m THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Anthropology IN MEMORY OF Martha Beckwith EASTER ISLAND THE RAPANUI SPEECH AND THE PEOPLING OF SOUTHEAST POLYNESIA BY WILLIAM CHURCHILL Sometime Consul-General of the United Stales in Samoa and Tonga, Member oj the Polynesian Society, the Hawaiian Historical Society, the American Philological Association PUBLISHED BY THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 1912 EASTER ISLAND THE RAPANUI SPEECH AND THE PEOPLING OF SOUTHEAST POLYNESIA BY WILLIAM CHURCHILL // Sometime Consul-General of the United States in Samoa and Tonga, Member of the Polynesian Society, the Hawaiian Historical Society, the American Philological Association PUBLISHED BY THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 1912 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON PUBUCATION No. 174 Anthropology Add'l GIFT ANTHROP. liWURY CONTENTS. Introduction ^ Chapter I. The Polynesian Alphabet 1 1 Chapter II. Rapanui Sources and Variety , i Chapter III. The Paumotu in the Polynesian Scheme 49 Chapter IV. Mangareva as a Center of Distribution 70 Chapter V. The Dominance of Tahiti over the Province 107 Chapter VI. The Marquesas in the Fairway to Hawaii 129 Chapter VII. Determination of the Place of Rapanui J47 Rapanui-English Vocabulary ,8- English-Rapanui Finding List 271 Appendix. Sundry Notices of the Island 309 TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS. Fu Futuna Pau Paumotu. Q Geiseler's vocabulary. R Roussel's vocabulary particularized Ha Hawaii. Rn Rapanui. Ma Maori Sa Samoa. Mgv Mangareva. T Tongafiti. Mq Marquesas. T (suffixed) Thomson's vocabulary. P Polynesian general or of indetermi- Ta Tahiti. nate provenance. To Tonga. PS Proto-Samoan. 759 EASTER ISLAND THE RAPANUI SPEECH AND THE PEOPLING OF SOUTHEAST POLYNESIA INTRODUCTION. Rapanui, a tiny islet, is almost over the verge of a distant sea, the scanty stepmother-home of less than a battahon of humankind far sundered from the folk of its own race. That would be enough in itself to attract the attention of the student of the unconsidered back- waters and eddies of the currents of human progress. Once attracted, the attention is chained by the problems offered by this remote and arid speck of land. It may not be the purpose of this work to study all of these prob- lems — that is beyond our power. Of the most of these mysteries we may venture no further than to state the existence. Restricted by the nature of the material with which we are to deal and conditioned by the character of our particular research into the mystery of the Polynesian race, we shall find sufficient to engage our attention in the statement of but one of these problems and in massing such proof as we may direct upon its settlement. Yet it will be proper to set forth the other and older problems in some such order as in a general way comports with the order in which they have come to European atten- tion. This is all the more meet since the problem to which this volume is addressed is newly discovered; its first presentation was made as incidental to those studies of the most remote Pacific area which were the theme of "The Polynesian Wanderings." 1. The discovery of this rock set in the emptiness of sea is obscure. It is credited to Roggeween and his Dutch fleet on Easter Day, April 6, 1722, whence the name upon the charts. There are discrepancies in his narrative, at least in the mutilated state in which alone it is available to modern study. Not in every detail may his record be reconciled with the physical and other facts of the island itself. Yet in the main our best authorities in geography accord him the credit of the discovery of this island. But before him in these seas was Davis the buccaneer. Something he found in 1686 in those seas so empty be- tween the Paumotu and the coast of Peru. The Spaniards (proud, and with reason, of the great admiral of the viceroyalty) have assigned the credit to Alvaro Mendaiia in 1566. It may well be so, for Spanish discovery was in those stirring times an art and mystery by no means to be revealed by publication on charts which any shipman might secure, lest the English sea-rover should discover more than it was wholesome for him to know. 2. We have no sure knowledge of the name of this molecule of land. By those who follow the proper principle of geographical nomenclature in preserving the indigenous name wherever feasible the designation 1 I INTRODUCTION. Rapanui is most in use. It is this wholesome principle which has restored the name Hawaii and has relegated the glorification of Cook's patron, the Earl of Sandwich, to the gastronomic provision he invented to obviate the necessity of remitting his devotions to the aleatory god- dess of the green cloth, a great soul. But Rapanui is not an ancient name. We know it to have been acquired by the people as a gift from a foreigner, a visitor from the distant island of Rapa, the Oparo of the charts, who discovered what seemed a resemblance to his own and lesser island and therefore apphed the name Rapanui, Rapa the Great. No long time has elapsed, yet the name has obtained Polynesian currency and a myth has begun to arise to the eflfect that Rapanui was settled by a colony sailing out of Rapaiti, Rapa the Less. Cook and his recorder, Forster, with equal and simultaneous oppor- tunity for the settlement of this question, lack agreement; yet this is one of the first questions of all discovery, "What is the name of this place?" Cook records it as Teapy, Forster obtained it as Vaihu. As to one of these names we are in a position to clear up the error. Forster's informant did give him the name, but it was the name of a land or district and not of the island. It still remains in use, the name of a landing-place on the south coast. Cook's name is readily com- prehended ; it might have been either a local name or else a description of any narrow {api) constricted place, either a neck of land or a settle- ment hemmed in between bolsters of the cliff. Another name of record is Kiti te Eiranga. Paymaster Thomson endeavored to ascertain its accuracy and found it unrecognizable by the islanders. This well may be the case, for not only are the two words kiti and eiranga absent from this vocabulary record of Easter Island, but they are incomprehensible in any of the languages of the Polynesian stem. Thomson and Pere Roussel* are in accord in assigning the name Te Pito te Henua or Te Pito o te Heenua; they disagree upon its interpretation. Thomson in his brief sojourn discovered the interest- ing fact that the name was ages old and had been given to the island by Hotu Matua immediately after its discovery. This recorder finds the collocation of vocables to mean "navel and uterus. " Pere Roussel translates it as "le nombril de la terre. " Reference to the pages of this dictionary will disclose how much of reason each has for his render- ing. It is true that ie pito does mean navel and that te henua may mean the uterus or it may mean land. Thomson grows fanciful in showing how his rendering fits the terrain, quite failing to recognize that his version is Polynesian nonsense. Pere Roussel was correct as far as his knowledge went. He was not sufficiently a scholar in the Polynesian tongues to know that pito, in addition to its designation *The bibliographic record of these observers is presented in the appropriate connection some pages later. i INTRODUCTION. 3 of the navel, means the end of anything. Each recorder has been misled by the secondary sense of the former element of the locution. Thomson has gone still more astray by accepting a secondary sense of the latter element as well. I must disregard Paymaster Thomson's story of the antiquity of this name, even though it has passed into currency under the dignity of the name of the Smithsonian Institution. Each of these interpretations is to be rejected, for the French priest's rendering, though marked by simplicity, is at variance with any meta- phor which might suggest itself to the islander's mind. The name means no more than "the end of the land." Now to denominate an island so situated as is this land of our present study by the designation "the end of the land " is a very simple exercise of such knowledge of geography as we possess from early childhood, the abiHty to read a map. Tracing out the chains of islands which dot the South Sea, we find Easter Island far outlying, and beyond it no land at all until we come within sight of the arid snows of the Andes ; to our comprehension it is an end of the land indeed. But we must not lose sight of the fact that for these islanders there existed no chart. It was impossible for them, whether in the remote days of Hotu Matua, or in any later generation, until some sHght modicum of our knowl- edge was brought within their reach, to know that their home was the end of all land in that sea. In contrary fact their own history taught them that if one but sailed far enough from home there was a new home awaiting. That was the way in which they came themselves to their outpost home; it is within the bounds of possibility that their first settlement had seen a second migration find them in their loneHness. These considerations are negative : I do not lack positive considerations. After examining an Easter Islander sufficiently to discover that in his association with European sailors he was able to comprehend a map I showed him the chart of his own island and asked as to this name Te Pito o te Henua. At once he replied, "there are three," and put his finger on each of the terminal promontories, for Easter Island is as mathematically a Trinacria as Sicily itself. It seems clear that Te Pito o te Henua is not the name of the island, not at least in an indig- enous usage, save as forced upon it by contact with foreigners. It appears to have been used in the same sense as the designation of Land's End at the tip of Cornwall; it is impossible that to the Poly- nesian it could have had any particle of such signification as attached to the Ultima Thule of our ancient and mediaeval geography. Nothing should surprise us in the existence in the South Sea of an inhabited island without a name; there are many such. It is quite in accord with the islander's habit of mind to speckle his home with names changing every few feet and to leave the major divisions nameless. I know one Samoan community where the land on the public green is parceled out in ownership into estates so restricted in dimensions that 4 INTRODUCTION. a man sleeping on his own domain could not roll over in his slumber without committing trespass, yet each of these sites has its name. On the other hand there are islands of great area which have no names at all whereby they may be designated as geographic units.* It may well be the case that Easter Island had no collective name. For our own convenience, however, we shall use Easter Island and Rapanui interchangeably. 3. Utterly beyond our comprehension, since apparently so utterly beyond the present capacity of the islanders, the enduring memorials of workers in cyclopean stone are preserved in the South Sea. Without pretending to offer a list of such structures we note a few of the principal buildings of that nature: the Fale o le Fe'e in the mountains of 'Upolu behind Apia, the great triHthonof Tonga, the scarped mountain erections on Rapaiti, the massive walls of MetaHanim Harbor in the CaroHnes, the rows of pillars on Tinian in the Mariannes. Least comprehensible of all such works are the stone statues of Easter Island, rude masses of tufa-crowned human shapes mounted as termini upon platforms along the edges of the cliffs. We find them in all stages of execution from the partly hewn block in the quarries to the monument finished and erected in its place. They are claimed by the traditions of the islanders as the work of their forefathers down to quite recent generations. Yet, despite the tradition, we can not see how a people unacquainted with metals could hew these great masses of hard volcanic rock ; nor can we see how, without mechanical assistance of which they had no knowledge, they could lift these weights over the crater rim, transport them for considerable distances, and rear them on end. 4. No South Sea language has attained to the stage of letters. In the absence of graphic symbols the memories of the past have in every case been the treasure of the memory of the present. The only record has been in the human mind; the island sages are their own books. But in Rapanui we have a collection of wooden billets, each bearing carefully incised figures neatly ordered in rows after a modified system of boustrophedon. At once we jump to the conclusion that these hylo- glyphs contain writing; therefore, if written, they m.ay be read. Again a problem. In the first volume of the Journal of the Polynesian Society (1892) Dr. A. Carroll, of New South Wales, undertook to read them. The reading was far too glib; it was a record of obscure events upon the slopes of the Andes. Called upon to explain the principles of inter- pretation. Dr. Carroll vanishes from the record. Paymaster Thomson was an eye-witness of the reading of the hyloglyphs by an Easter Islander. He has to acknowledge that a fraud was practised upon him *"Fur grossere umfassende geographische Einheiten, wie Buchten, Meeresarme, Meeres- strassen, Gebirge und ahnliches, besitzen die Eingeborenen keine Namen, wenigstens die Melanesier. Ihre geographischen Namen sind individuell, kantonal, lokal begrenzt." — Capt. Georg Friederici, "Beitriige zur Volker- und Sprachenkunde von Deutsch-Neuguinea," page 10. INTRODUCTION. 5 by the reader, so simple and so gross as at once to be detected. Yet he offers what purports to be the text and translation of several of these tablet records. Of the text we need but say that it is not such language of Rapanui as is recorded in the pages of this vocabulary, nor is it con- sistently the known speech of any Polynesian people, but a jumble of several. With such an uncertain base the translation can have no value save only in so far as it shows that Dr. Carroll's version is in no wise concerned with the same part of the world. 5. These problems of Easter Island have been presented in brief statement in order to show how necessary it will be in the following pages to confine our attention to the discussion and, so far as is possible, to the settlement of yet another problem, for the solution of which we may feel that we find ourselves in possession of satisfactory and suffi- cient data. Our purpose is to trace from linguistic material and through philological method the peopling of this remotest outpost of Polynesian culture. Incidentally it will involve the race problem of Southeast Polynesia. In a former work ("The Polynesian Wanderings," 179) I found it necessary to subdivide the general Polynesian area by erecting the province of Nuclear Polynesia, in which Samoa is the nucleus, Niue, Tonga, Viti, Rotuma, Uvea and Futuna, and Fakaafo describe the perimeter. In this connection I have encountered, more as a valued suggestion than in criticism, the memorandum of S. Percy Smith* that there exists a Polynesian name for this region, "Hawaiki-raro or leeward Hawaiki in contradistinction to Hawaiki-runga or windward Hawaiki as including Tahiti and neighbor archipelagoes." It was not without full consideration that I avoided these designations. In the first place their currency is restricted to the race long after it has passed out from Samoa. In the second place it would be doing violence to Polynesian thought method to attempt to fix with metes and bounds so general a division as these two terms connote. Furthermore, when laying out Nuclear Polynesia as a geographic and ethnic province, particularly a linguistic province, I foresaw that in due course it would become incum- bent upon me, as now it has so become, to erect similarly, within the diffuse area of Hawaiki-runga, a province of Southeast Polynesia call- ing for precise definition. As set off for the purposes of the present study this province comprises the Paumotu, including Mangareva geo- graphically but particularizing it philologically ; the two groups of the Marquesas; Rapanui; and for convenience Tahiti, as the practical designation of the archipelago of which that island is the chief. To complete the geographical record we may include Pitcairn, but its Poly- nesian remains, discovered by the Bounty mutineers, had long been mute. From this province I exclude the distal extensions of the race *43 Bulletin American Geographical Society, 267. 6 INTRODUCTION. in Hawaii and New Zealand, and the intermediate Cook and Austral Groups together with scattered islands in that region of sea, leaving their establishment as a province to the care of the particular students of the Tongafiti migration with which they seem most associable. In this province of Southeast Polynesia we shall devote our attention to unraveHng from the language records the story of the peopHng of the several lands. At this point it is proper to comment upon the source of the lin- guistic material and to a certain extent upon the quality of the record. One condition runs through all the vocabularies with which we are to deal: they have been collected by the French priests, who have devoted lives of self-abnegation to the cure of these remote and seldom re- sponsive souls. This we shall find apphes to the two vocabularies which we possess in an English rendering. The recorders, therefore, represent a singularly even type. It will surely not give offense if we characterize them as devoid of professional training for such work, for they will heartily acknowledge that they have been trained to higher things than the things of this world. Each such dictionary has been compiled as a necessary adjunct of mission work; it has been prepared by each priest to enable him to carry the gospel to the savages of his parish, to provide the ready means for his assistants or successors to carry on the work. The recorders have lacked time, special preparation, even interest in considering any questions of comparative philology and ethnology which might arise in connection with the speech record. They have gone very directly to a very simple end, to prepare such a word-Hst as might enable them to present their message of civilization. There is clear internal evidence that even the most finished of these dictionaries has been prepared upon a method which must of necessity be misleading. The author, at least the original compiler of the first word-Hsts which have become the base of later dictionaries, has begun in the inverted order. He has started from his original French and has sought to ascertain the Poly- nesian equivalent. The result is that the dictionaries of Southeast Polynesia are in no wise comparable with the wealth found in the dictionaries of Nuclear Polynesia, that of George Pratt for Samoa and of Shirley Waldemar Baker for Tonga. These latter had first steeped themselves in the languages of their respective fields of use- fulness. When the time came for them to write their dictionaries they began with the indigenous word and then sought out its EngHsh equivalent. In the French group we find general evidence, in Pere Roussel's work we find particular evidence, that each compiler followed a certain list of French words and directed his attention more or less seriatim to finding equivalents all the way down the list. It has pro- duced a monotony of uniformity; at the same time it has left the product uniformly comparable. INTRODUCTION. 7 The speech of Tahiti is presented to us in the work of its Apostolic Vicar, Monsignor Tepano Jaussen, Bishop of Axieri in partibus in- fideliwn, "Grammaire et Dictionnaire de la Langue Maorie, Dialecte Tahitien, Paris, Neia i te Neneiraa no BeHn, 1898." This approxi- mates 6,200 entries in the Tahitian vocabulary, and the collation of the French-Tahitian section will add considerably to the number. For the Marquesas we are indebted to its ApostoHc Vicar, Mon- signor I. R. Dordillon, Bishop of Cambysopolis, also in partibus, "Grammaire et Dictionnaire de la langue des lies Marquises, Paris, Imprimerie Belin Freres, 1904. " It contains about 12,000 Marquesan entries, with the same note as to the collation of the other half of the work. These two represent an advanced state of the knowledge of the respective languages, for each is based upon and is designed to supplant earher and now inaccessible vocabularies. For the speech of Mangareva we find our authority in Edward Tregear, an indefatigable worker in Polynesian hnguistics. Under the authority of the New Zealand Institute he compiled "A Dictionary of Mangareva or Gambler Islands, WelHngton, 1899." This contains some 6,600 Mangarevan entries and lacks a check vocabulary in English. The source of this material is not set forth, but it is the work of the French missionaries.* The same authority gives us, and from similar sources, a dictionary of the Paumotu, which may be found in continuous numbers of the Jour- nal of the Polynesian Society in the second, third, and fourth volumes. It contains about 2,500 entries and lacks the check vocabulary. For the language which forms the principal theme of the present volume we have " Vocabulaire de la Langue de I'lle-de-Paques ou Rapa- nui, par le R. P. Hippolyte Roussel, de la Congregation des Sacres- Coeurs de Picpus, missionnaire a ITle-de-Paques. " In "Le Museon, " published at Louvain in 1908, this occupies 95 pages, of which 80 are given to a French-Rapanui dictionary. The fullest credit must be given to this work as the basis of the present volume in the fundamental material. I have translated it into Enghsh, since by far the majority of the vocabularies of Polynesian speech are given in English terms and it makes for convenience to adopt this as the standard. I have compiled therefrom a dictionary of Rapanui-English and a check vocab- ulary to facilitate comparison by students into whose hands it may come. With this I have incorporated two brief vocabularies earlier printed and such material as was of my own acquisition from trust- worthy sources in the South Sea. The two added vocabularies (they are really mere word-Hsts) are to be found in Geiseler (84 entries) and in Thomson (467 entries). *Too late for use in these studies I have the grammar and dictionary of Mangareva of the Catholic missionaries published in 1908. 8 INTRODUCTION. It is quite clear that they derive, in 1882 and 1886 respectively, from succeeding stages of a single prototype ; what that may have been is merely inferential, each visitor records his vocabulary without credit to source. I am strongly of the opinion that each has made a tran- scription of some manuscript Hst of words, for in several instances Geiseler and Thomson are in accord in perpetuating errors which can only be due to misreading of poor chirography. It is quite possible that for his own convenience some such list was fitfully prepared by some alien resident upon the island. This points particularly to Alexander Salmon, who has for many years been in charge of the affairs of Rapanui. He is Tahitian, and in the early days of his unfamiliarity with the language he might find a convenience in noting various com- mon words which varied from the idiom with which he was familiar. We must note that, in addition to the faults properly to be credited to the prototype manuscript, the vocabulary in Paymaster Thomson's Smithsonian paper is disfigured, as is his whole narrative, by a set of errors due to the chirography of the manuscript which he supplied to the printer.* Unfortunately the same comment is to be made upon Pere Roussel's vocabulary. The publication was posthumous, and not even the most pious care of his brethren could be trusted to see through the press a work in an unknown tongue. Some part of this error is automatically corrigible in the inversion of the material and offers little difficulty to an editor who has any acquaintance with Polynesian languages. Another portion may be rectified by comparison with neighboring languages. The residuum of error properly chargeable to this source is believed to be very small. In the introduction to the Roussel vocabulary mention was made of the existence of two manuscript copies. I wrote to Professor Colinet, of the University of Louvain, senior editor of " Le Museon," noting the errors of this class and bespeaking his aid in securing the loan of one of these manuscripts. His response was both prompt and in the highest degree cordial; he referred the matter to the author's surviving brother, Professor Roussel of Freibourg. I had supposed that the manuscripts must be in the possession of the religious of the Sacred Hearts, the con- gregation of which Pere Roussel had been a member; but Professor Colinet's reference indicated another disposition of these originals. After waiting several months and obtaining no response I wrote to Professor Roussel, renewing the request and enlarging upon the service which the opportunity to collate one of the manuscript exemplars would render to science, and suggesting that the present volume would afford *We have no difficulty in recognizing yet a third draft upon the same source in the vocabu- lary of 116 words, of which none is not contained in Thomson, which is incorporated in the Easter Island report of Surgeon George H. Cooke, U. S. N. He visited Rapanui aboard the Mohican in the last fortnight of 1886, when that vessel was commissioned to bring away the statue now in Washington. His paper found belated publication in "Report of the United States National Museum," 1897, 689. INTRODUCTION. 9 an opportunity to present in corrected form the work of his brother, which must stand as the base and foundation of all knowledge of the speech of Rapanui. Apparently these considerations did not appear any more valuable on their repetition than when presented through the mediation of Professor Colinet. Professor Roussel paid no atten- tion whatever to the request ; he did not seem to consider it worth even so much as a refusal; the letters remain unanswered. Accordingly I have been obliged to establish a standard text through my own best efforts; for uncorrected errors I am forced to disavow responsibility, since I did all in my power to secure the means whereby they might be corrected. In an appendix I have transcribed a considerable mass of scattered references to Easter Island in general. It would not be practicable to incorporate all the literature of the subject. I have omitted all such as is convenient of access, as, for an instance. Paymaster Thomson's paper in the Report of the United States National Museum for 1889. But it has seemed of advantage to gather together the stray and less accessible accounts and to present them here for the greater convenience of stu- dents of this interesting island. The position which this investigation of the linguistic problems of Southeast Polynesia bears to my major project in Polynesian philology calls for a brief consideration. As with two other works which I have recently published, this is preliminary to the dictionary of Polynesian philology based upon the Samoan. My researches upon that central theme are now approaching completion after years of diHgent study. "The Polynesian Wanderings" was written to clear the way for the Nuclear Polynesian studies by differentiating the two streams of migra- tion of the Polynesian race which have occupied Samoa and adjacent islands in that mid tract of the Pacific. In that work I was able to segregate for exhaustive examination the earlier (the Proto-Samoan) stream of migration, to split it up into its two component streams, and to trace each back to its point of emergence from Indonesia respectively north of New Guinea and in the waterway south of that great island. In the monograph on the "Beach-la-mar" I found the material where- with to discuss a point fundamental in these languages, the beginning of the segregation of function in the three recognizable parts of speech, and therein I have made a preliminary statement of what is to be the manner of treatment which I shall pursue in deaHng with the Polynesian grammar. In Southeast Polynesia I place under examination the utmost limit of the Proto-Samoan migration: Rapanui, the final port of voyages whose early course we have already discovered in Motu and Moanus. These are chapters in the speech history of Polynesia of such magnitude and of such importance that it has seemed well to present them inde- pendently before advancing to the consideration of the main theme. 10 INTRODUCTION. That theme, to which these several items are contributory, is far more comprehensive than a mere dictionary of the speech of a socially unimportant folk. Its purpose is to provide the orderly arrangement of the material whereby we enter upon the systematic study of the principles and the methods of the most elemental type of human speech. As the placing of the Sanskrit within the reach of investigators created the science of comparative philology, even so I indulge myself in the reverent aspiration that the presentation of these data for a widely extended speech of the isolating type will carry our students very close to one of the origins of human utterance of ideas, so close that philology may then be justified in calHng upon psychology to explain the process whereby the primitive man has learned to differentiate his animal cry into thought-directed speech. CHAPTER I. THE POLYNESIAN ALPHABET. In reducing the speech of the Easter Islanders to writing, Pere Rous- sel, who had served an apostolate of a dozen years (i 854-1 866) in the Marquesas, employed the alphabet with which he had become familiar in the northern archipelago. The priests who introduced writing to the Marquesas had also drawn for their alphabet upon that with which they had become familiar in Tahiti, which stood as the metropolis of this evangelical colony. In Tahiti the priests of the older communion were late (and, in the complex of European politics, stormy) comers to a field already cultivated.* Thus they found an alphabet already adjusted to the phonetics of the Polynesian by the pioneer missionaries of the London Missionary Society. Furthermore, since the English mis- sionaries, under the stimulus of the restless soul of John WiUiams, the martyr of Eromanga and an interesting blend of pietism and Wanderlust, pushed ever into new fields and always carried with them the alphabet which they had designed as standard for Tahiti, this has become effec- tively the standard for all Polynesia. We have just observed how the French missionaries adopted it as already in existence and ready to their hands. The mission colony of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions accepted it gladly when Ellis of the London Mis- sion was called to their aid in Hawaii ; from that new center it was in the course of time carried to Micronesia. The Wesley an Mission adopted it for their earliest settlement in Tonga, and thence carried it to Viti. It is not until we reach the independent Presbyterian estab- Hshments in the New Hebrides that we find its neat simplicity disre- garded, and even in that western area it is essentially retained by the Melanesian Mission of the English establishment. An economical motive underlay the adoption of this standard alpha- bet of Polynesia at its beginning and equally operative with each new extension. In the first party of missionaries who sailed from England aboard the Duf for Tahiti in 1796, one of the four ordained ministers in the company of thirty-nine, representing many useful trades, has set against his name the memorandum "and understands printing." The only type which could be available to render this memorandum *We must deprecate the assumption of a polemical attitude. With the sagacious Ellis ("Polynesian Researches" ii, 6) we note so much of priority as may lie in the temporary sojourn of two Spanish priests from the Viceroyalty of Peru just twenty-five years before the coming of the English missionaries. Doctors of theology will have to pass upon the permanence of the theological statement inscribed upon the wooden cross at Taiarapu: "Christus vincit et Carolus III imperat, 1774," of which the succeeding diplomatic claim was never held valid. For all practical purposes the institution of the Catholic mission dates from 1838. 12 EASTER ISLAND. of more than curious interest was a small font such as would be found at that time in use in the ordinary EngHsh chapel, a font of plain book roman without diacritical marks. This stock was found ample to express the sounds in Tahitian; there were letters to spare.* But the Polynesians have, with a few exceptions, a simple sound which in English is, through long-perpetuated error, expressed as a double con- sonant, the palatal nasal, the ng of singer. But as the same combina- tion of consonants represents typographically the true double consonant of ngg in finger, there was objection to expressing the palatal nasal of Tahiti by ng. Furthermore, the Rev. Thomas Lewis, who " understands printing," had other things to do at Matavai; time at the case was time ill to be spared at the pulpit. He seems to have been a practical man, this reverend printer in his chapel under the palms. The letter g was not needed in Tahiti, for the language lacks the sonant palatal mute; therefore he used it in place of ng, assigning it once for all to the representation of the palatal nasal. Thus, every time he set g for ng he saved an en, and a sufficiency of ens saved mounts up to the saving of many ems, a consideration of moment to a printer who was more zealous in saving souls than in runnmg up a string. The use of g for this ng characterizes the written form of all the languages of Polynesia, save only the Maori of New Zealand, which was evangelized under other auspices. The general rule of the first missionaries in Tahiti was to assign to the vowels their Italian value and to sound the consonants as in English. That rule holds throughout Polynesia. We note a few exceptions, more apparent than real, since the systematic collation of comparative material will introduce them into the pages of this dictionary. The French missionaries have very commonly adopted a system of indicating vowels of the long quantity by doubhng the vowel. This is found in Rapanui, in Uvea, and in Futuna. They have, however, adopted from the alphabets of English source the employment of « of the Italian sound, and do not transliterate the sound by their more familiar ou. The doubled vowel is found in Tonga also, though that speech was reduced to writing before the French influence was intro- duced. It will be seen that a typographical convenience underlies this usage; vowel type cast with macron and micron respectively were beyond the reach of missionaries struggling in distant nooks of sea. *Such as take an interest in the annals of typography will welcome a note upon the paucity of the first printing establishments in the Pacific. As late as 1845 the mission in Hawaii was hard put to it to print the elder Emerson's English-Hawaiian dictionary. The office was wofuUy out of sorts. In the run of T we note these makeshifts: after Tallness follows tallow; the lower case is exhausted at testament, which is followed by -estate; fortunately the hyphens lasted to complete the signature of 8, for after -yrannical the ensuing signature begins with Tyrannize. But one must pity the poor printers who had to run off the edition and throw in the cases before they could proceed. In the B run we follow these shifts, from Bearer to Beast, from Beguile to behave, from Belloivs to belly, from bondage to bondmaid. Whoever can read the story here told will recognize that the pioneers in the Pacific could not do as they wished; they could do no more than the type would let them do. THE POLYNESIAN ALPHABET. 13 In certain of these languages a somewhat modern impulse has caused the dropping of k. This is strongly marked in Samoa; it is found in the Marquesas. In Samoa the k has vanished so recently — let it be understood that the reference is to the surd palatal mute and not to the kappation of t which is nov/ conquering modern Samoan as it has succeeded in conquering Hawaiian — the k has so lately dropped out that it actually leaves an audible hole in the word, the vowels remain disjunct on either side of the gap, crasis does not take place. In the Samoan alphabetical system the place of the vanished k is taken by the inverted comma; thus fa' a is the modern form of a preceding faka and is pronounced the same in every particular except that the k has gone away. The choice of the character is governed in this case also by typographical convenience; as the comma represents the briefest breath- pause in the continuing sentence, so the comma inverted might logically represent this infinitesimal but positive breath-pause in the continuity of the word. The sign is in but rare other use; the possibility of the need arising in Samoan composition to mark the opening of a quotation within a quotation seemed, and very reasonably, negligible. In the Marquesas the type supplies represented the provision of the common French chapel, which in this particular happens to differ from the English in the important detail that the marks of quotation hne at the foot of the type instead of at the top and are therefore less practicable for such employment in representing the absent k. But the French fonts must carry a complete supply of accented vowels, a waste pro- vision in the Pacific where the seldom-varied penult accent is almost autographic. The acutely accented type of these otherwise useless characters have been employed by Bishop Dordillon to represent vowels from before which consonants have dropped away. We should not fail to note that he is by no means accurate in such employment of the diacritical mark; in my collation herewith I have not assumed to correct his dictionary record, even though the compared material shows that no loss of consonant has taken place. After this general introduction we now present the alphabet of Rapanui in the standard arrangement, the dashes filling the place of Enghsh sounds which do not occur. e o i u _ r,- _ semivowel ng n m nasal surd h h aspiration sonant surd I ~ 1 \ sibilant sonant surd — vl \ spirant sonant - - -1 \ mute surd k t P I palatal lingual labial series series ser Its 14 EASTER ISLAND. It will not escape notice that the vowel tract is incomplete. This is by no means to be taken to mean that the Rapanui is less rich in vowel sounds than is our own speech. Far otherwise, the vowel is the skeleton of every Polynesian vocable, a fixed value, structural entity subject only to secular modification and that but rarely. On another occasion I have registered my impression of the Polynesian vowel: A man with a quick ear and an obedient tongue may, as the result of long discipline, acquire almost perfect use of the Samoan consonants, but it is most probable that no Caucasian has mastered the art of the Samoan vowels. It is as in their music; the intervals, the supertones and the fractions of the tone are developed on a system which we find it impossible to acquire. It estab- lishes a new group of units of vibration of the vocal cords, for which the fundamental diapason of our own speech is not set in unison.* Holding this opinion I must discountenance any idea of emptiness in the vowel tract. It seems empty only for the reason that the col- lectors of the vocabularies upon which our studies are based either have failed to catch the rich shadings of the vowels through ears trained to find the strength of speech in the consonants, or have recognized their inability to represent them by any of the type resources at their com- mand. We who can make the type fairly speak for us must commis- erate these poor missionaries with their shabby fonts . I might evaluate these vowels by proper symbols in several of the languages under col- lateral review, but that would remain unsatisfactory because incomplete. In fact, before these languages have become too far corrupted, records should be taken phonographically, so that a careful study may be made and a common system of expression devised in order that their full vowel beauty may be represented as an object at which to aim, even though we may fall short of the mark. Through this lack I am forced to leave the vowel area diagrammed by the five fundamental characters. When we come to the consideration of the consonants we arrive at more certain ground. For immediate comparison I set side by side the consonant plan of Rapanui and that of the Proto-Samoan. For the information of those who have not examined the preceding studies in this work of opening the treasure of the philology of isolating speech through its great and widely extended Polynesian family I should explain what is indicated under the designation Proto-Samoan. It is that ancient speech which from a study of the modern languages of Nuclear Polynesia we establish as representing their common parent. As in the study of the philology of inflected speech it has been possible to segregate a common parent of the Indo-Germanic tongues, the same method of research yields equally satisfactory results in this far more *i7 Journal of the Polynesian Society, 87. Withdrawn by amputation from the context which expressed the purpose which the last sentence was designed to serve this may now appear misleading. It should be understood that the variety does not obtain in definitely measurable vibration of the vocal cords, but does obtain in the mass of overtones derivable from changes in the form of the head cavities, whether singly or in conjunction, acting as soft- walled sound-chambers. THE POLYNESIAN ALPHABET. 15 primitive type of speech. We are here, it should be understood, to concern ourselves only with the phonetic side of this ancient speech. In this diagram the bold-faced type represents the letters now in Samoan use, the italic those not now employed which are deducible from extended comparisons. Rapanui. r,- ng n m h h Jr'RO- ro-:3AM OAN. y rA W ng n m h h s V f g d b k t P Inspection of the right-hand diagram shows that the Proto-Samoan had 1 8 of the 23 consonants which we employ; but at the same inspec- tion the type differentiation shows us how imperfectly it could hold these elements of speech ; for in modern Samoan we find that but 9 are retained, in Tongan 13 appear in the alphabet, yet owing to the extreme rarity of 5 and p this is effectively 1 1 ; in Futuna there are 10, in Nine 10, in Uvea 11. Since we shall have in these studies to take our departure from this carefully reconstituted Proto-Samoan, it will be advisable to pass under review its consonant structure toward whatever discovery we may make of the vital formative principles underlying it. I have already set forth my belief that the strong element, the endur- ing element, the root element of the Polynesian vocable lies in its vowel structure. Indeed I have made the preliminary announcement of a discovery which I find more and more reason to regard as valid and upon which I shall elaborate in writing the history of the formative stages of isolating speech, namely, that the word-root is reducible to a vowel-seed modified by consonantal modulants having a coefficient value of certain definite sorts. That the consonants, in comparison with this sturdy vowel, are weak is shown by their fluctuations in value as the languages of this family undergo their secular changes in two somewhat separable households. This weakness it is impossible to represent by any system of type upon any diagram, which must of necessity be both fixed and formal. Upon comparison with the consonant scheme of our own language we seem to find that the Proto-Samoan lacks only our palatal sibilants and our Ungual spirants. Superficially examined, the Proto-Samoan seems to possess in the vertical series exactly our own equipment of labials, and in the horizontal series our complete equipment of mutes extending across all three buccal areas in which vocal sounds are produced. This is misleading ; we are errant through the fact that we are obliged to set down the primordial and uncertain sounds through the agency of our graphic symbols for fixed and positively determined sounds. The 16 EASTER ISLAND. error would not arise if it were possible to employ comprehensible sym- bols expressive each of a germ-sound somewhere midway within those pairs of mutes which we classify as sonant and surd ; and in the case of the labials the range is wider, for we find not only an interplay between sonant and surd, but even one of such wide range as to admit of frequent interchanges between mute and spirant; and sometimes this extends as far as the aspiration, and even to the semi-vowel proximate to the labial series. This suggestion of a germ-sound I think it feasible to illustrate by an example from English which doubly covers the point. In a British colony, where the common speech is retentive of certain quasi-dialectic peculiarities not unknown in the mother country, but noticeable because of their reasonable unfamiliarity in American common speech, I heard frequently the locution "wisitors, vorshipful sir!" If it be objected that this is uneducated English the objection is not a valid one, for we are using this for comparison with the speech of Polynesian ancestors far removed from the possibility of formal education. The speaker of this test phrase could not have acquired his error through eye education, for in the characters V and W there can be no confusion, provided the sight is sufficiently educated to distinguish one acute angle from two acute angles. That the speech contained these two errors is in part an audi- tory laches, but there is something beyond this, a determining factor. A child in one of our primary schools who should thus exchange his V and his W would become the immediate object of the teacher's best effort to correct the error, and would be the butt of the excessively educational ridicule of his fellow children as soon as recess gave oppor- tunity for this potent form of schooHng. That this interplay between labial spirant and proximately labial semivowel and vice versa, a plunge over a great gap, endured in a number of individuals, schooled if not educated, is evidential that the error was not corrected by those in monitorial authority. Passing unperceived, it is in that community non-existent as error. If it were heard at all, the error would become the object of attention and of correction, for it exists side by side with the absence of eye-error, that is to say the false speaker spells correctly. By careful attention of the ear I found that these speakers said neither vorshipful nor worshipful, neither wisitors nor visitors, but an intermediate sound or two shghtly variant sounds, somewhere midway between the sounds accepted by us as standard, the germ-sound. Let us temporarily represent this by WV. What was said, then, was the midway sounds, WVorshipful and WVisitors. Upon our ears, attuned to a sharp distinction between V and W, the impact of WVorshipful impressed us with the fact that it declined from the recognized W value; therefore we must go the whole distance to our next recognizable sound, the V. Similarly the declension from the standard V in WVisitors carries us without a stop to W. Through this instance may we arrive THE POLYNESIAN ALPHABET. 17 at the comprehension of my idea of a germ-sound, and the equal fact that from such a germ-sound final emergence may be made to either one of the two limiting sounds. Regarded in the light of this germ-sound characteristic, we shall find the Proto-Samoan consonant skeleton to represent a speech-type far below our own . The array of mutes really corresponds to a row of three germ-mutes, and the series of labials to germ-mute and germ-spirant which are still so uncertain that they may interchange the one with the other or even with the semivowel. The type of the strongest modern speech developed by deviation of this nature from the Proto-Samoan is well illustrated by the present Samoan ; its structure is discoverable upon the Proto-Samoan diagram by omitting the italic letters. The semivowels at the palatal and labial extremities have such scant precision that it had not been found necessary to give them alphabetic expression; they are recognizable, however, in current speech. In the Proto-Samoan the Ungual semi- vowel was triple, r, r grasseye, and /. Of these the r grasseye has been wholly lost in the modern languages. As between r and / the languages of Nuclear Polynesia have chosen the /; in so far as they have determ- inant value we may therefore assign the / to the immediate survivors of the Proto-Samoan household. The most permanent element of the consonant skeleton is the row of three nasals, one for each of the buccal speech-areas. This, in fact, we should expect to find the case in a language slowly acquiring conso- nants as a new device of speech; those which lie nearest the vowels should be the first acquired, therefore the practice in their formation should have been longest and as a result their fixity the greatest. Of the three we find m to exist in all these languages almost without altera- tion. This is conditioned by the manner in which the sound is formed ; it requires the closing of the lips and then the opening ; there can be in nature no intermediate possibility, either the Hps are closed or they are not, the one position creates the ni, the other does not. It is foreign to our Polynesian inquiry, but none the less interesting to the student of phonetics, to note that in my Melanesian studies I have segregated instances where the ruder folk of those western and less advanced regions have not yet fully acquired the simple precision of even this most ele- mentary closure ; they have an ?n -variant which is most nearly expressed hymw. The other nasals are less positive. A frequent error in Samoan speech at the present day is to interchange ng and n when they appear in close proximity, less frequently is similar substitution made when either stands singly. In general we are to say that the languages of Nuclear Polynesia retain the full series of nasals ; this, then, is to that extent a character of the Proto-Samoan household. Granting, now, to a race of speech-beginners the discovery that by exerting a power to make various closures they enjoy the capacity to 18 EASTER ISI.AND. form consonants, where in their inexperience should we expect to find the next group of such acquisitions after they have found and conquered the nasals lying so readily next their possession of the vowels ? At the further limit of consonant possibility, to wit, the mutes. The case is this: The experimenting speaker finds that, by an easy exercise of a power, of which after long race-ages he finds himself to be possessed, he can enrich his speaking provision by a series of consimilar closures applied to each of the three speech-organs. His next essay would be to try what he could accomplish by exerting this power to its utmost possibility, having had the encouragement of finding an agreeable result to follow its first halting exercise. Thus do I account for the fact that our next complete series is at the utmost bound of speech possibility; we have the mutes, at least a series of three germ-mutes, one for each of the speech-organs. In speech it is as in music, the pianissimo is within the gentle touch of halting fingers on the keyboard, the weight of thumping blows can produce without instruction the fortissimo; but to effect the graces of the intermediate expressions, which give the music its charm, calls lor patience and painstaking assiduity in the training of the muscles specifically employed in the process. Accordingly we find that out of the three germ-mutes Samoan has possessed the more distal expression, the surds, and only within an appreciably modern period has undergone the loss of the palatal k. Of the other languages of Nuclear Polynesia, Uvea, Futuna, and Nine have retained the same mutes as the Samoan. We shall see, however, that this is not a distinctive character of the Proto-Samoan household ; it occurs in the Tongafiti as well. In Tonga we find divarication; a double emergence from the germ-mute has taken place; we have not only the full surd series k-t-p, but also the full sonant series g-d-b, though not acknowledged in type forms except as to the last ; we find a further development of the lingual mute, t before i becomes tch and is written /. Omitting this special case of Tonga, we note in the selection of the mutes by Nuclear Polynesian the utmost effect of that which I have termed the fortissimo effect ; as between the spirant and the surd, the latter represents the farther limit of the consonant-forming power. Between the triple and complete series of the nasals, the pianissimo expression of the consonant power, and its fortissimo* expression in the triple and complete series of the mutes, we pass over the aspiration, *In the sister, but more noisy, science of ordnance a high degree of ingenuity has been developed in the creation of time fuses and impact fuses whereby the projectile is blown to small bits immediately upon attaining the mark at which it is violently directed. It were desirable that some such method were applicable to metaphors in diction. Having once employed the terminology of piano-forte expression I find it convenient to continue the employment. Lest error should arise, however, in proportion as the text progresses away from the original mention of the figure, it may be well to set down the caution that pianissimo and fortissimo do not here connote the volume of vocal sound, but refer solely to the degree of consciously directed effort in the employment of the power whereby speaking man forms the consonants of his speech. THE POLYNESIAN ALPHABET. 19 an incomplete series, the sibilant also incomplete, the spirant incom- plete. Now how, in this explanation, are we to account for this incompleteness in the intermediate range of possibility ? To form the sounds which should fill the gap calls for precision in the employment of the vocal organs, calls for a training to which the incipient needs of the speech-beginner are by no means such as to subject him, calls for an elaboration of a system of differentiating his consonantal modulants far in advance of the arising of the need therefor in his thought hfe. I can find no shred of evidence that the Proto-Samoan could have had a richer equipment than is here diagrammed. It is different with our own speech. Our forebears had a far richer alphabet in this central area than we use. Through disuse we have lost the power of use. Our former palatal spirants, surd and sonant, gh and ch, are retained in the by-ways of our written speech as cumbersome monuments which we must revere through piety, but whose inscriptions we never read, save we are Scotch and use an older, purer English. Hitherto it has served to deal with the consonant diagram in hori- zontal series. This is not a mere device of typography, a convenience of arrangement for the display of the material upon the page. A consistent principle underlies the arrangement. In the case of the uppermost of these horizontal tiers the name con- notes the unity of principle in thus ordering the three nasals; to the vowel production by a vibrant column of air in a soft-walled container wholly without closures the first experiment in consonant creation adds the supplementary and supporting resonance of the upper head cavity, the nose. Though the name mute does not so clearly bespeak the unity of principle at that remoter region of consonant possibiHty, yet it is easy to satisfy ourselves that a speech-forming impulse is com- mon to all the mutes, no matter upon which of the three organs it may be applied. We may by experiment upon ourselves establish the essen- tial variety of the impulses which yield us spirants and sibilants and aspirates, even though we find it matter of great difficulty to acquire the wealth of consonants in this central area which gives to the Russian, for instance, its melody. Is there a good reason to propose why the Polynesian has acquired so little in this mid space of speech? To examine this in detail requires that we shall leave the horizontal order and consider the vertical. In the horizontal order we have con- sidered impulses toward consonant creation. We are now to consider the reaction possibiHties to such impulses which may exist in the three speech-organs, the palate, the tongue, and the lips, and the ease or diffi- culty with which each organ may be trained to respond to such reactions. The three speech-organs perform each a divided duty, their contribu- tion to articulation is but one of several natural functions, and in the performance of these several functions there is wide variation in the familiarity with which they impress themselves upon our acquaintance. 20 EASTER ISLAND. That the tongue is the formative agency in the production of the column of consonants from n to t may readily be ascertained. Yet we, with perhaps aeons of race reminiscence of animal needs outweighing man's few days so full of trouble, think first and most commonly of the tongue as the organ of taste. In like manner the exceeding great joy which the labial tract may express and to which at the same time the paired organs half contribute has served to hide from famihar knowledge the fact that they give us the consonant column from i7t to p. Least conscious are we of the palate at the rear of the mouth in any of its functions, speech or other. There is physical reason in this and in the part which each organ plays in speech. The palate is a broad, a diffuse organ ; its musculature does not lend itself to fineness of position. It is easy to observe within ourselves in act of speaking the shifts of position of the tongue and of the lips, but to become famihar with our palates in speech calls for nice observation and particular training. We have been trained to speech for ages, we come of a stock which has acquired a wealth of consonants, yet because of the hardship of adjusting this dull organ, the palate, to a series of frets of which we find it difficult to become conscious, we have consented to forego an entire group of palatals, the spirants, and that within a very recent period. The adult trained to English alone in his early years finds it difficult to master the ch of the German, quite as difficult as the German himself in many of his dialect provinces is finding it to retain the consonant in its purity. Therefore we need feel no surprise that these unskilled men, men so primordial in their speech acquisition that we feel convinced that we are gazing with eager attention and reverence upon the veritable genesis of an art of human speech— we should not wonder that they have found it possible to control this difficult organ only so far as to employ the rearward closure of the vibrant column of air no further than to fix but its pianissimo and its fortissimo positions, the nasal 7ig and the mute k. If we acknowledge that the intermediate positions of the palate, although acquired, are too difficult for us to retain we may not deny the probabihty that they were too difficult for this race of beginners of speech even to acquire. Rarely in any Polynesian speech do we find so much as the suggestion of a sound resultant from any intermediate positioning of the palate. Because of this absence of the facility to employ intermediate positions we shall find that the two palatals interchange across the whole extent of the range of that organ; that when, for any reason (and here enters the factor of speech psy- chology as yet almost wholly unstudied) the palatal nasal goes out of favor it may be replaced with the palatal mute, as we find to be the rule in the eastern dialect of the Marquesas, where the Proto- Samoan ng appears as k; similarly the mutation of k to ng is not unknown, although the common treatment of this consonant when it THE POLYNESIAN ALPHABET. 21 becomes objectionable is to drop it entirely, as we find in Hawaii, Samoa, and Tahiti as a consistent practice, and as we find it sporadi- cally in many kindred languages. From this we deduce that these languages really have acquired the use of the palate in general, have imperfectly estabHshed the duality of its capacity as proved by this readiness of mutation and the wil- lingness to sacrifice the mute. An examination of some of the con- servative nooks of our own speech will serve to point the way to the suggestion that this palatal was the first truly consonant difference to be acquired as speech emerged from the cry. What saith the noble red man? Let Deerslayer record the grunt of the Mingo, "hugh" — a vowel tone with a succeeding consonantal modulant, the palatal spirant. From the better English of Fife and all the land about it we cite hech in the common phrase ejaculation "hech sirs," again the palatal spirant, surd where the other was sonant. Let a child rap its risible olecranon, listen to the cry of ouch; again a vowel with a final modulant, a palatal sibilant. These are words and yet no words; they exist independent of parsing because they survive in a state of nature, even though tagged with the interjection label for museum display. They are but the first step advanced above the cry, the earliest germ of speech. But to our age-long antiquity they and others of their sort have preserved the vital difference between the cry of the beast and the cry of man. The man has found the way to use his palate, the very beginning of speech. These records of Polynesia show that we are deahng with a man who can use his palate with whole confi- dence in as yet but a single closure. Procul, procul! far be it from us to seek to traverse the Jacobean theology that "the tongue can no man tame." In philology we do indeed recognize the taming of this member, we acknowledge it in every reference to linguistics, in our most common conversation we interchange with the utmost freedom speech and tongue, Whitsuntide commemorates the miracle of the gift of tongues. In physical com- parison with the palate we are struck with the reason. The tongue is a flexible organ with great possibilities of finding its way to many parts of the oral cavity, controlled by muscles which we soon learn to train to our service and which we may govern with great precision. In English we have familiarized ourselves, between the semivowel and the mute, with a lingual closure of the vibrating air column in no less than six distinct positions, covering the whole range of the consonant possibilities to which this organ lends itself. In the closure which yields the semivowel we find minimum deviations which yield us two similar sounds, and we have another sort of duplication of sounds for the sibilant, the spirant, and the mute. In our speech, then, the tongue affords us ten distinct and always distinguishable sounds, so truly producible and with such positive values that they are almost incapable 22 EASTER ISLAND. of being muffled by the blanket of coryza, which plays such havoc with the rest of the consonants. These ten sounds are but one short of being exactly half of the number of our consonants, a good index of the amount of speech work done by this small member. A better index is shown in a computation of relative frequency of employment of the sounds in English, a computation which differs from the common table of letter frequency. In preparing this I counted sound by sound in a continuous passage of Thomas Hardy's prose until I had reckoned exactly i,ooo occurrences of the most frequent vowel, i of the Italian sound. These are the resulting figures; a 722 e 451 o 233 1 1,000 y 48 r 467 , 1 325 ng 58 n 479 h 184 zh 3 z 193 sh 61 s 375 dh 273 th 34 g 67 d 411 k 204 t 525 u 632 w 116 m 167 152 183 144 146 For purposes of comparison I subjoin a similar table computed for modern Samoan from a continuous passage of the Scriptures (Fa'ata'oto xiii, xiv), selected because of its freedom from introduced words. i 381 e 485 o 450 ng 91 (k) 385 I 463 n 131 s 46 t 228 u 224 m 150 V 52 f 116 p 60 We may obtain a better comparison by presenting these particulars in their natural groups in the accompanying table : Table i. Samoan. English. Samoan. English. Vowels 2540 1722 463 372 "46 3038 4615 956 684 184 632 Spirants Mutes 168 693 tit 378 642 497 625 3082 908 Consonants Semivowels Nasals Palatals Linguals Labials Aspiration Sibilants We may make yet another generalization, the relation per cent which the three series of consonants bear to the total number of sounds which yield 1,000 utterances of the dominant vowel. THE POLYNESIAN ALPHABET. 23 These percentages are presented in the following table : Table 2. Samoan. English. Palatal II 20 9 8 40 12 Lingual. . Labial . . It would yield no valuable results to pursue more extensively such comparisons of an isolating and an analytic speech, yet there is an interest in this simple exhibition of the extent and manner wherein they differ. To sum up, we may note that for every 25 Samoan vowels that speech makes use of but 17 consonants, whereas in our own speech we employ 46 consonants to every 30 vowels, a striking illustration of the difference between vocalic and consonantal speech. The simpler language employs its two palatals almost half as much again as we use our richer supply of palatals, even after the sacrifice of several through disuse. When we examine the two series which we employ with such beautiful precision we are struck with the lack of develop- ment which is the characteristic of the beginning speech : the Samoan employs his tongue but half as much as we, and his lips are but three quarters as much occupied as are ours. Now when we look more closely into the column of Proto-Samoan Unguals and note the play of mutation we shall make an interesting discovery. In the descendant languages the lingual pair r-l (in fact the apparent pair is really a triplet because of my discovery of the early existence of r-grasseye) hands down but one of its members at a time ; some use / and some r, none uses both. Next we find a frequency of mutation each way between the nasal and the semivowel, n-l and l-n respectively. We therefore establish the first lingual closure at a point equidistant from Hquid and nasal. A second pair exists in reference to the aspirate and sibilant. The languages of Nuclear Polynesia which have both are Tonga and Uvea ; Samoa and Futuna have 5 only; Nine has h doing service for both. When we leave Nuclear Polynesia and pass to the homes of Tongafiti folk we find that, with the sole exception of little Manahiki, the sibilant is an impossibility and is replaced consistently by the aspiration. So with the mute pair. Here the surd dominates; the sonant d occurs consistently in Viti alone, and even there can not stand without a preface of the nasal of the lingual series, nd. Thus we see that the tongue is used in pianissimo and fortissimo expression, and that particularly in the former its superior flexibility and the ease and beginning accuracy of its control enable the man to produce at least two distinct sounds. Between the two Hmiting extremes an intermediate sound has become possible, the sibilant; 24 EASTER ISLAND. but we have shown that in most of these languages the tongue control has not yet reached a degree of discipline which will give the true sound, the sibilant passes into the aspiration, a breathing but faintly colored by any activity of the tongue at all. Next, and last in this examination of the Proto-Samoan consonants, we come to the labials. In considering the nasal series mention was made of the fixity of the m value. So far as we may rest an argument upon freedom from mutation as evidential of antiquity of acquisition, we feel abundantly justified in the belief that the Hne of severance of speaking man from crying animal came when man acquired the labial m. The first gift of dawning speech lies exactly in the last gift of rational speech, the ability to shut the mouth. As between the fixed labial and the imperfectly positioned palatal the labial is surely the older. Here our interested delving into the beginnings gives us a sketch of emerging man : first he can mumble and then he can grunt, but he has begun. When we look at the other extremity of the column we find the surd mute well established. In Viti it is represented by its sonant, but only through the support of the nasal of its own series, mb; in a few instances in this language it passes to the sonant spirant v. In Tonga p becomes b without support, and this mutation is found somewhat rarely in some other languages. The intermediate closure through the agency of the lips gives the spirants, both surd and sonant. It is easy to see why we can have this double effect from a single position which has been found impracticable in these languages when the palate and the tongue have been the effective organs. For any given closure it is theoretically possible to have two effects. If there is no vibration of the air column during the continuance of the closure we have the surd or silent consonant ; but if during the brief space of the continuance of the closure the lungs force into the buccal cavity a supply of air and this is set into vibration before the closure is unbarred we have a sounding or sonant result of the clos- ure. Thus in the case of these labial spirants, in saying fa the sound does not begin until the moment of release of the closure ; in saying va it becomes evident in the moment before such release. We may find a reason. In the case of the lingual and the palatal the space in which vibration before release might take place is occupied by organs under less perfect control. In the case of the labials the palate and the tongue lie quiescent, the whole cavity of the mouth is available as a vibrating chamber, and the thin and essentially external lips are in no sense in the way of such vibration. All the languages of Nuclear Polynesia maintain this duality of the spirant. In the Tongafiti household the surd tends to vanish, it is fre- quently transformed into the aspiration, and in Rarotonga that breath- ing has proved too feeble to endure, while the Maori can come no closer THE POLYNESIAN ALPHABET. 25 to it than the supported hzv. Except for mutation to the semivowel w in Maori and Hawaii, the sonant holds its own. One general word should be said as to the character of the mutation of the consonants in these languages. It is essentially mutation within the series, with two important exceptions later to be noted. The reason for this is simple. The consonant is made by one of three speech- organs ; when for any reason that consonant is to undergo variation it is only natural that it should vary to some other consonant producible by the same organ. For the more part the direction of such mutation is upward in the series. This accords with the belief that the consonants nearest the vowel area are the first acquired and the most easy to use, and in all variety general tendencies to revert to older and to easier forms are conspicuous. The first exception to the law of mutation in series is the interchanges of ng-n and n-ng, each quite common in the nasals, mutation extra seriem. An examination of the slight variations in the two positions of the veil of the palate when more or less completely dropped to afford an entrance of the resonating air column to the nose and its outflow through the nostrils will prove how easily such two mutations may arise.* It fits in with what must rest as the basic principle of all these sound varieties, the inept workman's inability to master all at once a tool which in dexterous usage may be directed to precise employment. The second exception is the kappation of t, which is found in Samoa and Hawaii. In each case it has been preceded by the abolition of the true k, and then in a quite modern reaction the t has been sacrificed to replace the missing sound in the alphabet.! This movement was in progress in Hawaii when it was first discovered; it was facilitated and hastened to completion by the missionaries, who chose the new sound *We note with the interest which must always attach to the subject an instance in English speech. The noun derivative of strong is strength and our standardized pronunciation retains the palatal nasal. But there was formerly, in the most excellent authority there yet remains, the variant strenth, and this form finds dictionary place even in spelling. The nasal is attracted from the palate to the tongue by reason of the superior ease in passing to the next succeeding lingual spirant. tWithout recognition of the inexorability of the speech-principle here set forth as operative the teachers of Samoa are vainly struggling to stay the deformation of the speech. Early in November, 191 1, Governor-General Crose, U. S. N., in the American colony of Tutuila, held the first Teachers' Institute ever brought together in Samoa. From the report pub- lished in Samoan in "Le Sulu" we extract this pertinent note. "The great difficulty is the nanu (gibberish speech) which destroys and corrupts the Samoan speech. The word talatala in men's speech is distorted into kalakala and it is impossible to recognize the diversity of t and k. They should strive after the language in its purity as it has been handed down through the generations from their remote ancestors. Let no one give attention to the sneer that he is speaking in the tongue of the missionary. For it is not the language of the missionary, but it is the true language of Samoa and it should be cherished and loved as a sacred possession. So, too, is the continual interchange of n and ng. One who comes to ask for medicine on the plea that his mother is ill {'ua tigd lo'u tind) really armounces that his ache has become a mother {'ua tind lo'u tigd). Would not one think that this distortion of the Samoan would be uprooted by the Samoan school- masters on account of their love for their language in its purity? Nothing of the sort, for the majority of the Samoan teachers speak this gibberish all the time and are devoid of understanding." 26 EASTER ISLAND. when they reduced the language to writing; it has swept over Samoa since the corresponding period, and is too powerful a force to be stayed by the efforts of the teachers. This as yet evades explanation, it stands as an anomaly. Yet by way of comparison we are able to discover a very few instances where in secular mutation a Latin t has become k in descendant languages, which, it will be seen, is not an exact parallel.* A word also remains to say as to the aspiration. Few students of phonetics admit it to a consonant place, yet it is clearly not a vowel. Whitney sets it to one side in his classic table of the alphabet which in other respects we have been following. It is as though a detail of composition, which an artist had found it difficult to dispose of on the canvas, were painted on the frame. Despite this doubt I have had no hesitation in establishing two aspirates and in assigning them to posi- tions within the table of the alphabet; but because I can not identify any part played in the formation of these aspirations by the three consonant-forming organs I have set the two Polynesian aspirates not quite in the Hngual and labial series, but proximate thereto. The exist- ence of the duality of these aspirates is readily to be estabHshed in this language family. In the lingual series h is the mutation terminus of t and of J ; and in the labial series h is the mutation terminus of v, of/, of p. Yet when we find an h carrying on to secondary development a word which at last resumes its former estate, this portative h does not carry a lingual over into the labial column or a labial into the lingual series ; the aspirate delivers properly that which it has received. This could not be the case if the h resultant from lingual mutation and the h resultant from labial mutation were indistinguishable by the people who speak these languages. An exception, a case in which an error in dehvery was really found, is so unusual that I discussed it at length in "The Polyne- sian Wanderings," page 287. Throughout these languages runs a consistent principle of word mutation quite independent of the mutation by consonant modification. In this principle the word is subjected as word to a mutation which is governed by other than the simple phonetic laws applicable to conso- nant variety. This principle is metathesis, which in Polynesia is far more cogent than apparent. In Rapanui I have noted but thirteen instances of metathesis, involving twelve words, a very minute per- centage of the 3,000 principal entries of this dictionary. In the dictionaries of other languages of this family this more or less com- plete disguise of familiar words is equally rare of record. In the fact metathesis is very prevalent ; it is constantly met with in the speech of these islanders. The reasons for the paucity of its dic- *One of these instances is the word busk, now obsolescent, which is derivable from the Middle Latin bustum. The Latin original, itself of uncertain etymology, affords us in forking channels biist in anatomy and busk for the bodice whereby anatomy is tolerated in modest society within the temperate zones; near the equator the distinction is far less requisite. THE POLYNESIAN ALPHABET. 27 tionary record are not far to seek. In the first place the compilers of these vocabularies, cramped for room and held to rigid economy in typo- graphical composition, have been at pains to record the standard of each speech and to let the variants pass without comment. Thus, in the Samoan nofoa means a seat ; there can be no doubt that this is the standard form, a derivative from nofo to sit; it is found in the dictionary; yet on the Hps of men it is frequently sounded /owca or even fongoa. In familiarity with the spoken language we scarcely notice the metathesis, certainly it does not seem worthy of dictionary record. But when some other branch of the race has accepted for its standard the meta- thetic form, that is to say, when it is used more commonly than the primitive form, the compiler of a dictionary, in particular one unfa- miliar with the other Polynesian languages, unknowingly enters this as principal form and regards the true form, if he ever does hear it, as a corruption. In such a case we obtain the record of metathesis; we dis- cover it by the comparison of other languages. Thus it is that the record of such changes is far less abundant than the word-mutation itself. To this specific and particular reason we are to add another and general reason, one which functions with great potency in the laws of common thought. The phenomenon has a name, therefore it ceases to challenge information. We have to recognize that names, even per- fectly good names, throttle investigation, for a certain type of wisdom consists in the accumulation of names, and Webster and Worcester are leaders of thought. It may well be comprehended that the introduc- tion of so simple a designation as eschatology in general and improving conversation might lead to no result, the name buries the fact; yet introduced to the student keen in the pursuit of knowledge through research and investigation the same name might well lead on and yet on to the living hope of the joys of a life yet to come. Thus, named and satisfactorily named, metathesis has passed practically unstudied as to method and principle. It has not been easy to codify the instances of metathesis in such wise as to establish the principles which underlie this mechanism of speech, but after many efforts which have proved fruitless I feel con- fident that I have devised a system of record by which all cases may be rendered comparable. It will be borne in mind that the Polynesian syllable is of the simplest structure. There are but two forms — there can be no more — the syllable containing a single vowel sound and the syllable containing a single vowel introduced by a single consonant sound. Now before passing to the less familiar Polynesian words it will be well to illustrate metathesis through typical instances in our own more famihar speech, sometimes jocular, sometimes produced by some mental inversion of order of utterance, and then commonly known as Spoon- 28 EASTER ISLAND. erisms, from a distinguished Oxford don who was forever tripping after this fashion; in a very few instances really formative as shown by language comparison. Of the jocular type, there comes to mind the name which the sub- urban resident applies to the implement of his semiweekly exercise, the mawnlower. A genuine Spoonerism is the solemn injunction of the clergyman that the congregation shall unite in singing hymn 688, omit- ting the last two stanzas, hymn 688, "this world is sure from paw to paw" ; possibly less genuine is the similar ascription to the deaconing of yet another hymn, ' ' this world is but a shooting flea. ' ' The third type, that which alone adds to our permanent vocabulary, is represented by the Norman cry of haro, at the sound of which all acts of whatever vio- lence must cease until justice were done the petitioners, which has lost its gravity in passing into EngHsh hurrah. If in these three types we disregard the final consonants of the respective syllables which compose them we shall find our path easy toward the estabHshmentof the two simple classes of m.etathesis. Upon examination we shall at once see that in respect of the elements inter- changing position we have two distinct types and a third which com- bines them. In mawnlower the interchanged elements are the initial consonants; in hurrah the consonants remain unmoved but the vowels interchange ; in shooting flea syllable interchanges position with syllable. This last type we need not now consider; in Polynesia I have not yet identified a single instance in which syllable interchange is positively established, and the few instances with which I am acquainted in Mela- nesia are complicated by an alien element in the mixture of languages.* So far as these researches have been prosecuted in the Polynesian lan- guages, there are but two metathetic types and these two do not com- mingle ; a word may interchange its consonants or may interchange its vowels, but not both at the same time. To secure codification whereby comparison may be possible I have hit upon the device of employing the letters of our alphabet as designat- ing position, the vowels in order indicating the vowels of each successive syllable of the words under examination, the consonants in like manner indicating the consonants introductory to each such syllable. Thus B will always represent the consonant of the first syllable ; the absence of B will show that the word lacks a consonant in its first syllable ; a will represent the vowel of the first syllable, no matter what the word ; c and E are assigned to the second syllable, d and i to the third, and so on. Thus diagrammed lawnmower is bacE, in which b represents /, a repre- sents awn, c represents m, and E the scumbled vowel sound ower. In like manner bacE diagrams haro with b for h, a for a, c for r, and E for o. *In "The Polynesian Wanderings" I have listed cases of metathesis as cited in the follow- ing list, the references being to the serial number of the items in the Appendix I: Leon 139, Retan 193, King 196, Baki 298, Bierian and Baki 321, Saa 351, and Pala on page io8. Even though the publication of that work preceded the writing of these pages by less than a year, it will be seen that therein I was still striving to codify metathesis by a numerical method and not meeting with success. THE POLYNESIAN ALPHABET. 29 When we subject lawnmower to metathesis the resultant mawnlower is represented by cabE. That is the symbol for all metathetics in which the consonant of the latter syllable interchanges with the con- sonant of the former syllable. When we subject haro to metathesis the resultant hurrah is repre- sented by BECA. That is the symbol for all metathetics in which the vowel of the latter syllable interchanges with the vowel of the former syllable. Accordingly we have now graphic representations of two primitive types, consonantal and vocaHc metathesis. In examining our Rapanui examples of metathesis we shall have no difficulty in reduction to these types, even in words more extensive than dissyllables. The only con- fusion will arise where we have to deal with syllables which lack con- sonants. Yet this confusion will vanish when we bear in mind that a word lacking a second consonant, symbolized bae, is the same thing as BACE, and that the symbol of its consonantal metathesis, abe, is really the equivalent of cabe. Accordingly we thus arrange these examples, the primitive form preceding in every pair. I. Consonantal Metathesis. CABE. ABE. CAEDI. muhu numi vaka mona humu (ha)moni kavakava noma foe ohe (Mgv.) ABEDI. haere ahere upoko puoko CADEI. aluga ragua DACEI. aluga garua IL Vocalic Metathesis. BBCfl pusa tihe tufa pahu tehi tahu ACIE. It will readily be comprehended that as yet our material is far too scanty and that our method of codification is as yet too newly devised to admit of such study as will establish the principles of this word muta- tion. But now that comparison may systematically be established over the whole Polynesian area it will not be long before the system of metathesis will come to light, undoubtedly as simple as are all the fundamental rules of this speech family. CHAPTER II. RAPANUI SOURCES AND VARIETY. We can make no better beginning of the study of the phonetics of this speech than by an examination of the mutations to which have been subjected those words which the necessities of modern intercourse have forced the islanders to naturaHze. These words are of sources easily recognizable as English, French, and ecclesiastical. Their original forms are standard in our f amihar acquaintance ; therefore they afford us opportunity of examining the treatment to which this Polynesian folk has had to subject them for its own currency. To the number of 66 they are entered in the dictionary with such type differentiation as will manifest their alien character, and in that place the source of each is indicated. For the purpose of this examination they are here assembled in two tables. With the French we may properly and do include the Latin and Greek borrowings, for all have come through the same channel, the mission priests and brethren of the Congregation des Sacres-Coeurs de Picpus. The source of the words of English origin is less definite. We have information of no such settlement of English- speaking folk on Easter Island as would foster the acquisition of this score of vocables. A few, such as pakete, paura, uira, manna, tara, pent, poti, may have been acquired by islanders drafted into service as boat's crews of the whalers who once crowded those seas in their hunt for the cachalot. A few others may have been acquired by contract laborers in Tahiti, where the London Mission had introduced some English to island life. In this group we may safely place hora, miniita, nira, eteni, mitinare, himene, pnka, ii, tiki, tokini, and tope — there can be no doubt as to the latter moiety, how they smack of the dissenting missionary! But hoi in derivation from horse is a puzzle : in kevare we find the French word for the same animal; /icf, therefore, did not arise on Easter Island; it was not likely to be acquired in Tahiti, for puaahorofenua is the name there in use. But here are the lists: ENGLISH. aniani (onion) mitinare (missionary) puka (book) eteni (heathen) moni (money) tara (dollar) himene (hymn) nira (needle) ti (tea) hoi (horse) pakete (bucket) tiki (sick) hora (hour) paura (powder) tokini (stocking) manua (man o' war) peni (paint) tope (soap) minuta (minute) poti (boat) uira (wheel) 31 32 EASTER ISLAND. agera (ange) anio (agneau) enemi (ennemi) epikopo (episcopus) etereno (eterael) eukaritia (eucharistie) evagerio (evangelium) hieroturia (hierodoulia) hipokerita (hypocrite) hipotati (hypostasis) hove (veuve) iuteo (iudaeus) karatia (gratia) kevare (cheval) kimatiko (schismaticus) FRENCH AND ECCLESIASTICAL. retera (lettre) ri (riz) ropa (robe) takarameta (sacrament) mereti (mercredi) miterio (mysterium) natura (natura) nieve (nivis) papa (pape) papatema (bapteme) pater iareka (patriarch) peata (beatus) penetuli (peinture) perehe (plaie) peripitero (presbyterus) porokimo (proximus) porotetani (protestant) rapino (lapin) reone (Icon) tameti (samedi) taperenakero (tabernaculum) teparanate (serpent) tiaporo (diabolus) tominika (dominica) toro (taureau) uva (uva) veneri (vendredi) viatiko (viaticum) vicario (vicarius) verigine (virgo) Even in so simple a matter as the addition of a final vowel to a foreign word of closed habit we shall find an indication of a fixed character of this as of every speech of the Polynesian family. In these two Hsts we find no instance of the addition of u, nor is it common in such usage elsewhere in this family. Another generally uncommon euphonic ter- mination apphcable to closed foreign words, o, occurs only in the French list, and even there (except for the single mstance of rapino) is confined to the ecclesiastical words, in which we seem to note a tendency on the part of the priests to offer to the islanders the oblique cases and open forms of the originals. It should be noted that in no case does the euphonic addition carry the accent ; it is largely to secure a penult ictus in reproducing the original accent of the borrowed word that this extra syllable is appended. In the arsis the finer quality of the vowel might be expected to attain the full perfection which is the foremost quality, almost the most enduring possession, of Polynesian orthoepy. In the thesis, particularly a final thesis, the shade of difference between e and i may pass unconsidered. We note the cases under each vowel, the series of each table being noted independently. hora minuta nira paura puka uira agera hipokerita papatema E. pateriareka retera ropa takarameta himene mitinare pakete tope kevare reone I. poti tiki teparanate verigine aniani eteni hoi peni hipotati penetuH porotetani The proportion contributed to these three lists by the two source languages seems to inhere in conditions exterior to Rapanui. The French possesses a larger number of vocables of the open habit and there is no such ictus upon the ultima as distinguishes many English words. Thus, taking into the count the fact that the French list is rather more than twice the length of the English list, we estimate a final RAPANUI SOURCES AND VARIETY. 33 a and a final e as twice as frequently required in English borrowings and a final i as four times as frequent. No Polynesian speech can accomplish the concurrence of consonants; the spirit of the language does not tolerate it. In borrowing words in which such concurrence exists two methods of treatment are in use to obviate the difficulty. One, the method which seems the easier to the foreigner who seeks to contribute necessary new words — and that is the position of every missionary — is to spHt up the concurrent consonants by the interjection of a light vowel, most commonly assimilated to a stem vowel next ear- lier or next later in the word: this we find illustrated in teparauate, in which the latter a is assimilated to the former, and in porokimo, where the first is assimilated from the succeeding and essentially stem o. Or a vowel of a lighter color may be employed, merely as a septum, as the last e in taperenakero. By such alien brutality we encounter the uncouth forms of the type laikisipositadamapejela and ameiamani, {Reichspostdampfer and Amtmann) with which the needs of German administration have defaced the pleasant rhythm of the Samoan, a language sweet in the cadences of love and ample for the orator, sub- missive but aghast at such Teutonic additions. In a second group of the borrowings we recognize with no difficulty the motion of a less external principle, a motion which represents the tendency of the island speech. This is perhaps less a matter susceptible of positive proof than the recognition of the feel of the language ac- quired in years of intimate contact with Polynesian speech and of close study of its manners and methods. To these islanders the historic ety- mology of the borrowed European word is a thing unknow^n, never to be known, not in the least worthy of consideration. That we have written of a certain large reliance on the feel of the language is not to be taken as indicative of any shirking of discussion. It is possible in a few words to present the difference and to present it clearly, a particular presentation of the general statements of the fore- going chapter. In our Indo-Germanic languages the stem survives in its consonant skeleton. In passing from stage to stage in descent from a common ancestor the consonants have been subjected to a slow modification, but it is so slight that the laws of Grimm and Verner are sufficient to bring almost, if not yet quite, all to plain account. Far other with the vowel elements ; these unstopped vibrations of the vocal column of air undergo strange alterations, not only secular change in the course of long ages but rapid change within the memory of a single generation or but of a few. Our veriest school children, if permitted to think at all, wonder at the prosody of the mutilated rhyme : I am monarch of all I survey. My right there is none to dispute, From the center all round to the sea — 34 EASTER ISLAND. And in the present score of years London has become alarmed at the remarkable spread of the a in lady to a something which we do not exactly represent in type by lydy or laidy, the sudden extension of a narrowly restricted Middlesex village dialect which had lain dor- mant for centuries until this modern weed growth, and now baffles all efforts at explanation. A very small area of the general vowel-change has been set apart into artificial classes and designated ablaut and umlaut, active under impulses which we scarcely yet begin to comprehend. In the languages familiar to our use the lasting frame is the consonant, the vowel may change almost in a year; but in Polynesia the skeleton of the word is the vowel. The consonants are yet but few, a sign in this case of recent and partial development as genetic conditions have served ; they are so dotted over the buccal speech-area as to suggest that they are little more than samples of what may long ages hence be needed. They are sub- ject to mutation along lines which we may readily explain; they are frequently subject to extinction without entailing any serious loss of comprehensibiHty. But the vowel remains firm and unwavering; it is the real skeleton of the Polynesian speech-body. Let us clinch the statement by a simple illustration, and in this we may draw upon the Samoan as representing the central and least modified type of Polynesian speech. We are all familiar with English types of inflection employing such forms as sang, sing, song, sung. This HngHsh series has been subjected to purposeful vowel change, yet the sense runs one and undivided throughout; the stem has but undergone ablaut. Yet if we were to attempt to subject to such vocalic mutation a similar Samoan couplet of consonants, as t-ng, we should have tagi to cry, togi to peck, tugi to set afire. In the Samoan series, which is not in the least a speech-series, the same change of vowels gives us a new word in each case. Although the consonants remain unaltered in themselves and in their relative position the shift of vowel gives a complete alteration of sense. Clearly the skeleton of these words is not in the consonants. Now let us examine the first of these Polynesian words and notice the consonant modifications it may undergo and yet carry the sense unmodified in various dialects of the Polynesian family and as loan material in Melanesian languages, tangi tani taki tai kani angi jangi hai Each consonant has undergone each and every of the changes which are its phonetic possibility, even to extinction. In the final reduction we are led to a specimen so elemental that we find no consonant other than an aspirate, a mere initial breathing, scarcely more vocal than an ap- pulse ; but throughout the changes the vowel a and the vowel i remain unchanged in themselves and in their relative position. The life of all RAPANUI SOURCES AND VARIETY. 35 these words lies in the a-i collocation; it is this vowel skeleton which holds the meaning. Look now at our tables of English and French source and see what the Rapanui men under their own instinct of speech have done with their borrowings. An excellent illustration is pent, interesting because we find it duplicated by penetuli of the same sense from the French peinture. The word paint is on two accounts impracticable for Rapanui enunciation ; it ends in a consonant ; it carries concurrent consonants ; if dealt with by the foreigner intent upon fitting the English word for island use by the method of parting the concurrence by a vowel of light shade, the word would assume some such form as peniti. This would come under the regimen of another rule of Polynesian speech, that of the penult accent, and we should find that peniti is unrecognizably remote from original paint. Governed by his own comprehension of that which is permanent and dominant in every vocable, the Rapanui man seizes upon the vowel which meets his ear; of the succeeding consonants adopts that which is most lasting in his consonantal scheme, the nasal, and rejects the mute. Therefore peni pictures to his eye the distinc- tive determinant sound which paint makes upon his ear. Thus we are introduced to an important detail of the use of the con- sonants. Not only are the Polynesians masters of far fewer consonants than our needs require, but of those consonants which they do possess the mastery is varied in degree. The tier of consonants which lies nearest the vowels is that which alone can be said to be universally in Polynesian possession, the palatal nasal ng, the lingual nasal w, the labial nasal m. These three are almost constant; mutation inter se is rare, and mutation in series (that is to say, m to other labials, and the like) is almost wholly restricted to the possibility of the l-n and n-l mutation. This exception, again, is genetically valuable, for it points the way to a fine whereby the vowel in evolution through the channel of the liquid may attain to consonant figure. Our studies of Polynesian etymologies show us — in fact the tangi illustration shortly heretofore employed offers a full exposition — that t is impermanent, it may become k by an extraordinary shift to the palatal series, and in its own series it may become /, s, h, or vanish entirely. Therefore we are led to the conclu- sion that in dealing with concurrent consonants in its borrowings the Polynesian selects that of each two which is the older and better estab- lished in his own speech. This we find again instanced in nira, a selection of the liquid over the mute in the dl of needle. In a considerable group of these borrowed words we have to do with s concurrent with some other consonant, either in the preceding or the succeeding position. Here the resultant is conditioned by the fact that the sibilant is impossible to the Polynesian in general, the Samoan being the chief exception, and commonly is represented by an aspiration 36 EASTER ISLAND. approximate to the lingual positions of the buccal closures and appar- ently prior to those positions, for a post-aspirated consonant is scarcely to be found in the Polynesian Pacific* Accordingly, in such cases as these the impossible sibilant is omitted and sk, ks, sm, sp, of the original word are satisfactorily reproduced by the remainder of the pair. Where 5 stands alone it is reproduced by t, thus giving rise to the deliciously pious collocation of tiki, tokini, tope of the former table; in which any person who has acquired famiharity with the harsh introduction to the Pacific islanders of the accidentia of civilization will sadly recognize a case of hysteron proteron, for tokini and tope are really major and minor premises of a fatal syllogism. When we pass to the comparison of Rapanui with other languages of the Polynesian family we shall have to consider changes less violent, changes which are clearly reducible to certain fixed, smoothly acting, and, we believe, readily comprehensible laws of mutation not peculiar to this remotest speech, but general throughout the family. In order to facihtate comparisons of the material I suffix to the last chapter finding tables of all such vocables as afford comparable data and shall cite them by the assigned serial numbers. It will be seen that just one-third of the dictionary material is thus made available to a greater or less extent for this particular research. Our first inquiry shall be addressed to the vowel changes which Rapanui exhibits in comparison with our standard of Polynesian speech. Naturally, because of the durability of the Polynesian vowel, the num- ber will not be found a large one; each instance will, therefore, be of particular interest. a-O The mutation in thesis occurs in 789, 791 ; in arsis in 514. In the quasi diphthong au we find the mutant om in 5 1 7, 5 1 8, 677, 783, but it is not critical in Southeast Polynesian, for the duplicate forms exist in these stems quite generally and may have been coexistent in the earliest swarms of migration. a-e Found in thesis in 375, 470. o-a Found in arsis in 730, 873 ; in thesis in 856. o-e Found in thesis in 754. o-u Found in thesis in 748. Duplicate forms, that is to say, instances of vowel variety which are not critical for Southeast Polynesian, are found in 375, 470, 517, 518, 660, 699, 751, 777, 783, 938. There remain the following, which are not to be arranged in the foregoing classes : 341. The identification is very uncertain both in sense and in source and must be neg- lected until better supported. 452. The Rapanui really represents here the standard form of the Tongafiti migration. 867. The Rapanui is regular, the Maori an anomalous form. 920. The word in most of its occurrences shows evidences of an upheaval so violent as to remove it from consideration under the ordinary laws of phonetic variety. *We note the sh of Tongarewa, its dialectic occiu-rence as an /i-variant in Maori, and traces among the Polynesian loan material in Melanesia; also the dh of Viti in mutation from Polynesian h and s; the wh of Maori is, of course, not properly in this list, for it is really hw attracted out of order in writing by the influence of the EngHsh error. RAPANUI SOURCES AND VARIETY. 37 We have already, in the preceding chapter, presented a table of the alphabet of Rapanui in comparison with the adopted standard of the Proto-Samoan. We shall next list the occurrences of the Rapanui deviations from the standard, and in the first set of tables shall concern ourselves only with the cases for which we have Samoan — or in a few instances lacking Samoan we have other Nuclear Polynesian — primi- tives as the base of comparison. These tables deal only with deviations ; the concords are so many and so consistent that the index table serves as a most satisfactory tabulation. I make but one exception, in each direction, to this system; the mutation l-r holds so constantly as not to call for record, and the h in Rapanui, as a preservation of the Proto- Samoan aspiration, needs record because that sound does not appear in the modern Samoan. The tables are grouped by series, that is, by the three speech-organs employed, beginning at the back of the mouth. Palatal: g-n 686 785 ¥~ 316 k— 419 534 730 745 822 Lingual: l-n 786 I— 736 830 n-s 660 714 735 h-h 296 351 359 771 792 824 h— 692 695 833 s-h 329 355 358 362 364 371 374 376 377 380 381 384 396 392 394 399 400 401 408 409 416 472 473 547 624 680 740 743 744 750 753 754 766 789 835 s— 325 470 823 t— 770 Labial: i-h 297 299 300 301 304 335 336 337 338 349 350 351 35a 353 354 356 357 360 363 365 366 367 368 369 370 37a 373 375 378 379 385 386 387 388 389 391 393 395 397 398 402 403 404 405 406 407 410 411 415 423 430 471 524 528 529 551 589 599 621 622 623 625 626 656 679 694 698 741 742 745 746 747 748 749 751 752 755 756 817 528 f-p 329 f— 301 Of the two strongly characteristic deviations of Rapanui from the Proto-Samoan standard, s-h and }-h, each affecting an intermediate closure, of the tongue and lips respectively, each results in an aspira- tion, but with a difference in quality whose existence we must recognize, even though we can not fully comprehend it as within our own speech training. In the nasal tier the interchanges g-n and n-g are general and not to be regarded as of diagnostic value in determination of dialect movement. The minor movements of mutation in the palatal column, the extinc- tion of g and of k, are frequent in Polynesian. That of k has already received sufficient comment, that of g is a dialectic character of Tahiti, and is found sporadically in Nuclear Polynesian and in the Maori. 38 K ASTER ISLAND. In the lingual column the mutation l-n is characteristic of Nukuoro, a speech that is best considered a somewhat recent Samoan derivative ; it is sporadic in several languages. The extinction of / is strongly- marked in Nine, appears somewhat frequently in Tonga, and in South- east Polynesia is abundant in the Marquesas. The consideration of the retention of the Proto-Samoan aspiration and of its extinction, both included in the foregoing tables, is postponed to later studies of the aspiration in general. The extinction of the sibilant is common in Mangareva, as we see in the chapter dealing with that tongue; it is the rule in Rarotonga, it is sporadic in other Tongafiti languages; I lack present record of its occurrence in Nuclear Polynesian. In the labial column the mutation f-v, an interesting variety since it involves the unusual change from surd to sonant, is characteristic of Viti, sporadic in several languages in each household. The extinction of / is characteristic of Mangaia, Rarotonga, Bukabuka, strongly marked in Mangareva, and sporadic in Nukuoro and Rotuma. We next pass to a similar tabulation of mutation of the Tongafiti ele- ment registered upon Maori as the most readily available base. These variants are very few ; they occur only in the Unguals and labials : h — 841 842 hw — 839 844 h-w-h 952 w-f 842 843 864 871 912 955 956 957 hw-r 922 w-h 850 855 856 858 The Maori hw being a mutation of Proto-Samoan /, the three entries are reducible to f-h, f-v, /-, which have been established in the larger table with Samoan comparatives. Similarly as Maori w is a mutation of Proto-Samoan v, the foregoing entries reduce to w-v, which therefore cancels itself, and v-h. The former of these exhibits Rapanui as closer to the Proto-Samoan than the Maori. The latter mutation is very rare. In "The Polynesian Wanderings" I noted it once each in three languages; three of the instances here noted show great irregularities in the comparative histories of the several vocables upon which they are based. Up to this point we have concerned ourselves with the investigation and record of phonetic mutations, a point at which, undoubtedly from motives of convenience, philological comparison most commonly re- gards its labors as complete. But this is an exaltation of form over substance. It does not call for deep insight into speech as the utter- ance of the inward thought of sentient man to recognize that form may be a grace, but it is the sense that is the life of the word. We next shall pass to the examination of these words of Rapanui, wherever comparable, in the effort to discover what information they may be made to give us of the position of this distant folk among greater famiHes of its race. It may be that we shall not find much ; it may well be that rules for the government of such inquiry may not distinctly establish themselves, for the field is new. A new acre in a field so little RAPANUI SOURCES AND VARIETY. 39 tilled may surely yield some crop, as is the way of fallows when brought under tilth. One general statement must be held to condition this manner of inquiry. We are dependent upon brief vocabularies. I would be the last to suggest that they be held in disesteem ; they represent, one and all, the best result of the Hfe work of men who needed these word-hsts as tools for the prosecution of a task to which they had dedicated their energies with the blessing and the inspiration of sacrifice of self. I am fond of these Polynesian dictionaries, old and warm and now grown shabby friends of my study. Their simple statements are the warrant of their honesty. But we must recognize that their definitions are incom- plete and without exception they are superficial. Not one has felt the call to delve below the convenience of the word, as speech medium of thought interchange, to discover the germ thought out of which variety of expression may derive.* In this dictionary of Rapanui we find that tun may mean a post, it may mean to be; in sister languages it means to dwell. Each of these definitions is a good definition so far as it goes. It is only when through widely spread comparison we establish for ttiu its plasm of primary sense, which seems to render it a descriptive desig- nation of the relation to the common bench or plane of reference which is borne by an object cognizable as in general protrusive or external — it is only then that we find it possible to regard these three variants as equally secondary in varying directions. To see our way through these tangles we must have some knowledge of what the islander selects for cognition out of anything perceived, and what manner of character of any object of such cognition he selects as generic and what as individual. We must remember that this man, as a thinking man, is not under governance of the laws which we have painfully elaborated in the experiences of our own thought life. Our teachers find it a stupid boy who, when he deals with this problem of an arithmetic, once mental but now oral (as perhaps prefiguring a knowl- edge in time to come that in its bearing upon culture it is but lip ser- vice), "if there were 27 sheep in a pasture and you saw 3 sheep jump the fence how many sheep would be left in the pasture?", answers "no sheep. " A most stupid boy, a boy for whom the bottom of the row is appointed ; a boy most wise, a boy for whom a worthy place in life is appointed. For there is a wisdom of figures and there is a wisdom of sheep, and this boy knew sheep. Which apologue may serv^e to remind us that in this branch of the inquiry we are to give to savage wisdom our attention with no prejudice. In the examination of this material for sense concord and for sense variety as the data may exhibit, we shall continue to find it advan- *Both simple and superficial we extract from the early pages of Judge Andrews's Hawaiian Dictionary: aapa, adj. Presumptuouf?, as when a drunken man lies down on a precipice. 40 EASTER ISLAND. tageous to maintain the segregation of the data by the classes of the occurrence of the identification in Polynesia exterior to this southeastern province. These are three: (i) identification in both migrations; (2) identification in the Proto-Samoan exclusively; (3) identification in the Tongafiti exclusively. The first of these, much the largest, we shall pass first under review. But before we can make much headway it will be necessary to give some preliminary consideration to the method by which speech-elements are assigned to these three classes. Nuclear Polynesia was the meeting- place of the two migration streams, and in that central province Samoa is most distinctly the scene of the reunion of the long and widely sun- dered branches of this most errant race. We have most conclusively estabHshed that the early, or Proto-Samoan, migration swarmed out from Indonesia through two gateways at, or slightly prior to, the Chris- tian era. That it pursued leisurely courses of voyaging, in the Samoa stream by way of New Britain, the Solomons, Santa Cruz, and thus to the new home in Samoa ; in the Viti stream by way of Torres Straits, the New Hebrides, and Viti. That in a movement of convection within Nuclear Polynesia these two streams rejoined and created a settle- ment quite homogeneous save for an anterior Melanesian element in Viti and perhaps in Rotuma. Upon this Proto-Samoan colony of Nuclear Polynesia arrived (an uncertain number of centuries later and by a course which we must positively exclude from the Melanesian traverse, but which otherwise we are wholly unable to identify) a second migration of the same race, the Tongafiti swarm. This had so long been sundered from the earUer and isolated colony that independent and divergent development of language had taken place. This half-ahen swarm, whencesoever it came, rested upon Samoa for a period whose beginning we have no present means of establishing with accuracy upon our calendar, but which there seems somewhat good reason to assign to about 600 A. D. We have excel- lent agreement of many Samoan annals to adjust the expulsion of the intruders to a period in or about the eleventh century. The Tongafiti conquerors of Proto-Samoan Samoa have left such a record of cruelty that the wise and brave youth who expelled them in the running fight of Matamatame became a national hero and the first of the Malietoas, Savea. Yet there was opportunity during these overbearing centuries for the two stages of the mother tongue to meet and to some extent to mix. This it is which we are to investigate. Since the mother tongue was common, a certain and assuredly a large proportion in Samoa of the vocables of the two migrations must be common property. Let us represent that element by symbols abcd. The Proto-Samoan colony, then, would be discovered in the home of its remote isolation speaking a language representable by abcd-EFgh, in which the latter group of symbols may represent ancient and common RAPANUI SOURCES AND VARIETY. 41 Speech material which in time had been lost by the separated branch of the family, or which had been acquired along the Proto-Samoan way, the latter hypothesis on many accounts being scarcely tenable. Centuries later arrives upon Samoa the Tongafiti swarm, speaking a language representable by abcd-ijkl, the respective symbols bearing similar explanation. Now if we find our present Samoan to consist of ABCD-EFGH-i, and our present Maori to consist of abcd-e-ijkl, we have no hesitation in ascribing i and E respectively to accumulation during contact of the two swarms when convection movement was pos- sible. The greater share of such contact is to be attributed to those centuries of association, even though violent, in Samoa; a lesser share is to be attributed to contact at distal points of migration in which the later comers found an earher settlement of the older swarm, in support of which we have not only the deductions of philological analysis but the consenting record of history when we learn to interpret annals of the genealogy of this race. Accordingly, if in this province of Southeast Polynesia we encounter a speech element of the type abcd-Eh we shall be justified in assigning it to a direct migration from Nuclear Polynesia of Proto-Samoans to this natural limit of all successful migration. If, similarly, we find a speech element abcd-ik, we shall assign it to a Tongafiti migration. This it is which we shall now examine. The first group in the table (items 293-728) represents abcd, the common element. These are all satisfactory form identifications; the inner content of sense will point the more definite assignment of deviation forms to one or to the other branch of the family. The material here grouped is of very uniform concord. Where variety superficially appears the notes appended in the vocabulary to each such item point out the substantial agreement. In a few cases, where the reduction to uniformity of signification is found impracticable, the compared data show that in general these instances upon closer study are more properly to be assigned to one or other of the separate migration streams. When we turn to the list of identifications which are chargeable to the Proto-Samoan source and which show no contamination along the way of the sea or in this distant terminus of migration, we find, however, a marked difference. The table shows that we are dealing in this class of data with 116 items (729-839 of the finding table). Of these no less than 3 1 show such sense deviations as call for the particular study which has been recorded in the notes appended to each such item in the vocab- ulary. The variant stems are thus hsted : 732 740 754 761 771 780 790 797 801 807 813 818 825 833 738 745 755 765 774 788 795 800 806 808 817 821 831 837 739 748 758 From this Hst we are obHged to remove those items in which our dic- tionary material is either insufficient in sum or else lacking in precision 42 EASTER ISLAND. to such an extent as to bar us from deriving determining conclusions from the comparison. These are: atariki heguhegu matahi moko 2 pe 2 garu 2 kauiui mau 4 nivaniva ranorano hae I In like manner we shall exclude those items in which we can detect error in the definitions which our authorities have set down. Recog- nizing the existence of this error we avoid employment of it to a wrong result, but we do not feel justified in correcting it without confirmation from some authority. These are: mahaga pokopoko poro taha 2 tiaki 1 In the remainder which is available for the determination of the relation of Rapanui to the Proto-Samoan we find two items, hatga and iarotaro, in which the Rapanui word expresses a specific detail or particularization of the general sense preserved in Nuclear Polynesia. Associable herewith is a single instance, rarama, in which Rapanui has, through independent processes of evolution, arrived at a secondary stage of the primal sense, the deviation being in a direction opposite to the particularization of the previously mentioned class. In final residuum we are left with eleven vocables of the utmost value in our research, namely: gogoro iko pena roturotu 1 uki hogehoge okooko rakei uiui varevare huna In the vocables of this list one character is constant and distinctive ; each presents the word in a type more primal than is to be found for the same word in any of the descendant languages as now spoken in the province of Nuclear Polynesia. Now join to this constant character of the inner content of the word-sense whatever we may discover as to form; that is to say, associate herewith the phonetic record. It is not much, just the single fact that iko is found in modern Samoan as Vofi, but it points in the same direction ; it shows that Rapanui hived off with the stem ikoj and has lost its final consonant, while Samoa at a later period acquired the device of the structural i and thus has preserved its final stem consonant. That which we may deduce from this incontestible residue is that in sense and form the Proto-Samoan element in Rapanui represents an older and more primitive type than is shown in the modern languages of Nuclear Polynesia. Another form of statement of the same result of research is that a migration of Proto-Samoans left Nuclear Poly- nesia, and many little points indicate with strength of concurrence that Samoa itself was the point of departure — that this migration faced RAPANUI SOURCES AND VARIETY. 43 boldly the sunrise sea under the instinct of that heliotropism which dominates the race. We discover that this swarming was made at a time which is marked upon the calendar of speech, even if not upon a tale of numbered years. When the Rapanui forefathers sailed out of Samoa the mother tongue was still using its true aspirates, for there were two in Proto-Samoan ; and it had not yet acquired the formative elements which have availed in Nuclear Polynesia to maintain the final consonants of closed stems; and in that mother tongue the accumula- tion of a new and fashionable stock of speech material had not yet tucked these ancestral words away into the nooks and corners of language to live on obscurely as specific survivals. We shall find occasion in the final summation to revert to the several points here estabhshed. Another element of a distinctive nature has been segregated in this Rapanui vocabulary, the element which is to be credited to a Tongafiti source and for which no Proto-Samoan affiliates are identifiable. We now pass to the examination of the 119 items (839-957) so classed. Of these items, those in which there is found such variety in sense between the Rapanui and the Maori as to challenge attention are Hsted in the following table : 840 846 848 855 865 885 891 907 911 926 934 941 951 954 842 847 852 861 876 890 902 909 912 932 936 It will be observed that there is a wide difference in the conditions of this comparison when we come to deal with this specifically Tongafiti contribution, of practically equal extent with that which we have segre- gated as derived from a Proto-Samoan source. In deahng with that material we enjoyed the opportunity of making a double comparison. Thanks to my discovery and considerable reconstruction of the Proto- Samoan mother speech we have been able to compare both Rapanui and modern Samoan with that norm, and thus to compare them with one another in the computation of the angle of divergence from the norm, both in form and in sense. But in deahng with the Tongafiti contribution I set beside it for com- parison another modern speech, the Maori. This inheres in the condi- tions of the research . We have an excellent dictionary of that language ; we soon shall have a better, when the Venerable Archdeacon Williams, of Gisborne, brings to a conclusion, which may not fail of being brilliant, the arduous toil of Maori lexicography upon which he has long been engaged. We lack the tertium quid which should make Tongafiti comparisons a matter of definitely ascertained and positively fixed values, such as the discovery of the Proto-Samoan has given us for the elder migration of the race. It has not yet occurred to the workers upon the languages of the later migration to delve for the mother speech of those more recent migrants. Although we recognize the inaccuracy which must attend the comparison of two modern languages when we 44 EASTER ISLAND. lack the antecedent norm for a standard of deviation, yet we must employ the Maori because of its superior dictionary equipment. We are well aware that, so long as the comparison must rest upon some modern Tongafiti language, we should obtain better results by employing some one of the languages spoken in the Hervey or neighbor- ing groups. Every argument, every reading of Maori and other tradi- tion, points clearly to that region as such a distributing center of the later Tongafiti migration as Samoa has been for the Proto-Samoan wanderers. But we lack dictionary provision and must content our- selves with the Maori. Since the subject has arisen for consideration we may, before passing, note the geography of that mid region. To the west lies Nuclear Poly- nesia, which I set apart as a linguistic province in an earlier work upon this theme. To the east lies this province of Southeast Polynesia whose essential unity is established in the course of the studies recorded in this volume. Spread in the intervening sea He the Cook and Austral groups, together with lesser islets, in which the Tongafiti character is well marked, and in which such research as I have been able to conduct has revealed very scanty stock of distinctively Proto-Samoan material. These islands undoubtedly became the principal home of the Tongafiti after the Matamatame onfall drove them from vSamoa. It is from them that the voyages of discovery and voyages of rediscovery carried them to Aotearoa, which lies upon our charts as New Zealand, where they found some population of Proto-Samoans who had voyaged thither direct from Samoa and whom in time they reduced to subjection but not to linguistic extinction. From the same central oceanic base the Tongafiti passed to the nearer archipelagoes of Southeast Polynesia in whose five languages we are now examining their condition. From the same base, either directly or proximately through Tahiti and the Mar- quesas, we find that they reached Hawaii, and there, far in the north, they subjected a prior population of Proto-Samoans, but not to lin- guistic extinction. Here in Southeast Polynesia we find the two stages of the language existing without mixture in equal streams. We shall find pleasure and profit in studying out, so far as we may, the evidences of original colonization and secondary distribution by movements of convection within the province. But we must confess that in this branch of the investigation we are hampered through the failure to establish the Tongafiti mother speech to serve as the standard of com- parison in deviation of sense, for with form as phonetics we are to deal very lightly. The Rapanui variants in the Tongafiti class exhibit a slightly smaller percentage than those in the Proto-Samoan class. This might be a matter of greater value if the two comparisons were more equal. We should expect, moreover, to find such a deviation founded upon the marked difference in the age of each migration source within the Pacific. RAPANUI SOURCES AND VARIETY. 45 Following the system employed in the study of the Proto-Samoan variants we may assemble these items into classes. We remove from consideration those items in which our dictionary material is insufficient to form a proper basis for comparison. These are: garara gorigori guha Similarly we must strike out those items in which dictionary error is recognizable. In this series are : hakura henua 2 hope puapua 1 Of the residue after this elimination we find two interesting groups. I In the former the Rapanui offers a more primitive sense than is encount- ered in the Maori. It seems closer to the sources of distribution whence the two languages have moved. This is the list: eva ragaraga reva titiri tua 2 kauihaga reke On the other hand we find a slightly longer list of items in which the Rapanui is employed in a specific sense where the Maori has the closer approximation to the primitive signification so far as we feel justified in establishing such sense. These are : ariga maki reva tika uga kopikopi reherehe teitei titaa umiumi Last of all we note two vocables, huhu 6 and mahara, in which the Rapanui carries a sense that can only be distinguished as secondary in evolution, so great a deviation does it show from the Maori compara- tive material. For the reasons already set forth we must refrain from the more general comment which in summing up might serve to explain these variations. Two distinct items yet remain for consideration, one of sense and one of phonetics, each appHcable to all the languages of this province. The former item, dealing with a certain characteristic of word mean- ing, the inversion of sense, must be postponed for later study, because in certain psychological pecuHarities of Polynesian speech we may best find an explanation. In the phonetic treatment of Rapanui I have postponed detailed dis- cussion of the aspirates. They are very irregular, at least very irreg- ularly recorded, in this province, and I shall have to revert to them in deaUng separately with each language. To faciHtate the examination I subjoin a series of fists of all the items in which one or other of the aspirates appears, or should appear, in Rapanui. Because our com- parative apparatus varies widely in its incidence I have assembled these 46 EASTER ISLAND. lists in accordance therewith. I omit those occurrences, readily dis- coverable in the vocabulary, of h in Rapanui where no comparable data are available, and also the vocables which are entered in the vocabulary both with and without the aspirations. The first table records the items in which comparable data go no further than the province of Southeast Polynesia, and where, accordingly, we may not establish a determinant comparison : 3 27 42 48 54 60 66 72 82 114 155 178 206 238 4 34 43 49 55 61 67 73 84 116 159 179 209 261 5 38 44 50 56 62 68 74 92 137 161 187 213 262 6 39 45 51 57 63 69 76 100 140 171 188 220 281 12 40 46 52 58 64 70 77 III 142 172 201 230 292 24 41 47 53 59 65 71 78 "3 144 173 205 231 We note these few instances in which the Rapanui aspirate is clearly labial : 43 51 52 59 205 206 209 In the next group of tables we have the advantage of data for com- parison, for these items are drawn from the distinctively Proto-Samoan element of the language. First we shall examine those items in which we have been able to establish in the Proto-Samoan a pure aspirate. In Rapanui this is in some cases dropped, in others retained, and in the following table the instances of the preservation of that fickle sound are distinguished by bold-faced type : 302 305 324 345 351 359 418 657 692 695 Our next table records the instances in which the Proto-Samoan sibilant passes into the lingual aspirate : 329 358 364 374 377 381 384 392 399 401 409 472 547 355 361 371 376 380 383 390 394 400 408 416 473 624 In by far the greater number of cases the Rapanui aspirate is a mutation product of the Proto-Samoan/, therefore a labial aspiration, as shown in the items of this table : 296 335 350 357 367 373 386 393 402 407 430 551 623 679 297 336 352 360 368 375 387 395 403 410 471 589 625 694 299 337 353 363 369 378 388 396 404 411 524 599 626 698 301 338 354 365 370 379 389 397 405 415 528 621 656 709 314 349 356 366 372 385 391 398 406 423 529 622 We next consider the element whose source is found in that insepar- able mass of the Polynesian common to both migrations. Inasmuch as this affords us Proto-Samoan comparatives it might have been incor- porated with the foregoing tables, but since the division has been of value in the consideration of other topics it is here maintained for the sake of uniformity. There are but two items which bear upon the Proto-Samoan aspirate, in 792 Rapanui retains it and in 833 it discards it. RAPANUI SOURCES AND VARIETY. 47 The aspirate as mutation product of the sibilant is noted in 740 743 744 750 753 754 766 789 818 83s The labial aspirate is found in 741 742 745 746 747 748 749 751 752 755 756 817 In the final group of the identifications, the Tongafiti element of Rapanui, we lack a base upon which to establish comparison of the aspirate ; we can do no more than assemble these aspirates in their rela- tion to several Maori aspirations, themselves mutation products. The Rapanui aspirations which appear in Maori as h are listed in this table ; three items distinguished by bold-faced type discard the aspirate which the Maori retains. 841 848 852 857 S60 862 864 867 872 890 903 918 930 938 842 849 853 859 861 863 865 868 882 896 909 925 934 952 845 850 854 In the next table we find those Rapanui items whose aspirate cor- responds to Maori hw, which we have external reason to consider as commonly the labial aspiration; the bold-faced type distinguishes those instances in which the Rapanui has lost this aspirate. 839 844 855 856 858 952 In 850 we find a soHtary instance in which the Rapanui aspiration corresponds to a Maori w, of course a weakened form of the labial. While the detailed consideration of the various employment of the aspiration properly belongs in the chapter in which we shall sum up for consideration the information we have been able to acquire upon the inner relations of these five languages of Southeast Polynesia, it will not be amiss to remark at this point upon one general factor. Our record of the five languages with which we are dealing comes to us through French agency. With all the respect which lives of devotion to bitter hardship, which passionate sacrifice of self to a higher and spiritual duty must arouse in all sympathetic souls who in the South Sea have observed these French priests, we should be remiss to our philological duty if we should omit from the record a condition which functions largely. It is not because they are French, these poor missionaries, that their linguistic records are to rank somewhat below the maximum of excellence ; nor is it because they are clergymen, for all our Polynesian records come from missionaries of one communion or another. But of the two congregations operative in Polynesia it is well known that the mission priests are drawn from the peasant class of France and par- ticularly from the northern peasantry. Now it is just in that class that the aspirate is uncertain upon the tongue and at the gateway of the ear, just as in some dialects of EngHsh we are familiar with the same 48 EASTER ISLAND. trouble in the same class of speakers. Peasant French or Cockney EngUsh, the result is one, an aspirate is assumed where none should be, and where the aspirate is vital we find a dropped h. This fact must be recognized as conditioning the record of these tongues. The aspira- tion is too positive in Polynesian orthoepy to permit us to imagine for a moment that the Easter Islanders use it or reject it indifferently to any such extent as to warrant the numerous dupHcate forms which Pere Roussel has set down. It is clearly a French type of error. In the case of all that element of Rapanui speech for which we have comparative data this analysis of the aspiration shows that the Proto- Samoan aspirate, at the time when this migration hived off to eastward emptiness of sea, was yet sufficiently in vigor to insure its viabiUty to the utmost speck of soil upon which Polynesians might land for the estabHshment of a new home. CHAPTER III. THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. In the study of Easter Island we have had under review the ultimate prolongation of Polynesian migration. How many expeditions passed eastward without coming within the horizon of this tiny islet, a circle of but a few miles, no man may know. In our acquaintance with the con- ditions of such voyaging we see no possibility that any such adventurers could have survived the sixty thirsty degrees of empty sea which intervene between the last landfall of the Paumotu and the nearest coast of South America. The Paumotu are selected as the point of departure for reasons which will appear upon the charts. This archipelago has had abundance of naming. In the geographies it is set down as the Low Archipelago, which designation is borne out by almost every island and islet, barely land enough to raise into the air a forest of that coconut tree which is at its best when its roots reach the brine through salted sands. To sailors it is known as the Dangerous Archipelago. That also is true naming, for no shipman can feel safe when he knows that somewhere athwart the course of his voyaging, in a tangle of currents which he can not measure, lies this mole of unlighted islands upon whose barrier reefs he may be hurled. Even of the better name, better because indigenous, Paumotu, we have variant forms, Pomotu, Poumotu. This name is objectionable to the scanty popula- tion of the islands ; they have united to secure from the French adminis- tration the adoption of the name of their preference, Tuamotu, which means simply archipelago. But this designation has not come into such generahty of employment as Paumotu; and for that reason we shall use the latter name, for it seems not quite worth the while to sacrifice place in the customary index arrangement. If we include Mangareva and Pitcairn (the only high islands) and Ducie — and every consideration of geophysics demands such inclusion — we are dealing with an extrusive bank whose strike follows that north- west-southeast Hne which is so characteristic in the heights and the deeps of the South Pacific, a character in archipelagic mass and in each island unit. It is proper to describe this extrusive mass as a bank. The southeastern extremity is the one point at which the rock structure has reached above the sea. In the islets the rock has been raised to that point of approach to the limiting line of sedimentation which per- mits the growth of reef -forming corals. The conditions were ideal for such growth; of the seventy-six islands of the more narrowly defmed 49 50 EASTER ISLAND. Paumotu — that is to say omitting the rocky lands of Mangareva, Pit- cairn, Elizabeth (with an elevation of 24 meters), and the atollon of Ducie — but two of the larger lack a lagoon, namely Tikei (which seems never to have had the atoll form) and Makatea, in which the lagoon is structurally present, but has lost its character either through sedimenta- tion or through continuance of that extrusion which brought the bank into a bathymetric position where growth of reef-forming corals became possible. This barrier extends from Matahiva in the extreme northwest through 35 degrees of its middle latitude to Ducie; and 20 degrees of this extent, as far as Mangareva, is an all but continuous barrier of imbricated atolls and intervening shoals. At its northern extremity it intervenes between Tahiti and the Marquesas in the fairway of canoes working on the wind. With its southern outliers it extends downward below the Tropic of Capricorn and into the belt of the westerly variable winds. In its northern extent the islands, while low, are sufficiently close together to catch and hold chartless voyagers feeling their way along the trades. In its southern extent, while there are broader chan- nels of clear water, the high lands of Mangareva and Pitcairn extend far wider horizons and thus serve equally to catch the wanderers who have stood too far to the south and are driven eastward by the anti- trades. There is one settlement factor in this ordering of the land units within the great barrier which is a consideration far more important in the study of Polynesian voyages than it is in our sea-ranging with chart and compass and the logarithms of navigation. When our shipmaster has computed from his chart, with the aid of sextant and chronometer, that he is near his destination, he reverts to the old and helpless type; he leaves the deck with the order "keep a sharp lookout forward." With the Pacific voyagers blundering over the sea which, despite all obstacles, they have made their own, knowing none and hoping all, it must have been wholly a matter of keeping a sharp lookout, not only forward but abeam. We might compute the horizons of Pitcairn and Mangareva were there need, and thus measure the great reduction of the width of the open sea between them. Even in the region of the lowest atolls a sailor's eye can read in the sky at enormous distances the loom of the land. The lagoon of Anaa reflects the sunlight which shim- mers on its unruffled surface and casts so distinct a green hue upon the trade-wind clouds which it creates that its existence may be known as far upon the sea as if it were piercing the heavens a mile high instead of lying on the waves scarcely as elevated as the seas which shatter in tumult on its reef. I have thus sketched the position of the Paumotu because of the bear- ing which its geographical situation must have in conditioning its settle- ment, as we shall see in the philological record. An important factor THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. 51 in this consideration is the position, geographical and ethnographical, of a second and parallel extrusion chain. This extends from Palm- erston, which is unimportant, at its northwest tip; its importance begins for our present purpose with the Hervey Islands and with Rarotonga in particular ; thence it stretches through the Tubuai or Austral Group to Rapa and Maretiri, which lie farther south of the tropic than any island of Polynesia save New Zealand, of later settlement. In this chain I find the second station of the Tongafiti migration after its expulsion from Samoa, its center of distribution to the seats of the present great settlements of this swarm. In advancing upon this chain it is possible that the Tongafiti found a population of Proto-Samoans. Such an antecedent population need not have been dense, for its origin would have come from minor voyages of adventure. But the Tongafiti advance upon them would be in considerable numbers. As to this we have the most positive statement in Samoa. When Savea and his brothers had chased the Tongafiti the length of 'Upolu, from Mutiatele to Muhfanua, the vanquished sailed away in a body. Before such an advance in force, and with the memory still fresh of past suffering, the earlier settlers of this midocean chain would certainly take refuge in flight, and the next halting-place must be Tahiti and the Paumotu. With these considerations we may pass to the detailed study of what the speech of the Paumotu may disclose. The alphabet of the Paumotu in its relation to the Proto-Samoan, so far as it is based on the comparable data assembled in this Rapanui dic- tionary, is set forth in the following table, wherein the bold-faced type designates the Proto-Samoan alphabet and the itahc the Paumotu equivalent. I r ng ng, n nn, ng mm h A, - hi; .s h, - V V f f.v.h kk tt PP The most superficial examination will show how slight is the devia- tion. Except for the mutation of sibilant to aspirate the Paumotu alphabet is closer to the original than is the modern Samoan. There- fore our study of the phonetic form of this speech should proceed with particular care in every detail of ascertainable source of the complex of elements. The data in this work in which Paumotu words are employed in com- parison with Rapanui, and, in such conjunction, with other languages of Southeast Polynesia, but without identification in more distant lan- guages, are noted in the following tables: 52 EASTER ISLAND. Paumotu-Rapanui : 64 68 237 248 263 285 Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva-Marquesas-Tahiti: 17 134 146 186 213 260 264 266 Paumotu-Rapanui-Marquesas-Tahiti : 86 Paumo tu- Rapanu i-M angare va-M arquesas : Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva-Tahiti: Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva: 115 157 Paumotu-Rapanui-Marquesas: 41 49 Paumotu-Rapanui-Tahiti : 18 50 66 73 153 no 200 74 209 280 130 140 166 174 368 185 195 206 229 246 249 273 We next take up the group in which we have comparative data in the Polynesian common to both migration streams, segregating as before the material in terms of its distribution within the province. We find one case, 554, in which the identification covers the Paumotu and Rapanui and extends no farther. The tables follow : 573 603 574 605 575 606 578 607 580 608 582 611 586 612 587 613 588 615 589 616 590 618 591 619 592 620 593 623 595 626 601 630 Polynesian-Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva-Marquesas-' 296 321 368 398 424 451 483 514 542 298 322 369 399 425 452 484 515 546 300 326 370 402 426 453 491 516 548 301 328 371 403 427 457 492 517 552 302 336 372 404 429 460 494 519 553 304 339 375 405 431 461 495 520 555 306 342 376 407 432 463 497 5^2 557 309 348 378 408 438 464 500 523 558 310 351 379 410 439 468 502 524 559 311 353 380 411 441 469 507 525 560 312 357 387 413 444 470 508 526 561 313 359 388 414 445 471 509 528 562 314 360 389 415 446 474 510 530 566 316 362 390 416 447 475 5" 532 567 317 365 392 417 449 481 512 534 571 318 366 383 423 450 482 513 535 572 320 367 397 632 665 697 635 666 698 639 667 702 640 669 703 642 670 704 643 671 708 646 672 711 647 676 712 648 678 713 649 682 715 655 683 716 656 685 718 657 686 721 661 687 723 662 693 727 663 694 728 629 650 651 610 645 680 541 579 536 570 56S 577 583 594 602 Polynesian-Paumotu-Rapanui-Marquesas-Tahiti: 303 305 332 354 377 486 488 498 527 Polynesian-Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva-Marquesas: 307 345 406 434 465 472 476 504 531 343 Polynesian- Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva-Tahiti : 308 384 430 462 478 538 539 544 563 347 Polynesian-Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva: 437 724 Polynesian-Paumotu-Rapanui-Marquesas: 477 Polynesian-Paumotu-Rapanui-Tahiti: 428 487 496 The Proto-Samoan element will engage our attention in a series of tables segregated by the same elements. Proto-Samoan- Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva-Marquesas-Tahiti: 746 767 768 777 810 812 813 814 827 Proto-Samoan-Paumotu-Rapanui-Marquesas-Tahiti: 743 775 793 830 Proto-Samoan-Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva-Marquesas: 754 Proto-Samoan-Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva : 806 Proto-Samoan- Paumotu-Rapanui-Marquesas: 783 Proto-Samoan-Paumotu-Rapanui-Tahiti : 730 Similar ordering of the Tongafiti element affords this set of tables, the single instance of 890 exhibiting a word of this source discoverable nowhere outside the Paumotu and Rapanui : 933 937 944 950 954 935 942 945 953 956 936 943 948 THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. 53 Tongafiti-Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva-Marquesas-Tahiti: 845 857 861 874 886 891 897 912 920 933 850 858 863 877 887 893 905 916 923 855 860 869 882 888 894 910 919 926 Tongafiti-Paumotu-Rapanui-Marquesas-Tahiti: 839 849 867 875 880 899 917 946 952 Tongafiti-Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva-Marquesas: 841 881 883 885 891 911 Tongafiti-Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva-Tahiti: 856 889 896 929 939 947 949 Tongafiti-Paumotu-Rapanui-Mangareva: 884 908 955 Tongafiti-Paumotu-Rapanui-Marquesas: 862 930 Tongafiti-Paumotu-Rapanui-Tahiti: 843 864 868 901 The foregoing lists are based upon that element of the Paumotu which occurs in the Rapanuiaswell. Lest this should prove insufficient, or too highly restricted in its character, to aiOFord a clear view of the speech of the Paumotu it has seemed advisable to tabulate the elements of that language which are traceable elsewhere in the Polynesian family. The data thus elaborated are presented on page 64, the serial numera- tion continued from the finding-list of the Rapanui material. In two of the following groups, the general Polynesian and the Ton- gafiti, we lack support from the Maori in several instances, but the correlation is establishable through the Hawaiian or, less frequently, through Mangaian or Rarotongan of the mid-ocean chain of islands of probably Tongafiti settlement. I have accordingly distinguished these entries in the proper tables by employing bold-faced type for the Hawaiian identification and italic for the mid-oceanic. The Hawaiian instances may prove of considerable importance in future study of these data, but the discussion of their specific moment is wide of the present inquiry. I note only that it would not surprise me if , in particular study of the Tongafiti race movements, such as I am bestowing upon the Proto-Samoan swarms, these data establish a course of migration into Southeast Polynesia, and thence out of it to the northward, quite dis- tinct from the southern migration which has colonized New Zealand. Our first series of tables will be based upon identifications established in general Polynesian. Paumotu-Mangareva-Tahiti-Marquesas-Samoa-Maori: 963 1028 1047 1084 1090 1120 1 164 1192 1286 1334 1443 1497 1626 1710 1018 1039 1060 1087 1094 1 124 1 168 1250 1319 1408 1459 1514 1637 1715 1020 1042 1080 1089 iioi 1 146 1 179 1285 1322 1428 1489 162 1 Paumotu-Tahiti-Marquesas-Samoa-Maori: 980 995 1072 1279 1323 1332 1387 1395 1400 1414 1448 1506 1593 1606 994 1054 1 103 1309 Paumotu-Mangareva-Tahiti-Samoa-Maori: 1105 1116 1238 1277 1280 1284 1316 1335 1377 1440 i486 1487 1502 1644 nil Paumotu-Mangareva-Marquesas-Samoa-Maori: 1123 1254 1271 1480 1541 1633 1670 1693 Paumotu-Tahiti-Samoa-Maori : 958 996 1009 1045 1071 1 142 1256 1336 1466 1472 1482 1550 1555 1700 990 1006 1035 1067 1095 1248 1289 1432 1471 1473 1507 Paumotu-Marquesas-Samoa-Maori : 1352 Paumotu-Mangareva-Samoa-Maori: 984 1088 1234 1303 Paumotu-Samoa-Maori: 959 1104 1531 1678 17 13 54 EASTER ISLAND. The Proto-Samoan affiliates provide the tables of the following series: Paumotu-Mangareva-Tahiti-Marquesas-Samoa: 1003 1253 1511 1513 1522 1600 1709 1720 Paumotu-Tahiti-Marquesas-Samoa : q6o 1014 1049 1053 1153 1185 1312 1333 1557 1622 Paumotu-Mangareva-Marquesas-Samoa: 1295 1609 Paumotu-Mangareva-Tahiti-Samoa: 962 1017 1264 1306 Paumotu-Tahiti-Samoa : 987 992 1 143 1 145 1 150 1 196 1249 1276 1291 1546 Paumotu-Mangareva-Samoa: 1013 1031 1274 1454 Paumotu-Marquesas-Samoa : 985 1025 1107 1170 1177 1190 1217 1292 1344 1381 1457 1474 1704 1229 Paumotu-Samoa : 991 1005 1016 1019 1582 1701 1716 1560 1594 1601 1733 From the Tongafiti affiliates we derive the following series of tables : Paumotu- 965 970 971 974 Paumotu- 1063 1081 1092 Paumotu- Paumotu- lOII 1026 Paumotu- 1007 1022 1037 1061 1098 Paumotu- 1036 Paumotu- Paumotu- 1023 1027 1032 Mangareva-Tahiti-Marquesas-Maori: 988 1097 1 144 1210 1337 1434 1458 102 1 1 106 1 156 1240 1382 1436 1460 1048 1 1 12 1 178 1324 1388 1444 1462 1050 1 136 1189 1329 Tahiti-Marquesas-Maori : 1096 1 1 13 1231 1278 1430 1446 1499 1 108 1 162 1233 1399 1441 1453 1508 1469 1484 1569 1642 1667 1685 1475 1500 1588 1656 1677 1708 1479 1504 1617 1664 1681 1718 1529 1535 1573 1625 1684 1705 1530 1571 1624 1662 1702 1706 1270 1294 Mangareva-Marquesas-Maori : Mangareva-Tahiti-Maori : 1041 1086 1 1 18 1 125 1202 1083 1115 1121 1140 1225 Tahiti-Maori: 1099 1 154 1218 1247 1297 1367 1131 1163 1224 1265 1302 1 133 1205 1227 1268 1339 1 137 1206 1245 1296 1350 1147 Mangareva-Maori : 075 1152 1161 1167 1241 368 389 1392 1266 Marquesas-Maori: 1044 1076 Maori : 1040 1122 1141 1197 1207 1251 1043 1 129 1 186 1201 1209 1298 1056 1158 1159 1282 1375 1317 1366 1415 1481 1485 1523 1590 1363 1404 1455 1485 1397 1452 1512 1558 1583 1648 i6q6 1401 1468 1532 1561 1610 1673 1712 1403 1470 1547 1570 1636 1692 lyiQ 1431 1503 1551 1575 1645 1695 1726 1288 1320 13QI 1518 1589 1694 1287 1374 1386 1548 1689 1315 1349 1385 1456 1477 1492 1528 1321 1378 1445 1464 14S8 1527 1727 The next group of identifications, almost equal in number with the foregoing, are confined within the limits of this province, Paumotu and some one or more of its neighbor archipelagoes. Paumotu-Mangareva-Tahiti-Marquesas: 989 1057 1 102 1 1 19 1 184 1237 1267 1341 1476 1491 1632 Paumotu-Tahiti-Marquesas : 964 1004 1082 1 126 1 182 1 194 1328 1359 1372 1467 1568 1634 1687 1736 975 1059 1091 1169 1193 1260 1348 1362 1406 1501 1620 1647 1725 1737 looi 1066 1 109 1 173 Paumotu-Mangareva-Marquesas: 1052 1172 1195 1608 Paumotu-Maugareva-Tahiti : 968 1051 1078 1134 1160 1301 1371 1442 1447 1505 1584 1717 1723 1728 972 1070 1114 1135 1261 1347 1435 Paumotu-Marquesas : 983 1199 1239 1343 1461 1494 1597 1605 1607 1655 1657 1697 1707 1724 1058 1212 1304 1417 Paumotu-Mangareva : 997 1024 1034 1 138 1 187 1228 1338 1373 1413 1439 1493 1635 1649 1650 1002 1030 1074 1 157 1213 1307 1358 1394 1433 THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. 55 Paumotu- Tahiti: 961 1029 1 130 1203 1246 1310 1360 1411 1465 1537 1572 1611 1651 1683 966 1033 H32 1204 1252 13" 1361 1412 1478 153S 1574 1612 1652 1683 967 1038 1139 1208 1255 1313 1364 1416 1490 1539 1576 1613 1653 1686 969 1046 1 148 1211 1257 1314 1365 1418 1495 1540 1577 1614 1654 1688 973 1055 1 149 1214 1258 1318 1369 1419 1496 1542 1578 1615 1658 1690 976 1062 "51 1215 1259 1325 1370 1420 1498 1543 1579 1616 1659 1691 977 1064 "55 1216 1262 1326 1376 1421 1509 1544 1580 1618 1660 1698 978 1065 1 165 1219 1263 1327 1379 1422 1510 1545 1581 1619 1661 1699 979 1068 1 166 1220 1269 1330 1380 1423 1515 1549 1585 1623 1663 1703 981 1069 "71 1221 1272 1331 1383 1424 1516 1552 1586 1627 1665 17" 982 1073 "74 1222 1273 1340 1384 1425 1517 1553 1587 1628 1666 1714 986 1077 "75 1223 1275 1342 1390 1426 1519 1554 1591 1629 1668 I72I 993 1079 1 1 76 1226 1281 1345 1393 1427 1520 1556 1592 1630 1669 1722 998 1085 1 180 1230 1283 1346 1396 1429 1521 1559 1595 1631 1671 1729 999 1093 ii8i 1232 1290 1351 1398 1437 1524 1562 1596 1638 1672 1730 1000 1 100 "83 1235 1293 1353 1402 1438 1525 1563 1598 1639 1674 173I 1008 IIIO 1188 1236 1299 1354 1405 1449 1526 1564 1599 1640 1675 1732 lOIO 1117 1191 1242 1300 1355 1407 1450 1533 1565 1602 1641 1676 1734 1012 1127 1198 1243 1305 1356 1409 1451 1534 1566 1603 1643 1679 1735 1015 1128 1200 1244 1308 1357 1410 1463 1536 1567 1604 1646 1680 Finally a few brief tables will disclose the tale that this arid numerical waste has to tell. The material available for the foregoing study of the Paumotu is summed in 2,550 items. Of these we have developed identifications in other Polynesian tongues for 1,335 items, 52 per cent. Of this Paumotu element 577 items reveal their affiliations in this province of Southeast Polynesia, 43 per cent of Paumotu speech. Similarly we find 758 items whose affiliates are in the Polynesian of the archipelagoes westward and earlier along the migration track, 57 per cent. In the more minute study of affiliation we see that 455 items are identifiable in Rapanui, 34 per cent; 1095 in Tahiti, 81 per cent; 583 in Mangareva, 42 per cent; 645 in the Marquesas, 48 per cent. In the preceding paragraph I have first established the percentage of affihates in bulk. Thereafter I have established the percentages through the use of 1,335, the sum of the identifications, as the denomi- nator. Of course it is possible for those students who prefer it to estab- lish the percentages in bulk by the employment of denominator 2,550; the relative proportion will not thereby be affected, for the ratio, once estabHshed, is constant. In defense of my method I suggest the following considerations. Through initial dichotomy we have estabhshed two classes in the Pau- motu: that in which exterior affiliation is discovered, that in which such affihation has not yet been discovered — two classes nearly equal in extent. We must consider the position of the unidentified class. At present it stands simply as speech material peculiar to the Paumotu. We then meet the problem, is this peculiar possession Polynesian or ahen contamination? If alien contamination, whence comes it? There is not an item in this class which might not be Polynesian, firmly estabhshed by its occurrence in no more than a single outer lan- guage of the family. Form, usage, sense-structure, all conform rigidly 56 EASTER ISLAND. to the spirit of the known Polynesian. The only elements which are at all to be recognized outside the Polynesian family are a very few of that small group common to Polynesian and Malayan. The position of this element I have discussed at great length in " The Polynesian Wan- derings" and have estabhshed the proof of borrowing by the Malayans from the earlier Polynesian peoples of Indonesia. This element, there- fore, is to be held as true Polynesian, not a Malayan contamination. The only other sources of such speech metamorphosis fall into two classes, according as we regard the Proto-Samoan migration or the Tongafiti migration as colporteurs. For the latter we can not speak; not as yet can we identify its voyagings earUer than its appearance in Nuclear Polynesia, except that negatively and exclusively we are convinced that it did not follow the course along the Melanesian archi- pelagoes. To the earhest Proto-Samoan migrants occurred the oppor- tunity of acquiring Melanesian speech material. To each item in the data of this work where the word is recognizable in Melanesia, despite savage mutilations, I have made a note of reference to my former work; from this it will readily be seen that the word in Polynesian can not be due to Melanesian contamination, but that it occurs am.ong the darker race as a borrowing from the more intelligent Polynesian commorant for a more or less extended sojourn in their abodes. A discussion of the improbabiHtyof Melanesian contamination of Polynesian, at far greater length than is here desirable, will be found in "The Polynesian Wan- derings" at page 149. This problem is one which we shall encounter in the detailed examina- tion of each Polynesian language; each will exhibit its distinctive per- centage of recognized affihates, each will have a residuum which is not to be identified in any other language of the family in that modern phase in which alone we may know it. The mere accident that, in other languages of the family, these residual vocables have gone into disuse need not rob them of their Polynesian heritage. Therefore in dealing with the several sets of percentages I adopt for my denominator the sum of the affiliates as being the true representative of the character of the speech, the unrecognized mass being set apart as not conditioning the problem. It is easy for a word to go into disuse in any language ; that is one of the incidents of growth. Not all of us understand the EngHsh of Shakespeare, a fact which is scum.bled in our perception by the fact that in those texts we have the keen zest in the narrative to carry us past the incomprehensibilities scarcely noticed. Still less do we comprehend the King James English of the Bible, a fact piously obscured in the gen- eral feeling that ignorance is the handmaid of theology. If these facts are undeniable in a language of written record and lexicographic exacti- tude much more must such be the case in the speech of simple islanders who know no letters. The Polynesian is of the earliest type of speech, THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. 57 essentially primordial. Its users are upon a similarly primordial cul- ture plane. Their speech they would deal with as they deal with any other of their possessions; loss is naturally enormous. Equally, under conditions of colonies of the same race parted so far as to preclude intercommunication, there will be accretion to meet new needs which may arise in one home and not in the other. This also will tend to create an unidentifiable residuum. This may be made plain through the employment of symbols. Let us regard the mother Polynesian as consisting of speech elements abcd-efghi; of this mother speech Rapanui has preserved a which has vanished from the Paumotu, Ma- ngareva, Tahiti, and the Marquesas, and in conformity with its special needs has acquired a speech element designable as a. In the same manner loss in four languages has left the Paumotu the only tongue in which ancestral b survives and to this is added element h. Thus we shall find in Southeast Polynesia five distinct and irreducible residua Aa, b6, cr, dJ, Ue. That they are not to be correlated is due to the rude- ness of the culture whose speech record we have under review. I am the more content to present the matter in this mechanical form because in the work* of my friend, Dr. Georg Friederici, of Dorhsheim, the topic is illuminated in the most graceful fashion : In diesem auf die soeben geschilderte Weise durchWanderungen und Ver- mischungen entstandenen Tuamotudialekt von rein polynesischem Grund- charakter befindet sich nun eine Zahl von ganz merkwlirdigen, frenidartigen Ausdriicken, die, soweit mir bekannt, es bisher niemand gelungen ist, zu einer anderen Sprache in Beziehung zu bringen. Nun konnte man vielleicht das sogenannte Worttabu hierfur verantwortlich machen, das in Amerika, so im Chaco von Paraguay, im heutigen Staate New York, auf den Aleuten — um aus den verschiedensten Gegenden einige Beispiele zu nennen — und auch in der Siidsee eine nicht unwesentliche Rolle im Entwickelungsgange von Sprachen gespielt hat. Ganz bekannt sind die autokratischen Bemiihungen des Konigs Kamehameha von Hawaii durch Worttabu und Neuersatz das Vokabularium dieses poly nesischen Dialekts radikal umzuf ormen . Diese bei seinen Lebzeiten energisch durchgefiihrte Reform fiel aber nach seinem Tode infolge des Wider- standes von Hauptlingen und Volk vollkommen zusammen, so dass die von ihm neueingefuhrten Worter nahezu restlos verschwunden zu sein scheinen. Gerade diese Entwickelung zeigt aber, dass wir auf Worttabu und willkiir- lichen Neuersatz die fremden Elemente im Tuamotu kaum zuriickfuhren durfen ; denn eine autokratische oder hierarchischc, alles umfassende Haupt- lings- Oder Priestergewalt war in der weitzerstreuten Tuamotugruppe unmoglich, und was dem machtigen Kamehameha nicht gelang, hatte nie ein Tuamotu- hauptling durchsetzen konnen. Dagegen macht Moerenhout eine Anregung, die sehr viel fiir sich hat. Man mag gegen Moerenhout wegen seiner Intrig- uen mit Missions- und Staatsgewalt manches sagen; gegen gehassige An- griffe hatihn schon Schirren in Schutz genommen.undwasderenghsch-protes- tantische Verfasser der "Rovings" gegen diesen franzosisch-katholischen *Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Tuamotu-Inseln, page 66. 58 EASTER ISLAND. •'notleidenden Belgier" vorbringt, ist in der wut- und hassgeschwangerten Atmosphare eines Religionskrieges in der Siidsee ohne Belang. Denn alles dies hat nichts zu tun mit der Tatsache, das Moerenhout ein vortrefflicher und ein ganz zuverlassiger Beobachter ist. Sowohl bei seinen geographischen, als auch bei seinen etlinographischen Angaben habe ich dies mehrf ach nachpriifen konnen. Moerenhout sagt nun, das man im Tuamotumeer verschlagene Kinder im Kanu gefunden habe und auf einen Atoll nur eine Frau mit zwei Kindern. Wie schon ausgefiihrt, spielen verschlagene Kanus eine erhebliche Rolle in der Besiedehmg der einzelnen Inseln dieser zahlreichen Gruppe. Der Gedanke scheint mir nun sehr einleuchtend, das Kinder, die zwar schon sprechen konn- ten, d. h. sich in ihrer Familie und im Dorf das Geriist, den grammatikalischen Aufbau ihrer Sprache zueigen gemachthatten, aber vorerstnur das beschrankte Vokabularium eines Kindes besassen, auf unbewohnte Atolle verschlagen wurden. Als sich dann dem heranwachsenden Geiste Erscheinungen und Gedanken aufdrangten, zu deren Bezeichnung das mitgebrachte Vokabularium des Kindes nicht ausreichte, wurden neue Bezeichnungen erfunden. Aus den herangewachsenen Kindern wurde eine Familie, aus der Familie ein Volk, das sich und seine Sprache iiber andere Atolle verbreitete. Bei der vorhin be- schriebenen Konsolidierung des Tuamotudialekts sind dann so entstandenen fremdartigen Bezeichnungen mit in den Gesamtdialekt iibergegangen. Zahl- reich sind sie verhaltnismassig nicht. Der Charakter dieser fremdartigen Worter scheint mir wenigstens zum Teil fiir diese von Moerenhout angeregte Auffassung einzutreten. Ganz sicherlich tun dies die Zahlen, Sie sind vollig abweichend von dem durch alle polynesischen und die meisten melanesischen Sprachen durchgehenden polynesischen Zahlensysteme. Wer nun bei Sprach- auf nahmen mit Naturvolkern die immer sich wiederholende Erf ahrung gemacht hat, dass Kinder iiberhaupt im allgemeinen nicht zahlen konnen, und dass selbst erwachsene junge Leute erst unter sich diskutieren oder altere Manner um Rat fragen miissen, ehe sie richtig bis zehn zahlen konnen, fiir den ist es fast ein Postulat, dass die Zahlworter in einer Sprache anders lauten miissen, die sich in der soeben erorterten Weise gebildet haben soil. Charakteristisch poly- nesisch ist auch, dass sich die verschiedenen Dialekte im Archipel zu einem, dem heutigen Tuamotudialekt, ausgewachsen haben. Waren melanesisches Blut and melanesische Kultur in einem belangreichen Prozentsatz beigemengt, wie man angesichtsder fremdartigen somatischen und linguistischen Elemente meinen konnte, dann wiirde man mehr von Zersplitterung horen. Denn ZerspHtterung in Sprachen und Dialekte ist charakteristisch melanesisch. We reach less hypothetical ground when we take up the examination of the affiliates in the Paumotu and begin to apportion them geographi- cally to other members of the great Polynesian family. It has already been indicated, the whole course of these studies is intended to make it plain, that when properly read these geographical units correspond with ethnic units of subdivision within the family of the Polynesian race. The whole aim and purpose of these tables is to provide the means whereby we may examine in each geographical unit the ethnic factors and segregate them in relation to their respective sources. THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. 59 The summation of this information is presented in the following table Table 3. Rapanui affiliates. Extra-Rapanui. Grand total. South- east Poly- nesia. Poly- nesian. Proto- Tonga- fiti. Total. South- east Poly- nesia. Poly- nesian. Proto- Samoan. Tonga- fiti. Total. 6 8 1 7 2 4 49 12 I 40 t 7 3 2 4 7 29 24 10 53 20 II 32 4 21 379 5 40 18 8 •5 4 25 4 8 10 _ 30 47 29 4 25 '3 106 % 68 44 476 46 390 117 47 92 54 4^1 Pau-Mgv-Mq-Ta . Pau-Mq-Ta Pau-Mgv-Mq Pau-Mgv-Ta Pau-Mangareva . . . Pau-Marquesas . . . Pau-Tahiti Totals Grand total. .. 227 14 •5 '1 I 3 9 f 89 I488 277 116 11 72 455 213 880 488 116 63 2.3 880 577 393 80 285 1335 We now reserve until the final chapter the particular study of Rapanui in this scheme, except that we divide the Paumotu into the two classes of that speech element which is common to Easter Island and that speech element in which Rapanui is not represented. Our next table will exhibit the proximity of the affinities which the dissection of the Paumotu has offered in the foregoing table. In this we deal with all the identifications in the neighbor islands of Southeast Polynesia. Table 4. Rapanui afiUiates. Extra-Rapanui. Total. No. P. Ct. No. P. ct. No. P. ct. Tahiti 356 347 394 78 It 739 236 254 84 39 29 1095 583 645 81 42 48 Mangareva Marquesas In the next table we shall deal with those identifications which do not extend beyond the province of Southeast Polynesia. Table 5. Rapanui affiliates. No. P. Ct. No. P. ct. Tahiti 23 21 65 25 443 90 12 >7 Mangareva Marquesas 23 73 59 85 60 EASTER ISLAND. In like manner we tabulate the three exterior elements by the Pau- motu identifications in the same neighbor islands : Table 6. Rapanui affiliates. Extra-Rapanui. Polynesian. Proto- Samoan. TongafiU. Polynesian. Proto- Samoan. Tongafiti. No. p. ct. -• P. ct. No. P. ct. No. P. ct. NO. P.ct. No. P.ct. Tahiti 259 71 71 7« »4 II 4 3 4 6o 6o i6 f 67 25 17 17 34 21 34 9 5 9 159 89 87 40 22 22 Mangareva Marquesas Finally, in computing the relation of these three external identifica- tions to the mass of Paumotu identifications we obtain this table: Table ?• Rapanui affiliates. Extra- Rapanui. Polynesian Proto-Samoan Tongafiti .... P.ct. 60.4 .1, P.ct. 13 4 7 24.3 80.7 44-7 The last table shows at the merest glance that the two elements of Paumotu speech vary widely in relation to the rearward past of their race. That Paumotu which is recognizable as affiliated with Rapanui preserves 80 per cent of its history ; the other Paumotu shows little more than half as much. That the two represent different movements of population is highly probable, but beyond the expression of the opinion that such is the case I hesitate to venture. A certain antecedent prob- ability fosters the view that this second Paumotu is the remnant of an older population, longer seated in the Paumotu, upon which the Rapanui- affiliate Paumotu descended in the course of their voyaging and there deposited colonies of the younger stock, while the more venturesome pushed bravely out into the enticing east. The prime bases of such an opinion are, that this element is numerically almost two-thirds of Pau- motu speech as known to us, and that it is fair to consider that the people longer separated from the central home of the race must have under- gone the greater loss of speech material. This is a justifiable reading of the two percentages 80 and 45 . But when we inspect the details of this westward affiliation we encounter difficulties which we may not venture to adjust to such a theory. It might be possible to pursue this farther if it were not for the character of that element which I have for con- THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. 61 venience designated Polynesian; being common to the two migration swarms, its presence in any given language might be due to a Proto- Samoan migration or to a Tongafiti voyage. That is a point which we may not determine, the material is incapable of reveahng its source; being neutral, it removes itself from the computations. The evidence of the Proto-Samoan and the Tongafiti elements is also negative. On the hypothesis of a secondary population receiving accession from a later swarm, and taking into consideration our knowledge that a migration of the Tongafiti left Samoa for new lands, we should expect to find in the sedentary people a preponderance of the Proto-Samoan, in the newer swarm a preponderance of the Tongafiti. But this table has made it plain that the Tongafiti preponderates in each, and that, though the figures vary, the ratio is practically the same ; the Tongafiti outbalances the Proto-Samoan just about four to one. In the extra-Rapanui Pau- motu there must be some significance in the extreme paucity of the gen- eral Polynesian, about half of the Tongafiti. Tentatively! suggest that this may signify that the 13 per cent Polynesian was brought in the Tongafiti swarm. This contravenes the hypothesis that this Paumotu element represents an earlier and sedentary population. When we pass backward to the next preceding table, wherein to the triple earlier identification of the sources of the material is added the record of the affiliation within the province of Southeast Polynesia, we find a most interesting and really illuminating condition of affairs. In the Paumotu common to Rapanui we find the Proto-Samoan and the Tongafiti elements at practically the figure which we established in the bulk computation, but the general Polynesian has increased by 10 per cent, and that equally in the three other languages. We observe also the great evenness of the distribution to Tahiti, Mangareva, and the Marquesas; the percentages vary only in the slightest degree. This is evidence that the Paumotu element which has reached Rapanui on the long eastward voyage has made itself felt most evenly through the more compactly placed archipelagoes of the province. But when we turn to the other half of the table, that which deals with the Paumotu not shared with Rapanui, we find great irregularities. In the elements shared with Mangareva and with Marquesas the general Polynesian material has increased by about a third over the table discussed in the preceding paragraph, and the Proto-Samoan and the Tongafiti material remain at practically the same figure. But when we examine the Tahiti affiHa- tions we find a striking change in all except the Proto-Samoan material, which has undergone a small and negligible increase. The general Poly- nesian has almost doubled, and the Tongafiti falls little short of the same increase. This is the first instance in these considerations where our attention has been directed to a close alhance between the Paumotu and Tahiti. We shall have to concern ourselves again and yet again with this alliance. 62 EASTER ISLAND. We shall next examine in conjunction the two tables in which per- centages are first expressed ; they diflfer only in the presence and in the absence of the westward elements. In the former we find in the Paumotu element common to Rapanui the same evenness of affiliation distributed over the three other archi- pelagoes, such preponderance as exists incHning to the Marquesas, and with Tahiti and Mangareva 8 and 12 per cent lower. This preponder- ance obtains in the similar table of those elements whose identification does not pass beyond the province. In this case the weight of the Mar- quesas approximates that of the former table, Tahiti and Mangareva are in practical agreement and enormously lower. In the extra-Rapanui half of the tables we find the same great upward movement of the Tahiti element, percentages of 84 and 90 respectively. Mangareva shows a divergence which will fitly become a topic of study in the next chapter; its affiliates stand at 39 and 1 2 per cent respectively. The Marquesas is still lower in the scale of affiliation in the broader group, but runs a Httle above Mangareva in the restricted group. Again I find it a pleasure to cite Dr. Friederici, whose monograph is a model :* Finckf ist auf Grund gewiss interessanter, aber einseitiger, weil lediglich und allein sprachlicher Untersuchungen, zu dem Schluss gekommen, dass die Tuamotus nur von Tahiti aus ihre Bevolkerung erhalten haben. Dieses Ergeb- nis widersprichtden Ueberlieferungen, Genealogien und ethnologischen Befun- den, welche feststellen, dass etwa vom Jahre 1000 unserer Zeitrechnung an die Tuamotu-Inseln bewusst von Tahiti im Norden und Mangareva im Siiden, und unbcwusst oder gezwungen auch zum Teil von den Marquesas aus ihre Bevolkerung erhalten haben. Finck, der unter grundsatzlicher Vernachlas- sigung alien anderen Materials, lediglich unter Beschrankung auf das rein Linguistische aus der Untersuchung der feinen dialektischen Unterschiede seine Schlussfolgerungen zieht, begeht den Fehler, zu glauben, dass es nur einen Tuamotu-Dialekt gab. Das von ihm benutzte ' ' Paumotuan Dictionary with Polynesian Comparatives" von Edw. Tregear (Wellington 1895) ist mir leider unzuganglich geblieben; ich kann daher nicht sagen, wo und wann es aufgenommen worden ist. Wahrscheinlich ist es ein Lexikon des jetzigen Tua- motu-Dialekts, der sich durch den vermehrten Verkehr in der Gruppe seit 60- 70 Jahren aus den friiheren Dialekten konsolidiert hat ; es mag in den Nord- west-Inseln aufgenommen sein. Ftir derartige Untersuchungen aber, wie sie Finck anstellt, um dann aus ihnen historische Schliisse zu ziehen, konnen nur die urspriinglichen, unvermischten Dialekte als Arbeitsbasis dienen. Zwar konnte sich ein Neu-Seeland Maori, der Tahitisch sprach, auf Reao verstandigen, ebenso wie ein Marquesaner auf Rapanui und Cooks bekannter Tahitier Tupaia auf Neu-vSeeland. Aber das will nicht mehr sagen, als wenn sich ein Franke mit einem Schwaben unterhalt; die dialektischen Unterschiede, auf die Finck seine Untersuchungen aufbaut, bleiben deswegen doch. Wir wissen genau, dass sie vorhanden waren. Wir wissen zudem aus den Ueberlief- *Op. cit., page 61. tF. N. Finck, "Die Wanderungen der Polynesier nach dem Zeugnis ihrer Sprachen," 1909. THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. 63 erungen und Genealogien, dass Makatea, Rangiroa, Arutua, Kaukura, Apataki, Niau, Toau, Fakarava und Faite ihre Bevolkerung unmittelbar aus Tahiti erhielten, und dass anderseits Reao, Pukaruha, Tatakoto, Vahitaki, Hao, Faka- ina, Angatau und zum Teil Hikueru von Mangareva aus bevolkert wurden. Unsere Nachrichten iiber die tatsachliche Verschiedenheit der Bewohner der ersten Gruppe von denen der zweiten stimmen hiermit ganz ausserordentlich gut iiberein. Die Zeiten sind voriiber, in denen man den unkontrollierten, teils ungenau wiedergegebenen, zum Teil mit Ungereimtheiten angefiillten polynesischen Genealogien so skeptisch gegeniiberstand. Die Arbeiten von Schirren, Quatrefages und die betreffenden Abschnitte in Waitz-Gerland, so scharfsinnig und wertvoll in ihrer Zeit waren, sind vollig iiberholt. * * * Die polynesischen Genealogien und Ueberlieferungen unterrichten uns genau so gut iiber die polynesisclie Geschichte, wie die romischen Annalen mit ihren Erzahlungen sagenhaften oder atiologischen Charakters iiber die alteste romische Geschichte. Zu diesen beiden Besiedelungen von Tahiti und Ma- ngareva kam nun doch, wie schon mehrf ach angedeutet, eine dritte, hochstwahr- scheinlich unfreiwillige, von den Marquesas aus, deren Spuren ethnologisch noch vollkommen festzustellen sind. Die verschiedenen durch die Besiedelungsgeschichte der Tuamotus begriin- deten Dialekte wurden dann durch das, was man die "roving propensities " der Tuamotuleute genannt hat, zusammengemengt und zu dem Tuamotu-dialekt von heute im allgemeinen verdichtet. Auf nahezu alien Tuamotu-Inseln, selbstdenallerunwirthlichsten, sind Spuren ehemaligeroderzeitweiser Bewohn- ung gefunden woren. Es waren aber nicht allein diese Neigung der Tua- mota-Insulaner zum Herumstreifen und eine wikingergleiche Freude am Meer: unfreiwillige und gezwungene Wanderungen kamen in grossem Umf ange hinzu. Die Beispiele von verschlagenen Booten in Ost-Polynesien sind sehr zahlreich, selbst die Mangarevaleute auf ihren Flossen machen keine Ausnahme. Sieben von ihnen erreichten auf so einem gebrechlichen Fahrzeuge Rapa. Nicht zufrieden damit, diese einsame Insel gliicklich gefasst zu haben und von den Bewohnern freundhch aufgenommen worden zu sein, schififten sich vier von ihnen wieder ein, um zu versuchen, auf demselben Wege wieder in ihre Heimat zuriickzukehren. Die rund looo km. von Rapa bis Mangareva entsprechen etwa einer Entfernung von Bergen in Norwegen nach Island. Unternehm- ender konnten auch die nordischen Wikinger kaum sein. With this interesting citation we may leave the final consideration of the Paumotu to the summing up of all our discoveries in other of these languages, feeUng confident that the agreement of other parts of South- east Polynesia will remove Dr. Friederici's objections to the linguistic method. The following list, the serial numeration being continued from the Rapanui finding-Hst ended at page 184, presents that element of Pau- motu speech which, through lack of Rapanui afTiHates, was not included in the Easter Island vocabulary, yet which is properly to be included in any philological comparison of Polynesian speech in general. Inas- much as we shall next take up in these studies the central and earlier languages of Nuclear Polynesia it has seemed advisable in this place to make a complete record for Southeast Polynesia. 64 EASTER ISLAND. 958. agoago slender, light, elegant. Ta.: ao, thin, wasted. Sa.: agosi, wasted by illness. Ma. : angoa, thin, lean. 959. aha a strong breeze. Sa.: afa, gale. Ma.: awhd, id. 960. ahi sandalwood. Ta.: afti. id. Mq.: auahi, a variety of breadfruit. Sa.: csi, sandalwood. Ha.: ili-ahi, id. 961. aho breath, wind. Ta.: aho, breath. Ha.: aho, id. 962. ahuahu suffocating, stifling. Mgv.: ahu, hot, flushed. Ta.: ahu, heat, fever. Sa.: dfu, heated, as an oven. 963. akau reef. Mgv.: akau, shoal, rock ridge. Ta.: aau. reef. Mq.: akau, id. Sa.:fl'aM, id. Ma. : a^aw, coast. 964. akuakutohunt. Ta.:aMaM,id. Mq.: dudu, id. 965. anake only. Mgv.: anake, id. Ta.: anae, id. Ma.: anake, id. 966. anavai brook. Ta.: a^iavai, id. 967. anave to breathe. Ta.: anave, id. 968. aniani to beseech. Mgv.: ani, toask, to demand. Ta. : ani, id. 969. anotau time, period. Ta. : mohanga, remnant. 1310. hakamomoka to betroth. Ta.: mo- mod, to espouse. 131 1. mono to substitute, to succeed. mono, id. 13 1 2. monogi perfume, scented oil. monoi, id. Mq. : monoi, id. manogi, fragrance. 1313. moora a duck. Ta.: moora, id. 1314. morai a plug, to stop up. Ta.: morei, a plug. 1315. morearea isolated. Ma.: morearea, lonely, dreary. 1316. moremore smooth, level, polished, hairless. Mgv. : moremore, a straight young tree. Ta. : moremore, smooth, polished, branchless. Sa. : mole, smooth. Ma.: more, bare, plain. 1317. ha-morihaga pious. Mgv.: mori- mori, to consecrate. Ta. : moria, prayer. Ma. : morina, to remove tabu. 1318. motautau a snare, to ambush. Ta.: motautau, to ambush, to surprise. 1319. moto fist, a blow. Mgv.: moto, a blow of the fist. Ta. : moto, id. Mq. : moto, to box, to spar. Sa. : moto, a blow of the fist. Ma. : moto, id. 1320. motoro to prostitute, immodest. Mgv. : motoro, bastard. Ma. : matoro, to woo. 132 1. muki to prophesy, to perform incan- tations. Ha.: muki, to whisper as an enchanter. 1322. muko the heart of a coconut tree. Mgv.: muko, the highest shoot of a plant. Ta.: muoo, scion, taro shoots. Mq.: muko, highest shoot, coconut heart. Fu. : wu^o, scion, bud. Ha.: muo, bud. 1323. mumutakinatohum, tobuzz. Ta.: mumu, to chatter. Mq. : mumukina, grating noise of the teeth. Sa. : mumu, to hum (lagomumu). Ma.: mumu, to hum. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 384. 1324. muna a dermatitis. Mgv. : t«Mna, id. Ta. : munaa, id. Mq. : muna, id. Ma.: muna, ringworm. 1325. mure brief, compact. Ta.: mure, short, brief. 1326. mutagaiho former, ancient. Ta.: mutaaiho, id. 1327. 1328. 1329. 1330. 1331- 1332. 1333. 1334- 1335- 1336. 1338. 1339. 1340. 1341- 1342. 1343- 1344- 1345- 1346- 1347- 1348. mutamuta to mutter. Ta. : mula- muta, id. mutoi a defense, keeper. Ta. : mutoi, guardian. Mq.: mutoi, id. na of. Mgv.: na, id. Ta.: na, id. Mq.: na, id. Ha.: na, id. nahonaho well arranged, in order. Ta.: nahonaho, nahanaha, id. nanako to tattoo. Ta. : nanao, tat- tooing. namu mosquito. Ta.: namu, id. Mq.: namu, a small red gnat. Sa.: KCWM, mosquito. Ma.: namu, sand fly. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 386. namunamu disagreeable smell or taste. Ta. : naminami, repulsive, dis- agreeable. Mq.: namunamu, very bad tasting or smelling. Sa. : namu, to have a bad smell. nanao to insert the hand. Mgv.: nanao, to take fish out of a wicker basket. Ta. : nanao, neneo, to intro- duce the hand. Mq. : nanao, to grope in. Sa. : naonao, to feel for by intro- ducing the hand. Ma. : nao, to feel with the hand. nanea enough, satisfying, to multiply. Mgv.: tienea, to abound, multiply. Ta. : nanea, capacious, containing much, multiply. Sa. : nanea, food affording large portions in the distri- bution. Ma.: nanea, copious, satis- fying. nape to weave, tress, plait. Ta. : nape, coir sennit. Sa.: nape, entangled. Na. : nape, to weave. nati plaster, salve. Mgv. : nati, to tie, to squeeze. Ta. : nati, to tie, to stick close. Mq. : nati, to tie, to embrace. Ma. : nati, to bind. nato ungovernable passion. Mgv.: nato, to have strong desire. navenave agreeable, delicious, volup- tuous. Ta.: nat'e, id. Ma.: nanave, delighted. neganega prosperous, flourishing. Ta.: nenea, abundant. neke to creep. Mgv. : neki, to creep, to crawl. Ta. : nee, to creep. Mq. : neke, id. nena bent, strained, stiff. Ta. : nena, stretched, smooth. niganiga mire, mud. Mq.: nika, mire, muddy, dirty. nimo secret, to conceal. Sa.: nimo, out of sight. nina to leap up. Ta.: nina, to heap up, to cover with earth. ninamu blue. Ta.: ninamu, blue, green. . . ninita, the papaya. Mgv.: mntla.id. Ta. : ninita, id. noganoga odorous. Ta.: nodnod, id. Mq.: nod, odor, perfume. 72 EASTER ISLAND. 1349. nohi eye, face, front, mesh. Ma.: kanohi, eye. 1350. nuka crowd, throng. Ta. : nMii, army, fleet. Mangaia: ntiku, a host, army. 135 1. nunaga race, breed. Ta.: nunaa, nation, people, family, tribe. 1352. oho to awake, to rouse. Mq.: oho, a call of encouragement. To. : fakaofo, to surprise. Ma.: oho, to awake. 1353. fakaohu to heap up, to accumulate. Ta. : faaohu, to make furrows. 1354. okoroga bay, gulf. Ta. : 00a, creek, bay. 1355. omohaga a bolt. Ta.: omo, to close. 1356- opere to set aside. Ta.: opere, por- tion, to distribute. 1357- Ota straw. Ta.: ota, straw, chaff. 1358. hakapa to feel, to touch. Mgv.: akapa, to feel, to touch, to handle cautiously. 1359. paave a strap, brace. Ta.: paave, to carry on the back, braces, to suspend. Mq.: paave, girdle, belt, brace. 1360. pae shore, bank. Ta.: pae, side. 1 36 1. pagogo distress, sorrow. Ta. : panoo- noo, anxiety. 1362. pahere to lop, to prune. Ta. : pahere, to peel. Mq. : pahee, to cut. 1363. pahi a ship. Mgv.: pahi, id. Ta.: pahi, id. Mangaia: pai, id. 1364. hakapahi to harass, to tire out. Ta.: haapahi, to harass, to vex. 1365. pahika to polish. Ta.: haapaid, id. 1366. pahore to peel off, to scale. Mgv.: pahore, cut, chop, peel. Ta.: pahore, to peel. Mq.: pahore-tue, the head clean-shaven. Ma.: pahore, scraped off. 1367. pakara to slap, to strike against. Ta.: paara, id. Ma. : pakara, to smack the lips. 1368. pakari strong, wise. Ta. : ^adrz, hard, old, wise. Ma. : pakari, hard, matured. 1369. pakato to cull flowers for a wreath. Ta. : padto, to pluck. 1370. paki sodomy. Ta.: paia, id. 1371. pakika smooth, level. Mgv.: pakika, to lose one's balance. Ta. : paia, smooth, slippery. 1372. pakoti to .shear, scissors. Ta. : paoti, id. Mq. : pakoti, id. 1373. paku a cloud. Mgv.: pakupaku, cloudy. 1374. pana to rise. Mq. : pana, to jump up. Ma.: pana, to cause to come forth. 1375- panene the head. Mgv.: pane, id. Mq.: pane, top of the head of large fish. Ma.: pane, the head. 1376. paniarua a human sacrifice. Ta. : paniarua, id. 1377- papa a rock. Mgv.: />a/>a, a flat rock. Ta. : papa, a rock. Sa. : papa, id. Ma. : papa, id. The Polynesian Wan- derings, page 325. 1378. papahoro to slip. Ma.: papahoro, to drop out. 1379- 1380. 1381. 1382. 1383. 1384. 1385. 1386. 1387. 1388. 1389. 1390. 1391- 1392. 1393. I394. 1395. 1396, 1397 1398 1399 1400 1401 1402 1403 1404 1405 1406 papahuaga genealogy. Ta.: papa- huaa, to make a genealogy. papape rain. Ta.: papape, a rain squall. paparagi heaven. Sa. : papalagi, for- eigner. papariga temples, forehead. Mgv.: papariga, cheek. Ta.: paparid, id. Mq. : papaina, id. Ma. : paparinga, id. papu even, flat. Ta.: papu, id. hakapapu to tranquilize oneself. Ta.: papu, inert. parakiraki northwest. Ma. : paraki, northerly wind. paraoa whale. Mq.: paaoa, id. Ma.: paraoa, id. parapara sweepings. Ta. : para, dung, dirt. Mq.: pad, rotten. Sa.: paia, id. Ma. : para, sediment. parara-magu to broil. Mgv. : parara, to cook over hot coals. Ta. : parara, to grill. Mq.: padd, id. Ma.: para- humi, to roast. parari to split, to shiver. Ta. : pa- rari, broken, split. Ma.: parari, a ravine. parau nacre. Ta. : parati, id. paraurau even, plain, flat. Mgrv.: paraurati, flat-bottomed boat. Ma- ngaia: paraurau, flat. parego to drown oneself. Ta.: par- emo, drowned. Ma.: paremo, id. fakapari to incriminate. Ta.: pari, to incriminate, to accuse. paroro dearth season. Mgv.: par or 0, a season. paruafish. Ta. : />arM, id. Mq.: pau, id. Sa.: palu, id. Ka.: palu, id. paruai calico. Ta.: paruai, calico, white cloth. paruparu weak, enfeebled. Ta.: pa- ruparu, weak, enfeebled, soft. Ha.: palupalu, soft, soft, feeble. pata to prick. Ta. : pata, scorpion, to pinch. pata-nuni a shower of rain. Ta.: pataa, a drop, particle. Mq. : pata, a drop. Ma. : pata, a drop of water. patapata a spot, stain. Ta. : pata, stain; o/ja/a spot, mark. Mq. : pata- pata, spot, stain, mark, pimple. Sa.: pata, pimples on the skin. Ma. : pata, pimply. patiki .skate, ray. Ta.: patii, flat, a flounder. Ma.: />a/i^/, a flatfish. patiti to nail. Ta. : patiti, to nail, to fix. patu to build, structure, wall. Ta. : patu, wall, to build. Ma.: palu, a wall. patu to kill, to beat. Mgv.: patu, to strike, war. Ta. : patu, to strike with a mallet. Ma. : patu, to strike, to kill. pauma a kite. Ta.: pauma, id. pau ma to scale, to cHmb over. Ta.: pauma, to climb, to mount. Mq.: pauma, precipice. THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. 73 1407. paupau breathless. Ta. : paupau, id. 1408. pe spoilt, damaged. Mgv. : pee, ma- cerated, spoilt. Ta.: pe, spoilt, rot- ten. Mq.: pe, id. Sa.: pe, id. Ma.: pe, pulpy, purulent. 1409. peinake perhaps. Ta. : peinae, id. 1410. pekapeka vexed, unhappy. Ta. : ped, in pain, vexed. 141 1. pekeau companion, friend. Ta. : peeau, id. 1412. pekeutari loyal, true. Ta.. : peeutari, to attach oneself to the company of. 1413. penu to fling, to hurl. Mgv.: penu- penu, to gesticulate with hands and feet in dancing. 1414. pepe butterfly. Ta.: pepe, id. Mq.: pepe, id. Sa..: pepe, id. Ma.: pepe, a moth. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 251. 1415. pepererau fin. Mgv.: pererau, wing. Ta. : pererau, id. Ma.: par irau, id. 1416. pepereru to pound. Ta.: peperehu, to crack, to break. 1417. pere tender, soft. Mq.: pepee, ten- der, soft, flexible. 1418. pereoo a wheel. Ta.: pereoo, cart. 1419. pereteki-paka cricket. Ta. : peretei, id. 1420. peru edge, frame, border. Mq. : peti, edge, margin, visor. 1421. peu habit, custom, manners. Ta. : peu, custom, habit, usage. 1422. hakapeu to strut. Ta. : haapeu, id. 1423. peuke to be thick, coarse. Ta.: peue, large, broad. 1424. haapiaga to learn. Ta. : piahi, scholar, disciple. 1425. pihakiatu beyond. Ta.: pihaiatu, id. 1426. pihapara a room. Ta.: piha, id. 1427. pikiafare cat. Ta.: pi if are, id. 1428. hakapiko to fold. Mgv.: piko, crooked, athwart. Ta. : pio, id. Mq.: piko, id. Sa. : pi'o, id. Ma.: piko, to bend. 1429. pinaki echo. Ta. : pinai, id. 1430. pinaki to drive back. Ta. : pinai, to hold in. Mq.: pinake, constipation. Ha. : pinai, to crowd each other. 1431. pinepine to dooften. Ta.: pinepine, often, frequent. Ha.: pinepine, to do often. 1432. pipiki to close, to contract, to shrink. Ta. : pipii, rolled in a circle. Sa. : pi'i, curly, to fold the arms. Ma.: piki, closely curling. I433- pipiri the December season. Mgv.: pipiri, the June season. 1434. pirau stench. Mgv.: pirati, rotten. Ta.: pirau, pus, rotten. Mq.: pidu, pinau, to smell bad. Ma.: pirau, rotten. 1435. pitaka to split, to shiver. Mgv.: pitaka, to open. Ta.: pitaa, sepa- rated, to split. 1436. pee pearl, ring, buckle, curl. Mgv.: Poe, berry of a necklace. Ta.: poe, pearl, necklace. Mq. : poe, clusters of fruit. Ha.: poe, globular. 1437- pofaki to cull, to pick. Ta. : pofai, to pluck. 1438. poihu to be repugnant. Ta.: poihu, weary, disgusted. 1439. poihuri a slip or cutting of a plant. Mgv. : pohuri, small banana scions. 1440. poiri ignorant. Mgv.: pouri, dark- ness. Ta. : poiri, pouri, darkness, ignorance. Sa.: pouli, darkness. Mangaia: poiri, darkness. 1441. pokai a roller, to roll a ball. Ta.: Podi, ball of thread. Mq. : pokai, ball. Ma.: pokai, id. 1442. pokara to clap hands. Mgv.: pokara, id. Ta. : poara, to box the ears. 1443. ponaponahaga joint, knot. Mgv.: pona, a knot. Ta. : pona, joint, knot. Mq. : pona, knot. Sa. : pona, id. Ma. : potia, id. 1444. popo ball, sphere. Mgv.: popo, ball. Ta. : popo, id. Mq.: popo, id. Ha.: popo, id. 1445. kauri-popo iron rust. Ha.: popo, rust. 1446. poria fat, fleshy. Ta. : porta, fat. Mq. : poi, corpulence. Ma.: port, coUops of fat. 1447. poro to proclaim, to call by name. Mgv.: poro, to call, to name. Ta.: poro, to cry, to proclaim. 1448. poro-fana long bow. Ta. : /ana, bow. Mq.: pana, bow, arrow. Sa. : fana, to shoot. Ma.: whana, to spring back as a bow. 1449. poroki a petition, to summon. Ta. : poroi, a charge. 1450. porotaka a wheel. Ta.: porotaa, wheel, circular. 145 1. porotata sphere, circle. Ta. : poro- lata, circular. 1452. porovaevae heel. Ta.: poro, heel. Ma. : poro, butt end. 1453. potagotago darkness. Ta. : potaS, black. Mq.: /?o/a7?o, darkness. Ma.: potangotango, intensely dark. 1454. poturoof. Mgv.: polu, id. Sa.: polu, a room, a screen. 1455. pouhouto pitching up and down of ships. Mgv. : pouto, tassel of a rope. Ta.: poito, buoy. Ma.: pouto, id. 1456. poutu to splash, to bespatter. Ma.: pohutti, id. 1457. puaki to overflow. Sa.: pua'i, to vomit. 1458. puehu rout, defeat. iMgv.: puehu, to melt away, to disperse. Ta.: puehu, to be dissipated, dispersed. Mq. : puehti, dissipated, dispersed, to drive away. Ha. : puehu, to disperse, to scatter. 1459. pugaverevere cloth. Mgv.: pugavere- vere, spider. Ta. : puaverevere, gauze, cobweb. Mq. : punaveevee, spider. Sa.: apugaleveleve , spider. Ma.: pu- ngawerewere, id. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 361. 74 EASTER ISLAND. 1460. pukua to choke on a fishbone. Mgv.: pukua, to choke on something lodged in the throat. Ta. : puunena, tochoke. strangled. Mq.: /)i<^Ma, difficulty in swallowing. Ha.: />zw/a, to shine. Mangaia: pura, a spark. The Polynesian Wander- ings, page 329. 1467. purao-puaru hibiscus. Ta. : purau, id. Mq. : puau, a breadfruit. 1468. purara to divulge. Ta.: piirara, scattered. Ma.: ptirara, open. 1469. pure-hiva a butterfly. Mgv.: pure- rehiie, id. Ta.: piire-hua, a moth. Mq. : piie-hua, id. Ma. : pure-hiia, id. 1470. purero to emit, to issue. Ta.: purero, eloquent. Ma. : purero, to project. 1471. purotu fine, beautiful. Ta. : puroiu, id. Sa.: Pidotu, the abode of the dead. Ma.: purotu, pleasant. 1472. pekeremu-puru coconut husk. Sa.; ptilu, id. 1473. puru straw. Mq.: puu, a coir cord. Ta.: /Ji/n*, coconut husk. Sa. : pulu, id. Rarotonga: purii, id. 1474. puruhi elephantiasis. Sa. : pulupu- lusi, illness. 1475. puta a gateway, to penetrate, wound. Mgv. : puta, a hole. Ta. : puta, open- ing, wound. Mq. : pula, opening, hole. Ma.: puta, hole. 1476. putaratara jagged, spiny. Mgv.: putaratara, rough, spiny. Ta. : puta- ratara, id. Mq.: putad, id. 1477. putiki a tress, headdress. Ma.: putiki, id. 1478. putoketoke to grieve. Ta.: putoe- toe, desolate. 1479. putotoi bloody. Mgv.: putoto, id. Ta. : putoto, id. Mq. : putoto, the ap- pearance of the menses. Ma. : putoto, bloody. 1480. fakaraga to raise, to lift up. Mgv.: raga, to heap up, to float. Mq. : aria, to float. Sa.: laga, to rise, to raise. Ma.: ranga, to rouse. The Polyne- sian Wanderings, page 197. 1481. ragatira chief, owner. Mgv.: raga- tira, chief, master. Ta. : radtira, id. Mq. : anatia, akatia, proprietor, owner, master. Ma. : rangatira, chief. 1482. rahihaga quantity. Ta.: rahiraa, id. Mq.: rarahi, large, long. Sa. : lasi, many. Ma. : rahi, great. The Poly- nesian Wanderings, page 246. 1483. rahirahiga the temples. Mgv.: raAt- rahiga, id. Ta.: rahirahid, id. Ma.: rahirahinga, id. 1484. rairai light, slender, elegant. Mgv.: rahirahi, fine, slender, supple. Ta.: rairai, fine, slender, thin. Mq. : ahi- ahi, fine, slender, graceful. Ma.: rahirahi, thin. 1485. raka holy. Mgv.: raka, to profane, defiled. Ta. : raa, holy. Ha.: /ao, id. i486, rakuraku to scrape, rub, scratch, claw. Mgv. : raktiraku, to .scrape, to scratch. Ta.: rauraii, to scratch. Sa.: fela'u, to scratch; la'jc, to scrape up. Ma.: raku, to scrape. 1487. raoa to choke on a fishbone. Mgv.: roa, a bone stuck in the throat. Ta. : raoa, to choke on a bone. Sa.: laoa, to have something lodged in the throat. Ma.: raoa, to be choked. 1488. rapa a fool, madness. Ma.: rapa, a familiar spirit. 1489. rapa blade of a paddle. Mgv.: rapa- rapahoe, id. Ta. : rapa, id. Mq. : apa, id. Sa.: lapa, flat. Ma.: rapa, flat part of a shovel. 1490. rapae a sand-pit. Ta.: rape, arapai, id. 1491. fa ta-rarapu to dissolve. Mgv.: rapu, to dilute. Ta. : m/>M, to mix. Mq.: dpu, to draw water. 1492. rarani tosetinarow. Ma.: rarangi, a row, rank. 1493. raraninuku defiled. Mgv.: ragina, to defile, break a tabu. 1494. raroa a joint. Mq.: aoa, inner side of the thighs. 1495. rauti to harangue. Ta.: rauti, to make a war speech. 1496. re victory. Ta. : re, prize in any con- test, prey. 1497. rega ginger. Mgv.: rega, turmeric. Ta.: rea, id. Mq.: ena, id. Sa.: lega, id. Ma. : renga, pollen of bulrushes. 1498. rei-hopehopega nape. Ta.: rei, id. 1499. reparepa skirt of a garment. Ta. : reparepa, skirt or border of a gar- ment. Mq. : epa, swaddling clothes. Ha. : lepa, hem, border. 1500. repo mire, dirt, filth. Mgv.: re po, id. Ta. : repo, id. Mq.: epo, id. Ma.: repo, id. 1501. rigorigo soul, mind. Ta. : riorio, shade of the dead. Mq.: ioio, spirit of god or of the dead. 1502. rika a vision. Mgv.: rika, to awake suddenly; rikarika, to sleep. Ta.: ria, phantom, vision. Sa. : li'a, a dream. Ma.: ri^a, disturbed sleep. 1503. rikarika fear, frightful. Ta. : riaria, horror, disgust. Ma. : whakaririka, fearful, anxious. 1504. ripo to undulate. Mgv.: ripe, to put out of place. Ta.: ripoa, eddy. Mq.: ipoi, current. Ma. : ripo, eddy. THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. 75 1505. riro to become, to grow. Mgv. : riro, to become, to be made. Ta. : riro, to become, to be transformed. 1506. riu the hold of a ship. Ta. : rzM, bilge- water. Mq. : iu, id. Sa. : liu, bilges. Ma.: riu, the hold. 1507. ro-i-nohi a tear. Ta. : ro-i-mata, id. Sa. : lo-i-mata, id. Ma. : ro-i-mata, id. 1508. roaka to find, to gain. Ta. : roaa, to gain, to get. Mq. : oaa, to acquire, to obtain, to find. Ha.: loaa, to obtain. 1509. roga mulberry tree. Ta. : roa.id. 1510. rohirohi weakness. Ta..: ro}nrohi,\d. 1511. rokiabed. Mgv.: ro^i, bed, sleeping- place. Ta. : roi, bed. Mq. : oki, sleeping-place. Sa. : lo'i, pigsty. 15 12. rokohia surprise, to come unexpect- edly. Ta. : roohia, surprised. Ma.: rokohanga, to be overtaken. 15 13. roma to shrink. Mgv.: roma, scarce. Ta.: roma, to diminish. Mq. : oma, id. Sa. : loma, to be quiet, to intermit. 1514. romiromi to press, to squeeze. Mgv.: romi, to press, to squeeze, to rub. Ta. : oomi, to press. Mq.: omi, to press, to squeeze, to rub. Sa. : lomi, to press, to rub. Ma.: row i, to squeeze. 15 1 5. roparopa to deform, to spoil. Ta. : roparopa, irregular, deformed. 1516. ruki night. Ta.: rm', id. 1517. rukurukii to tie, to fasten. Ta. : ruuruu, id. 1518. rumaki to sink. Mgv.: akariimaki, to dive. Ma. : rtimaki, to duck. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 368. 1519. nohi-rumaruma dissembler. Ta.: rumaruma, dark, obscure. 1520. ruruhaga an assembly, to collect. Ta. : ruru, to collect, to assemble. 1521. rurutainahaga anguish, pang. Ta. : rurutaina, trembling. 1522. rutu a drum. Mgv.: rutu, to beat, to cause to resound. Ta. : rutu, a drum, to drum. Mq. : utu, to drum. Sa. : lutu, to shake a rattle. 1523. tae to arrive. Mgv.: tac, id. Ta. : tae, id. Ma.: tae, id. 1524. taeake brother. Ta. : /aeae, brother, cousin. 1525. taehae cruel, savage. Ta..: taehae, id. 1526. taetae elephantiasis in scroto. Ta.: taetae, ill, illness. 1527. tagaegae a sacrifice. Ha.: kanae- nae, id. 1528. tagoro to snore. Ha.: kanono, id. 1529. tagotago ignorant. Ta.: taotao, yery dark. Mq.: tatw, dark, obscure. Ma.: tangotango, intensely dark. 1530. tahanga indecent. Ta. : tahaa, naked. Mq. : tahanahana, cleared, uncovered. Ma.: tahanga, naked. 1531. tahaki the side. Sa.: to/a' f, one side. Ma. : tahaki, one side. 1532. tahere armlet. Ta.: tahere, girdle, collar. Ma. : tahere, to tie. 1533. tahinu to anoint. Ta.: tahinu, id. 1534. tahiti to leap. Ta.: tahiti, to stride. 1535- tahito ancient, long ago. Ta. : tahito, old, passed. Mq. : tahito, old, ancient. Ma.: tazvhito, ancient. 1536. fakato-tahito to jeer, to scolT. Ta. : tahito, to mock. 1537. tahoko reprisal, revenge. Ta.:tahoo, recompense, revenge. 1538. tahoro to swallow. Ta.: tahoro, id. 1539- tahua field of battle. Ta.: tahua, id. 1540. tahua floor. Ta.: tahua, id. 1541. tahuga wise, capable, doctor, artisan. Mgv.: ttihuga, wise, in.structed, adroit, Mq.: tuhuna, wise, instructed, arti- san. Sa. : tufuga, carpenter. Ma. : tohunga, adroit, wise, priest. 1542. tahutahu sorcerer. Ta. : tahu, sor- cery. 1543. taiata obscene. Ta. : taiata, lasciv- ious, profane. 1544. taika affliction. Ta. :/am, to afflict oneself, chagrin, fear. 1545. takahoa impatient, tiresome. Ta. : taahoa, wearied. 1546. takanoa unmarried. Ta. : taanoa, id. Sa.: ta'anoa, id. 1547. takatakai to tread, to trample. Ta. : taataahi, to trample under foot. Ma.: takahi, to trample. 1548. takaviriviri to turn round, to writhe. Mq. : takavii, to turn round, to twist. Sa.: ta'avili, id. Ma.: takawiri, to be twisted. 1549. takerepo to turn upside down. Ta.: taere, id. 1550. taki distributive particle. Ta. : tai, id. Sa.: ta'i, id. Ma.: taki, id. 155 1. takirikiri to quiver, to shiver. Ta.: tairi, to shake and throw a lance. Ma. : takiri, twitching. 1552. takirokiro to injure. Ta.: tairoiro, malice, vengeance. 1553- take to say, to speak. Ta. : tao, to speak, to order, to command. 1554. takoko to crack, as glass. Ta.: taoo, cracked. 1555- takoto to lie down. Ta. : taoto, to\i& down, sleep. Sa. : ta'oto, to lie down. Ma.: takoto, id. 1556. tama to purify. Ta.: /ama, to wash. 1557. tamaki war, to fight. Ta. : tamai, id. Mq. : tamai, war, to quarrel. Sa. : tama'i, to beat, to abuse. 1558. tamau fixed desire, constant. Ta.: tamau, constant, persevering. Ha.: kamau, to persevere. 1559. tamau tinder. Ta. : tamau, id. 1560. tamore, sweet basil. Ta. : tamore, id. Sa. : tamole, purslane. 1561. tamumu to rustle, a dull sound. Ta. : tamumu, a dull sound. Ma.: tamumu, to hum. 1562. tanae gourd, empty coconut. Ta. : tanai, a vine. 1563. fakatano to put in order. Ta.: tano, to aim, to direct. 76 EASTER ISLAND. 1564. taota taste, savor. Ta.: taoia, taste. 1565. tapao symbol. Ta. : tapao, sign, mark, 1566. tapariri rage, to be angry. Ta.: ta- pariri, jealous rage. 1567. taparu to flatter. Ta.: taparu, id. 1568. tapea earring. Ta.: tapea, ring, buckle. Mq. : tapea-puaina, earring. 1569. tapiri glue, to adhere. Mgv.: tapiri, to be joined without cause. Ta.: tapiri, to unite, to join. Ma. : tapiri, to join. 1570. tapitapi to be concerned, perplexed, to question. Ta. : tapi, preoccupied. Ma.: tapitapi, to grumble at. 1571. tapona a knot. Ta. : tapona, id. Mq. : tapona, to carry knotted rushes symbolically. IMa. : tapona, a bmidle of herbs. 1573. taporo lemon. Ta.: taporo,{6.. 1573. tapuae footstep. Ta.: tapuae, id. Mq.: tapuvae, id. Ma.: tapuae, id. 1574. tapuhaga a blow, stroke. Ta.: tapu, to slap, to cut. 1575. tapunipuni hide and seek. Ta.: tapuni, to hide. Sa. : tapuni, to shut. Ma.: tapuni, to mend a net. 1576. tapupu to portion into small pieces. Ta. : tapupu, to cut into bits. 1577. tapuru to macerate, to soak. Ta.: tapuru, id. 1578. taputo to wrestle. Ta.: taputo, id. 1579. tararo to pervert. Ta.: tararo, to seduce. 1580. tarahu debt, obligation. Ta.: tarahu, wages, salary. 1581. tarava transverse, across. Ta.: to- rava, id. 1582. tare glair. Mgv.: /are, spittle. Ta.: tare, phlegm, glair. Sa. : tale, cough. 1583. tareparepa to quiver. Ta.: tarepa, to shake in the wind. Ma.: tarepa- repa, id. 1584. tarere a swing. Mgv.: tarere, sus- pended. Ta. : tarere, a swing. 1585. tariga stalk of fruit. Ta.: /art, id. 1586. tarihia hanging. Ta. : fari, to hang. 1587. tariparauadrum. Ta.: /an>araM, id. 1588. taritari to carry. Mgv.: /an", id. Ta.: tari, id. Mq.:/at, id. Ma.: /ort, id. 1589. tatakoto boom. Mgv.: tatakoto, id. Ma.: tatakoto, sprit. 1590. tatua girdle. Mgv.: /a/wa, id. Ta. : tatua, id. Ma..: tatua, id. 1591. fakatau indolent. Ta.: faatau, id. 1592. fakatautau to delay, to defer. Ta. : haatatitau, id. 1593. fakatautau to hang up. Ta.: tau- tau, id. Mq. : tautau, id. Sa. : tau- tau, id. Ma. : tautau, to droop. 1594. tauaki to exhibit. Ta. : tauai, to spread out to sun. To.: tauaki, id. 1595. tauene to supply the place of. Ta.: tau^ne, to patch a mat. 1596. tauga a friend. Ta.: tauga, id. 1597. taumako jealous. Mq. :/cMma^ow,id. 1598. taupoo hat. Ta. : taupoo, id. 1599. hakataupupu to delay. Ta.: tau- pupu, heavy, to delay. 1600. taura priest. Mgv.: taura, id. Ta.: taura, id. Mq. :/aMa, id. Sa. : tottZa, id. 1 60 1. taurekareka adolescent. Ta. : tau- rearea, youth. Sa. : taule'ale'a, young man. 1602. taurua holiday. Ta.: taurua, a feast. 1603. tauturu to assist. Ta.: tauturu,id. 1604. fakatetefa to boast. Ta. : tefatefa, vain in dress. 1605. tega to spot, to sully. Mq.: teka, disfigurement. 1606. teka arrow. Ta.:/ea, id. Mq.: teka, a game with darts. Sa.: te'a, id. Ma.: teka, id. 1607. teke flower, to fructify. Mq.: teke, sprout. 1608. fakatekeo to intoxicate. Mgv.: tekeo, id. Mq.: tekeo, poisonous. 1609. fakatekiteki to sit on the heels. Mgv.: tekiteki, a chair, to sit crouched up. Mq. : tiketike, high, ele- vated. Sa.: ti'eti'e, to sit on a chair. 1610. tekotekovain, proud, conceited. Ta.: teSteo, haughty. Ha. : keo, proud. 161 1. fakateniteni to eulogize. Ta.: teni, to exalt another. 161 2. kata-tiere gay, merry. Ta.: tiere, amusement. 1613. tifai to piece, to patch. Ta.: tifai, id. 1614. tihaehae in front. Ta.: tihae, to go in front. 1615. tihaehae to provoke. Ta.: tihae, id. 1616. tihana to heat, to warm up. Ta.: tihana, to warm over. 161 7. tiki a statue. Mgv.: tiki, id. Ta.: tii, id. Mq.: tiki, id. Ma.: tiki, id. 1618. fakatiki to disappoint. Ta. :/aa/n, id. 1619. tikipa sterile, barren. Ta.: tiipa, id. 1620. tinao toput thehand in. Ta. : tinao, id. Mq.: tinao, to grope in. 1 62 1. tic an oj'ster. Mgv.: tio, a shellfish. Ta.: tio, oj^stcr. Mq.: tio, id. Sa.: tio, a shellfish. Ma.: tio, an oyster. 1622. fakatio to depreciate. Ta.: faatio, to defy, insult. IMq.: haatio, to ac- cuse. Sa.: tio, to blame, to find fault with. 1623. tioi to veer, to turn about. Ta. : tioi, to turn about. 1624. tipapa lying down flat. Ta.: tipapa, to lie down, to prostrate oneself. Mq.: tipapa, ah&doi. Ha.: kipapa, to pave with flat stones. 1625. tiputa to bore, to perforate. Ta.: tiputa, to pierce. Mq.: tiputa, id. Ha.: ^//JW^a, an opening. 1626. tiramast. Mgv.: tira, id. Ta.: tira, id. Mq.://a, id. Sa.:/z/a, id. Ma.: tira, id. 1627. tiragorago a joist. Ta.: tiraorao, to set the timbers across. 1628. tirikumugun. Ta.: tiriumu, pistol. THE PAUMOTU IN THE POLYNESIAN SCHEME. 77 1629. titautau to request, to beg. Ta.: titau, to ask for, to demand. 1630. titi slave. Ta. : ////, id. 1631. fakatitiaua to rival, to vie. Ta.: faatitiau, to struggle to outdo. 1632. tito to peck. Mgv.: tito, to peck, a dot. Ta. : tito, to peck. Mq. : tito, id. 1633. tiu a squall, a gust. Mgv.: tiu, west wind. Mq.: /n/, north wind. Sa. : fa'atiu, northerly wind. Ma. : Tiu, a wind god. 1634. toahu fustiness, moldiness. Ta.: toahii, close, sultry. Mq. : toahu, fine rain. 1635. togere to ring, to tinkle. Mgv.: togere, a low, dull sound. 1636. tohe anus, foundation. Ta. : tohe, buttocks, base, bottom. Ha.: kohe, vagina. 1637. tohora cachalot. Mgv.: tohora, id. Ta.: tohora, id. Mq.: tohoa, young porpoise. Sa.: tafola, whale. Ma.: tohora, id. 1638. tohuga fog and rain. Ta.: tohua, fine rain. 1639. tohu-reko to prophesy. Ta.: /o/m, id. 1640. toiau heavy. Ta.: toiau, id. 1 64 1. tokatoka disgusted. Ta. : toatoa, id. 1642. toke toothache (considered to be caused by a worm). Mgv.: toketoke, worm. Ta.: toe, id. Mq.: toke, id. Ma.: toke, id. 1643. toketekete to be cold. Ta.: toetoe, id. 1644. tonatona a wrinkle. Mgv.: tona, a venereal disease. Ta. : tona, wart. Sa. : tona, the yaws. Ma. : tona, wart. 1645. tone to direct, to address. Ta.: tono, to send a messenger. Ma. : tono, to order, to command. 1646. topakapaka vile, ugly, mean. Ta.: topaapaa, ugly, deformed. 1647. topataadrop. Ta.: topata, id. Mq.: ua topata, a drizzle. 1648. tope to shear, to clip. Ta.: tope, to cut off. 1649. topitipiti drop bj' drop. Mgv.: topiti, to fall drop by drop. 1650. torai to swim. Mgy.: torai, to swim, to float. 1651. fakatoro to stretch out the hand. Ta. : faatoo, to extend a limb. 1652. toroa employment, dignity, honor. Ta. : toroa, employment, office. 1653. tote to be vexed, offended. Ta.: tote, to be in anger. 1654. totoa to do badly, malevolent. Ta.: totoa, to do badly, to harm. 1655. fakatotohi to lie in. Mq.: haato- tohi, to be in travail. 1656. tuahine sister. Mgv. : tuehine, man's sister. Ta. : tuahine, id. Mq. : tuehine, id. Ma.: tuahine, id. 1657. tuai to scratch, scrape. Mq. : tuai, grater. 1658. tuamoko the spine. Ta.: tuamoo, id. 1659. tuapuku a hunch. Ta.: tuapuu, id. 1660. tuaru to exile. Ta.: tuaru, id. 1661. tuatapapa narrative. Ta.: tuata- papa, to recite a history. 1662. tuatea a wave, billow. Ta.: tuatea, a long wave. Mq. : tuatea, white waves at sea. Ma. : tuatea, breaking crest of waves. 1663. tuetue solid, large. Ta.: tuetue, thick, stout. 1664. tugane woman's brother. Mgv.: tugane, id. Ta. : tuane, id. Mq.: tuane, id. Ma.: tungane, id. 1665. fakatugatuga to wrinkle the brows. Ta. : tuatua, to frown. 1666. tuhou novice. Ta.: tuhou, id. 1667. tui to sew. Mgv.: tui, id. Ta.: tut, id. Mq.: tui, id. Sa.: tui, to pierce. Ma. : ttii, to sew. 1668. tukau steward, housekeeper. Ta.: tuati, chief, steward. 1669. tukeke to grunt, to growl. Mq.: tukeke, to weep with loud howls. 1670. tuketukeabend, angle, elbow. Mgv.: tuke, elbow, heel, finger joints. Mq. : tuke, elbow, heel. Sa. : tu'elima, finger joints. Ma.: tuke, elbow. 167 1. tukiate to puff for breath. Ta.: tuiate, stomach-ache. 1672. tukirogo famous, to celebrate. Ta.: tuiroo, id. 1673. tukutuku-rahinuku spider. Ta.: tuutuu, id. Ha. : kuukuu, id. 1674. tunoa a dermatitis. Ta. : /Mnoo, dark spots on the skin. 1675. tuparu to demolish, to split. Ta.: tuparu, to break, to destroy. 1676. tuperetiki upside down. Ta.: tupere- tii, id. 1677. tupou to expose the buttocks. Mgv.: tupou, to stoop, to abase oneself. Ta. : tupou, to show the buttocks insult- ingly. Mq. : tupou, to bend down. Ma. : tupou, to stoop down. 1678. tupua ghost, corpse. Sa.: tupua, idol. Ma.: tupua, goblin, monster. 1679. fakatura respectable, venerable. Ta.: faatura, to honor. 1680. turakau-paeha to fence with a spesu*. Ta. : turaaii, a fencer. 1681. turelaw. Mgv.: ture, id. Ta.: ture, id. Mq.: ture, id. Ma.: ture, id. 1682. tureirei pitching up and down. Ta.: tureirei, unsettled, turbulent. 1683. turepu to carry, conduct. Ta. : turepu, conductor, driver. 1684. turituri noise, hubbub. Ta. : turituri, stunned with din. Mq. : tuitui, be still! Ma.: turituri, noise, uproar. 1685. turori drowsy, to stagger. Mgv.: turori, to roll from side to side. Ta. : turori, to reel, to stagger. Mq. : tuoi, to nod, to have the head on one side. Ma. : turori, to stagger. 1686. turuki burial-place. Ta. : <«rttt, heap of stones. 1687. fakaturuma grave, serious. Ta.: faaturuma, grave, taciturn. Mq.: tuuma, anger. 78 EASTER ISLAND. 1688. tutaekauri rust. Ta: tulaeauri, id. 1689. tutaepere sulphur. Mq.: tulaepere, id. Ha.: kukaepele, id. 1690. tutuga flea. Ta. : tutiia, id. 1691. fakau to resist. Ta. : faau, resolute. Cf. 990. 1692. uhi tattooing instrument. Ta. : uhi, id. Ma.: uhi, id. 1693. uho heart wood. Mgv.: m^o, pith of trees. Mq.: uho, id. vSa.: uso, heart wood. Ma.: uho, id. 1694. ukauka froth, foam. Mgv.: uka, froth. Ma.: hukahuka, foam. Cf. I075- 1695. uki age, generation. Ta.: ui, age, generation, season. Ma. : uki, ancient times. 1696. umere wonderful. Ta.: umere, to wonder, to brag. Rarotonga: Mwere, to wonder at. 1697. umeume a palm tree. Mq. : ume- ume, a breadfruit tree. 1698. upoupo stubborn, perverse. Ta.: upoiipo, ugly, dissatisfying. 1699. ureuretiainoana waterspout. Ta.: ureurelumoana, id. 1700. uru thicket. Ta. : Mrw, thicket, forest. Sa. : ulu, grove. Ma.: uru, id. 1701. uru to inspire. Mgv.: uru, to cry out on account of the presence of a god. Ta.: «n<, to be inspired. Sa. : uluitinoina, possessed by a god. 1702. utari to accompany, to follow, to imitate. Ta.: utari, to follow. Mq.: utai, to accompany, to follow, to imitate. Ha. : ukali, to follow. 1703. utere to rub, to scrape. Ta.: utere, to rasp, to peel. 1704. uto buoy. Sa.: tito, id. 1705. utu to bestow on. Ta. : utua, pay- ment, wages, recompense. Mq. : utu, id. Ma. : utu, reward. 1706. vaere to sweep, to weed, to clear. Ta. : vaere, id. Mq. : vavee, id. Ma. : waere, to make a clearing. 1707. vagavaga slender, slim. Mq. : vaka- vaka, id. 1708. vahi a place. Mgv.: vahi, id. Ta.: vahi, id. Mq. : vahi, id. Ma. : wahi, id. 1709. vahi a part. Mgv.: vahi, id. Ta.: vahi, id. Mq. : vahi, id. Sa..:fasi, id. 1710. vahine wife. Mgv.: veine, id. Ta. : vahine, id. Mq.: vehine, id. Sa. : fafine, woman. Ma.: wahine, id. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 337. 171 1. vai to exist. Ta. : vai, to be, to exist. X712. vaiho to set down, to place. Ta. : vaiiho, to place. Ma.: waiho, to set down. 1713. vaiora to survive. Sa. : vaiola, the spring "water of life?" Ma.: waiora, water of life. 1 714. hakavai vai to delay. Ta.: vaivai, to rest a bit. 1715. vanavana spur, rough. Mgv.: vana, sea urchin. Ta. : vanavana, rough, knotty. Mq. : vana, sea urchin. Sa. : vana, id. Ma.: wanaivana, bristles. 1716. varavara scattered, dispersed. Mgv.: varavara, scattered, wide apart. Ta. : varavara, id. Sa. : valavala, wide apart. 1717. hakavaravara to brighten. Mgv.: varavara, clear to view. Ta.: vara- vara, transparent. Cf. 1228. 1718. vare pus. Mgv.: vare, gummy exu- dations. Ta. : vare, pus. Mq.: vae, gummy exudations. Ma. : ware, any viscous fluid. 17 19. vari marsh, mire, dirt. Ta.: vari, dirt, mud. Rarotonga: vari, mud. 1720. varo a mussel. Mgv.: varo, a fish. Ta. : varo, a lobster. Mq.: varo, a long fish. Sa. : valo, a craj^sh. 1 72 1. vauvau carpet, rug. Ta.: vauvau, carpet, mat. 1722. vauvau to hold, to contain. Ta.: jauvau, receptacle, vase. 1723. vave a fringing reef. Mgv.: taivave, a rolling billow. Ta. : vavea, a tower- ing billow. 1724. veke delinquency, crime. Mq.: veke, malefactor. 1725. vekuveku sordid, dirty, mean, slov- enly. Ta.: veuveu, dirty, disgusting, bristly. Mq. : veku, disordered, slov- enly. 1726. veruveru old, worn out, rags. Ta.: veruveru, old, dirty. Ha. : welu, a rag. 1727. veruverukahu cloth, stuff. Ma.: weru, garment. 1728. veu wool. Mgv.: W2a'ez(, grass, herb- age. Ta. : veu, hair, wool, fringe. 1729. veve miserable. Ta. : wtr, poor, needy, miserable. 1730. vi to .succumb. Ta. : vi, to be sub- jugated, the beginning of a retreat. 1 73 1. vikiviki impure, immodest. Ta. : viivii, defiled, polluted. 1732. viku cooked, done, combustion. Ta.: viu, overdone, burnt. 1733. Tinivini to chirp, to warble. Ta. : vitii, voluble. vSa. : vivini, to crow. 1734. viru good, right, decent, pure. Ta.: viru, decent, proper. 1735. kakavitiviti to beautify. Ta.: viti, well made, becoming, alert. 1736. vivi grasshopper. Ta.: vivi, id. Mq.: vivi, cricket. 1737. vivo flute. Ta.: vivo, id. Mq.: vivo, id. CHAPTER IV. MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. In the prosecution of the dissection of the several factors which enter into the speech of Easter Island we are now brought to the examination of the language of Mangareva. In the preceding chapter we have already oriented this extremely re- mote island so far as relates to its geographical position. Regarding the Paumotu as the high peaks just awash of a suboceanic mountain chain. Mangareva represents the highest peak of the range and, as is so often noted in orographic study, it is found as an outlier in sohtary dignity. From the southeastern point of the commonly accepted group of the Paumotu it is set apart by considerable stretches of sea, and in the few hues of sound- ings which have been made in the intermediate region we see that there is equal and distinct bathymetric sundering. These stretches of sea amount to httle in the navigation of such adventurous seafarers as the wandering Polynesians. The great double canoes of the epoch of the great voyages were sufficient to cover the distance. The inhabitants of Mangareva at the time of their discovery by the Europeans v/ere not equipped to make these voyages. Timber was to be found in abundance upon their moun- tains, the protecting reef gave them the advantage of a quiet harbor to encourage the development of the art of navigation, but through some circumstance which we find it hard to comprehend the Mangarevans are set at the bottom of the scale* in a race whose elemental characteristic is that they shall breast the long waves of the Pacific in voyages immeasu- rably longer. The art of the shipwright had unaccountedly vanished from this one spot, and with it vanished the art of tracking the sea with the guidance of the wind and the stars. f The highest attainment of Manga- ♦The Easter Islanders are quite as devoid of canoecraft, but their plight is other. Their sterile island yields no fit timber and their sole dependence is on drift wood and wreck stuff. tSuch recession from a cultural acquisition so essential to the conditions of life of folk on a small island set in great sea must be unusual. In general the lost arts are few; the loss of canoecraft by an insular race is notable. Accordingly we shall find particular interest in the report of the same loss of a necessary art by the Torres Islanders of Melanesia, far in the west of the Pacific. It is recorded by Mrs. Florence Coombe at page 150 of " Many- sided Melanesia:" , "Clever as these people are at house-building, is it not a surprising fact that not a soul in the Torres Island can build a canoe? Once the art was known as well here as elsewhere, but the knowledge was confined to the skilled few who formed a sort of guild of canoe- makers. One by one these men died, and the rising generation was presumably too lazy to seek admission to the craft. The inevitable day arrived when the last canoe-maker died, and all knowledge of canoe-making with him. The canoes he had left behind existed a little while longer, but soon the last was broken up and there was no boat left in the group. Yet still no man was found with energy, or ambition, or desire enough to set him to solving the boat problem for himself. There are plenty of bamboos, and they will float. Tied together with creeper-string, one can make a rough-and-ready raft of any size. And so— they make shift." 79 80 EASTER ISLAND. reva in the line of shipping amounted to no more than a raft, safe enough within the lagoon, though clumsy, but wholly unfit for voyages upon the high sea beyond the coral wall. Yet we find the ancestral spirit alert. In the preceding chapter I have already had occasion to cite (page 63) Cap- tain Friederici's account of one involuntary voyage from Mangareva on nothing better than one of these fragile rafts. It is impossible to find a wholly satisfactory explanation of the absence of na\'igation from this minor unit of a race altogether and elsewhere naval in the highest degree. Because Mangareva must have been populated in the beginning by sailors in possession of the two shipping arts (the con- stmction quite as much as the handling of their canoes) it is impossible to imagine that Mangareva Vv^as thus ignorant at some early period of its community hfe. It is not difficult to construct a hypothesis which will comport with Polynesian custom life in accounting for the disappearance of the art. In all the Pacific communities the canoewrights form an hon- orable class in the social organization. Their office is largely hereditary, a guild or trade body cutting diagonally through the formal division of the body politic into ranks and classes, for I have known divine chiefs and the lowest orders in the social scale to meet upon the level terms of their craft. The secrets of the craft are piously respected by the community at large, even though there is nothing which may not be seen by the most casual onlooker. The protection of the tabu is at the back of this respect ; no person not duly qualified v/ould regard it safe to attempt any of the operations of canoe-making. Even the felling of the timber for the canoe was far too dangerous to be attempted by the uninitiate. The legends contain many tales of profane attempts to cut a tree, and the result is invariably that next morning it is found erect once more upon its stump. It is within the bounds of the possible that the whole guild of canoewrights may have left Mangareva ; probably there would not be many on so thinly populated an island. They might have been carried away as involuntary voyagers in the canoes of some expedition which had made their home a port of call ; it is equally possible that they would leave in a huff because their work was not rewarded to their taste. The tabu would remain behind them; none would venture to construct new canoes when those already in existence met their sea fate ; in the second generation all knowl- This valuable parallel came to hand while this chapter was yet on the galleys : the parallel is complete down to the raft in Tegua as in Mangareva. From direct information on the spot Mrs. Coombe records the course of the loss in practically the order which I have evolved a posteriori. Her observation is always accurate so far as it goes — I have been able to confirm that from my earlier familiarity with many of the spots which she has visited — but she does not propose it as anything more than superficial. I have, therefore, no hesita- tion in disregarding her really untenable theory of laziness, and in giving full weight to the sacrosanct or tabu character of the mysteries of the art. The magic of canoe-making is brought out in this note which she derives at page 172 from a man of Santa Cruz: "Only some men may dig out canoes, those whose ancestors dug them out. When a father is near death, that father takes water and washes his son's hands, and they think that the father is giving to his son understanding and wisdom to make canoes, and he signifies it through water." MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 81 edge of the art would be lost. We have no means of estimating the period at which navigation passed from the Mangarevans; the most we may- know is that at some wholly uncertain epoch in the past the Mangarevans became a sedentary people in the sea and had no further direct influence upon the languages of their race fellows. Yet in the course of this chapter we are to see in a series of tables that the influence of Mangarevan speech is strong in certain directions and that it is particularly noticeable at the ultimates of migration in three diverse tracks. In considering this we must fix the attention for a brief memorandum upon one of the constants of such voyaging as was performed by these Polynesian sailors and adventurers, a constant which is not set down upon the charts. It has been made abundantly plain that the wind in the trop- ical Pacific is not only motive power, but serves a compass end infixing the direction of voyaging. Unwieldy, uncomfortable, and dull sailors before the wind, these great double canoes were at their best saihng when snug to the wind. Ignorant of the compass, these admirals of the brown could estabhsh direction upon the sea only by the constancy of the trade winds. These are the considerations which estabhsh the substantial unity of all Polynesian voyaging. We find that all of eastward Polynesia was settled by eastward voyages, always full and bye on the southeast trade. New Zealand was settled by westward voyaging, yet this is no reversal of di- rection sense; the course from Rarotonga to New Zealand is full and bye on the westerly variables which lie south of the trade-wind region. Mangareva lies outside the trade-wind belt ; its latitude is higher than the southern limit of the regular southeast wind. Each year the trade does reach up to include it for a few short weeks ; for much the greater period of the year the westerly winds prevail. Time was nothing to these voyagers, there are no conditions of hfe in which time ever can be anything to the Polynesian ; they could await contentedly the coming of the wind they sought. Thus Mangareva was a convenient point of distribution for wanderings back into the torrid zone or into more remote regions in the temperate zone to the southward. This position relative to windroses must be held to condition the rela- tion of Mangareva to the general movement of migration, not only within Southeast Polynesia but in the more remote seats of Polynesian culture. Thus we are to find the Mangarevan represented strongly not only in the magma which has gone on rather artificial record as the Paumotu speech, not only in Rapanui, not only in the Marquesas, but we shall note a some- what substantial element of the language which is identifiable only in Hawaii. The conditions of the present study will interrupt our detailed examination of this problem, but if Mangareva and Hawaii be noted upon the wind and current charts now issued by the Hydrographic Office of the United States Navy the services of a competent navigator, skilled in fore- and-aft seamanship, will assist the ethnographer to the solution of the 82 EASTER ISLAND. matter. In na\dgation it becomes a rather simple problem of sailing close- hauled, and to the solver, as to the captain of the canoe, the only serious difficulty is to get across the equatorial doldrums. We shall now pass to the systematic examination of the speech of Mangareva and its general and particular relations as may be deduced from the affiliations which we are able to establish. We note at the outset Meinecke's very positive statement :* Die Bewohner von Mangareva sind Rarotonganer, die von ihnen gespro- chene Sprache ist bis auf unbedeutende Verschiedenheiten die von Rarotonga. His subsisting authority is not recorded, an unusual neglect to be charged against this very painstaking and exact historian ; but we may infer it from his precisely similar statement! concerning the Paumotu : Diese in den ostlichen Inseln jetzt noch gebrauchte Sprache ist nach CailletJ ein rarotongischer Dialekt, und wenn gleich nicht wenige Worter ganz von den in anderen polynesischen Sprachen verbreiteten abzuweichen scheinen, so ist doch eine andere Zahl wieder entschieden rarotongisch, und auch in der Gram- matik ergeben sich keine erheblichen Verschiedenheiten. We should observe that the Herv^ey Group is singular among the scenes of the activit}^ of the London Missionary Society in that no dictionary has yet been published. Such a work was undertaken by the Rev. WilHam Wyatt Gill, but late in his career of great usefulness he heard the call to the apostolate at Port Moresby and soon died of the bitter hardships of pioneering in New Guinea. It was therefore impossible forCaillet to have made such a determination, either for the eastern Paumotu or for Ma- ngareva, in the absence of material upon which to erect a comparison. It appears to me that what he did observe was that in the speech was an ele- ment which he could recognize as non-Taliitian, and that he leaped to the conclusion that if it were non-Tahitian it must yet have some source and that therefore it must be Rarotongan as being next reanvard on the track of migration. How significant is the marked difTerence between Manga- revan and Rarotongan is seen in the comparison of the alphabetic scheme. The aspirate is entirely absent from Rarotonga; it is, indeed, so objectionable a sound that f, which is generally mutable to the aspirate proximate to the labial series, is for that reason frequently carried thereby to extinction. On the other hand Mangareva retains the aspirates with considerable persistence and the labial aspirate as a mutation product of f is very commonly observed. We may disregard this pronouncement as to the Paumotu and Mangarevan, since at the time of Caillet's investiga- tion it had not yet come into the mind of any student to examine speech sources through the division into the Proto-Samoan and the Tongafiti migrations. *Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, ii, 222. fOp. cit., 215. JAnnales hydrographiques, xxxiii, 392. MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 83 Referred to the Nuclear Polynesian base, the alphabet of Mangarevan is displayed in the following conspectus : a a, e e e, a o o i i, e u M 1 r,n ng ng, n n n, vg mm h h,- s h,- V V iv,h,- kk,- it pp The interplay of the palatal and lingual nasals is not critical of Mangarevan, it is a mutation which occurs sporadically in most of the Polynesian languages and which becomes critical in the Hawaiian only. The critical points are the absence of the sibilant and f . The speech is therefore one phonetic degree or stage further removed from the Nuclear Polynesian than is the Paumotu. In the foregoing chapter the tables will be found to include a list of so much of the Mangarevan contained in the accompanying word-lists as is found in the Paumotu, either exclusively or shared as a comnion element with Rapanui. From those tables we sum the result [for convenient reference in the following showing: Table 8. Southeast Polynesia. Poly- nesian. Proto- Samoan Tongafiti. Total. Pau-Rn-Mgv-Mq-Ta 8 7 2 4 227 «5 «5 2 9 'I 284 29 24 10 Pau-Rn-Mgv-Ta 7 3 Total 21 259 II 56 347 n 4 21 23 15 4 2 7 4 47 4 25 ■3 106 18 68 44 Pau— Mgv— Mq Pau-Mgv-Ta .... Pau— Mgv . . Total 59 67 21 89 236 Grand total 80 1 ^26 32 •45 583 Referring to the dictionary of Rapanui, we shall in our next series of tables record the phases of that element of the speech which Mangareva and Easter Island share exclusive of the Paumotu. The first group of the tables lists so much of the common element as is not identifiable outside the province of Southeast Polynesia : Mangareva-Rapanui : 278 5 21 38 90 99 112 136 144 164 189 224 239 258 6 23 42 94 100 113 137 1 4.') 165 212 225 244 261 281 15 26 61 96 101 127 142 LSI 176 217 233 251 269 282 19 32 89 98 109 128 143 162 181 218 238 254 277 292 400 422 479 547 585 614 636 668 690 701 40I 442 489 550 596 621 638 673 691 705 4i8 443 503 551 597 624 644 674 692 707 419 454 518 556 599 627 658 675 696 714 420 456 533 569 604 628 659 679 699 719 421 458 537 576 609 634 660 684 700 725 422 anui- -Marq uesas: 493 529 584 617 625 653 677 689 710 723 501 564 600 6-2 637 654 84 EASTER ISLAND. Mangareva-Rapanui-Marquesas-Tahiti: 14 27 45 81 91 105 152 180 204 216 230 241 250 290 24 33 56 87 92 132 159 Mangareva-Rapanui-Marquesas : 3 46 63 106 116 118 141 163 179 199 208 235 247 275 9 54 71 108 117 131 158 169 196 202 223 245 272 288 13 55 104 Mangareva-Rapanui-Tahiti: 29 31 34 80 192 242 257 289 The next group of tables includes all those vocables common to Ma- ngareva and Rapanui for which affiliation is established in the general Polynesian in which it is impracticable to identify more closely the migration stream : Polynesian-Mangareva-Rapanui: 333 334 436 455 543 598 717 Polynesian-Mangareva-Rapanui-Marquesas-Tahiti: 293 324 341 364 395 329 349 381 297 330 352 382 299 331 355 385 315 335 356 386 319 337 361 391 323 340 363 396 422 Polynesian-Mangareva-Ra 307 358 433 473 344 409 467 492 Polynesian-Mangareva-Rapanui-Tahiti: 308 325 395 448 466 480 490 540 688 709 Similarly segregated, the Proto-Samoan migration element yields the following tables: Proto-Samoan-Mangare va-Rapanui : 735 739 742 749 756 764 769 779 786 794 817 820 Proto-Samoan-Mangareva-Rapanui-Marquesas-Tahiti: 734 736 737 741 757 759 828 832 835 Proto-Samoan-Mangareva-Rapanui-Marquesas: 729 732 758 766 808 833 Proto-Samoan-Mangareva-Rapanui-Tahiti : 809 The element contributed by the Tongafiti migration is exhibited in the following set of tables : Tongafiti-Mangareva-Rapanui : 848 852 854 871 904 Tongafiti-Mangareva-Rapanui-Marquesas-Tahiti: 842 872 878 879 892 895 900 906 921 922 925 931 941 951 859 873 Tongafiti-Mangareva-Rapanui-Marquesas: 847 865 866 870 907 924 928 938 Tongafiti-Mangareva-Rapanui-Tahiti : 934 In the foregoing tabular view we have engaged our attention upon only so much of the Mangarevan as finds affiliation with the Paumotu and the Rapanui. This, of course, is far from exhausting the identi- fiable element of Mangarevan. On pages 89-105 will be found a list of the remaining vocables of the speech of Mangareva for which affiliates have been determined in other languages of Polynesia. It is to this special list that reference is made by serial numbers in the suc- ceeding tables. In these, as in the corresponding tables in the Paumotu chapter, there will be found certain type differentiation ; the italic num- MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 85 erals indicate that identification is lacking in the Samoan, but that it is supplied from some other of the languages of Nuclear Polynesia; the bold-faced numerals exhibit those cases in which the identification is not found more remotely in the Maori but in the Hawaiian at the other verge of the Polynesian area. The segregation of the material is first effected by reference to the place of occurrence of the affiliates, and the first tables present so much of the data as is found in Southeast Poly- nesia and not beyond. Mangareva-Marquesas-Tahiti : 1751 1784 1829 1906 2030 21 14 2160 2182 2237 2316 2377 2404 2474 2535 1759 1786 1868 1995 2063 2116 2162 2217 2275 2332 2382 2432 2477 2553 1783 1802 1894 2028 2095 2124 2163 2218 2315 2348 2400 2450 2528 2570 Mangareva-Hawaii : 1811 1920 1984 2050 2091 2128 2189 2210 2269 2290 2353 2429 2457 2503 1814 1930 1991 2052 2093 2131 2192 2224 2272 2301 2361 2430 2460 2505 1852 1949 1992 2061 2094 2155 2202 2231 2273 2303 2364 2435 2486 2512 1854 1967 2002 2065 2112 2168 2208 2243 2276 2304 2402 2444 2497 2514 1870 1971 2011 2085 2119 2180 2209 2259 2285 2330 2419 2452 2500 2565 1884 1978 2046 Mangareva-Tahiti : 1763 1826 1914 1982 2038 2092 2154 2188 2203 2287 2355 2407 2499 2524 1789 1848 1921 1986 2044 2132 2166 2191 2215 2297 2356 2464 251 1 2526 1792 1886 1923 2010 2045 2134 2170 2195 2220 2322 2375 2469 2513 2527 1805 1903 1925 2034 2053 2145 2174 2198 2254 2326 2376 2479 2515 2531 1808 1905 193I 2035 2068 215I 2183 220I 2281 2342 2398 2496 2517 2546 1820 1907 1938 2036 2069 2152 Mangareva-Marquesas : 1753 1812 1882 1944 1985 2031 2106 2161 2235 2270 2319 2381 2437 2506 1761 1816 1892 1945 1994 2033 21 17 2164 2236 2274 2325 2384 2440 2507 1762 1818 1895 1955 1999 2039 2118 2167 2239 2282 2328 2391 2443 2516 1764 1823 1897 1958 2001 2040 2120 2172 2240 2288 2336 2399 2445 2518 1785 1824 1909 i960 2003 2051 2123 2177 2248 2289 2346 2401 2448 2522 1787 1828 1911 1963 2004 2054 2126 2199 2250 2291 2347 2405 2453 2523 1790 1836 1913 1964 2009 2055 2129 2205 2252 2293 2349 2408 2461 2547 1791 1842 1919 1965 2012 2056 2130 2214 2253 2294 2350 2409 2462 2555 1794 1851 1926 1966 2014 2062 2136 2219 2255 2299 2354 2413 2467 2558 1795 1856 1927 1968 2015 2071 2140 2222 2258 2300 2357 2414 2476 2559 1796 1862 1928 1969 2016 2075 2146 2223 2260 2302 2358 2420 2483 2563 1798 1865 1932 1972 2018 2097 2149 2225 2264 2306 2365 2421 2489 2564 1799 1869 1933 1973 2019 2101 2150 2227 2265 2308 2366 2424 2490 2568 1800 1873 1941 1979 2022 2103 2158 2230 2266 2317 2367 2431 2502 2569 1810 1878 1942 1980 2024 2105 2159 2234 2267 2318 2368 The next series of tables lists the occurrences of vocables which are identifiable in that general Polynesian in which the two migration streams are not separable : Polynesian-Mangareva-Marquesas-Tahiti: 1749 1775 1853 1888 1916 1956 2059 2107 2193 2262 2327 237Q 2449 2534 1833 1776 1857 1893 1937 2008 2080 2133 2197 2277 2337 238s 2459 2537 1741 1780 1871 1899 1940 2026 2089 2144 2213 2279 2343 2423 2466 2554 1748 1843 1874 1908 1951 2047 2098 2148 2216 2295 2370 2425 2473 2556 1765 1845 1876 1912 1954 2057 2102 2187 2221 2324 2373 2433 2487 2560 1767 1849 1879 Polynesian-Mangareva : 1740 1778 1844 1939 2005 2066 2084 2247 2310 2436 2484 2520 2551 2563 1772 1837 1900 1946 2058 2078 2197 2244 2378 2470 Polynesian-Mangareva-Tahiti : 1742 1806 1840 1850 1867 1910 IQ34 1975 2178 2256 2323 2463 2557 2548 1781 J831 1841 1863 1890 1929 2037 2110 2186 2305 2394 2475 Polynesian-Mangareva-Marquesas : 1885 1904 2084 2212 2245 2278 2334 2351 2374 2386 2417 2441 2468 2541 1896 2081 2104 2226 2261 2298 86 EASTER ISLAND. In exclusively Proto-Samoan speech we identify the vocables listed in the next series of tables. Proto-Samoan-Mangareva-Marquesas-Tahiti: 1766 1797 1864 1891 2027 2109 2179 2345 2392 2439 2456 24Q8 2533 2544 1768 1835 1866 1953 2049 2142 2280 2389 2434 2447 2482 2532 2542 2567 1777 1855 1875 1990 2070 2169 Proto-Samoan-Mangareva-Tahiti : 1757 1774 1779 1817 1830 1872 1898 2076 2082 2090 2099 2113 2190 2249 Proto-Samoan-Mangareva-Marquesas: 1756 1819 2073 2121 2127 2184 2232 2312 2329 2393 2426 2455 2525 2552 /7PJ 1846 2108 2125 2141 2185 2292 2320 2380 2395 2428 2485 2543 2566 1803 1947 2775 Proto-Samoan-Mangareva : 1738 1782 1815 1861 1901 1952 2060 2086 2171 2228 2352 2383 2446 2488 1739 1788 1832 1883 1917 1961 2074 2100 2173 2286 2339 2396 2458 2491 1752 1804 1834 1887 1922 1962 2077 2122 2175 2309 2360 2397 2465 2538 1760 1809 1859 1889 1943 2023 2079 2139 2176 2339 2369 2427 The last grouping of the material is by means of the affiliations which are not found outside the Tongafiti migration : Tongafiti-Mangareva-Marquesas-Tahiti: 1758 1807 1858 1902 1988 2007 2111 2206 2283 2340 2451 2494 2508 2539 1769 1813 1880 1924 1996 2025 2157 2241 2284 2363 2454 2501 2510 2549 180I 1838 1881 1950 2000 2042 22CX5 2268 2333 2390 2471 2504 2521 2561 Tongafiti-M angareva : 1822 1877 1981 2021 2048 2153 2207 2296 2335 2387 2411 2422 2481 2519 1825 1948 1993 2029 2064 2156 2229 231 1 2341 2406 2415 2472 2495 2530 1750 1970 1998 2041 2137 2181 2246 2313 2362 2410 2416 2480 2509 2550 1839 1977 2020 2043 2147 2204 2257 2321 2372 Tongafiti-Mangareva-Tahiti : 1821 1754 1773 1915 1959 1989 2013 2135 2196 2238 2271 2338 2388 2442 1827 1755 i860 1935 1976 2006 2083 2165 2233 2251 2331 2371 2403 2540 1743 Tongafiti-Mangareva-Marquesas : 1770 1918 1974 1997 2067 2088 2138 2211 2263 2314 2412 2438 2492 2529 1771 1936 1983 2017 2072 2096 2143 2242 2307 2344 2418 2478 2493 2536 1847 1957 1987 2032 The results of this inquiry may be summed up in Table 9 on page 87, in which we retain the division of the material as common to Rapanui or otherwise ; to the proper sums of each half of the table are brought forward the corresponding sums from Table 3 on page 59 in which the Paumotu affihates of Mangarevan are assembled. The material upon which this study of the Mangarevan has been con- ducted amounts to 6,600 dictionary items, very nearly three times our supply of Paumotu material. This material has provided identifica- tions of 1,715 items, 26 per cent; this is exactly half of the percentage of Paumotu identifications. Dealing next with the sum of the identifica- tions as the base of our further computation we find that 594 items are restricted to Southeast Polynesia, 35 per cent. An equal identification is found in the general Polynesian, 599 items, 35 per cent. The parallel figures for the Paumotu are 43 and 57 per cent respectively; in this it appears that the Paumotu is slightly better represented in the corpus of the speech of vSoutheast Polynesia and considerably more representative of the general Polynesian. So far as we may permit ourselves the inter- MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 87 pretationof this phenomenon we may venture to regard the Mangarevan as showing evidence of greater age, for the loss of vocables by other languages of the family marks the passage of uncertain but undoubtedly considerable periods of time. Examining the occurrences of affihates we find that 651 vocables of Mangarevan are common to Rapanui, 38 per cent, as corresponding closely with the 34 per cent in the Paumotu; 973 in Tahiti, 57 per cent, markedly below the 81 per cent which is the Table 9. Mgv-Rn-Mq-Ta. Mgv-Rn-Mq . . . . Mgv-Rn-Ta Mgv-Rn Total. Paumotu. Mgv-Mq-Ta . Mgv-Mq . . . . Mgv-Ta Mgv (Ha) . . . Total 398 143 Paumotu 59 67 Southeast Poly- Proto- Xonffafiti Tntal Polynesia, nesian. Samoan. Tongahti. Total. 42 207 76 73 130 259 Grand total 594 599 28 'I' 69 20 80 304 347 "33 21 193 42 191 32 290 29 •45 51 202 54 828 89 236 329 1715 Paumotu showing in the same relation; 1,122 in the Marquesas, 65 per cent, as against the 48 per cent exhibited by the Paumotu. The rela- tions of the two languages with Rapanui are practically equal in the sum. The Paumotu and the Mangarevan have in common 583 voca- bles, this being 42 per cent of the former language and 34 per cent of the latter. In general we conclude that the Paumotu leans toward Tahiti by practically the same angle as marks the inclination of Mangareva toward the Marquesas. In continuation of this study of the paralleHsm of Mangareva with its neighbor languages we set a group of tables showing the position of its common element in reference to the position of the identification, first dealing with all Southeast Polynesia. Table 10. Rapanui affiliates. Extra-Rapanui. Total. No. P. ct. No. P. ct. No. P.ct. 347 155 204 53 23 31 ^^l t 23 45 583 491 It Tahiti Marquesas 6.6 36 88 EASTER ISLAND. In this table comparison shows quite clearly that the Rapanui element of Mangareva associates most closely with the Paumotu, and that in the element not found in Rapanui the Mangarevan associates most closely with the Marquesas. The next table contains those identifications which are not found outside Southeast Polynesia: Table ii. Rapanui afiBliates. Extra-Rapanui. No. P. ct. No. P.ct. Paumotu 2t 29 52 >5 21 40 =49 11 55 Tahiti Marquesas Postulating the greater age of this element which has passed from Polynesian memory without this province, we find that each element of the Mangarevan in its elder stock exhibits a marked afhnity for the Marquesan, then for Tahiti and for the Paumotu, in order, and to prac- tically equal extent in each subdivision. After the same manner we group the three rearward elements: Table 12. Rapanui affiliates. Extra-Rapanui. Polynesian. Proto- Samoan. Tongafiti. Polynesian. Proto- Satnoan. Tongafiti. No. P.ct. No. P.ct. No. P.ct. No. P.ct. No. P.ct. No. P.ct. Paumotu Tahiti Marquesas 259 99 "3 66 25 29 11 10 '5 28 22 38 30 •7 24 35 20 27 67 99 93 32 47 44 21 48 65 «3 31 42 89 71 74 62 50 52 Last of all, we determine the relation of these three external iden- tifications to the mass of Mangarevan identifications. Table "3- Rapanui affiliates. Extra- Rapanui. Polynesian Proto-Samoan .... Tongafiti P. ct. 59-3 6 12.5 P.ct. 20.6 14 13 Total 77.8 47.6 MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 89 In sum this table is found in close accord with the correlated Table 7 derived from study of the Paumotu, and the divergences in relation to the Rapanui element of the two languages are inconsiderable. But when we compare the non-Rapanui elements we find a noteworthy differ- ence. In the Paumotu the Tongafiti is the stronger element by far; it contributes more than three times as much as the Proto-Samoan ; in Mangarevan the contributions of the two streams are practically equal, yet the Tongafiti element is but half the bulk of that in the Paumotu, and the Proto-Samoan element is twice as great. In the two languages the two elements fall apart by a line of distinct cleavage. The element which is shared with Rapanui may properly be regarded as the migrant element, some homogeneous swarm of adventurers visiting more or less generally this tract of sea, leaving settlements as they passed, and van- ishing from our knowledge in the untracked sea eastward of Easter Island. The other elements in each case may be regarded as the seden- tary populations, probably the earlier settlement upon which is overlaid the influence of the later migrants. The comparison of sedentary ele- ments shows that Mangareva has received twice as much directly from Nuclear Polynesia as has the Paumotu. 1738. aga fish-basket. Sa.: /aga, fish-trap, I bird-cage. \ J739- aga to look at. Sa.: feagat, fesagai, i to be face to face. [ 1740. agi a light wind, to blow. Sa. : agi, \ to blow. Ma. : angi, gentle breeze. j 1 741. ahaki, hahaki to cut off or pluck [ fruit. Ta.: faifai, to pluck. Mq. : | hahaki, to pluck fruit by hand. Sa. : i fa'i, to pluck. Ma.: whawhaki, to pluck off. 1742. ahine woman. Ta.: vahine, id. Sa. : fafine, id. Ma. : wahine, id. 1743. ahuahu to build with stones, to make a raft. Ta. : ahu, to pile up stones. Ma.: ahu, to pile up. (1744-1747 withdrawn.) 1748. ai (koai) who. Ta.: vai, id. Mq.: oaf, id. Sa. : 'oat, id. Ma.: wai, id. 1749. aki to gather with the hand as fruit. Ta. : faifai, to gather. Mq.: fai, hat, haki, id. Sa.: fa'i, to pluck. Ma.: whaki, id. 1750. aki to push on, to shove on. Ma.: akiaki, to urge on. 1 75 1. akirikiri to talk nonsense, indecency. Ta.: hairiiri, indecent. Mq.: haii, faii, fantastic, lunatic. Ha. : hailiili, to swear profanely, to blackguard. X752. akoako to feign, to make believe, to sham. Sa.: fa'aa'oa'o, to sham. 1753. ako a fish. Mq.: haoa, id. 1754. akunei soon, shortly. Ta.: auenei, id. Ma.: akuanei, id. 1755- amama to yawn, gape, open the mouth. Ta. : hamatna, to yawn, open. Ma.: hatnama, open. 1756. ami breech clout. M.q.: hami, id. Sa.: ami, male genitalia, abusive term. 1757. ami a substance found in crayfish. Ta. : ami, roe of crayfish. Sa. : ami, roe of crabs. 1758. amio to turn hither and thither. Ta.: amiomio, id. Mq. : amiomio, cir- cumvolution. Ma. : amiomio, to spin around. 1759. amu to pick up food with the lips, Ta.: amu, to eat. Mq. : amu, to smack the lips in eating. 1760. ana-rea a shrub. Sa. : .yawa, maize. 1 761. ane black scurf on the skin. Mq.: ane, tanned, sunburnt. Ha.: ane, ringworm. 1762. ani accustomed. Mq.: hani, id. (Sa.: ma-sani, id.) 1763. ani to ask, to demand. Ta.: ani, to demand, to implore. 1 764. ano a tree with fragrant bloom. Mq. : hano, a tree. 1765. ao cloud, mist. Ta. : ao, id. Mq.: CO, id. Sa.: 00, cloud. Ma.: ao, id. 1766. ao hibiscus. Ta. :/aM, id. Mq.:/a«, hau, id. Sa. : fau, id. Ha.: hau, id. 1767. aoa to long for one, condolence. Ta. : aroha, love, pity, grief. Mq.: aoha, kaoha, id. Sa. : alofa, talofa, id. Ma. : aroha, id. 1 768. ao-tara to ravage, to lay waste. Ta. : ao, devastated. Mq. : hao, to ravage, to rob. Sa. : fao, to rob with violence. Ha.: hao, id. 1769. apopo to-morrow. Ta.: apopo, id. Mq. : apopo, later. Ma.: apopo, to- 90 EASTER ISLAND. 1770. apuku a fish. Mq. : apukii, hapuku, id. Ma.: hapuku, id. 1 77 1. ara this, that. Mq.: aa, id. Ma.: ara, particularly. 1772. araha a flat, treeless raised place. Sa.: lafalafa, the level top of a mountain. Ma. : raha, a level stretch of coast. 1773. arae a barrier, to block up. Ta.: arai, obstacle, to interpose. Ma.: arai, screen, to block up. 1774. arato a kind of nettle. Ta.: harato, stinging, a plant name. Sa. : salato, a stinging tree. 1775. ata shadow. Ta. :a/a, id. Mq. : a/o, id. Sa.: ata, id. Ma.: ato, id. 1776. ati to break. Ta..: fati, id. Mq.: fati, hati, id. Sa.: fati, id. Ma.: whati, id. 1777. atu a fish. Ta.: atu, id. Mq.: atu, bonito. Sa. : atu, id. 1778. atu fruit stone. Sa. : fatu, id. Ma.: •whalu, id. 1779. atu gizzard. Ta. : Jatu, muscle of an oyster. Sa.: fatu, gizzard. 1780. au a current. Ta. :a«, id. Mq.:aM, id. Sa. : au, id. Ma.: an, id. 1781. au awl, bodkin. Ta. : au, needle. Sa. : CM, id. Ma.: aw, a pin. 1782. auho provisions for a voyage. Sa.: 050, id. 1783. ave a string. Ta. : ave, strand of a cord. Mq.: ave, id. 1784.. avivi sound of water boiling; avi noise of spouting water. Ta. : avi, a loud noise. Mq. : aviavi, rumbling in the ears. 1785. ea to take breath when coming out of the sea. Mq. : ea, to take a moment's breath. 1786. aka-ea to take rest. Ta.: faaea, id. Mq. : ea, to have a moment's rest. 1787. eaea marine substance on which young fish are nourished. Mq. : eaea, viscous matter on the sea. 1788. eai a disdainful negative. Sa.: leai, no, not. 1789. ee to saw. Ta.: ee, id. 1790. aka-ei to frighten fish into the nets. Mq. : hakaehi, to chase, to pursue, to drive fish. 1 79 1. eia behold. Mq. : eia, id. 1792. eie behold. Ta. : ere, this. 1793. emiemi to shudder, to tremble, to shake. Mq. : emiee, id. To.: emiemi, to wriggle about. 1794. emo kidnapped, carried off. Mq.: hemo, taken, seized. 1795. erehi a coconut tree. Mq.: ehi, coconut. 1796. eriri a kind of sea snail. Mq.: it, porcelain shell. 1797. eture a fish. Ta.: ature, id. Mq.: etue, id. Sa.: atule, herring. Ha.: akule, id. 1 798. aka-eva to suspend, to hang up. Mq. : eva, to dangle, to be suspended. 1799- gaga a bird. Mq.: ^a^a, id. 1800. gaha a skin disease, of women only. Mq. : kaha, red lines coming in flashes on the skin. 1 801 . gahae to tear. Ta. : ahae, torn. Mq. : kahae, nehae, id. (Sa.: 5ae, id.) Ma.: ngahae, id. 1802. gahi a fish. Ta.: ahiahi, id. Mq.: kahi, id. 1803. gahigahi fine, of mats. Mq.: kahi- kahi, thin, fine, transparent. To.: gafigafi., a fine kind of mat. Ha.: nakinahi, fine, thin. 1804. gahoa notched. Sa. : gafoa, id. 1805. gaki to force, to employ all one's strength. Ta. : ai, to make oneself master. Ha. : nai, to strive hard to excel. 1806. gagau pincers, to bite, to seize with the teeth. Ta. : auau, to chew, to gnash the teeth. Sa. : gau, to chew sugar-cane. Ma.: ngau, to bite, to chew. 1807. gahugahu to bite. Ta.: aahu, to bite, to nip. Mq. : kahu, kakahu, to bite, to nibble. Moriori : ngahu, id. 1808. gaigai fine, soft to the touch. Ta.: aiai, small, fine. 1809. gake the eastward part of an island. Sa.: gaga'e, east. 1810. gairo a timber-boring v?orm. Mq. : kaio, naio, small intestinal worms. Ha.: naio, pinworms. 181 1. gako filament, the veining of objects. Ha.: nao, streaks on tapa, ridges of twilled cloth. 1812. gakugaku agony, last gasp, quick but feeble respiration. Mq.: kaku, trembling; naku, colic, gripes. Ha.: nau, pain, distress. 1813. gao grooves on the tapa beater. Ta.: ao-areva, id. Mq.: kao, to groove; nao, a groove, a stripe. Ma.: ngao, thread of a screw. 1814. gaogao small waves of the sea. Ha.: nao, a slight ripple on the water. 1815. garegare red tinged with yellow. Sa.: galegale-ata, the flush of coming dawn. 1816. garua stingy, selfish. Mq.: kaua, id. 1 81 7. gatae a large thorny tree with red blooms. Mq.: netae, id. Ta.: atae, Erythrina indica. Sa. : gatae, id. 1818. gatoro to creep, to crawl. Mq.: katoo, id. 1 81 9. gauta to go inland. Mq.: kauta, nauta, inland. Sa. : gauta, id. 1820. gehe, geegee to make a rustling noise in walking over leaves. Ta. : ee, to rustle leaves. Ha. : nehe, to make a rustling noise. 1821. genegene short but fat. Ta. : eneene, double chin, thick neck. Ma. : ngene, a scrofulous wen. 1822. gere a heavy rumbling sound. Ma.: ngengere, to growl. 1823. gerepu indisposed, ill. Mq. : neepu, weak, flabby. MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 91 1824. gerue to shake, to agitate. Mq.: keue, neiie, id. 1825. gio to extinguish. Ma.: ngio.'iA. 1826. gogo a conical hole. Ta.: 00, a large cavity. Ha.: no, a hole left to draw off water from taro patches. 1837. gogo thin cheeks, sunken eyes. Ta. ; tu-00, wasted away. Ma.: ngongo, emaciated. 1828. goio a black seabird. Mq. : koio, noio, a bird. Ha.: 7wio, a small black bird that lives on fish. 1829. goriigoru, gougou large and fat, flabby. Ta. : oru, a swelling, puffed out. Mq. : koukou, large and fat, corpulent. Ha.: nohmolu, iata.ndsolt. 1830. gugu gout of the feet. Ta.: uu, a rheumatic affection. Sa. : gttgu, rheu- matism. 1831. guruguru to mutter, to growl, to speak indistinctly. Ta.: uruuru, to groan, to mutter, to stammer. To.: gulu, to grunt. Ala. : ngtiru, to sigh, to grunt. 1832. ha sacred, prohibited. Mq. : a, a sacred spot. Sa.: sa, id. 1833. hae to tear, to rend, to bark, to strip. Ta. : haea, torn. Mq. : haehae, to tear, to slit, to break. Sa.: sae, to tear. Ma.: hae, id. 1834. hae to shock, to strike against. Sa.: safea, to be struck. 1835. aka-haehae to tempt, to offer a bait. Ta.: faahaehae, to provoke. Mq.; hakahae, id. Sa. : fa'asaei, id. Ha. : hoohae, id. X836. haga a fish. Mq.: haka, id. 1837. hagaafishtrap. Sa.: /aga, a fish-trap, bird-cage. Ma.: hanganoa, a small basket for cooked fish. 1838. haga a measure of a fathom. Ta. : aa, to measure length. Mq.: aka, ana, to measure with the arms. Ma.: whanga, id. 1839. haha to seek kin in an improper place. Ma.: haha, to seek, to look for. 1840. aka-hahapa to look slantwise, to bend the neck. Ta. : hapahapa, twisted, irregular. Sa. : sapa, unsymmetrical, inclined. Ma.: hapa, crooked. 1841. haharo to polish, to rub. Ta.: haro, to smooth the hair. Sa. : salo, to rub smooth. Ma.: haro, to scrape clean. 1842. hahu to bite pandanus fruit. Mq.: hahu, to eat gluttonously. 1843. hai a fish. Ta.: fai, the stingray. yiq.: fai, hai,\d. Sa.:/a/, id. Ma. whai, id. 1844. haihai evening (metathetic). Sa. afiafi, id. 1845. hamu to eat scraps or leavings. Ta. hamu, a glutton. Mq.: hamu, to eat leavings. Sa..: samu, id. Ma.: hamu, to feed on fragments. 1846. hari the god of fishes. Mq. : hat, the god of fowls and turmeric. Sa. : salt, a fish. 1847. hari to convey heavy goods. Mq.: hai, to carry, to transport. Ma.: hari, to carry. 1848. hatahata to be at one's ease. Ta. : fatafata, free from care. 1849. he a locust pest of coconuts. Ta.:Ae, caterpillar. Mq.: he, grasshopper. Sa. : se, id. Ma. : whe, caterpillar. 1850. hehe, hee to wander. Ta.: /je, error. vSa. : se, wrong. Ma.: he, id. 1 85 1. hehe a skin disease. Mq.: fefe, hehe, tumor, elephantiasis. Ha.: hehe, an ulcerated swelling. 1852. heihei to chase, to drive away. Ha.: heihei, to run a race. (The same sug- gestion of pursuit in running is to be seen in Sa. : taufehili, commonly used as a plural of momo'e, to run, the literal sense being they-are-chasing- one-another.) 1853. heke, eke octopus. Ta..:fee,id. Mq.: heke.f eke, fee, id. Sa.: fe'e,id. Ma.: wheke, id. 1854. hema the left hand. Ha.: hema, id. To.: hema, left-handed. 1855. heu little hairs on the body. Ta.: veu, down, hair, fringe. Mq.: feu, heu, down, wool. Fu.: veuveu, to have fringes, disheveled. Ha.: heu, beard in the down. 1856. hiki to commence or to finish mat weaving. Mq.: hiki, to finish mat weaving. 1857. hina white, gray hair. Ta.: hina- hina, id. Mq.: hina, id. Sa.: sina, id. Ma.: hi?ta, id. 1858. huiu oil, grease. Ta.: hinu, id. Mq.: hinu, to grease. Ma.: /zmw, oil, grease. 1859. aka-hio sickly, unhealthy, to drawl. Sa.: sio, discouraged, depressed. i860, hira frank and hardy. Ta.\ hirahira, bashful (sense-invert). Ma.: hihira, shy. 1861. aka-hiria to inquire after. Sa.: sili, to ask, to demand. 1862. hirihiri to fish for turtle. Mq.: fiifii, a small net for taking turtle. 1863. hoaga hone, whetstone. Ta.: hoaa, polish. Mq.: hoana, hoaka, a mortar for beating poi. Sa. : foaga, grind- stone. Ma.: hoanga, id. 1864. hoi a vine with tubers. Ta. : hoi, the wild yam. Mq.: hoi, id. Sa. : soi, id. Ha.: hoi, id. 1865. aka-hoihoi dreadful to the sight, horrible. Mq. : hoihoi, monstrous, de- formed. 1866. honu turtle. Ta.: honu, id. Mq.: honn, id. To. :/o»«, id. Ha.: honu, id. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 346. 1867. horo to crumble, fall, slip down. Ta.: horo, a landslide. Sa.: solo, to slide down, to fall. Ma. : horo, a landslide. 1868. horuhoru agitated, tossing. Ta.: horuhoru, troubled.: hakahouhou, the sea in great waves. 92 EASTER ISLAND. 1869. hota coarse. Mq. : hotahota, lumpy. 1870. hota to be pressed, squeezed. Ha.: hoka, to squeeze, to press. 1871. hoto a fishbone lance-tip. Ta. : hoto, a lance, a tip. Mq. : hoto, barb of the stingray, lance-tip. Sa. : foto, id. Ma.: hoto, id. 1872. akahotu the September season. Ta.: hotu, to produce fruit. Sa. : fotu, id. 1873. hu to burst, to crackle, to snap. Mq.: hu, explosion, to snap. Ha.: hu, a noise. 1874. huahua pimples covering the face. Ta. : huahua, id. Mq. : hua, tubercles. Sa.: fuafua, abscess on hands or feet. Ma.: huahua, small pimples. 1875. hue a fish. Ta. : huehue, id. Mq. : huehue-kava, id. Sa. : sue, id. 1876. huha buttocks, scrotum. Ta.: hufa, thigh. Mq.: «/ia-wa^a, buttocks. Sa. : ufa, id. Ma.: huwha, thigh. 1877. huka, uka froth or foam of living creatures. Ma.: huka, foam, froth. 1878. huke vengeance. Mq. : huke, id. 1879. hutu a tree. Ta.: hutu, Barringtonia speciosa. Mq.: hutu, id. Sa.. : futu, id. Ma.: hutu, a tree. 1880. i the sign of the indefinite past. Ta. : i, id. Mq. : i, id. Ma.: i, id. 1 88 1. iga to fall, to tumble. Ta.: hia, id. Mq.: hina, hika, id. Ma.: hinga, id. 1882. igogo initiation into religious mys- teries. Mq.: hioo, a heathen song. 1883. aka-igoigo sulky. Sa. : /go, wearied, tired of. 1884. iha tense, stretched out. Ha.: iha- iha, drawn taut. 1885. ihe a fish. Mq. : ihe, id. Sa. : ise, id. Ma. : ihe, the garfish. 1886. ihu one who dives deep. Ta.: ihu, to dive. 1887. ikuiku the end of anything. Sa.: i'u, the end, extremity. 1888. inaga a very small fish. Ta.: inaa, fish fry. Mq. : inaka, very small fish. Sa. : inaga, id. Ma.: inanga, id. 1889. inaho a large family or tribe. Sa.: inafo, a great number of persons. 1890. inaki a basket for catching fish. Ta. : hinai, a basket. To.: finaki, a cage. Ma. : hinaki, an eel weir. Ha. : hinai, basket. 1891. inano the male pandanus. Ta.: hinano, pandanus blossom. Mq.: hinano, hinako, hikano, hiano, id. Sa. : sigano, id. Ha.: hinalo, id. 1892. aka-ino to bind round. Mq.: ino, curl. 1893. inu to drink. Ta.: inu, id. Mq.: inu, id. Sa. : inu, id. Ma.: inu, id. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 376. 1894. io at the house of . Ta. : to, id. Mq.: to, id. 1895. aka-ioio feeble, lean and thin. Mq.: hakaioio, to be wrinkled, flabby flesh of the aged. 1896. iramutu nephew or niece. Mq. : iatnutu, son or daughter of a man's sister. Sa. : ilamutu, cousinship of children of brother and sister. Ma.: iramutu, nephew, niece. 1897. ireira there, thither. Mq.: ieia, id. 1898. aka-iriga house, dwelling place. Ta.: iri, to be lodged. Sa. : sili, to lodge. 1899. iro a maggot. Ta.: iro, a worm. Mq. : io, iko, id. Sa. : ilo, a maggot. Ma.: iro, id. 1900. aka-iroga a mark, sign. Sa.: fa'a- iloga, id. Ma. : whakairo, to carve, ornament. 1901. iroa ignorant of. Sa. : ilea, to know; iloga, known; iloga, not known. 1902. ita to adhere, to stick. Ta. : iitu, to harden, to become stiff. Mq. : ita, tightened, held fast. Ma. : ita, tight, fast. 1903. itike surprise. Ta. : itie, id. 1904. ivi a hillock. Mq.: ivi, hill, small mountain. (Sa. : tua-sivi, the ridge of a mountain chain.) 1905. ivituapu hunchback. Ta.: tuapu, id. 1906. kae saliva, spittle. Ta.:}iae,id. Mq.: kae, id. 1907. aka-kae to have a nasty taste in the mouth. Ta.:aeaea, a diseased mouth. 1908. kaha to plait coir. Ta. : aha, sennit. Mq. : plaited coir. Sa. : 'afa, sennit. Ma. : kaha, a rope. 1909. kaha divination, casting of lots by priests. Mq. : kaha, priestly power of life or death. Ha. : aha, a prayer connected with a tabu. 1910. kahakaha said of a man who does not weep over the death of a parent. Ta. : ahaaha, proud, high-spirited. Sa. : 'afa' afa, strong, robust. Ma. : kaha, strong. 191 1. kahi torun, toflow. Mq. : kahi, id. 1912. kaho rafter. Ta.: aho, id. Mq.: kaho, timber which closes the back of the house. Sa. : 'aso, rafter. Ma.: kaho, roof batten. 1913. kahokaho long, slim fingers. Mq.: kahokaho, long, fine, slender. 1914. kai to receive. Ta.: ai, id. 1915. kaiota raw food. Ta.: azo/a, raw, ill cooked. Ma.: kaiota, id. 1 916. kaka the envelop of young coconut leaves. Ta.: aa, id. Mq.: kaka, id, Sa.: 'a'a, id. Ma.: kaka, anything fibrous. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 318. 1917. kaka a fish. Sa.: 'a'a, id. Ha.: aa, id. 1918. kakaho a reed. Mq.: kakaho, id. Ma.: kakaho, id. 1919. kakahu to walk fast. Mq.: kakahu, to chase, to pursue. 1920. kakai a hook that is good for catching fish. Ha.: aai, the name of the net used to catch certain fish. I MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 93 I92I. 1922. 1923. 1924. 1925- 1926. 1927. 1928. 1929. 1930. 1931- 1932. 1933- 1934- 1935- 1936. 1937- 1938. 1939- 1940. t94i- 1942. 1943- 1944. 1945- 1946. 1 947. 1948. kakama a crayfish. Ta. : aama, a small crab. Ha.: aama, a black crab living amid rocks. kaka-kakameika an herb. Fu.: kakamika, an odoriferous plant. kakano broad, wide, large. Ta. : aano, id. kakau a fruit stalk. Ta.: aau, id. Mq.: kokau, id. (Sa.: 'a«, id.) Ma.: kakau, id. kake to strike on an ocean reef. Ta. : ae, to strand. kaki-akaureka to desire ardently to speak to a person. Mq.: kaki, to desire passionately. kako flexible, pliant, infrangible. Mq.: kako, elastic, ductile. kamo a thief, to steal. Mq.: kamo, theft, to steal. kanae a fish. Ta.: cwae, id. Mq.: kenakenae.'id. Sa.: 'ana^, the mullet. Ma.: kanae, id. kane the heat of the sun. Ha.: anea, id. kanokano grain, seed, berry. Ta. : anoano, seed of the melon, the gourd or the cucumber. Ha.: anoano, seed. kaoa a fish. Mq.: kaoa, a small fish. kapa a song for the dead, chant. Mq. : kapa, a heathen song. aka-kapakapa an eager desire balked by timidity. Ta. : apaapa, to flutter the wings. To. : kabakaba, id. Ma. : kapakapa, to flutter. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 295. kapi to meet, to come together. Ta. : api, to join, to unite. Ma. : kapi, to close up. kapo to catch m the hands. Mq. : kapo, id. Ma.: kapo, id. kapu a vessel, container. Ta. : apu, a nut shell. Mq.: kapu, a dipper. Sa. : 'apu, a leaf cup. Ma.: kapn, the hollow of the hand. kapurima palm of the hand. Ta.: apurima, id. karaga a cry. Sa. : 'c/aga, id. Ma.: karanga, id. karakara to smell slightly a pleasant odor. Ta. : aara, good odor. Mq.: kakaa, to exhale a pleasant odor. Sa. : 'alala, to smell of hot meat. Ma.: kakara, savory. karako a bird. Mq. : kaako, id. karapihi suckers of the octopus. Mq. : karapihi. kaapihi, id. karava large veins which appear under strain. Sa.: 'alava, veins, fibers. kare surface. Mq. : kae, id. kari a scar. Mq.: kai, id. Ha.: ali, id. karo to avert a blow. Sa. : 'alo, id. Ma. : karo, to ward off a blow. karu dirt, soil. Mq. : kau, ordure, debris. Sa.: 'alu, dregs. karu-ue meat of the calabash. Ma. : ^arM, meat of the pumpkin. Cf. 2539. 1949. 1950. 1952. 1953- 195.5- 1956. 1957- 1958. 1959- i960. 1961. 1962. 1963. 1964. 1965- 1966. 1967. 1968. 1969. 1970. 1971. 1972. 1973' 1974. kataha a plant. Ha.: akaha, a tree. Cf. 2328. kato to cut unripe leaves. Ta.: alo, to gather leaves or fruit. Mq. : kalo, to pinch off hibiscus leaves. Ma.: kato, to pluck. kava the pepper plant and the drink made therefrom. Ta. : am, id. Mq.: kava, id. Sa. : 'ava, id. Ma.: kawa, a pepper. kavakava a fish. Sa.: 'ava'ava, id. kavapui a tree. Ta. : avapuhi, a fra- grant plant. Mq.: kavapui, wild ginger. Sa. : 'avapui, id. Ha.: awa- puhi, id. kave tentacle of the octopus. Ta.: aveave, id. Mq.: kave, id. Sa. : 'ave, id. Ma.: kawekawe, id. kea a fish. Mq. : kea, id. Ha. : ea, id. kehika a tree and its fruit. Ta.: ahia, Eugenia malaccensis. Mq.: kehika, kehia, Eugenia jambosa. (Sa.: vonufi'afi'a, Eugenia malaccensis). Ma.: kahika, the white pine. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 254. keho a basaltic stone. Mq.: keho, basalt. Ma.: keho, sandstone. kei-ara root filaments of pandanus. Mq. : kei-aoa, roots of the banyan. kei-kamo a habitual thief. Ta. : eia, a thief, to steal. Ma.: keia, to steal, keitagi jealous, envious. Mq.: kei- tani, id. keke to praise, to felicitate. Sa. : 'e'e, to pay respect to. Ha. : ee, caressing, kind. kekeie sharp, harsh, of the voice. To.: keke, to bleat. Ha.: eeina, to creak, to grate. aka-kemi to push a drawer into place. Mq.: kemi, to shorten, to contract. Ha.: emi, to retire, to diminish. kena a white seabird. Mq.: kena, a large bird. kerea a cough arising from something lodged in the throat. Mq.: keea, to choke up. kerere a messenger, to send. Mq.: keee, an envoy, a messenger. Ha.: elele, a messenger. kereu prompt, expeditious. Ha. : eleu, alert. keue a seabird. Mq.: keuhe, id. keukeu to amuse oneself. Mq.: keu, to play, to amuse oneself, to divert. ki to think, to believe, to imagine. Ma.: ki, to think. kinakina the choroid flow. Ha.: inaina, id. kio little, small, said of birds and ani- mals. Mq.: kio, young of birds. kiokio a fish. Mq.: kiokio, id. kivikivi a bird resembling the thrush. Mq.: kivi, a bird. Ma.: kiwi, id. ko particle of the nominative. Ta. ; 0, id. Sa.: '0, id. Ma.: ko, id. 94 EASTER ISLAND. 1976. koai a plant. Ta. : oai, the wild in- digo. Ma. : koai, a plant. 1977. akakoana-kohatu to make a small shapeless hole. Ma.: kohatu, stone. 1978. koata light of the moon shining before the moon rises. Ha. : oaka, a glimpse of light. 1979. koekoe rumbling of the bowels. Mq.: koekoe, the intestines. Ha.: ocoe, a continued indistinct sound. 1980. koere an eel. Mq.: koee, id. 1 98 1. koeriki a tree. Ma.: koeriki, id. 1982. kohao a watery evacuation of the bowels. Ta. : ofao, an ulcer of dropsy. Ha.: ohaohao, dropsical swelling, bloat. 1983. kohari dysentery with gripes. Mq. : kohai, diarrhea. Ma.: koharihari, to be in pain. 1984. kohero cloth dyed red. YLa.: ohclo, a. red berry. 1985. kohiko a small bag mounted in the fruit-picking fork. Mq.; kohiko, a small net. 1986. kohore to cut, to carve, to trim. Ta. : ohorehore, peeled. 1987. kohuhu a grass with edible seeds. Mq. : kohuhu, a broom whose sap is used as a fish poison. Ma. : kohuhu, a pittosporum. 1988. koivi the skeleton. Ta.: oivi, the body. Mq. : koivi, the skeleton, the body. Ma. : koiwi, the skeleton. 1989. etu-kokiri a shooting star. Ta.: oiri, the Coal Sacks in the sky. Ma.: kokiri, a spear. 1990. koko-mahi a food made of spoiled breadfruit. Ta.: mahi, fermented breadfruit. Mq.: niahimahi, fetid. Sa. : masi, fermented breadfruit. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 28 1 99 1. kokopu a Sweetwater fish. oopu, id. 1992. kokorora a small land-snail. oolola, a fish. 1993. kokota a small shellfish. Ma. :^o^o/a, a bivalve shellfish. 1994. koku pierced by boring worms. Mq. : koku, an insect which eats wood. 1995. koku ru a small tree. Ta. : ouru.Su- riana maritima. Mq. : kokuu, a tree. 1996. koma a stone axe. Ta.: owa, an axe. Mq. : toki-koma, a gouge. Ma. : koma, a stone axe head. 1997. komaemae slack, feeble. Mq^.-.komae, soft, flabby. Ma.: koniae, shrunk. 1998. komae a breadfruit tree on which the crop has mostly failed. Ma.: komae, blighted. 1999. komaga a forked tree, to gather the crop. Mq. : komaka, komana, a forked pole for gathering fruit. 2000. komako a bird of sweet note. Ta.: omaomao, a song bird. Mq.: komako, a bird. (Sa.: ma'oma'o, Leptomis samoensis). Ma.: komako, the bell bird. Ha.: Ha.: 2001. komata the place on fruit where the stalk is attached. Mq.: komata, id. 2002. komata the nipple, the teat. Ha.: omaka, id. 2003. komine wrinkled. Mq. : komine,i6.. 2004. komuri to retrace one's steps. Mq.: komui, id. 2005. kona the lower abdomen. Sa.: 'ona, id. Ma.: kona, id. 2006. koni to move about (on hands and feet, crouching, sitting). Ta.: oni, to climb. Ma.: koni, to alter one's position. Cf. 2182. 2007. konini a tree, a plant. Ta.: onini, fruit just forming. Mq.: konini, a plant. Ma.: konini, the berry of the fuchsia. 2008. kopa deformed, with twisted limbs. Ta.: opaopa, fatigued. Mq.: kopa, paralyzed. Sa. : 'opa, weak. Ma.: kopa, crippled. 2009. kopiti to associate with certain per- sons. Mq.: kopiti, to form alliances. 2010. koporo the nightshade. Ta. : oporo, Solanum anthropophagorum, and a very warm relish. 201 1 . kopua a small gathering, a little heap. Ha. : opua, a bunch, a collection. 2012. kopura a fish. Mq.: kopua, id. 2013. kopurepure spotted, stained. Ta. : o pure, stained. Ma.: kopure, dotted. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 1 96. 2014. koputu a butterfly. Mq. : koputu, a bird. 2015. korino to make meshes in netting. Mq. : koi7to, plaited. 2016. korivirivi a very small fish. Mq.: koiviivi, id. 2017. korokoro a tumor in the neck. Mq.: kookoo, swollen. Ma.: korokoro, the neck. 2018. korotea a banana. Mq. : kootea, id. 2019. kotai, kotae, kotaka a sea bird. Mq.: kotae, kotake, tropic bird, gull. 2020. kotore any soft suJostance sticking to the rocks. Ma.: kotore, sea anemone. 202 1. kotuku a black and white land bird with long neck. Ma.: kotuku, the white heron. 2022. koumea the lower jaw, the chin. Mq.: koumea, gills. 2023. kounati plowed .stick in fire-making. Viti: ^awn;7a, fire-making sticks. Fu. : katinatu, the plowing stick. 2024. kouri a breadfruit. Mq.: koui, id. 2025. kourima the plowing stick in fire- making. Ta. : aurima, id. Mq.: kouima, id. Ma.: kaurimarima, id. 3036. koute the China rose. Ta.: o«/c, id. Mq.: koute, id. Sa. : 'aute,id. Ma.: kaute, id. 2027. kou-toki an axe helve. Ta.: aau, the handle of a tool. Mq.: kou, id. Sa. : 'au, id. 2028. koutu a cape, a promontory. Ta.: outu, a cape, a point. Mq. : koutu, rocks along shore. MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 95 2029. kuare clumsy, inexpert. Ma. : kuare, ignorant, mean. 2030. kue to lament a death. Ta.: «e, the last sigh. Mq. : ue, to bewail, to regret. Ha. : ue, to weep, to sigh. 2031. kuha to regret, to mourn for. Mq. : kuha, to regret, to be sad. 2032. kui mother. Mq.: kui, id. Ma..: kni, old woman. 2033. kukina sound when one swallows with difficulty. Mq.: /.'//Ar/na, sound of an object when struck, sound of running water. Ha.: uina, .sound of a gun, of a whip, of snapped fingers. 2034. kuku a mother-of-pearl tool. Ta. : uu, a shell knife, netting needle. 2035. kukui to wipe off . Ta.: ;««, towipe, to polish a canoe. 2036. kukumu to press, to squeeze. Ta. : uiimu, id. 2037. kukumu to close the fist. Ta.: uumu, id. Sa. : 'u'u, id. Ma.: kuntti, to clench the fist. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 349. 2038. kukuororagi a dove. Ta.: uurai- raro, id. 2039. kume to be in agony. Mq.: kume- kume, pain. 2040. kumia a fish. Mq. : kutnia, id. 2041. kumu the fist. Ma.: kumu, id. Cf. 2037. 2042. kumukumu to prepare small por- tions of food pressed with the hand. Ta. : umua, to make into balls, to press, to wring. Alq. : kttmu-hei, a small bundle of fragrant herbs. Ma. : kumu, to bring in the hollow of the hand. 2043. kune to become pregnant. Ma.: kukune, id. 2044. kuoga household provisions. Ta.: uoa, forbiddance of foods. 2045. kuokuo white. Ta.: uouo, id. 2046. kuparu to thrive, said of children. Ha. : upalu, to be young and comely. 2047. kupu a curse, an imprecation. Ta.: upu, a prayer. Mq.: kupu, insult, injury, to curse. Sa. : 'upu, a word. Ma. : kupu, id. Ha. : upu, to vow. 1048. kure a great talker. Ma.: kure, to cry like a sea-gull. 2049. kuru-oe paste made of abortive bread- fruit. Ta. ; uru, breadfruit. Mq.: kuu, id. Sa. : 'ulu, id. Ha.: ulu, id. 2050. kutete to shiver with cold, to tremble with fear. Ha.: m^c^^, a shuddering, chill. 2051. ma fermented breadfruit or taro. Mq. : ma, id. 2052. ma to fade, to lose color. Ha.: ma, to fade. 2053. maa fermented breadfruit. Ta.: woo, food, nourishment. Cf. 2051. 2054. niaana clothes. Mq. : kahu mahana, id. 2056 2057 2058 2059 2060, 2061 2062 2063 2064. 2065 2066 2067, 2068. 2069. 2070. 2071. 2072. 2073. 2074. 2075- 2076. 2077. 2078. 2079. 2080. . maevaeva hanging tatters of cloth. Mq. : maeva, the strips of cloth hung round the house in which the dead lies. . maha a fish. Mq. : ynaha, id. . mahaga twins. Ta.: wo/ma, id. Mq.: mahana, mahaka, id. Sa. : masaga, id. Ma.: mahanga, id. . mahitihiti togush out. Sa.: mafili. to spring out. Ma. : mawhiti, to leap. . mahora to spread, to stretch out, level. Ta.: wta/iom, to be spread out, level. Mq.: mahoa, to spread out, to display, level. Sa. : mafola, to be spread out. Ma. : mahora, id. , mahu a strong or pleasant odor from afar. Sa.: mafu, to emit a sweet smell. . maitolto a fish. Ha.: maikoiko, id. maka a sprout on a tree trunk. Mq. : maka, a branch, a bough. . maka fine, light. Ta. : maa, a little. Mq.: maka, id. Ha.: maa, to be small, little. makaro shortsighted. Ma.: makaro, dimly visible. makauea weary. Ha. : maauea, lazy. makave coir threads, rain in strings. Sa. : ma'ave, a good head of hair. Ma.: makawe, a head of hair. aka-makou to commit adultery. Mq. : makou, jealousy of the married. Ma. : makau, husband, wife. aka-makuku to moisten, to sprinkle. Ta.: mauu, humid, moist. aka-mamahu to take things quietly. Ta. : faa-mahu, to be patient. mamara acid, sharp, piquant. Ta. : mamara, sharp, bitter. Mq.: mamaa, bitter. Sa. : mamala, sourness. mamuri after. Mq.: mamui, id. Ha.: mamuli, id. mania slippery, .smooth, polished. Mq. : mania, id. Ma.: rnania, id. maniania to have the teeth on edge. Mq. : maniania, id. To.: fakamani- nia, id. Ha.: mania, id. manini a fish. Sa. : manini, id. Ha. : manini, id. manono the dry trunk of the nono tree. Mq.: manono, the dry trunk of the noni tree. manu to have a sore mouth. Ta. : manumanu, toothache. Sa.: manu- manu, id. aka-manumanu tinted, shaded, or drawn with little dots. Sa. : mamanu, figured, carved. maomao a fish. Sa. : maomao, id. Ma.: maomao, id. mapomapo not sticky or adhesive. Sa.: mapomapo, mealy, soft. mapu panting, a sigh of fatigue. Ta. : mapu, whistling, to sigh with fatigue. Mq. : mapu, to whistle. Sa. : mapu, id. Ma. : mapu, to whiz, to sigh, to sob, to pant. 96 EASTER ISLAND. 2081. mara open land, cultivated field. Mq.: mara, maa, land under tilth. Ta. : amara, the first stone of a marae, etc. Sa.: mala, a new plantation. Ma.: mara, land under tilth. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 369. 3082. maraga stations ten days' journey apart. Ta.: mandnd, a vagabond. Sa.: malaga, a journey, a party of travelers. Ha.: t?2a/ana, a multitude moving together. 2083. maragai the southeast wind. Ta. : tnaraai, id. Ma. : marangai, the east wind. 2084. marari a fish. Mq. : maai, id. Sa. : malali-a'a, id. Ma. : marare, id. 2085. mararo lower, below. Ha.: malalo, downward, below. 2086. marau a fish. Sa. : malau, id. 2087. marere to fall little by little. Sa.: malelelele, to be toppling, overhanging. Ma.: marere, to fall. 2088. marikoriko morning twilight, dawn. Mq.: maikoiko, id. Ma.: mariko- riko, id. 2089. maroro the flying fish. (Ta.: marara, id.) Mq.: maoo, id. Sa. : malolo, id. Ma.: maroro, id. 2090. maru, maruru to tremble through fear, shaky. Ta. : mama, to fall down. Sa.: maliilu, shaky. 2091. maru in the train or retinue of a noble. Ha.: malu, to have the pro- tection of a chief. 2092. aka-mata to commence. Ta.: haa- mata, id. 2093. matai by sea. Ha.: makai, at sea, seaward. 2094. mataka a fish. Ha.: makaa, id. 2095. matakeinaga an assembly, congre- gation of persons. Ta. : mataeifiaa, a district and its inhabitants. Mq.: mataeinaa, mataeinana, the people, a train. 2096. matamua first. Mq.: matamua, id. Ma.: matamua, id. 2097. matapua to have dust in the eyes. Mq.: tnatapua, onei-ey&d. Ha.: mata- pula, sore-eyed, one-eyed. Cf. 2307. 2098. matarik; the Pleiades. Ta. : matarii, id. Mq.: mataiki, mataii, id. Sa. : matali'i, id. Ma. : matariki, id. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 196. 2099. matatai one-eyed. Ta. : malatahi, id. Sa. : ?natatasi, id. 2100. mataua to squabble, to dispute. Sa.: mat ana, jealous, envious. 2101. matavare blear-eyed. Mq. : matavae, lippitude. Ha.: makaivale, id. 2102. mate love, ardent desire. Ta. -.mateai, lively desire. Mq. : mate, ardent de- sire. Sa. : mate, id. Ma.: mate, id. 2103. matiho to spy. Mq. : matio, ma- tioo, id. 2104. mati-kao toe, finger. Mq.: mati-uu, nails. Sa.: mati-iiu, id. Ma.: matt- matt, toe. 2105. 2106. 2107. 2108. 2109. 2110. 2112. 2II3- 2114. 2II5- 2II6. 2II7. 2II8. 2II9. 2120. i 2I2I. 2122. 2123. 2124. 2125. 2126. 2127. 2128. 2129. 2130. 2I3I. 2132. matiki to assuage pain, to relieve. Mq.: matike, id. matiro to examine, to look closely into. Mq. : matio, to regard side- wise. Ha. : makilo, to look wistfully. matou we exclusive. Ta. : matou, id. Mq.: matou, id. Sa.: matou, id. Ma.: matou, id. maturau a fish. Mq. : matuau, id. Sa.: matulau, id. mau to hold. Ta. : mau, id. Mq.: man, id. Sa. : mau, id. mau to seize. Ta.: mau, to catch, to seize. Sa.: mau, to take prisoner. Ma.: mau, restrained. maunu dry leaves on a dead tree. Ta. : maunu, bald, plucked. Mq.: maunu, to peel, to shed the skin. Ma. : maunu, to be doffed, as clothes. mauta by land. Ha.: mauka, by land, landward. ako-mea a red fish. Ta.: mea, red. Sa. : niemea, red, yellow, brown. mei of, belonging to. Ta. : mei, of. Mq. : mei, id. mei breadfruit. Mq. : mei, id. To.: mei, id. meika banana. Ta. : meia.id. Mq.: meika, id. meimata tears, weeping. Mq.: mei- mata, id. meire a tree. Mq. : meie, a -plant. mene blunt, dull. Ha.: mene, id. meire not tabu. ^Iq. : meie, id. merino calm, tranquil, silence. Mq.: menino, id. To.: melino, -p&ace. miha the rippling of a brook. Fu.: misa, to come into sight at the sur- face of the water. Ha. : miha, to flow with ripples. ua-mihi a fine or light rain. Mq. : uamihi, id. miri to consider, to regard. Ta. : mirimiri, to examine. Mq.: mii, to consider, to regard. Ha.: mili, to look at, to examine. aka-moa to cook. Mq.: haamoa, id. To.: moa, dried. Ha.: moa, to dry, to roast. moaga a red beard. Mq.: moaka, very red. moaga a fish. Mq. : moana, id. Sa. : moaga, id. Ha.: moana, a red fish. Cf. 2126. moake east wind. Ha.: moac, the northeast tradewind. moemoe to steal, to purloin at a food distribution. Mq. : moemoe, to seize, to grasp. mohora to stretch out. Mq. : mohoa, to spread out. Ha.: mohola, to un- fold, to expand. mohore to peel off. Ha. : mohole, to rub off the skin. mokora a duck. Ta. : moora, id. MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 97 2133. momi voracious. Ta.: mow/, to swal- low. Mq.: momi, to eat with the mouth full, to swallow. Fu.: momi, to swallow soft things, to suck. Ma.: wow/, to suck. Ha.: momi, to swallow. 2134. more branches of whose bark cord is made. Ta. : more, hibiscus bark. 2135. moriga a minor festival. Ta..: moria, offering after recover^' from illness. Ma. ; morina, to remove the crop tabu. 2136. more dry, withered. Mq.: woo, dry, arid. 2137. moruga above. Ma.: morunga,\6.. 2138. moteatea mingled with white. Mq.: motea, whitish. Ma.: motea, white- faced. 2139. mote unripe, green, raw. Sa. : moto, green, unripe. 2140. mouri fear, dread, trepidation. Mq. : mouri, id. 2141. muamua the end, extremity. Mq. : muamua, the end, extremity, point. To.: mtiamua-nima, the fingertips. 2142. muhu to talk when in the water fishing. Ta. : ww/zzt, to babble. Mq.: muhumuhii, to chatter. Sa. : musu- musu, to whisper. 2143. mui to crowd about a speaker. Mq.: wtti, to crowd about one. Ma.: mtii. to swarm. 2144. munamuna to stammer and stutter. Ta.: munamuna, to mutter. Mq.: muna, confused. Sa. : muna, to grumble. Ma.: muna, to speak of privately. 2145. mure to be finished. Ta. : mure, to end, to cease. 2146. mutu mute, silent. Mq.: mutu, id. 2147. mutu to cease, to leave off. Ma.: whakamutu, id. 2148. naha (metathetic) a bow. Ta.: f ana, id. Mq.: pana, id. Sa..: f ana, id. Ma. : whana, to spring as a bow. 2149. naho a shoal of fish. Mq.: naho, a band, a troop. Ta. : nahoa, a troop, a company. 2150. nai who, for whom. Mq.: nai, id. 2 1 5 1 . naku to take, to seize, to appropriate, to carry off. Ta. : naua, to acquire, to win. 2152. nana to look at, to view. Ta.: nana, to see, to look at. Ha. : nana, to view attentively. 2153. nana angry, offended. Ma.: nana, in a passion. 2154. nane to mix, to mingle. Ta. : na7ie, mixed, confused. 2155. nani to chew. Ha.: na?M', to bite, to catch hold of with the teeth. 2156. nanu to curse. Ma. : ncww, to grum- ble at. 2157. nao mosquito. Ta.: nao7iao, id. Mq.: naonao, gnat. Ma.: naonao, midge. 2158. nacre to make smaller. Mq.- naoe, naohe, fine, slender, flexible. 2159. nape to stick out the tongue, to lick. Mq. : nape, to stick out the tongue, to lap. 2160. nati to vow to the gods. Ta.: nanati, naiiaha, sorcery, enchantment. Mq.: natikaha, a magical charm. 2161. natu colic. Mq.: nati, id. 2162. nekoneko dirty, abominable, loath- some. Ta. : Mfo, a stench. Mq.: neko- neko, fieoneo, dirty, stinking, disgust- ing. Ha. : 7ieko, filthy, bad-smelling. This is one of the rare instances in which the Polynesian k has been retained in Hawaiian. 2163. nenai yesterday. Ta.: nenaki, id. Mq.: ncnahi, id. 2164. nenue a fish. Mq.: nenue, id. 2165. nikau the coco palm. Ta. : niau, coconut leaf. Ha.: niau, stem of the coconut leaf. Ma.: nikau, an areca palm. 2166. ninita the papaya. Ta. : ninita, id. Ha. : ninika, a bush. 2167. nioi a shrub. Mq.: nioi, a plant. Ha.: nioi, id. 2168. niu to turn upon itself, to pirouette. Ha.: niu, to v/hirl about. Probably a variant of liii. 2169. nohu a fish with poisonous spines. Ta.: no}iu,id. Mq.: noAw, a small fish. Sa. : noju, a toad-fish. Ha. : nohu, id. 2170. none a tree. Ta. : nojzo, the morinda. 2 17 1. aka-nonoku to crouch down gently. vSa. : no'uno'u, to stoop. 2172. norunoru soft flesh, with relaxed mu.scles. Mq.: nounou, tender, deli- cate. Ha. : nolu, soft, tender. 2173. noumati drought, hot weather. Sa.: naumali, dry, arid. 2174. nounou to desire ardently, to lust. Ta. : nounou, desire, to covet. 2175. nuku land, country, place. Sa.:nM'«, district, territory, island. 2176. numi to press, to squeeze. Sa. :nwmi, to crush together. 2177. aka-nunu to stammer, to stutter. Mq.: nunu, id. 2178. o to give. Ta.: Jw, id. Sa..: foa'i, id. Ma. : ho, id. 2179. oha to fall down. Ta.: oha, slanting, bent. Mq.: oha, to fall down, slant- ing, oblique. vSa. : 50/a, to throw down. 2180. ohotu fourteenth day of the moon. Ha. : ohoku, fifteenth day. 2 181. ohua twelfth day. Yia..: ohtia, thir- teenth day. Ma.: ohua, id. 2182. oni to climb a tree. Ta.: oni, id. Mq.: oni, id. Ha. : oni, to ascend zigzag as a kite. Cf. 2006. 2183. one to splice; onoga a small bundle of long things. Ta.: ono, to unite 2184. one a fish. Mq.: ono, id. To.: ono, id. Ha.: ono, id. 2185. ono to attend to the fire. Mq.: ono, Sa.: Tojaeono, chief's title of the Vaimauga. EASTER ISLAND. 2186. ora to wedge up. Ta. : ora, to twist, to lash together the parts of a canoe. Sa.: olaola-ati, the wedge of a hatchet helve. Ma. : ora, a wedge. 2187. ori an outer}', shouting. Ta.: on, to dance. Mq. : ori, a song. Sa. : olioli, to be joyful. Ma.: oriori, a song of joy. 2188. aka-orooro to handle. Ta. : orooro, to rasp, to grate. 2189. oru the noise of a branch loaded down. Ha.: olu, the springing of rafters under the wind. 2190. ota raw, uncooked. Ta. : ota, raw. Sa.: ota, uncooked. 219T. aka-otooto to sound a long time. Ta.: oto. to cry, to sound. 2 1 92 . oturu one of the quarters of the moon. Ha.: okulu, sixteenth day of the moon. 2193. pa an inclosure, a fenced place. Ta. : pa, inclosure, fortification. Mq. : pa, inclosure. Sa. : pa, a wall. Ma.: pa, a fort. 2194. pa to touch. Ss..: pa' i, id. Ma. :pa, id. 2195. pa to prattle. Ta.: haapapa, to recount. 2196. pae to float, to drift. Ta.: pae, to go to leeward. Ma.: pae, to drift, to float about. 2197. pae to place in a row, to build. Ta. : paepae, a pavement, a scaffold. Mq. : pae/>a?, a pavement. Sa.: paepae, id. Ma. : pae, to lie in order. 2 198. pagoa a small hole in the ground or in a rock. Ta. : paoa, a hole in a rock. Ha.: panoa, a cavern. 2199. pagu black. Alq.: paku, panu, id. 2200. paheke to slip, to slide. Ta. : pahee, to slip. Mq. : paheke, id. Ma.: pa- heke, id. 2201. pahere a comb. Ta. : pahee, id. 2202. pakaokao the side, on a side. Ha.: paaoao, sidewise, on one side. 2203. pakaora victorious. Ta. : paaora, id. 2204. pake hard. Ma. : pake, obstinate. 2205. pakihi purslane. Mq. : ^afez^i, a sor- rel. Ha.: paihi, a plant. 2206. pakipaki to slap. Ta. : paipai, to clap hands. Mq. : pakipaki, light blows with the hand. Ma.: paki, to slap, to pat. 2207. pake to exhaust every stock or supply of food in a famine. Ma.: pako, to gather remnants of a crop. 2208. pakopako a fish. Ha.: paopao, id. 2209. paku bast cloth. Ha. : pau, a gar- ment made of tapa. 2210. paku-umu soot of an oven. Ha.: pau, soot of a lamp. 22 1 1 . pane the forehead. Mq. : pane, upper side of the head of large fish. Ma.: pane, head. 2212. pan i to anoint, to oil. Mq. : pani, id. Sa. : pani, to dye the hair. Ma.: pani, to anoint. 2213. pao to be beaten. Ta.: pao, to lac- erate the head in mourning. Mq.: pao, to beat. Sa.: pao, to chastise. Ma. : pao, to beat. 2214. paoko a fish. Mq. : paoko, paoo, id. Ha.: paoo, id. 2215. paora sunstroke. Ta.: paora, en- tirely desiccated. 2216. papa a plank, a board. Ta.: papa, id. Mq.: papa, id. Sa.: papa, id. Ma.: papa, id. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 325. 2217. papa to clap, to crack. Ta. : papa, to snap. Mq.: />a/>a, to crack. 2218. papa to shine out, to glitter. Ta.: papa, id. Mq. : papa, id. Ha. : papa, to shine. 2219. papaga in rows, ranks, tiers. Mq.: papa, id. Ha.: papa, id. 2220. papaha a foreigner. Ta. : papaa, id. 2221. papakaacrab. Ta. : ^a^aa, id. Mq.: papaka, id. Sa. : pa' a, id. Ma.: papaka, id. 2222. papaka a malady in the flesh. Mq.: papaka, syphilis. 2223. papu to roll the trousers up to the knee. Mq.: papu, bathing tights. 2224. parahu spoiled, damaged, decayed. Ha.: palahu, rotten, decayed. 222^,. parapu the northwest wind. Mq. : paapu, a squall. 2226. pare a covering for the head. Mq.: pae, id. Sa. : pale, id. Ma.: pare, id. 2227. pataka to grill over coals. Mq.: pataka, id. 2228. patapata large, gross. Ss..: patapata, large, tall. Ha.: pakapaka, large, coarse. 2229. patiti a small implement of tapa making. Ma. : patiti, a hatchet. 2230. patuki a fish. Mq. : patuki, patui, id. Ha.: pakuikui, id. 2231. paua a fish. Ha.: paua, id. 2232. peau, peahu a wave. Mq.: peau, id. Sa. : peau, id. 2233. pehau a wing. Ta. : pekau, a fin. Ma. : pehau, a wing. 2234. pehe cat's cradle. Mq.: pehe, id. Ha. : pehe, a snare. 2235. pehiaship. Mq.: pehi, a great canoe. 2236. pehu to shade, to cover. Mq. : pehu, overcast, somber. 2237. pei to juggle balls. Ta. : pet, id. Mq. : pei, id. 2238. pelaha jaws, gills of fish. Ta. : pei- haha, peiha, gills. Ma.: piha, id. 2239. peikea a small crayfish. Mq.:peikea, a crab. 2240. pei pei to approach. Mq. : peipei, id. 2241. peka a cross. Ta. : pea, id. Mq.: peka, id. Ma.: ripeka, id. 2 242 . pekepeke the tentacles of the octopus retracted. Mq. : peke, to tuck up the clothes. Ma.: pepeke, to draw up the legs and arms. MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 99 2243 2244 2245 2246 2247, 2248, 2249. 2250. 2251. 2253- 2254 2255- 2256. 2257- 2258. 2259. 2260. 2261. pinao, Ta.: Ma.: Ma. 2263. 2264. 2265. 2266. 2267. 2268. pekepeke a crab. Ha.: pee-one, a crab that burrows in the sand. pena so, Hke that. Sa. : fa'apend, id. Ma.: pena, id. penei so, Hke this. Mq. : penei, id. Sa. : penei, id. Ma.: penei, id. pepa to substitute one word for another. Ma. : pepa, to forget a word in an incantation. pera so, like that. Sa. : peld, as if. Ma. : pera, so, like that. perepere to put to soak. Mq. : pere, to dilute poi. pereue a garment. Ta. : pereue, a long garment. Sa. : peleue, id. peta a bunch of bananas. Mq. : peta- vii, a kind of banana plant. peti not to remain, to disappear and never return. Ta.: petipeti, ended, finished. Ma.: peti, entirely con- cluded and done with. peti short. Mq. : petipeti, a pig with short legs. Ha. : peke, short. pi full, complete. Mq.: pi, id. piere a cake of soft breadfruit. Ta. : piere, dried fruit. Ha. : piele, a cake of finely grated taro. pigao a winged insect. Mq. : a dragonfly. Ha.: pinau, id. pi he war cry, joy crj% dance, pehe, to sing. Sa. : pese, id. pihe, sound of wailing. pio to put out, to extinguish. pio, quenched, extinguished. piri a very large package of food. Mq. : piri, package, bundle. piritia packed close together. Ha.: pilikia, crowded close together. tai-piro a calm sea. Mq.: pioo-pe, calm. pito end, extremity, boundary. Mq. : pito, beginning of a cord. Sa. : pito, the end of anything. Ma. : pito, end, extremity. poa bait, chum. Ta. : paru-poa, bait. Mq. : poa, to bait, to allure, to poison fish. Sa. : poapod, fishy .smelling. Ma.: poa, to bait, to entice. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 276. poatu a stone. Mq. : pohatu, a round hammer stone. Ma.: powhatu, a stone. pop;i quick. Mq. : poki-hoo, poni-hoo, poi-hoo, quickly, promptly. Ha. : poni, suddenly, in an instant. poha open. Mq.: poha, open, to split, to crack, to break, to disclose. Ha. : poha, to burst, to come to view. pohatahata large open eyes, wide stalk end of breadfruit. Mq. : pohata, pofata, pofafa, wide open, hollow within. Ha. : pohaha, round and deep. pohore to escape, to get away. Mq. : pohoe, to escape, safe, free, at liberty . pohue a large-leaved seaside vine. Ta. : pohue, generic name of the con- volvulus. Mq.:/>oAMe, bindweed. (Sa. : fue, id.) Ma.: pohue, id. 2269. pohuri banana .scions. (Sa.: suli, id.) Ha.: pohuli, scion of any plant. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 211. 2270. pokai an anchor. Mq.: pokae, sinker of a (ish line. 2271. poki to cover. Ta.: />o/, to be covered Ma : poki, to cover. 2272. ponini to allow oneself to become defiled. (Sa.: tiini, to smear.) Ha.: poni, to besmear, to daub over. 2273. poniuniu dizzy, giddy, vertigo. Ha.: poniuniu, id. 2274. aka-poniu to dazzle. Mq.: ponio- nio, id. 2275. popoi cooked paste. Ta. : popoi, id. Mq.: popoi, id. Ha.: poi, id. 2276. pori the lower belly. Ha. : poli, id. 2277. poroaki to send word, to deliver an order. Ta.: poroi, to order, to take leave. Mq. : pooai, to send word to, to command. Sa. : poloa'i, to com- mand at a distance. Ma.: poroaki, to leave instructions, to take leave. The Polynesian Wanderings, page 291. 2278. pororo the July season when the leaves fall. Mq.: pororo, dry, arid. Sa. : palolo-mua, July. Ma.: paroro, cloudy weather. 2279. porotu beautiful, pleasant. Ta.: pu- rotu, id. Mq.: pootti, beautiful (of women only). Sa. : Pulotu, the abode of the dead. Ma. : purotu, pleasant, agreeable. 2280. pota a kind of radish. Ta. : pota, small vegetables. Mq.: pota, mus- tard, chicory. Sa. : pota, taro leaves. 2281. potaka round. Ta. : polaa, round, oval. 2282. potea a -shellfish. Mq. : potea, id. 2283. potiki children as the parents' sup- port. Ta.: ^0//, a young girl. Mq.: poiti, potii, child. Ma.: potiki, the youngest child. 2284. potipoti an insect. Ta. : popoti, cock- roach, beetle. Mq.: poti, a crab. Ma. : potipoti, the sandhopper. 2285. pouhu a fish. Ha.: pouhu, id. 2286. poutu a stay, a prop. (Ta. : poutu, erect, upright.) Sa. : /)02?^/fa, white, beau- tiful. Mq.: putea, white. 2316. putu clapping the hands. Ta.: pulu, id. Ma. : putu, to clap the hands to time. 2317. putuga reins, kidneys. Mq.: puluna, stomach, gizzard, crop. 2318. putuki hair knotted or tangled. Mq.: putuki, putui, a knot of women's hair worn at one side or at the back of the 2341 head. 3319. raga-ua completely saturated with 234; rain. Mq.: ana-ua, water which flows in the rains. 2321. 2322. 2323- 2324. 2325- 2326. 2327. 2328. 2329. 2330. 2331- 2332. 2333- 2334- 2335- 2336. 2337- 2338. rakoa a fish. Mq. : akoa, id. Sa.: la'o, id. rapahou primipara. Ma.: rapoi,\6.. raparapa green. Ta. : rapa, id. raparapa flat. Ta.: rapa, a flat rock. Sa. : /opc/apa, aflatcoral. Ma.: raparapa, the flat part of the foot. rara a branch of a tree. Ta.: rara, id. Mq. : rara, small branches. Sa.: lala, id. Ma.: rara, id. rare to speak as with an impediment. Mq.: are, to speak like a croaking raven. raru cooked. Ta.: rarti, ripe, over- ripe. rata to frequent, to keep company with. Ta.: ra/a, tame, familiar. Mq. : ata, wild (a sense-invert). Sa.: lata, tame, to feel at home. Ma.: rata, tame, familiar. raukataha a plant. Mq. : auketaha, the birds-nest fern. Cf. 1949. re-mai to emerge from prison, to recover from illness, delivered from evil. Mq.: ee, to go, to escape. Sa. : lele, to go out (of the passing soul). Ha.: lele, to depart (of the spirit). rehe a fish. Ha.: lehe, a shellfish, lee, a fish. reho a shellfish. Ta. : reho, id. Ma.: rehoreho, id. rehurehu from early dawn to mid morning. Ta. : rehurehu, twilight. Mq. : ehuehu, id. reira there. Ta. : reira, there, then, at once. Mq. :f/a,there. Ma.: reira, id. rena to stretch, to scatter abroad. Mq.: ena, to stretch, to widen, to spread out. Sa. : lelena, to spread out and smooth. Ma.: rena, to stretch out, to extend. rere the multitude, every one. Ma. : rea, abundant, very numerous. ata-rcureu the first peep of day. Mq. : rena, shades of night. reva a plant. Ta.: reva, id. Mq.: eva, id. Sa. : leva, id. Ma.: rewa- rezva, id. reva to cross, to pass across quickly; revaga departure. Ta. : reva, to go away, to depart. Ma.: reva, to get under way. ri a string, girdle, to tie together. Sa. : li, the sennit lashing of canoe out- riggers. rino to twist a thread between the forefinger and thumb. Ta. : nino, to twist, to spin. Mq. : nino, id. Ma.: riuo, a twist of two or three strands. ririko to shine, to glitter. Ma.: riko, to dazzle, to flash. ririo to close up (of dry leaves), to waste away (of men). Ta. : ririo, dried up, shrunk. MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 101 2343- 2346. 2347- 2348. 2349- 2350. 2351- 2352. 2353- 2354- 2355- 2356. 2357- 2358. 2359- 2360. 2361. 2362. 2363 2364 2365 2366 2367 2368 riro carried off, taken away. Ta.: riro, lost, missed. Mq.: io, to dis- appear. vSa. : lilo, hidden, concealed. Ma. : riro, to be gone away. aka-riroriro to carry. Mq.: haaio, to give away. Ma.: riro, to be brought. riu to double a cape; aka-riu to go round. Ta. : riuriu, to turn in a circle. Mq.: 7M, to turn round. Sa.: liu, to turn. rogouru ten. Mq.: onohuu, okohuu, id. roha the corner of a house. Mq. : oha, koha, a transverse joist to brace the rafters. Ha. : loha, the trimming of the corners and ridges of a house. rore to go back on one's word, to break a promise. Ta. : rore, depre- ciation, underhand work. Mq. : rore, oe, to withhold, to refuse to give up. roroi to express juice through a cloth. Mq.: ooi, to express juice, to wring. roroi to milk. Mq.: oi, to milk. roroi to squeeze or press with the hands. Mq.: oi, to knead, to dilute, Sa.: loloi, taro kneaded with coconut water. Ma.: roroi, to grate to a pulp. roto profound, deep. Sa. : loloto, deep. aka-rotu colic, pains in the intestines. Ha.: loku, a kind of pain, ache, dis- tress. rou a leaf. Mq. : ou, id. rouru a head of hair dressed with ornaments. Ta. : rouru, the hair of the head. ru eager, in haste, impatient. Ta. : ru, impatience, haste, ruehine old, aged. Mq. : uehine, old woman ; zie, an affectionate address of husband to wife, child to mother. ruerue to wash, to clean. Mq.: ue, to wash, to rinse. ruha an old but usable roof cord. Fu.: lufalufa, a small coir cord. ruharuha of large dimensions. Sa.: luja, a large black siapo. ruhie a large shark. Ha.: luhia, id. ruki to work long at a painful task. Ma.: rukiruki, wearisome, tiring. ta to make a net. Ta.: ta, to make the meshes of a net. Mq.: ta, to make a net. Ma.: ta, to net. ta to make a fish-hook. Ha.: ka, id. ta to husk a coconut. Mq.: ta, id. tago to search for something on the reef at low tide. Mq.: tano, tako, a method of fishing for crabs and cray- fish and eels. tahaki a man with red hair and florid skin. Mq.: tahaki, red. taheu to peel a fruit delicately. Mq. : kii taheu, the second skin of a bread- fruit. 2369. 2370. 2371- 2372. 2373- 2374- 2375- 2376. 2377- 2378. 2379- 2380. 2381. 2382. 2383. 2384. 2385- 2386. 2387- 2388. 2389- 2390. 2391- taheu to weed a patch imperfectly. To.: taheu, to scrape up, to scratch. Ha. : kaheu, to weed. tahi one. Ta.: tahi, id. Mq.: tahi, id. Sa.: tahi, id. Ma.: tahi, id. tahi hi entangled. Ta. : /o/;^, entan- gled, embarrassed. Ma.: tawhiwhi, entwined, tangled. tahu a tenant farmer. Ma.: tahu, opulent, possessing property. tahu to stir up a fire. Ta.: tahu, to build a fire, to light. Mq.: tahu, to light a fire. vSa.: /a/;<, id. Ma.:/aA«, to set on fire, to kindle, to cook, tahuna a shallow, shoal, bank. Mq. : tahuna, beach gravel, shingle. Sa. : tafuna, a rocky place in the sea. Ma. : a shoal, a beach. tainoka a plant without leaves. Ta. : tainoa, Cassyta filiformis. tairi to beat, to whip. Ta. : tairi, a whip, to flog, to strike, taito ancient. Ta.: tahito, id. Mq.: ^a////o, id. U'd.: kahiko, id. Cf. 2431. taka to do nothing but walk about. Sa. : ta'a, to go at large. Ma. : taka, to roam, to go free. takahi to trample under foot, to walk on. Ta. : taahi, to trample under foot. Mq.: teahi, tekahi, id. Fu.: takafi, id. Ma.: takahi, id. takaiti to hop, to tumble, somerset. Mq.: takafiti, taafiti, taahiti, to leap. somerset. Sa.: /a' o/i/j, to be restless. takao a speech, discourse. Mq.: tekao, ieao, discourse, conversation, to speak. Ha. : kaao, a legend, fable, takapeafish. Ta.: taape, id. Mq. : tekape, tcape, id. takape to break off, to snap. Sa.: ta'ape, to be separated, scattered. takara a small thread with which the bait is tied to the hook. Mq.: taaa, id. takau ten pairs. Ta. : loau, id. Mq. : tekau, id. To. : tekau, id. Ma. : tekau, ten. taki to draw or push a raft with the hands. Mq.: /a^f, to drag out. Sa.: tata'i, to drag along. Ma.: taki, to track or pull from shore. takitaki to speak to other people. Ma.: taki, to make a speech. tamahine the eldest daughter. Ta. : tamahine, a daughter. Ma.: tama- hiyie, a daughter, eldest niece. tamanu a tree. Ta.: tamanu, id. Mq.: tamanu, id. vSa.: tamanu, id. tamau to retain, to keep. Ta. : tamau, to take hold of, to get by heart. Mq.: tamau, to attach, to make firm. Ma. : tamau, to fasten. tamike to desire ardently, to long for. Mq.: tamike, to desire. 102 FASTER ISLAND. 2392. tane a black mark on the skin. Ta.: j 2417. tane, a large blotch on the skin. Mq. : | tane, a dermatitis. Sa. : tane, stains j of kava in bowls and cups, a derma- I 2418. titis. Ha.: kane, a white blotch on ' the skin. 2419. 2393. tanoa a stone trough or bowl. Mq. : ianoa, kava bowl. Sa. : tanoa, id. 2420. Ha.: kanoa, "externally, outside, ap- plied to the dish containing awa" — 2421. Andrews. The affiliates are clear 2422. evidence that Judge Andrews has j 2423. mistaken the use of the word. 2394. tao a lance, spear. Ta. : lao, id. Sa. : tao, id. Ala.: tao, id. | 2395. taohi to preserve, to take care of. 2424. Mq. : taohi, to take, to keep, to pre- serve. Sa. : taofi, to keep, to retain. 2425. Ha.: kiiohi, id. 2396. taomi to squeeze, to press down. Sa.: taomi, to press down. Ha.: kaomi, to press, to squeeze. 2397. taotaoama a fish. Sa..: taotaoama,\6.. 2398. taparau-mea to circulate small talk. Ta. : taparau, to converse. j 2426. 2399. tapare anything cast away as over- j plus. Mq.: tapae, to set aside, to 2427. reserve. I 2428. 2400. taparuru trembling, shaking. Ta.: j taparuru, wrath, rage. Mq. : tapauu, 1 vibrationof a tense cord. Ha.: kapa- [ 2429 lulu, to tremble, to shake. ' 2401. tapatu a lish. Mq.: tapatu, id. i 2430. 2402. tapeke to catch hold with the hands j 2431 in falling. Ua..: kapeke, a misstep. 2403. tapena an honorific present. Ta.: 2432. tapena, a victim, an offering. Ma.: tapena, to pass food over a tabu person. 2404. tapere an overhanging lip. Ta. : 2433. tapere, hung above. Mq. : tapeepee, hanging, pendulous. 2405. tapoa to prepare a bait. Mq. : tapoa, to bait for fish. 2406. tapora to wrap up, envelop. Ma.: tapola, to gather whitebait into j baskets. 2435. 2407. tapotu to whip, to flog. Ta.: tapotu, j 2436. to club. I 2408. tapui to smear, to anoint. Mq.: | 2437. tapui, to anoint. j 2409. tara a species of banana. Mq. : taa, 2438. a plant. 2410. aka-tara to indent, to make notches. | 2439. Ma. : whakatara, to notch. 241 1. aka-taratara to put one into a pas- 2440. sion. Ma.: whakatara, to challenge, to defy, to dare. 2412. tarakihi a fish. Mq. : taakihi, id. 2441. Ma.: tarakihi, id. 2413. tarara a harsh strident voice, to wail bitterly. Mq.: taaa, eo tarara, the 2442. voice of wailing. 2414. tararoa a fish. Mq.: taaoa, id. 2443. 2415. tarea brown. Ma.: tore/ia, ochre. 2416. tarehu to bum wood in a pit oven. ' 2444. Ma. : tarahu, a pit oven. taru a rapidly spreading herb. Mq. : tau, a plantation. Sa. : talutalu, second growth timber. Ma. : tarutaru, grass. tata close, near by. Mq.: lata, id. Ma.: tata, id. tata to cut wood. Ha.: ^a^a, to cut or break wood. tatamago a grass. Mq. : tatamako, a sundew. tatapi to bale. Mq.: titapi, id. tatara gooseflesh. Ma.: /ara, id. tatau to be counted, reckoned. Ta. : tatau, counting, numbering. Mq.: tatau, id. Sa. : tau, to count. Ma. : tatau, id. tauga a pair. Mq.: tauna, a pair; tauka, two pair. Ha. : kauna, four. taupe to bend, to bow; akata- upeupe to vacillate. Ta. : taupe, to hang the head, to bend, to slope. Mq. : taupe, dishevelled, hair hanging down on the shoulders. Sa. : taupe, to swing. Fu.: taupeupe, to vacillate. Ma.: taupe, bending, weak, variable. tauraga a fishing-place. Mq.: tau- ana, tauaka, id. Sa. : taulaga i'a, id. tava a shellfish. To.: tava-amanu, id. tavake a seabird with a long red tail. Mq.: tovake, toae, the tropic bird. Sa.: tava'e, id. teatea heavy rain. Ha. : kea, the rain at Hana and Koolau. teiti child, infant. Ha.: keiki, id. teito ancient. Mq.: teito, id. Cf. 2377- teka a support, scaffold. Ta.: tea, the horizontal balk of a palisade, the crossbeam of a house. Mq. : tekateka, across, athwart. Ha. : kea, a cross. tekere the keel of a canoe. Ta. : taere, id. Mq.: tekee,id. Sa. : ta'ele, id. Ma.: takere, id. tekiteki to fall head over heels. Ta. : tei, to hop on one foot. Mq.: tcki, to hobble, to limp. Sa.: te'j, to jump with surprise. tepau tar, resin. Ha.: kepau, id. tere fat, swollen up. Sa. : tele, large, great. Ma.: tetere, swollen. tero to have moldy spots. Mq.: teo- teo, pale, spotted with white. tetahi another, likewise, some. Mq.: tetahi, id. Ma.: tetahi, id. teve a plant with a poisonous bulb. Ta. : teve, id. Mq. : teve, id. Sa. : teve. id. tiho to look, to stare, to examine. Mq. : tiohi, id. The Polynesian Wan- derings, page 422. tiketike high, raised. Mq.: tiketike, tietie, id. Sa. : ti'eti'e, to sit on a raised seat. Ma.: /z'^e/rT^e, high, lofty. tiki to go in search of, to go fetch. Ta. : tii, id. Ma. : tiki, to fetch. tikitai one each. Mq.: tikitahi, one apiece. tila bold, hardy. Ha.: kila, strong, stout, able. MANGAREVA AS A CENTER OF DISTRIBUTION. 103 3445. timo to whistle to attract attention. Mq.: timo, to whistle, to make any signal. 2446. tinae the belly. Sa.: tinae, entrails of fish. Fu.: tinae, the belly. 2447. tipi a knife, to cut. Ta.: tipi, id. Mq. : tipi, to cut to bits. Sa. : tipi, id . 2448. tire to swell. Mq. : tie, a large boil on the head, to burst (of buds). 2449. tiri to throw away, to reject, to neg- lect. Ta. : tiri, to cast a small net. Mq. : tii, titii, to throw away, to abandon, to reject. Sa.: tili, a small net and its cast. Ma. : tiri, to throw one by one. 2450. tiro spots on linen. Ta. : tiro, to mark. Mq. : tiotioa, blotched, cov- ered with white spots. 2451. titi to dig a hole with a nail. Ta.: titi, a nail, a peg, a pin. Mq.: titi, to calk. Ma.: