphlet Binder Gaylord Bros., Inc. Makers Stockton,Cahf. PM. IAN. 2. 1908 941397 e-7 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY