•:::':•::::-: • "• i • • • :•-•-:':•:• W^y>> •• t STATF! NORMAL >^CHOOL JLOS AlNGELEiS, UaLIFOKNIA /%uti^ .^t^CLOLA^ A New English Grammar BY J. B. WISELY, A. M., DEPARTMENT OF GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION, INDIANA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. t ^ -^'^ " There is haraii,' anythii-g more interesting than to see how the laws of grammar, which seem it first sight so hard and arbitrary, are simply the laws of the expression of logical relations in concrete form." —C. C, EVERETT. TERRE HAUTE, IND.: THE INLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY, 1898. CO] J. — BECKTOLD— PRINTING AND BOOK MFG. CO. ST. LOUIS, MO. \\ w PREFACE. In attempting to write a text-book on grammar for the use of seventh and eighth grade pupils in our public schools, the author has been confronted by two problems : 1. The course of study in our com- Two Problems. u i j j a iu ^ mon schools is so expanded at the present time, so many new subjects have been introduced, that it is not possible to treat any one of them exhaustively. It be- comes a question, then, as to what should be taught and what should be left unlearned concerning these subjects. This book tries to present those topics which are vital in the organization of the subject of grammar as set forth in the introduction. All phases of historical grammar have been purposely omitted, because that view is not necessary in the organization of the subject, and it is thought thatthe child, at this age, has not a sufficient basis for such a discus- sion of the facts of grammar. 2. The author's somewhat extended experience in teach- ing the subject in public and Normal schools, and his super- vision of others in the work, has shown him how very easy it is to make the study of grammar a bugbear, a deadening verbal memory grind to children. It is thought that this is not necessary but that the subject of grammar may be made as interesting to the pupil as the study of botany, and that it may be studied in much the same way. 4 A New English Grammak. We used to study botany, physics, cliem- Sturtv ^^^^'y> from the text-book, much in the same way as that in which we have been studying grammar. Bacon, Agassiz, and others showed us the error of our way. Now in the subject of botany, we study plants, using the text as an aid, and in the ^ teaching of physics, chemistry, etc., the laboratory is considered an essential. If the teacher of science to-day had to give up his text-book or his laboratory, he would, without hesitation, throw downthe text. .It is thought that this same spirit of in- Invesfe- t'on ^estigation, this same personal examination of the facts of the subject on the part of each and every pupil, ought to be introduced into the study of grammar; and that the great variety of sentences ought to stand before the student of grammar, for his scrutiny and examination, just as the great variety of plants is made to appear to him by the teacher of botany. The purpose of the author in this book ^"^ ' ®* has been, then, to present suitable sentences and to ask such questions upon them as will lead the pupil, by the aid of the teacher, to construct the science of gram- mar for himself. To this end only such definitions, state- ments of facts, and explanations, as have been thought nec- essary to help the teacher in leading the child to think his way through the subject, have been inserted. Definitions '^^^® definitions and principles thus in- ancl serted are for the teacher and not for the pu- Principles. pil. There is no need of committing any law or principle of language from a text-book. All the facts of the subject of grammar are embodied in the sen- tence, and the pupil may study them directly, ^rs^ hand, just Preface. 5 as he studies the flower in botany or the rock in geology, and if he should forget the rule, he has only to examine a few sentences and restate it for himself. Nor is the teacher asked to ACCEPT a single statement in this book. Grammar is not a^iat- ter of authority; it is a thoughtTsubject, and if the teacher's thought on the materials here presented should lead her to a different conclusion from that stated in a definition, she should not hesitate to change the definition. Subject There is no need to tell the pupil that the not flower has so many petals and so many se- Arbitrary. pals, or to send him to a book to read it, says the botanist; he can discover these facts for himself. Can he not also discover t he uses of the substantive clause? If he be able to see that the fish has so many spines in the dorsal fin, why can he not see that the noun has gender, person, num- ber, and case? Resemblance There is a close resemblance between the Between method of procedure here in the language Grammar and studies and that followed in the study of the Sciences, natural sciences. True, no special apart- ment, fitted up with tables, cases of instruments, or bottles of reagents, as in the sciences, is necessary; the real unit of the subject, the sentence, is the material upon which we work; the instruments are the minds of the pupils, con- stantly at hand, and never in the way. The superiority of this way of working in the language studies over its recognized value in the natural sciences, will at once appear, for the work can be carried on conveniently without so many appliances, and without the di.sagreeable associations which sometimes enter into such operations in the scientific laboratory: ' 6 A New English Grammar. The work as presented in this text, then, of *theWork ^^ ^^^^'^ ^P°^ ^^® following thoughts: 1. That the sentence as determined by the thought which it expresses, is the unit and subject of study in grammar. 2. That there should be a two-fold purpose in the mind of the teacher who teaches it; viz., to make the pupils famil- iar with the principles which underlie correct sentence con- struction, and to give them skill in the use of the sentence as an instrument in expressing their thought. The Labora- 3. That the method which should be tory Method, pursued in studying the subject should be inductive, and might appropriately be called the laboratory method. Terre Haute, Ind., Nov. 29, 1895. CONTENTS. Pages. I. Preface 3-6 II. Introduction 9-38 III. Part I 39-180 1. The First Circle 39-45 a. The Subject as a Whole 39-41 b. The Sentence as a Whole 41-45 2. The Second Circle 45-55 a. Classes of Sentences on Basis of Meaning or Ef- fect Produced Upon the Mind 45-53 b. Classes of Sentences on Basis of Form as Deter- mined by the Form of the Thought 53-55 3. The Third Circle 55-106 a. Thought Material 55-60 b. Classesof Words 61-62 c. Modifiers 63- 65 d. Kinds of Predicates 66- 67 e. Uses of Words • 67-106 (1). In Simple Sentence 67-74 (2). In Compound Sentence 75- 85 (3). In Complex Sentence 85-106 /. Combinations of Words 71-106 (1). The Phrase 71-74 (2). The Clause 75-lOQ 8 A New English Grammar. 4. "^he Fourth Circle 106-180 cr. Parts of Speech 106-180 (1). The Noun 106-118 (2). The Pronoun 119-124 (3). The Adjective 125-131 (4). The Verb 131-165 (5). The Adverb ' 165-169 (6). The Infinitive 169-172 -(7). The Participle 172-175 (8). The Preposition 175-178 (9). The Conjunction .178-180 IV. Partll 181_227 1. Introduction 183-186 2. Selections 184r-227 a. The Voyage r . . . 187-194 b. Scheme for the Study'of a Selection 194-195 c. The Widow and Her Son 196-204 d. The Blind Preacher 204-207 e. The Four Crafts-Men 208-212 /. A Tale of Two Brothers 213-215 g. The Chameleon 215-216 h. Await the Issue 217-219 V. Appendix A 220-222 VI. Index . 223-227 INTRODUCTION. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SUBJECT. _ English grammar is that language study which has for its subject-matter the sentence. It is both a science and an art. As a science, it deals with the fundamentals The Science. ^^ sentence structure. It makes known to the student the laws and principles which underlie sentence construction. As an art, it aims to enable the student to acquire a skillful use of the sentence as an e Art. instrument in expressing his thought. These two phases of the subject are not inseparable. One may understand the science of grammar and not be able to use good English in conversation, and one may be very skill- ful in the use of language and at the same time know little or nothing about the laws and principles which govern cor- rect sentence construction. If one had been brought up in a family where he had always heard good English, if his playmates and those with whom he had associated had al- ways used good English, then his English would certainly be pure ; but he would know nothing of the rules of grammar. On the other hand, we have all known persons who could re- peat rule after rule of grammar and yet could not speak cor- rectly. Mastery of As a mastery of the art side of grammar the Art. is an accomplishment which comes only through long and careful practice, it is essential that the 10 A New English Grammar. teacher devote much time to this side of the child's educa- tion in English. His language will need the careful super- vision of his teacher in all his work, and the pupil, himself, should be made to feel that he must keep a constant watch over his language in order to become proficient and skillful in its use. Eternal vigilance on the part of both teacher and pupil, is the price of pure English. Thescience of grammar will help, to some extent, to give the pupil the art; it will help him to judge when his sentences are correct, and to dis- cover his own mistakes, but the use of good English must be acquired largely by practice. Value of Pur- In teaching any subject, the teacher should pose. constantly bear in mind the end to be at- tained. The teacher who sees clearly the end from the be- ginning will be able, for the most part, to select such means and devices as will bring about or accomplish this end. She will waste no time on side issues or irrelevant matter, because the purpose which she sees in the work draws her constantly toward it and excludes everything which does not contribute to that end. If we say that the end of education is Contribution moral character, then the chief value of of the Subject ^^^^ ^^^. ^^ grammar lies in that element to Character. , . , ., , ^^ ^ ^ it, i. which it contributes to moral character. And does the study of grammar really contribute anything to moral character? I think so. It Deals With In the study of grammar, the pupil's Mind. attention is directed inward for the first time. It is the only subject in the common school course which requires the pupil to consider his mental acts as such. Intboduction. 11 Here he stops to consider for the first time the nature of that for which the word, the phrase, the clause, the sentence stands. He deals primarily with the forms of thought, pure thought, of course in a very elementary way. This means that he gets, in a limited way, a knowledge of the human mind; he sees, to some extent, the delicate working, the mar- velous powers of the human soul. Here he finds an oppor- tunity for making distinctions and doing a kind of thinking similar to that which he will do in psychology and logic. He does closer and stronger thinking than that required in arithmetic or physiology, because the subject-matter upon which he is working is more subtile. This work which he does here, gives him an element of moral character which he could not get from the study of any other subject; viz., acute intellectual judgment, without which there could be no moral judgment and hence no moral character, for if the element of moral judgment be left out of character, if the individual be unable to make fine distinctions in questions of right and wrong, strong moral character is impossible. But while this is the great value of the More Tmmedi- study of grammar, it is not the immediate ^th^Sub^^ect"* end which the teacher keeps before her day by day. The result stated above is obtained only by keeping in mind the fact that the sentence is the unit or subject-matter of grammar, and that all work in the subject is: (1). To give pupils a knowledge of its structure — the laws and principles which underlie its correct construction, or the science of the English sentence. (2). To give the pupils such a mastery of the sentence as an in- strument in expressing thought as will enable them to use it correctly — the art of the English sentence. 12 A New English Grammab. In order to accomplish these results, the Characteristics teacher should bear in mind that : (1). Subject Grammar is a subject in and of itself, separate and apart from all text-books on the subject, and if all the text-books on the subject were swept from the face of the earth, we should still have the subject of grammar. It has a central or organizing idea which binds together the facts of the subject and indicates their relations to all other facts of knowledge. (2). It is a logical or thought subject. It is not arbitrary and mechani- cal but reasonable. (3). It is analytic and inductive and not synthetic and deductive, and should be taught according to what might appropriately be called the laboratory method, as explained in the preface. The purpose of the discussion that follows is to make these three propositions clear to the teacher and thus enable her to get above the common plane of ordinary text-book grammar work. GRAMMAR A SUBJECT IN ITSELF. There is a body of facts which we call grammar. May these facts be known scientifically, just as one would learn the facts of botany, or must the student be required to com- mit them' from a text? This group of facts is related to other groups of facts. Grammar is related other ^^ ^^® word studies of the language group. Subjects. ^^ i^ ^^^^ ^ "^^^ relative of reading, compo- sition and rhetoric, and literature — those language studies which have discourse for their subject- matter. Grammar is the handmaid of logic. All its forms are determined by and adapted to the thought they express. The relations which are found in the subject are logical rela- tions and the true study of these facts is the study of the Intkoduction. 13 logic of the English sentence. Dr. C. C. Everett, of Harvard University, in his "Science of Thought," says: ^^ Certainly, while logic derives such help from grammar, the re- verse should he done, and our grammars placed upon a direct logi- cal footing P When the student studies grammar in the light of the relations set forth above, when he sees it as based upon and growing out of logic, as a practical illustration of psychology, as conditioned by the word studies, and as preparing for and aiding in a mastery of the discourse studies, Constructive j^g jg studying the subject "constructively," „ " "^ ** as Dr. W. T. Harris says. Heretofore he has learned a great many of the facts of orthog- raphy, orthoepy, grammar, reading, composition, rhetoric, and literature, but these are somewhat fused together in his mind and mixed, to some extent, with the facts of history, geography, and all other subjects which he has studied. Now he sees the language group clearly set off from all other studies, he sees the place of each study in this group, and he sees all of them in the light of the studies upon which they are based. But while the student is coming into a Facts of complete comprehension of the relations rammar g^^^gfj above, he learns that the facts of grammar have certain relations to one an- other and to the subject as a whole. In the consideration of such a common object as the table, he has noticed that it is made up of parts, each one holding a certain relation to every other one and all together forming the whole. Without any one of these parts the whole would not be complete. In this case, he sees a common idea, the 14 A New E^fGLISH Grammar. idea of design or purpose, embodied in every part of the table and binding all the parts together into the whole. The table is to write upon and at the same time is to be orna- mental, and every part and attribute of it, legs, sides, top, color, etc., embodies the central idea of the table. Why was the table not painted red ? Why are the legs all the same length? Why is this bit of carving on the side? Why is it made of hard wood? To answer any of these questions is to refer it to the central idea in the table. It will be readily seen that the student might take another view of the table. He might see it as a number of isolated parts, existing in space — a mere heap of material. What is the difference between this view and the first one? The parts are all in the second view. The legs, tops, sidjes, etc., every bit of carving, all the attributes of the parts, color, form, etc., all materials are present. But the view of the table is not the same as the first, because these parts are not seen in their relations. They are not bound into a whole by a unifying idea. Two Views of It will be seen from the foregoing dis- Any Subject. cussion that there were two phases or sides in this first view of the table; viz., the part phase or fact phase; and the relation phase or unifying idea. It is claimed that the relations existing among the facts of grammar are similar to the relations existing among the parts of the table with one exception. The relations exist- ing among the parts of the table are mechanical relations, and the whole is a mechanical whole, while the relations ex- isting among the facts of grammar are vital, and the subject may be shown to be a vital unity. Introduction. 15 Two Points Grammar, then, may be viewed from these of View. two points of view : (1). The student may consider the fact side, sentences in their great variety of form and many shades of meaning, together with the words which compose these sentences in their various uses in the sen- tences. These form the subject-matter of grammar, upon which the mind of the student is to be exercised. (2). The student may consider the relation phase of the subject. This is the central idea, which is found in some measure embodied in all the facts of the subject, and which binds them all to- gether. The two points just stated are not two different subjects. They are the same thing viewed from two points of view; it takes both to form the science of grammar ; and any knowl- edge which leaves out either phase of the subject could not be said to be a scientific knowledge of grammar. Science, it has often been said, is organ- What is it to J2ed knowledge or facts reduced to a sys- „ , . 4- G • , t^m. To know a thing scientifically is to tifically? know it in its relations. To know any subject scientifically, is to know the rela- tions which exist among the facts of that subject; to see the relation of each fact to the other and to the whole through or by means of the fundamental idea in the subject; and to pee the relations of the subject as a whole to other subjects of study. This view of the subject cannot be gained by committing rules and definitions from a text-book on grammar, however good the rules and definitions may be. The student's mind must come in contact with the real unit of the subject, if he is to see relations. In short, the subject of grammar must be viewed from the two points of view stated above in "(1)" 16 A New English Grammar. * and "(2)": the facts and the central or relating idea. When one sees the subject in this way, he may be said to have an organized knowledge of grammar. He sees the subject of grammar as Paul saw the church when he said, " So we be- ing many are one body in Christ, and every one members one of another." The sentence cannot say to the subject, "I have no need of thee;" nor the adverb to the verb, "I have no need of you;" nor can grammar say to the most insignificant fact in it, "I have no need of you." For this body of facts which belong to grammar, being many, are at the same time one, by reason of a common idea which is found in all of them, and every one members one of another. Subject- It has been said that sentences in their Matter. , manifold variety of form and many shades of meaning, together with the multitude of facts concerning them, which the student must know in order to understand how thoughts are expressed in sentences, form the subject- matter of grammar. The student is to think this vast array of facts into an organized whole by means of what has been called the "relation phase," or "unifying idea." This uni- fying idea or central principle of the subject of grammar must be a general truth, because every fact in the subject must partake of its nature. It must be a primary truth, be- cause every fact in the subject is to be built into it and con- nected with it. It must be a determining idea or relating truth, because, by means of it, all the facts of grammar are to be logically arranged or organized. The only use of a, sentence is to express a thought. How does the sentence express thought? The mowing machine expresses thought. By ob- serving its parts and how they all cooperate to do the work Introduction. 17 of the machine, one can see design in it and adaptation of means to end. He becomes aware of the fact that all this existed in the mind of the inventor before it was put into this form. The mower is simply the thought of the designer objectified, and the machine expresses his thought. Nature of The sentence does not express thought in Judgment, the way indicated above. A judgment or thought is a mental act in which the mind asserts a re- lation between ideas. There are three elements in every such judgment: (1). The idea about which the mind asserts something, which may be called the thought subject. (2). The idea which the mind thinks with the first idea and which it affirms or denies of it. This may be called the thought predicate. (3). The relation which the mind asserts between these ideas, which is always one of agreement or disagreement and which may be termed the thought relation. I have in mind the idea, cloud, and the idea, fleecy, but these do not form a judgment. I must see a relation between the two. My mind must think the two ideas into a unity in which I see fleecy as belonging to or forming one of the attributes of cloud. In this way, my mind forms the judgment or thought expressed by the sentence. The cloud is fleecy. It is this triple unity which the sentence expresses, and in order to express it, the sentence must take on the trijjle form of the thought. Three Parts A sentence is the expression of a thought of Sentence, or judgment in words. Why is it necessary that the sentence have the triple form of the thought? (1). A subject, expressing the thought subject of the judgment. (2). A predicate, expressing the thought predicate of the judgment. (3). A copula, expressing the thought relation of the judgment. A picture expresses thought but it does 2 18 A New English Grammar. not express thought as the sentence does. There are no three parts to the picture. It expresses thought by resemblance. Its form is determined by the form of the object which it represents. But there is no resemblance between the thought and the sentence Avhich expresses it, such as exists in the pict- ure. The thought is spiritual, subjective; the sentence is physical, objective. The sentence is adapted to the thought for the purpose of expressing it, and is determined by the thought. Since the thought is not like the sentence and can- not be like it in any other particular, except in the number of its elements, the sentence, in order to express the thought, must take on the triple form of the thought. The thought imposes its form upon the sentence. It might be said here, that grammarians. Why do while recognizing the fact that the sentence Grammarians u *i ^ ^ i, x • ■,-,•. j- Say Two Parts? three^ parts, have not considered it ot enough importance to make the distinc- tion, at all times, between predicate and copula. Since the thought predicate and thought relation are so frequently ex- pressed by the same word, they have fallen into the inaccu- racy of dividing sentences into two narts, a subject and a pred- icate. The greatest linguistf in this country says : "The verb be, in all its various forms, has come to stand as a mere connective of assertion between a subject and some word or words describing that subject, and so to have no meaning of its own except that of signifying the assertion." And he adds, "Indeed, every verb admits of "See Reed and Kollogg's IliglKir Lessons in English, beginning of lesson 29. Whit- ney's Essentials of English Uianiinar, p. 158, par. 853. "Our Language," p 84 Lee and Hadley's Grammar, pp. 53-55. t The late Dr. Williani Dwight Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit and comparative Philology and instructor in modern hinguages in Yale College; author of "Lan- guage and the Study of Language," " Life and Growth of Language," etc., etc. Introduction. 19 being taken apart, or analyzed, into some form of this copula be, which expresses the act of assertion, and a predicate noun or adjective (especially the verbal adjective, the present par- ticiple), expressing the condition or quality or action predi- cated. Thus, / stand is nearly I am erect, or, still more nearly, I am standing; again. They beg, is equivalent to They are beg- gars, or, They are begging J ^ In the above examples, each sentence has three parts. For example, in ''They are begging,^' the word, "They," is the subject of the sentence and expresses the thought subject of the judgment; the word, "begging," is the predicate of the sen- tence and expresses the thought predicate of the judgment; and the word, "are," is the copula of the sentence and ex- presses the relation which the mind sees between the thought subject and the thought predicate, or the thought relation of the judgment. Since every sentence must contain a verb, it follows, that, if the above statement from Dr. Whitney is correct, every sentence may not only be separated into three parts, but must contain three parts, and no group of words can be a sentence or can possibly express a thought, if it lack either a subject or predicate or copula. Psychologists In addition to the foregoing discussion, and Logicians, which seems to the writer to set forth the reason in the case, it might be said, that psychologists and logicians in all times and almost without exception, have in- sisted, that the sentence must have three parts corresponding to the three elements of the judgment. The inaccuracy, on the part of grammarians, has come about, as Dr. C. C. Everett, of Harvard University, points out, because they have divorced grammar from logic, which is sure to lead to error, since the sentence is only an instrument in expressing so A New English Grammar. the thought, and grammar is directly dependent upon logic at every point. If one word contains two parts of the sen- tence, in which it occurs, that is all the more reason why the analysis of the student should be subtle enough to discover that fact and to identify each part of the sentence with the element of the thought which it expresses. To express two elements of the thought in one part of the sentence would be confusing to say the least. Central Idea This fundamental attribute in the nature Stated. of the sentence, as it is determined bv the nature of the thought, is the most universal truth in the subject of grammar. To put it in other words, the most general truth, or central, or determining, or relating idea in the subject *of grammar may be stated as follows: The three elements of the thought as they are accurately expressed in the three parts of the sentence. The student must see the sentence as the expression of the thought. This it does in common with a great many other things; the picture, the piece of music, the statue, etc., all express thought ; but the sentence is arbitrary, expressing thought in a particular way, by means of its triple form, and the student must see this. This states the end and purpose of all the study of the science of grammar. Why does the student study the simple sentence or the declarative sentence? To see how the three elements of the thought are expressed in those language forms. He wants to know how the sentence form which we call com- plex is adapted to express the thought. Why does he study noun or verb? To see what part they play in the expression of the three elements of the thought in the three parts of the sentence ; to see how these language forms are adapted to the expression of the thought and how they are determined by the thought. Intboduction. 81 How do we know that the principle just How Do We stated is the most general, and, therefore, Know This ,, • x xi .n i i. r is True? governing truth m the subject of gram- mar? " By their fruits ye shall know them." This is the truth which organizes the subject. It touches every fact in the subject and is the essential attribute of every such fact. It is the truth to which every question concerning the subject of grammar must be referred for its answer, just as every question concerning the table can be answered only by referring it to the central idea in the table. This central truth in the subject of grammar is the most general truth in the subject, because every other fact of the subject depends upon it. The value of this view of the subject to nn^ Xf. ^ *** ^-^6 teacher may be made clear by pointing the Teacher ^^^^ what the governing or central idea of any subject will indicate to the teacher concerning that subject. The organizing truth of a subject will determine the following points with regard to the sub- ject: (1). It will set off the subject-matter of the study from the subject-matter of all other studies. (2). It will in- dicate the logical order of topics in the subject. (3). It will determine the order in whicli the topics should be acquired or presented. (4.) It will indicate the important and un- important facts of the subject. (5). It will indicate the ' important and unimportant elements in each fact in the sub- ject. (6). It will test the definitions of the subject. (7). It will indicate the mental steps which the student must take to master the subject, and the materials which the teacher must put before the pupil in order to induce his mind to take these steps. 22 A New English Grammar. There must be some reason why mathe- Central Idea maticians have grouped certain facts and Sets Off Facts ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ arithmetic. It is not mere chance that scientists inckidejust the facts they do include in the subject of physiology and exclude all other facts. There is certainly some method by which gram- marians have been able to decide what facts constitute the science of grammar. It is the central idea in the subject which sets off the facts of that subject from all other facts. The central idea or organizing truth of the subject is the most universal attribute of the subject. Any fact possessing this attribute is a fact of the subject. Any fact which has to do with the accurate expression of the three elements of the thought in the sentence form is a fact in grammar. This organizing truth in the subject is Indicates Log-i- d^q most general or universal truth in the *^^™ ^.^"^ ** subject. Every fact in the subiect is re- lated to it. Some facts in the subject are more closely related to it than others. The fact in the sub- ject which stands most closely related to the organizing truth, is first in the subject; one equally near in its relation to the central truth is coordinate to it; one containing a less degree of the central truth is subordinate to both; and so on with all the facts of the subject. When each fact is given its place in the subject, according to the relation which it bears to the central idea, the subject is organized. This means that the order of dependence among the facts of the subject has been discovered; the relative importance of the facts and of the elements in each fact may be seen; and the teacher sees the order in which the facts of the subject should be presented and why they should be presented in that ord«r Introduction. 23 Tests The organizing truth tests the definitions Definitions, of the subject. Every fact in the subject contains a certain degree of the general truth or universal attribute of the subject. To define any fact of the subject is to show its relation to the central idea of the subject. A definition of the noun which does not show its relation to the organizing truth of grammar, which does not show how it helps to express the three elements of the thought in the three parts of the sentence, is faulty. Organized When the student sees the central idea of Knowledge, the subject of grammar and all it indicates with regard to the subject, as set forth in the preceding dis- cussion, he may be said to have an organized or scientific knowledge of the subject. He is free from text-books, except as he uses them as a means, and he sees the subject in the light of reason and in all its relations. Can the teacher be satisfied, or do intelligent work in the school room, with a less comprehensive view? The most severe criticism which could be <-'riticism. pronounced upon grammarians and teachers of grammar is that made by Dr. C. C. Everett, of Harvard, when he says, they have divorced grammar from logic. And any one who has carefully examined our text-books in gram- mar, or observed thoughtfully much of the work done in our schools in this subject, will be compelled to admit that there is more truth than poetry in this charge. The study of grammar has become largely a study of dry form; a mere classification of words; a kind of jugglery with symbols. What wonder that most boys and girls, with normal minds, hate it ! 24 A New English Grammar. But if, as Dr. Harris says*, "Grammar True View, (jgfl^gg and fixes speech; by its mastery man obtains the first mastery over his mind as an instrument. * * * It is the key to all that is spiritual. * * * Grammar as etymology and syntax initiates the pupil into the general forms of thought itself. Thus there branch out logic, psychology-, and metaphysics, as well as the various phases of philosophy. Has it not been said, indeed, that the father of logic discovered its forms through grammar? Under a thin veil the pupil deals with pure thought when he studies syntax" — if this be true, then there is no lack of op- portunity for thinking in the study of grammar. The sentence is only the "veil;" it is composed of mere words; but this form has a content, the thought, and to un- derstand the sentence, the student must be able to separate, in thought, this form from its content. The student must constantly hold these two elements in mind while dealing with the sentence. When he considers the sentence, Glass is brittle, he views it as the expression of a thought composed of three elements: (1). A thought subject, the idea, glass; (2). A thought predicate, the idea, brittle; (3). A thought re- lation of agreement between the two. In. the expression itself, he sees parts corresponding to the elements of the thought: (1). A subject, the word, "glass," expressing the thought subject; (2). A predicate, the word, "brittle," expressing the thought predicate; (3). A copula or relational element, the word, "is," expressing the thought relation. When he considers the word, "sour," in Two Elements. .^ . m ? • j the sentence, 1 he sour apple ripened rap- idly, he sees two elements; first the form or word and second, its content. The word, ''sour," expresses an attribute which "■See Report of Board of Public Schools, St. Louis, bound volume of 1872-78. Introduction. 26 belongs to the idea expressed by the word, "apple." So in dealing with the word, "rapidly," he sees that it expresses an attribute of the attribute expressed by the word, "ripened." In each case the student is required first, to distinguish be- tween the form, and its content, and second, to think the two together again to see how the form organizes itself around the thought and is determined by it. Form and This seeing of form and content and the Content. relation between the two cannot be too strongly emphasized. The failure on the part of gramma- rians and teachers to keep it in mind has given to the study of grammar its formal and lifeless nature. The study of the sentence from this point of view is no simple mental activity. It requires the most careful attention and very close and accurate thinking on the part of the student. He is first conscious of the sentence form, a group of words, and hav- ing obtained the thought which it expresses, he proceeds to analyze that thought into its elements. He finds that there are three principal elements in every thought; a thought sub- ject, a thought predicate, and a thought relation, each of which may be composed of several elements. Finally, he associates each element of the thought with some part of the sentence, thus making the parts of the sentence, the rela- tions existing among them, and their relations to the thought, to appear clearly. It will be seen that this is a complex ac- tivity, the student being required to hold several points in mind, while he thinks his way careful!}^ through the sen- tence. These two processes of separating form and content from each other, and each one into its elements, analysis, and thinking form and content back again into a vital unity, in order to see how the thought determines the form, synthesis, are the two fundamental processes in the mastery of grammar 28 A New English Grammar. The principles already discussed would Student Must indicate, that in thinking the almost infin- c . ite variety of sentences into the unity of a Sentences. . , '. . , ■, . . . i single principle, and m gaining the mas- tery over the sentence as an instrument for communicating thought, it is necessary for the student to deal not with text- books, but with this great variety of sentences. Text-books are helpful to him in proportion to the degree in which they put the subject-matter of grammar, the sentence, before him in such a way as to help him think it through for himself. But if all texts on grammar were destroyed, we should still have the subject-matter of grammar, the sentence, left; and the student might be led to construct the entire science of grammar from his study of sentences. GRAMMAR A LOGICAL SUBJECT. Now perhaps enough has been said to show that the sub- ject of grammar is a subject in itself; that it does not depend upon text-books; that the unit of it is the sentence; and that every principle, definition, and fact of the subject is wrapped up there in the sentence. The subject has an organization of its own, because it is a body of facts bound together, or unified by a central idea or truth, which runs through or in- heres in all the facts of the subject. But now I wish to discuss the second proposition; viz., Grammar is a reasonable or logical or thought subject, not an arbitrary subject to be taken on authority. It is not to be bolted or swallowed whole. One often hears that the Golden Rule is true because it is in the Bible. It is not true because it is in the Bible ; it is in the Bible because it is true. Christ gave us many great Intkoduction. 27 truths, but not one of them is a truth because Christ gave it; Christ gave them to us because they are truths. So with the definitions and principles Definitions and ^f ^]^g subject of grammar; they do not calf, or Sweet, or Whitney has them in his grammar. These men did not make or invent the prin- ciples of our language and set them forth for us to commit and follow the remainder of our days, nor could they or any other men possibly do so. Grammarians have discovered and stated the principles of language, and these principles are true, if they are true, not because they are in the gram- marians' books, but they are in the books because they are true. Sentence an The sentence is merely an instrument or Instrument, means; it is not an end in itself. The only legitimate use of a sentence is to express a thought. I am aware of the fact that there are those who think that Brown- ing and others like him, use sentences to cover up thought. But this is an illegitimate use of the sentence even if Brown- ing does use it so. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a thought. This statement expresses the only true function of the sentence. One mind has a thought to be communicated to another mind; the sentence is the vehicle of that thought. If there were no thoughts to be conveyed from one mind to another, we should have no need in the world for a sentence. Since the sentence is an instrument or a means, it is like all other instruments or means in one particular; viz., it is determined by that which it is to do. We may surely say of all instruments that they are made to suit the work which 28 A New English Geammab. they are to perform ; that which they are to do determines them in every part and attribute. It would be ridiculous to think that a man would attempt to make a mowing machine without understanding the nature of grass, or the place in which it grows, or its uses, etc. He might make it so that it would run only on a smooth floor or concrete walk. Nature of an Here is an instrument called the garden Instrument, hoe. Why is its handle five feet long in- stead of ten feet long? Why is it made of wood? Why is it round and one inch in diameter instead of square and three inches in diameter? Why is its blade four inches wide and three inches long instead of ten inches wide and nine inches long? Why is it sharp? And is it not easily seen that it is the purpose of the instrument which determines these points? How could any man who knew nothing of the nature of plants and the soil in which they grow; who did not know that weeds grow up among plants and must be cut out, and that the soil about the roots of plants must be stirred; how could a man ignorant of the nature of the work which a garden hoe is to perform, make such an instrument? And more, how could a person, ignorant of all this, under- stand the instrument? You are going along the street and you find a little wheel with tiny cogs. What is the first question you ask about it? Why it is this; where does it belong? what is its work? is it a part of a watch or a bicycle, or what is it for? How we Study If one did not understand the garden an Instrument.- hoe, he might study it point by point. He might see that the handle is long so that one need not stoop over too much in digging with the tool. He might see that the blade must be sharp so that it will cut the weeds Introduction. 29 and stir the hard ground easily, etc. Each time he notices a characteristic of the hoe, he sees that there is something in the nature of the work which it is to do that requires that characteristic in the hoe. When he has mastered it, he sees the appropriateness of this instrument to do its work, and how the instrument depends upon its work for its nature. Now there is nothing arbitrary or mechanical in the pro- cess by which the individual has mastered the garden hoe, if he has done it in the way indicated above. He takes noth- ing for granted and nothing on authority. He sees the cor- respondence between the nature of this instrument and the nature of the work which it is to do, and if forty authors had written text-books on the garden hoe, and every one of them had said the handle should be three inches in diameter and made of iron, he would not believe them. Now the sentence is like the garden hoe. Sentence jj^ ^]-,g^l^ j^ jg j^j-j instrument, and has a work Adapted to tlie , r- ^-^. • ^ ii * , . to periorm; viz., the expression ot the thought. And what does this mean? It means that the sentence is adapted to the work of express- ing the thought and that it is determined in every part and attribute by the nature of the thought, which it expresses. It is just as necessary to understand the thought and its na- ture in order to understand the sentence, as it is to under- stand the garden in order to comprehend the garden hoe. But one may say then, how can you Logic and^ keep from teaching logic and psychology y gy jj-^ npi-ammar? No one who teaches gram- mar scientifically can keep logic and psy- chology out of his work, for grammar is dependent upon logic at every point, and the explanation of every grammatical 30 A New English Gkammar. form involves the examination of a mental process. The great difficulty is that grammarians have divorced grammar and logic, in a great measure, and this has given to the sub- iect its lifeless and formal nature. It has made it a mechan- ical, deadening, memory grind, instead of an intelligent, liealthful, life-giving, mental gymnastic. One might turn to any part of the subject of grammar for an illustration of the fact, that the sentence is adapted to the expression of the thought and is determined in every part and attribute by the nature of the thought; that it is impos- sible to give any reasonable explanation of language forms without viewing them in relation to the thought, which they express. And I wish now to illustrate at some length, this fundamental view of grammar. The entire subject of grammar falls into four great circles of work: 1. THE STUDY OF THE CLASS WHOLE. In the first circle of the work, only those attributes or characteristics of the sentence which are universal are no- ticed. The student has as many different kinds of sen- tences as can be obtained placed before him, and in all this variety, he is asked to see the resemblances, the universal at- tribute, which makes them all sentences. He finds that some of these individual examples are long and some short; some declarative and some interrogative; some simple and some complex; some inverted order and some natural order; but one characteristic is found in each of them. Not every sentence is imperative; not every one has a compound subject; but they all have either explicit or implicit in them, the triple form, expressing the thought. Intkoduction. 31 This fact enables him to unify this great ^^ ^' variety of sentences and to see the unity in the thought of each sentence. It is not an easy matter for the student to grasp the unity of the thought in a long and involved sentence; to see the thought subject and thought predicate, which the mind unites by an act of thinking into the triple unity — the thought, which the sentence expresses. But this is what he must do if he ever masters the sentence, either as an instrument in expressing his own thought, or as a medium for obtaining the thoughts of others. Close of First At the close of this phase of his study in Circle. grammar, the student should be able to take any sentence, distinguish between its form and content, an- alyze its content into its three essential elements, see the triple organic form of the sentence as determined by the thought, the relation of each element of the thought to its corresponding part of the sentence, and should be able to express the result of his thinking in some concise form such as the following: The large book is certainly very cheap. This is a sentence, l^ecause it is the expression of a thought in words. The subject of the sentence is the words, "The large book," because they express the thought subject. The predicate of the sentence is the words, "very cheap," because they express the thought predicate. The copula of the sentence, is the words, "is certainly," because they express the thought relation, or unifying act of the mind. Do Not Make It is not intended that the above form Work Formal, shall always be used by the student in ex- pressing the result of his thinking. The chief thing is to have his mind perform the two mental processes of analysis 82 A New English Grammar. and synthesis as indicated above, and any set form of ex- pressing the result is rather to be avoided, as having a ten- dency to make the student mechanical and formal. Throughout this entire first circle of the work, the student's attention is directed to but one thing — the universal sentence lorm as determined by the thought. • He is not permitted to say that the idea expressed by the word, "book," in the above sentence, is the thought subject, or that the word, "book," is the subject of the sentence; but he must see each element of the thought and each part of the sentence as a unit. The idea expressed by the words, "The large book," for that is one idea, though a complex one, is the thought subject, and all these words form the subject of the sentence. When the student is able to see in any sentence, each one of the three elements of the thought, which is expressed, and see it as a unit, no matter how complex it may be, and when he sees each of the essential parts of the sentence in the same way, and has thought the whole into an organic unity, in which he sees the sentence as standing for or expressing the thought, he is ready to pass from the first circle of the gram- mar work. ^, „ , It will usually take considerable careful Careful Work. , -^-u ^u \ j ^ ^ ui i,- ^ work with the student to enable him to do what is indicated above, but it is worth the effort, for the student who has this ability is forever free from mechanical or formal work in the subject, and is a long stride on his way toward the mastery of grammar as based upon logic. 2. THE STUDY OF CLASSES OF SENTENCES. In the second circle of the work, the pupil still deals with sentences as wholes, but he finds there are likenesses and dif- Introduction. 33 ferences among them which enable him to classify them. Basis of He notices that one kind expresses a phase Meaning-. of thought which appeals to the intellect. It communicates some information. Another kind also expresses a phase of thought which ap- peals to the intellect, but it inquires for information, asks for some element of the thought which is unknown and sought for. Still another kind expresses a phase of thought which awakens the emotions. Some information may be commu- nicated, but it is to the end of awakening feeling. Lastly, he notices that some sentences express thought which is intended to produce an act of will. So, on basis of meaning, or phase of mental activity which is prominent, or power of mind addressed, he divides sen- tences into the following classes: Declarative, Interrogative, Exclamatory, Imperative. Basis of Some thoughts are simple in structure; Form. some are complex; some are compound. The pupil will see that sentences must be of these kinds, also, since they express the thoughts. He, therefore, classi- fies sentences on basis of form, as determined by the form of the thought expressed, into the following classes: Sim- ple, Complex, and Compound. Close of When the pupil is able to view sen- Second Circle, tences, as determined by the thought, in the ways just indicated, he is ready to pass from the second circle of the grammar work. 3. THE STUDY OF THE ORGANIC PARTS OF THE SENTENCE. In the third circle of the work, the study of the organic parts of the sentence is taken up. Subjects of sentences are 3 34 A New English Grammar. Parts of not all of the same kind. Some are simple, Sentence. consisting of but one word; others are long and complex. This requires a combination of words, for, however long the subject of the sentence may be, it must be a unity. This means that the pupil must deal with the words, composing the subject of the sentence, expressing the unified thought subject, just as he has dealt with the sen- Content and tence, which expresses the unity called Extent. the thought. He must separate form from content; the extent and content of ideas present them- selves to him ; and he sees the whole sub- ^ ^ ' ject of modifiers growing out of this distinc- tion. He discusses the thought material or ideas, out of Thought which thought subjects, thought predicates, Material. and thought relations are made, and he sees how the words composing the subjects, predicates, and copulas of sentences may be unified, because of the ideas they ex- press. He sees, for example, that in the sentence. The old arm-chair is broken, he could not say that the word, "arm- chair," is the subject of the sentence, because the mind does not assert the idea, broken, of the idea, arm-chair ; but of the idea, arm-chair, as changed by the ideas, the and old. Parts Adapted Thus, all the different forms which sub- to Elements of jects, predicates, and copulas may have, Thought. Q^Q gggjj ^Q i^g adapted to the expression of thought subjects, thought predicates, and thought relations and determined by them. We have principal words and Close of subordinate or modifying words in these Third Circle. parts of the sentence, because we have principal and subordinate ideas in the elements of the thought expressed in these parts of the sentence. Introduction. 36 4. " PARTS OF SPEECH." In the last circle of the grammar work, the student fin- ishes the work for which he has laid the foundation in the circle immediately preceding, so that the last circle is to the third, what the second was to the first. In the third circle, he became familiar with the different kinds of ideas ex- pressed by words; viz., objects of thought, attributes, and ideas of relation. On that basis, he classified words into Classes of the following classes: substantive, attribu- Words. tive, and relation words. Two other kinds, he learned, were sometimes used without much meaning, merely to fill out the form of the sentence; viz., form words and feeling words. Now, in the fourth circle, by observing likenesses and dif- ferences, he subdivides these classes of words, and thus ar- rives at "Parts of Speech." When the pupil sees the parts Close of Fourth of speech, with all their properties, in the Circle. same light in which he has seen all the other parts of the sentence, as indicated in the previous dis- cussion, he has finished the fourth circle of the grammar work, and may be said to have fairly mastered the science of the subject. This fourth circle of work can never be Conditions of mastered, it will be seen, until the pupil Mastering- ^^^^ clearly that there are distinctions in the Subject. ,,,.,., ,, i thought, which give to the noun, gender, person, number, and case; to the verb, voice, mode, tense, etc. If the action of the mind in dealing with objective things did not leave with it a notion of one and more than one, the noun never would have had that property which we call number; and if it were not possible for the mind to think a relation between a thought subject and a thought predicate 36 A New English Grammar. in past time, present time, etc., the verb would never have had that property which we call tense. Use of tlie It might be said in passing, that the Word "Circle." word, "circle,'' is an appropriate word to name these phases of the grammar work, as, in each case, the pupil starts with the sentence, — and after considering parts, refers them all back to the sentence again; or he starts with a whole, and, having reduced it to parts, recombines it again into a whole — analysis and synthesis. The process is a passing from unity, through great variety, back to the unity of the thought, as expressed in the universal sentence form. This is Not This view of the subject makes grammar Arbitrary, a thought study, not a set of rules and princi- ples to be accepted upon authority — and committed to mem- ory; but a thing which is logical and is to be reasoned out by the pupil. It is not a mere study of forms but a study of forms as determined by the content which they express. GRAMMAR IS AN INDUCTIVE SUBJECT. It will be evident, I think, that the work which follows and constitutes the subject-matter of this text, is arranged according to the principles set forth in this discussion and with this thought in mind: that grammar, when properly Laboratory studied, is an inductive subject, and should Method. be presented according to what might ap- propriately be called the laboratory method. If the scientific student wishes to make Compared himself master of the mushroom, he goes ^ * ^^* ^ *^ out into the fields and gathers a specimen Sciences. ^^ every variety. He examines the speci- mens carefully and tries to discover the com- mon characteristics or uniyersal or essential marks which Introduction. 87 make them all mushrooms. By the aid of his glass and knife, he finds out how the specimens differ and on basis of the fundamental differences, he separates them into classes. He takes advantage of the experience of other men, in work- ing with mushrooms, as they have recorded it for him in texts. By means of this experience, he verifies his own con- clusions. Often, by means of this experience, he finds that he has made mistakes in his work, and he returns to his specimens to examine them more carefully and discover his errors. When he has completed his work, he is authority on mushrooms himself. Why can't the student of grammar Grammar Can gtudy the clause in this way? He will , Th'^Wa ' ^^^ have as much difficulty in collecting his specimens as the student of mush- rooms had. He will need no microscope or scalpel. He can see that each of his specimens has a subject, predicate, and copula, and is used as a part of a sentence just as easily, perhaps more easily, than the student of mushrooms saw the common characteristics of mushrooms. He can also see dis- tinctions which will enable him, on dificrent bases, to sep- arate them into classes; as, substantive, attributive, simple, complex, compound, adjective, adverbial, etc. In short, the entire subject of clauses can be thought out from examples, just as the entire subject of mushrooms was thought out from the specimens, by the student. Teacher and ^^ ^^ ^^^ claimed that the pupil in the Text to Aid grades can do this without the aid of the Pupil. teacher and the text. The teacher will stimulate and direct his thought by proper questions and en- couragement. The text will disclose to him the errors in his 38 A New English Grammar. conclusions and send him back to study the examples more carefully. But when he is through with the subject, he will see all of grammar in the sentence and it will be a reason- able thing to him, not a set of dry, arbitrary rules. The Difference ^^^*^ difference between grammar stud- Between Life ied in this way, and technical grammar and Death. • as it is too often taught, is the difference between life and death to the student; it is the difference be- tween an intelligent, healthful, life-giving, mental gymnastic, and a mechanical, deadening, verbal memory grind. The one process leaves him with the arbitrary technic of the sub- ject, a mere crust, which he loathes; the other makes him feel, as Dr. C. C. Everett* has said, that, "There is hardly anything more interesting than to see how the laws of gram- mar, which seem at first sight so hard and arbitrary, are sim- ply the laws of the expression of logical relations in con- crete form." *See his " Science of Tliought," a book which no teacher of grammar should be without, p. 82 GRAMMAR. THE SUBJECT AS A WHOLE. EXERCISE 1 . Give the literal meaning of the word, definition. The word, definition, comes from the Latin, de, meaning, a part- ing from, around, about, etc.; finire, to limit, to bound; and the suf- fix, ion, the act of. Literally, then, the word means, the act of bound- ing about, or the act of limiting from. State the marks of a good definition. Illustrate by any common definition. The marks of a good definition are three: \. Name the thing defined. 2. Put it into the smallest known class. 3. Give the marks or oiiaracteristics of it which set it off from all other members of that class. A noun is a substantive ivord which expresses an object of thought by naming it. When we say, a noun, we have named the thing to be defined ; when we say, is a substantive word, we have put it into the smallest known class; when we say, which expresses an object of thought by naming it, we have distinguished it from the other mem- ber of this class, the pronoun. It is better to put the thing defined into the smallest class than to put it into a large class, because that gives us more characteristics of the thing, and, tlien, we have fewer individuals from which to distinguish it. It must be put into a known class, else one would not know what characteristics to attrib- ute to the thing defined. Note.— The teacher should have the pupils test all definitions by this standard. 40 A New English Grammar. EXERCISE 2. Its Place in the Language Group. To what group of subjects does grammar belong? Name the other subjects of the group. How do you distinguish grammar from the others? Grammar belongs to that group of studies which we call language studies, because it deals with or has for its subject-matter, language. Arithmetic does not belong to this group, because its subject-matter is not language, but number. The other subjects of this group, which we study in the public schools, are: Orthography, orthoepy, word analysis, composition and rhetoric, reading, and literature. Orthography, orthoepy, and word analysis deal Avith or have for their subject-matter that unit of language which we call the word. Composition and rhetoric, reading, and literature deal with or have for their subject-matter that unit of language which we call dis- course. Grammar deals with that unit of language which we call the sentence. It might be thought that in working with "Parts of Speech" in grammar, we are dealing with words, A little reflection will show us, however, that we are not dealing with a word as the unit. If we ask. What part of speech is the word, ^'Jine?" we are unable to tell until we see it in a sentence. If we say. It is a fine day, the word, "fine," is an adjective. If we say. The fine was remitted, it is a noun. If we say, I fine you ten dollars and costs, it is a verb. If we ask, In what case is the word, "pen?" we cannot tell until we see the word used in a sentence. If we say. My pen is gold, the word, "pen," is in the nominative case. If we say, I write with my pen, it is in the objective case. Much more might be said to show that whenever we are dealing with words in the subject of grammar, the sentence is still the unit. We deal with words only as parts of sentences. This, then, is the distinguishing mark of grammar. It has for its unit the sentence. No other language subject deals with the sentence or has it for its unit. Nature of the Sentence. 41 Define grammar. Show that your definition conforms to the requirements of a true definition. Grammar is that language study which has for its subject-matter or vinit the sentence. When we say, Grammar, we have named the thing defined. When we say, is that language study, we have put it into the smallest, known class. When we say, which has for its subject-matter or unit the sentence, we have given the mark of it which sets it off from all other mem- bers of that class. With what does grammar deai or what is its subject-matter? (Make an outline of language subjects, showing the place of grammar among them.) Language Studies. 1 . Unit — the word. m. Orthography. b. Orthoepj'. c. Word analysis. 2. Unit— the sentence. a. Grammar. 3. Unit — discourse. a. Composition and rhetoric. 6. Reading. c. Literature. THE SENTENCE AS A WHOLE. EXERCISE 3. Nature of the Sentence. What is a sentence? A sentence is a group of words which expresses a thought; e. g., James is a tall boy. What is a thought or judgment? A thought or judgment is a mental act in which the mind sees or asserts a relation between ideas. I have in mind the idea, 42 A New English Grammar. apple. I also have in mind the idea, red. But these do not con- stitute a thought or judgment so long as they are isolated, for red may belong to cloud, or hall, or card; but so soon as my mind thinks or asserts the idea, red, of the idea, apple, or sees that the red is an attribute of the apple, or that it is not an attribute of the apple, then it has a judgment which may be expressed in the sen- tence. The apple is red, or The apple is not red. What are the necessary elements of a thought or judgment? It will be seen from the foregoing example that a judgment or thought has three necessary elements: 1. An idea about which the mind thinks or asserts something. 2. An idea which the mind thinks or asserts of the first idea. 3. A relation which it sees to exist between the two and by which it unites the elements into one thing — the judgment. In the following sentences, point out the three elements of each thought expressed : 1. The house is large. 2. The trees are maples. 3. The school studies. Note.— other examples may be found in Part H. Name and define each of the elements of a thought or judg- ment. Illustrate. These elements of the judgment, we call the thought subject, the thought predicate, and the thought relation in order to distinguish them from the parts of the sentence.* The thought subject is that idea about which the mind thinks or asserts something. The thought predicate is the idea which the mind thinks or asserts of the thought subject. The thought relation is that idea of relation which the mind sees to exist between the thought subject and thought predicate. This relation is always one of agreement or one of disagreement. <■ The teacher cannot drill too much on this point or be too careful to have the pupil distinguish between the thought or judgment and the sentence. The Parts of the Sentence. 48 The mind always sees that the thought predicate is a part or attri- bute of the thought subject; e. g., The man is charitable, The sun shines. Or it sees that the thought subject is an individual or a class of individuals and the thought predicate is an individual or a class, and that one forms a part of the other; e. g., Monroe was a statesman, Violets are plants. These men are natives. When the mind thinks of any of these relations between thought subject and thought predicate, we call it a relation of agreement. But the mind may think just the opposite of this relation; i. e., it may think the thought predicate as not belonging to the thought subject, or that the thought subject is not a part of the thought predicate; e. g., The man is not charitable, Monroe was not a states- man. When the mind thinks this kind of relation between thought subject and thought predicate, we call it a relation of disagreement. In the thought or judgment expressed in the sentence, Webster, the statesman, was a great lawyer, the idea, Webster, the statesman, is the thought subject, because it is the idea about which the mind asserts something. The idea, a great lawyer, is the thought predicate, be- cause it is the idea which the mind asserts of the thought subject. The thought relation is one of agreement, because the attributes of a great lawyer, are asserted of Webster, the statesman, or are seen to belong to him, or Webster, the statesman, is seen to constitute one of the class, a great lawyer. EXERCISE 4. The Parts of the Sentence. Name the parts of the sentence. To what elements of the thought do they correspond? The sentence exists for the purpose of expressing the thought. There is no other use for a sentence. If there were no judgments to express, we should have no use for sentences. The sentence, then, is just a means or instrument. The means or instrument is always adapted to the work which it is to perform. The sentence, then, must be adapted to the thought. It must then have a part, express- ing the thought subject; a part, expressing the thought predicate; and a part, expressing the thought relation.* * No thought is more vital in the subject of prammar than the one just stated. The teacher will find a more extended discussion of it, beginning on page 18 of the Introduction to " Studies in the Science of English Grammar." 44 A New English Geammak. The parts of a sentence are the subject, the predicate, and the copula. In the following sentences, point out the principal elements of each thought expressed, and the corresponding parts of the sentences: 1 . Science is organized knowledge. 2. Flowers are plants. 3. Knowledge ia power. 4. Planning saves time. 5. The human heart refuses to believe in a universe without a purpose. C\ Each is bound to all. 7. Artists are nearest God. 8. Do to-day thy nearest duty. 9. Could we rest, we must become smaller in soul. Note.— Teacher may find other sentences in Part n. Define each of the parts of the sentence. Give literal mean- ing of each term. The word, subject, comes from the Latin, sub, meaning under, and jacere, meaning to throw. Literally, then, the word means to throw under. The word, predicate, comes from the Latin, prae, meaning before, and dicare, meaning to make known, to declare. Literally, then, the word means to make known or to declare before. The word, copula, comes from the Latin, co, meaning together, and apere, meaning to join, to seize. The word means, then, to seize or join together. The subject of the sentence is a word or group of words which expresses the thought subject. The predicate of the sentence is a word or group of words which expresses the thought predicate. The copula of the sentence is a word or group of words which expresses the thought relation. In the sentence. Science is organized knowledge, the subject of the sentence is the word, science, because it expresses the thought subject. Classes of Sentences on Basis of Mea-ning. 45 The predicate of the sentence is the words, organized knowledge, be- cause they express the thought predicate. The copula is the word, is, because it expresses the thought relation. (Make an outline of the principal elements of the thought and the principal parts of the sentence.) The thought ok judgment. 1. Definition. 2. Elements. a. Thought subject. b. Thought predicate, c' Thought relation. The sentence. 1. Definition. 2. Parts. a. Subject. h. Predicate. c. Copula. CLASSES OF SENTENCES. EXERCISE 5. On Basis of Meaning. * State the efifect which eacli of the following sentences pro- duces on the mind. Point out the principal elements of each thought expressed : 1. The sun is shining brightly. 2. Is the sun shining brightly? 3. Oh, how brightly the sun is shining! 4. John, look out of the Vindow and see if the sun is shining brightly. 5. Constant dropping wears away stone!?. (i. Tom rowed with untired vigor, and with a difierent speed from poor Maggie's. 7. Mercy, sir, how the folks will talk of it I 8. Men's evil manners live in brass, their virtues we write in water. '■" These questions and fiugRestions should l)c simplified and expanded by the teacher to suit the grade of mind witli which she is working. They are intended to be suggestive, and any explanation the teacher can mal<e in assigning the lesson, to make it more definite, will be helpful ; e. g., What is the meaning of each of the following sentences? What does each one make you think? Suppose you used each one yourself, what purpose would you have? etc., etc. 46 A New English Gbammar. 9. Come, Rollo, let us take a walk. 10. "Think you, Abel," said Paul at last, "that the storm drove thither?" 11. Whj' was the French Revolution so bloody and destructive ? 12. Praise ye the Lord. 13. Honey from out the quarreled hive I'll bring. 14. Lead us to some far-off sunny isle. 15. Where are you going, my pretty maid? 16. The teacher asked, " What are you doing?" 17. The Lord said to Cain, " Where is thy brother?" 18. Cain said, "Am I my brother's keeper?" 19. Judge not, that ye be not judged. 20. The way was long, the wind was cold, The minstrel was infirm and old. How many kinds of sentences do you find in the preceding list? Define and illustrate each. On what basis is the divi- sion made? On basis of effect produced upon the mind, or purpose, or meaning", sentences are of four kinds: Declarative, Interroga- tive, Exclamatory, Imperative. A declarative sentence is one which is addressed to the mind for the purpose of giving it information; e. g., Men^s evil manners live in brass, their virtues we -write in ivater. An interrogative sentence is one which is addressed to the mind for the purpose of obtaining information; e. g.. Why ivas the French Revolution so bloody and destructive? An exclamatory sentence is one which is addressed to the mind for the purpose of awakening emotion ; e. g., Mercy, sir, how the folks will talk oj it! An imperative sentence is one which is addressed to the mind for the purpose of moving the will ; e. g.. Come, Rollo, let us take a walk. The Interrogative sentence always denotes that some element of the thought is unknown and is sought for by the person using the sentence. If one says. Who is in the room f he shows that his thought subject is unknown and sought for. The word, who, indicates it, and if you answer his question and say, James is in the room, you have Abkangembnt. 47 simply changed the word, who, to James, and have thereby supplied the thought subject for which he was seeking. In the sentence, What are you doing? the thought predicate is un- known and sought for. It is indicated by the word, ivhat. In the sentence. Whom do you wantf the direct object is unknown and sought for. It is indicated by the word, Wwm. In the sentence, h the room xvarmf the thought relation is unknown and sought for and it is indicated by the arrangement of the sentence. If you change the arrangement thus. The room is warm, there is no element of the thought unknown and sought for. EXERCISE 6. Arrangement. State concerning the following sentences, whether they simply express a thought, or express a thought some element of which is unknown and sought for. If the latter, state what element of the thought is unknown and sought for. State what word or words denote the unknown element of thought, or what it is that tells you there is an unknown ele- ment of thought. Also point out sentences which do neither of the above and state their uses. 1. I am a poor man. 2. Who will help me ? 3. Every man's task is his life-preserver. 4. Whose book have you ? 5. What will you take ? 6. Of whom do you speak ? 7. When shall it be morn in the grave? 8. The devil can catch a lazy man with a bare hook. 9. Am I required to go? 10. Can'st thou number the stars? 11. Send the letter in the first mail. 12. Hath the rain a father? 13. How frightful is the grave! 14. Can'st thou stop the winds in their course? 48 A New English Grammar. 15. Will you bring me the book ? 16. Bring me the book. 17. How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth glad tidings! 18. Children, obey your parents. 19. Go in peace and sin no more. 20. How far yon candle throws its little beam! 21. There is no place like home. 22. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 23. "If it feed nothing else," said Shylock, "it will feed my revenge." 24. How wonderful is sleep ! 25. Be ye perfect, even as your Father in Heaven is perfect. 26. How completely his passion has blinded him ! 27. Consider my servant Job. 28. Thou Shalt not steal. 29. I wish to know how far it is to Xenia. 30. The truth, itself, is not believed, From one who often has deceived. 31. My poor mother was worried all day. 32. The poor child is dead. 33. That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 34. Charity begins at home. 35. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to conquer themselves. Observe the position of the words in the preceding sen- tences and state the arrangement of the different classes of sentences. What do we mean by arrangement? What kinds have we? Define and illustrate each. Write a sentence with the subject of thought unknown and sought for; the predicate of thought or a part of it; the thought relation. What dis- tinguishes an exclamatory sentence from a declarative sen- Arrangement. 49 tence which expresses feeling? Illustrate, What do we mean by a sentence interrogative in form and declarative in mean- ing; declarative in form but imperative in meaning; inter- rogative in form and imperative in meaning? Illustrate each. Arraugemeiit is the order in which the parts of the sentence occur. There are two main kinds : the regular or natural order and the inverted order. The natural order is that arrangement, usually found in de- clarative sentences, in which the subject and its modifiers come first, the copula and its modifiers next, and the predicate and its modi- fiers last ; e. g., The devil can catch a lazy man with a bare hook. The declarative sentence is not always arranged in this way ; e.g., Great is Diana of the Ephesians. By the inverted arrangement, we mean any order of the parts of the sentence other than the natural order. The usual arrangement for the declarative sentence is the natural order. If, in the interrogative sentence, the thought subject is unknown and sought for, the arrangement is the natural order; e.g., Who kilkd Cock Robin f When any other element of the thought is un- known and sought for, the arrangement is inverted order. If there is a word in the sentence which denotes the unknown element of the thought, it will come first in the sentence; e. g.. Whom do ye aeekf Sometimes a preposition will be used before it; e. g.. For whom did he inquire f When the unknown element of the thought is indicated by the arrangement of the sentence, the copula or an auxiliary verb is used first in the sentence ; e. g., h the bridge safef Do you believe his story? It will be noticed that this arrangement occurs only when the thought relation is unknown and sought for. The exclamatory sentence may have either arrangement. The only peculiarity of the imperative sentence is that the sub- ject of it is usually understood. Since this division of sentences is on basis of meaning, or eflPect produced upon the mind, the form, arrangement, or punctuation of 4 50 A Nbw English Grammar. the sentence which we may have under consideration, will not help us to classify it. A declarative sentence may express feeling, but its chief purpose will be to convey information. If we say, The poor child is dead, we, no doubt, express emotion ; but if we are speaking to one who does not know the fact, our purpose is clearly to convey to him information, and the sentence is declarative. But we might use the same words merely to express our emotion, in which case, the sentence would be exclamatory. If we say, Can^st thou stoj) the tvinds^ in their course? we are evidently not seeking for information. We mean, It is impossible for any one to stop the winds in their course, and the sentence is declarative. If we saj', I wish you to close your books, the sentence has the ar- rangement of a declarative sentence ; but it is evidently addressed to the mind for the purpose of influencing the will. On basis of meaning, it is imperative. So in the sentence, Will you bring me a drink f the sentence is in- terrogative in form and punctuation ; but it is imperative in mean- ing, because it is addressed to the mind for the purpose of influen- cing the will. EXERCISE 7. Punctuation. Punctuate the following sentences, giving reasons : 1. OhKvhat a fall was there my countrymen , 2. Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness , .3. Oh how happy I am . 4. Oh that I had the wings of a dove . 5. Alas that thou shouldst die ti. Oh that this too too solid flesh would melt 7. Oh that those lips had language 8. Oh it hurts me 9. Oh father listen to mu 10. Oh wretched state 11. Oh where shall rest be found 12. Fie on him 13. Oh that I could And him 14. O bosom black as death 15. O for a kindly touch from that pure flame Punctuation. 61 16. O what a rapturous cry 17. Strike oh Muse in a measure bold 18. O what a fair and miuistering angel 19. A horse a horse my kingdom for a horse 20. What a piece of work is man how noble in reason how infi- nite in faculties in form and moving how express and admirable in action how like an angel in apprehension how like a god the beauty of the world the paragon of animals State the punctuation of the Declarative, Interrogative, Exclamatory, and Imperative sentences. All sentences should begin with capital letters. The declarative sentence should close with a period. The interrogative sentence should close with a question mark. The exclamatory sentence must be considered with reference to two points : (1). The punctuation of the interjection. (2). The punctuation at the close of the sentence. If the interjection and the sentence express different emotions, the interjection and the sentence should each be followed by an exclama- tion point; e. g., Pshaivl what a stupid dolt! If the interjection and the sentence unite pretty closely to express the same emotion, the interjection may be followed by a comma and the sentence by an exclamation point; e. g.. Oh, tvhat a rapturous cry! If the interjec- tion and the sentence unite very closely to express the same emo- tion, no mark need be placed after the interjection, but the sen- tence should close with an exclamation point; e. g., Oh for a kind- ling touch from that pure flame! If the interjection expresses the emotion and the sentence is addressed to the mind for the purpose of conveying information, asking for information, or influencing the will, the interjection sliould be followed by an exclamation point and the sentence by its appropriate mark; e. g., Oh! it hurts mc. Fie ! What have I to do with love f Zounds ! bring the hoy to me. When do we spell the word o-h and when 0? Some authorities insist on using in direct address only, and oh always to express emotion; but they are used indiscriminately by the best writers. (See the dictionary, nndei' 0.) 52 A New English Grammar. EXERCISE 8. Outline of Sentence. Make an outline of sentences on basis of effect produced upon the mind, or use, or meaning, including the following points : 1. Definition. 2. Classes. 3. Arrangement. 4. Punctuation. •Sentence. ^"*' I. Definition. II. Classes. 1. On basis of efi'ect produced upon the mind, or meaning, or puipose. (1). Declarative. a. Definition. b. Classes. (a). Declarative in form and meaning. (b). Interrogative in form and declara- tive in meaning. c. Arrangement. d. Punctuation. (2). Interrogative. a. Definition. b. Classes. (a). Interrogative in form and meaning. (b). Declarative in form and interroga- tive in meaning. c. Arrangement. d. Punctuation. (3). Exclamatory. a. Definition. b. Arrangement. c. Punctuation. (4). Imperative. a. Definition. b. Classes. (a). Imperative in form and meaning. (6). Interrogative in form and impera- tive in meaning. (o). Declarative in form and imperative in meaning. c. Arrangement. d. Punctuation. As Determined by the Form of the Thought. 53 CLASSES OF SENTENCES. . EXERCISE 9. On Basis of Form as Determined by the Form of the Thought Examine the following sentences and be .tble to sui. principal elements in the thought expressed by each, j.- do the sentences differ? How many kinds are there on basi of the fundamental difference? 1. Washington, the father of his country, was ourfii-st ( 2. Washington, who was the father of his country, was our tir president. 3. Washington was the father of his country, and he was our lirst president. Name, give literal meaning of terms, and define the classes of sentences just illustrated. Upon what basis is this division made ? On ba.sis of the form of the sentence as determined hy the form of the thouj^iit, we have three kinds of sentences: Simple, ComiKuind, and Complex. The word, simple, comes from the Latin, sine, meaning without, and plica, meaning a fold. The word Hterally means, then, without a fold. The word, compound, comes from the Latin, com, or con, meaning with or together, and ponere, meaning to place, to put, to lay. The word hterally means, then, placed together or put togetlier. The word, complex, comes from the Latin, com, or con, meaning with or together, and plectere, meaning to twist. The word literall\ means, then, twisted together. A simple sentence is one which expresses only one thought subject, one thought ])redicate, and one thought relation; e. g., Charity begins at home. A compound sentence is one which expresses two or more coordinate, independent thoughts; e.g., Example appeals not to our understanding alone, but it awakens our passions likewise. 54 A New English Grammar. A complex sentence is one which expresses one principal thought and one or more subordinate thoughts; e.g., If you blow your neighbor's f re, don't complain if the sparks fly in your face. EXERCISE 10. ('lassify the following sentences on the basis given above and state the principal elements of each thought expressed: 1. William Cullen Bryant was born at Cummington, Massachu- setts, November 3,. 1794. 2. The Embargo was published in Boston in 1809, and was written when Bryant was but thirteen years old. 3. The Catskill Mountains have always been a region full of fable. 4. He used to tell his story to every stranger that arrived at Mr. Doolittle's hotel. 5. Rip's story was soon told, for the whole twenty years had been to him but as one night. 6. There is a power whose care Teaches thy way along that pathless coast. 7. Vainly the fowler's eye Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong. 8. All that breathe will share thy destiny. 9. I have heard that nothing gives an author so great pleasure as to have his works respectfully quoted by other learned authors. 10. This pleasure I have seldom enjoyed. 11. Silently, one by oiie, in the infinite meadows of heaven, blossomed the lovely stars. 12. Example appeals not to our understanding alone, but it awakens our passions likewise. 1.3. If thou didst ever thy dear father love, revenge his foul and most uncommon murder. 14. There is no flock, however watched and tended, But one dead lamb is there! There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, But has one vacant chair 1 Thought Material. 65 15. Thou lingering star, M-ith lessening ray, That lov'st to greet the early morn, Again thou usherest in the clay My Mary from my soul was torn. 16. Lightly and brightly breaks away The morning from her mantle gray. 17. The strength he gains is from the embrace he gives. 18. Softly sweet in Lydian measures, Soon he soothed his soul to pleasures ; War, he sung, is toil and trouble ; Honor but an empty bubble. 19. If you blow your neighbor's fire, don't complain if the sparks fly in your face. 20. Do not measure other people in your half bushel. 21. 'Tis an old maxim in the schools, That flattery's the food of fools ; Yet now and then your men of wit Will condescend to take a bit. 22. 'Tis with our judgments as our watches : none Are just alike, yet each believes his own. 2.3. Love is the ladder on which we climb To a likeness with God, 24. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate. All but the page prescribed, their present state. 25. Faith builds a bridge across the gulf of death, other good sentences may be found in Part II. THOUGHT MATERIAL AND CUSSES OF WORDS. EXERCISE 11. Thought Material. Classify the ideas expressed by the words in the following sentences. State how they are alike and how they difFei. Classify the words in the sentences and state their uses: 1 . JeflTereon, the author of the constitution, was a great statesman . 56 A New English Grammak. 2. The boy's friend ran home to send a telegram to his anxious mother. 3. He, himself, sent his boy to me. 4. It is I ; be not afraid. 5. The people watched them in silence. 6. I will go with you. 7. He of the rueful countenance answered without delay. 8. Bread and milk is very good food. 9. The flag is red, white, and blue. 10. The tall boy is doubtless exceedingly helpful to his mother. 11. The well is just thirty feet deep. 12. The president administers the government very well for the people. 13. You should have come an hour sooner. 14. The child read an hour 15. The man is doubtless honest. 16. The house stands just across the river. 17. The blue and yellow badge belongs to Michigan University. 18. The man gave money to the poor. 19. Minneapolis is a beautiful city. 20. Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again. 21. Goodness is commendable. 22. He left yesterday. 23. The stove is hot. 24. The smooth glass is transparent. 25. Dry leaves are brittle. 20. The soft fur is warm. 27. The sour cider was made to-day. 28. The red sky is beautiful. 29. The running stream murmurs sweetly. 30. The rushing storm is frightful. 31. Thisbe met a roaring lion. '* Thought Material. 67 32. The soul is that which thinks, feels, and wills. 33. Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward or the spirit of the beast which goeth downward? 34. The Mississippi is the longest river in the world. 35. There were giants in those days. 36. Pshaw ! I do not care a fig. 37. Now, Barrabas was a robber 38. Well, what did he say ? 39. Now then, I will proceed. 40. Man, like the child, accepts the proffered boon. And clasps the bauble, where he asked the moon. 41. In the shipwreck of the state, trifles float and are preserved; while everything solid and valuable sinks to the bottom, and is lost forever. 42. In peace, children bury their parents ; in war, parents bury their children. 43. If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores but to diminish his desires. 44. Words are the counters of wise men, and the money of fools. 45. A juggler is a wit in things, and a wit, a juggler in words. 46. Charity creates much of the misery it relieves, but does not relieve all the misery it creates. 47. Worth makes the man, the want of it the fellow. 48. Know then this truth, enough for man to know. Virtue alone is happiness below. 49. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 50. The poor and the rich, the weak and the strong, the young and the old have one common Father. Name and define the classes of ideas you have found ex- pressed in the preceding sentences. Name and define the classes of words used in expressing them. What is the basis of your division ? Give the literal meaning of object, concrete, abstract, attribute, attributive, substantive. 58 A New English Grammar. Make a complete outline of thought material or ideas, and words. By thought material we mean the ideas out of which the mind constructs thoughts. There are three kinds of these ideas: ohjects of thought, attrihvites, and relations. If we consider such ideas as table, cloud, truth, mercy, goodness, we will see that they are ideas about which the mind can tliink or affirm something. We may say, Truth is everlasting, The table is too high. These ideas differ from such as tall, round, of, is, and, about which the mind can think or affirm nothing. "We cannot make tfie ideas, tall, of, etc., the subjects of thoughts. But the ideas, tall, round, long, hard, differ from the ideas, of, is, and, etc. Such ideas as tall, round, long, hard, always belong to, or constitute an element of other ideas. We must think a tall boy, or long pencil, etc. But if we say, a man of wealth, the booh on the t'lhh', the ink is black, the idea, of, is simply the connection which the mind sees between the ideas, man and wealth; the idea, on, is the connec- tion which the mind sees between the ideas, book and table; the idea, is, is simply the relation which the mind sees between the thought subject and the thought predicate. These ideas do not belong to other ideas; the idea, on, belongs neither to book nor table; it is simply the relation of the one to the other. The word, object, comes from the Latin, ob, meaning against, and jacere, meaning to throw. Literally, then, the word means that which is thrown against. An object of thought is an idea about which the mind can affirm something. We must not think that it is always an objective thing, or that it can be known only through the senses. The ideas, soul, spirit, Jieaven, thought, brightness, faith, are objects of thought, just as much as the ideas, knife, book, river, tree, are. Objects of thought are again divided into two classes : abstract and concrete. The word, abstract, conies from the Latin, ah, meaning from, and trahere, meaning to draw. Literally, then, the word means that which is drawn from. Thought ]\Iaterial. 59 An abstract object of thougiit is one which was first known as an attribute. The mind has thought it away from the object in which it was found and has made an object of thought out of it ; e. g., honesty, charity, brightness. The word, concrete, comes from the Latin, con, meaning witli or together, and crescere, meaning to grow. Literally, then, the word means to grow together. A concrete object of thougiit is an object of thought which was first known by its attributes ; e. g., sun, flower, river, spirit, air, thought. The word, attribute, comes from the Latin, ad, meaning to or upon, and tribuere, meaning to bestow. Literally, then, the word means that which is bestowed upon a thing. An attribute is a mark or a characteristic by which we know another idea ; e. g., broad, deep, soft, white. Attributes may be divided into four classes: qualities, actions, conditions, and relations. An attribute of quality is a mark or characteristic which re- mains permanent in the idea to w-hicli it belongs; e. g., Jong road, golden hair, round pencil, etc. An attribute of action is an attribute which distinguishes the idea to which it belongs by what it does ; e. g., babbling brook, prat- tling child, pacing horse. The bird sings, Alice studies. An attribute of condition is an attribute which distinguishes the idea to whicli it belongs by its relation to itself at some other time; e. g., hot stove, dead grass, old hat. An attribute of relation is an attribute which distinguishes the idea to which it belongs by its connection with some other idea; e. g., the boy on tJie front seat, man in tlie moon, the house which was sold last tveek. The word, relation, comes from the Latin, re, meaning again, back, and /err^, meaning to bring, to bear, and ion, meaning the act of. Literally, then, the word means the act of bearing back. An idea of relation is the connection which the mind sees to exist between ideas ; e. g., in, of, but, was, etc. Ideas of relation are of two kinds : coordinate and subor- dinate. 60 A New English Grammar. ' The word, coordinate, comes from the Latin, co or con meaning with or together, and ordinare, meaning to regulate. Literally the word means, then, to regulate with or together. A coordinate relation is the idea of relation which the mind sees to exist between ideas or thoughts of equal rank; e. g.. Bread and milk is good food, How wonderful is sleep, Charity creates much of the misery it relieves, hut does not relieve all the misery it creates. The word subordinate, comes from the Latin, sub, meaning under, and ordinare, meaning to set in order, to arrange. Literally, then, the word means to arrange or to set in order under. A subordinate relation is that idea of relation which the mind sees to exist between ideas or thoughts of unequal rank ; e. g., Oliver was on his way /ro?n Ludgate ^oCornhill, it;/i,ewhemetagroup 0/ boot- blacks, " If it feed nothing else," said Shylock, " it will feed my re- venge," The minstrel, who was infirm and old, was a great favorite. Thought Material. I. Definition. II. Classes. 1. Objects of thought. (1). Abstract. (2). Concrete. 2. Attributes. (1). Quality. (2). Action. (3). Condition. (4). Relation. 3. Relations. (1). Coordinate. a. Between ideas of equal rank; e.g.. The flag is red, white, and blue. b. Between thoughts of equal rank; e.g.. Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward or the spirit of the beast which goeth downward? (2). Subordinate. a. Between ideas of unequal rank; e.g., Lincoln, the martyr to the cause of freedom, -'as a good president. b. Between thougnts of unequal rank ; e. g., The soul is that tvhich thinks, feels, and wills, Note.— Perhaps the ideas expressed by the words, if they express any ideas, pshaw, pooh, alas, ah, and the like, are not included in the above classification. These are not very important in the construction of judgments. Perhaps they are attributes of relation. Words. 61 EXERCISE 12. Words. A ■word is a symbol which expresses an idea; e. g., toy, so, egg. Since we have three great classes of ideas, we must have three great classes of words, corresponding to them. They are suhstantive words, attributive words, and relation words. The word, substantive, comes from the Latin, sub, meaning under, stare, meaning to stand, and live, meaning relating to. Literally, then, the word means relating to that which stands under. A substantive word is a word which expresses an object of thought; e. g., desert, gold, valley, he, they. On basis of the manner in which they express objects of thought, substantive words are divided into nouns and pro- nouns. A noun is a substantive word which expresses an object of thought by naming it; e. g., Harry, town, stream. A pronoun is a substantive word which expresses an object of thought without naming it; c. g., it, we. The word, attributive, comes from the Latin, at or ad, meaning to or upon, trihuere, meaning to bestow, and iive, meaning relating to. Literally, then, the word means relating to that which is bestowed upon a thing. An attributive word is a word which expresses an attribute; e.g., long way, )veary traveler. There are three classes of attributive words : adjectives, ad- verbs, and attributive verlxs. An adjective is an attributive word which expresses an attribute of an object of thought without asserting it; e.g., small boy. The apple is red. An adverb is an attributive word which expresses an attribute of an attribute or of a relation; e. g., swiftly, sweetly, soundly. An attributive verli s an attributive word which expresses an attribute of an object of thought and asserts it; e. g., walked, laughed, told. A relation word is a word which expresses an idea of relation ; e. g., arc, to, and. 62 A New English Grammar. On basis of the kinds of ideas of relation to be expressed, there are three kinds of relation words; viz., conjunctions, prepositions, and pure verbs. A conjunction is a relation word which expresses a relation be- tween coordinate ideas or between thoughts; e. s-, Yellow and blue is a pretty combination, He desired to pray but it was denied him, This is the place /or I know the house. A preposition is a relation word which expresses a relation be- tween ideas of unequal rank; e.g., Star 0/ the east, Visions in the night. A pure verb is a relation word which expresses the relation be- tween thought subject and thought predicate only. Note.— The only pure verb in the English language is the verb be in all its forms. A few other verbs are sometimes used as pure verbs. (See Whitney, p. 158.) Words. I. Definition. II. Classes. 1. Substantive. (1). Noun. (2). Pronoun. 2. Attributive. (1). Adjective. (2). Adverb. (3). Attributive verb 3. Relation words. (1). Conjunction. (2). Preposition. (3). Pure verb. Note.— Perhaps the words, pshnw, pooh, alas, ah, as well as such words as there in the sentence, There were giants in those days, or ircll in the sentence, Well, did you volef would not be included in the above classification. They are not very import- ant in the expression of the thought. The first, may be called interjections or feel- ing words; the last, form words or expletives. An interjection or feeling- word is a word which expresses an idea of feeling or emotion ; e. g.. Oh, alas. A form word or expletive is a word which does not help to express the thought, but changes the arrangement of the sentence or in some way adds to its form; e.g.. There is a pleasure in the pathless wood. Modifiers. 63 MODIFIERS. EXERCISE 13. Explain tlje use of each italicized expression in the fol- lowing : 1. James, the maso7i, is ill. 2. Man/s book is soiled. .3. The great plains are good grazing districts. 4. The ichite snow hurts my eye». 5. He sold Henry a booh. 6. The work was neatly done. 7. The child was good in school. 8. The boy was tardy yesterday. 9. He comes because he is entertained. 10. The man is charitable in his way. 1 1 . The apple is very sweet. 12. The girl is often tardy. 13. The stranger is charitable, tlad Itc may receive praise. 14. The teacher is strict with his pupils. 15. The boy went along with his mother. 16. The judge is generous except ivitJi his enemies. 17. The minister had lately come from the East. 18. The cistern had been filled //-om the spout. 19. The girl is not good, even if she is entertained. 20. The garden was prepared icith the spade. 21. It I?, probably true. 22. The story is certainly interesting and perhaps true. 23. He traded with an Indian. 24. He built the house with his aim money. 25. The demonstration is necessarily true. 26. The ground is not wet. 27. Cleveland is at this time president. 64 A New English Grammar. 28. When the shadows of evening fall, the sunbeams fly away. 29. We stood upon the ragged rocks Whf'.n the long day was nearly done. 30. Make hay ivhile the sun shines. 31. Some must watch tohile others weep. 32. The buttercup comes early in the spring, 33. The party walked home. 34. The river is .a mile broad. 35. You should have come an hour eooneT. 36. The bird built her nest six inches above the door. Classify, name, and define the expreseions considered in the preceding sentences. What is the basis of your division ? Make a complete outline of modifiers. A modifier is a word or group of words which expresses an id^a that changes some other idea and which is not asserted of that other idea; e. g., The tall tree is a pine. The word, " tall," expresses an idea which changes the idea, tree, and the idea, tall, is not asserted of the idea, t7ee. Modifiers always express objects of thought or attributes ; hence, we have substantive modifiers and attributive modifiers. • A sub.stantive modifier is a modifier which expresses an object of thought ; e. g., James sold his hone. An attributive modiflei? is a modifier which expresses an attri- bute ; e. g.. Large crowds attended the meetings. Substantive modifiers are divided into the following classes : ap- positive, possessive, direct objective, indirect objective, adverbial objective. An appositive modifier is a substantive modifier which ex- presses the same object of thought as the word which it modifies; e. g., My father, the minister, io well known here. A possessive modifier is a substantive modifier which changes the meaning of the word wliich it modifies by denoting possession; e. g., The king's head was in danger. Modifiers. 65 A direct objective modifier is a substantive modifier the object of thought expressed by which, is directly affected by the attribute expressed by the word which it modifies ; e. g., My son loves money. An indirect objective modifier is a substantive modifier the object of thought expressed by which, is indirectly affected by the attribute expressed by the word which it modifies ; e, g., My son, take your father the book. An adverbial objective modifier is a substantive modifier which expresses an adverbial idea;, e. g., We talked tivo hours,. Attributive modifiers are divided into the following classes: ad- jective and adverbial. An adjective modifier is an attributive modifier which ex- presses an unasserted attribute of an object of thought ; e. g.. The melancholy days have come. An advei'bial modifier is an attributive modifier which ex- presses an attribute of an attribute or of a relation ; e. g., They were irarmly received. She has always been kind. The ideas which may be expressed by the adverbial modifier are time, place, cause, manner, degree, frequency, purpose, accompani- ment, exclusion, direction, source, concession, doubt, necessity, ne- gation, certainty, reason, condition, etc. These may be found illus- trated and should be worked out from the sentences above. Modifiers. 1. Definition. II. Classes. 1. Substantive. (1). Definition. (2). Classes. a. Appositive. /'. Possessive. c. Direct Objective. d. Indirect Objective. e. Adverbial Objective. 2. Attributive. 1). Definition. (2). .Classes. a. Adjective. /;. Adverbial. 66 A New English Grammar. PREDICATES. EXERCISE 14. State the use of each italicized expression in the following : 1. Corwin was an excellent advocate. 2. The stranger listened eagerly to the story. 3. The ]^^xm€tl-Schoo{ is a s^jQlJor teachers. 4. The boys were haxuisaijie and ing/niy. 5. Languages have long, almost always indeed, been a subject of study. 6. But one may be an accomplished linguist, reading and speaking many tongues, without being an adept in the science of language. 7. Professor Max Miiller, of the University of Oxford, and Pro- fessor William Dwight Whitney, of Yale, are the great authorities on the science of language. 8. Is the pen mightier thau. the sword ? 9. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 10. It takes two to quarrel. What differences have you noticed in the predicates of the preceding sentences? Name and define the classes. Upon what basis have you divided them ? The predicate is that part of the sentence which expresses the thought predicate ; e. g.. The snow falls. On basis of form, predicates are conibiiied and uncom- bined. A <M)iiiT)iiied predicate is a predicate in which the principal part of the thought predicate and the thought relation are expressed by one word; e. g., Tom loves his mother. In this example, the prin- cipal part of the thought predicate and the thought relation are ex- pressed by the word, " loves." An iinconibined predicate is a predicate in which the principal part of the thought predicate and the thought relation are expressed in different words; e.g., The earthquake was horrible in this region. Substantive Words in Simple Sentence. 67 In this example, the principal part of the thought predicate is ex- pressed by the word, " horrible," and the thought relation is ex- pressed by the word, " was." On basis of idea expressed or meaning-, predicates are sub- stantive or attributive. A substantive predicate is a predicate which expresses an object of thought; e. g., Time is money. An attributive predicate is a predicate which expresses an attribute; e. g., A rolling stone gathers no moss. Predicates. I. Definition. II. Classes. 1. On basis of form. (1). Combined. (2). Uncombined. 2. On basis of idea expressed or meaning. (1). Substantive. (2). Attributive. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. EXERCISE 15. Substantive Words in Simple Sentence. State the uses of the italicized words in the following sen- tences. Classify the sentences and the italicized words: 1. Washington, the &rst president of the United States, was a great statesman. 2. The child's anxious teacher sent the hoy home to hi.s mother. '.J. Gad, a troop shall overtake him. 4. He, himself, wrote me the note. 5. It is T. 6. The teacher saw them studying. 7. Without me, ye can do nothing. 68 A New English Grammar. 8. I alone am left to tell the story, 9. Yellow and blue makes^a pretty badge. 10. The flower is red and white. 11. I, myself, will assist you. 12. A righteous man needs no monument. 13. God does not expect us to have charity for dn. 14. Dyed whiskers are like hypocrisy. 15. They deceive only one person. EXERCISE 16. Noun and Pronoun in Simple Sentence. State all the uses of the noun and pronoun in the simple sentence and state all the modifiers which may belong to them. In the simple sentence, the noun may be used as subject, predi- cate, appositive, possessive, direct objective, indirect objective, or adverbial objective modifier, principal word of a prepositional phrase, and absolutely or independently. Note.— These points together with all that follow, are illustrated in the sen- tences. The teacher should have the pupil think out these results from the sen- tences. In the simple sentence, the noun may have the following modi- fiers : appositive, possessive, limiting adjective modifier, descriptive adjective modifier. A limiting- adjective iiioditler is an adjective modifier, the chief purpose of which is to narrow the meaning or application of the word it modifies ; e. g^, These men are foreigners. A descriptive adjective modifier is an adjective modifier, the chief purpose of which is to make prominent the attribute which it expresses; e. g., The blue sky is beautiful. The uses of the pronoun in the simple sentence are the same as those of the noun, except that it is not used as an adverbial object- ive modifier. The modifiers of the pronoun are the same as those of the noun, except that it does not take the possessive modifier. Relation Words in Simple Sentence. 69 EXERCISE 17. Attributive Words in Simple Sentence. Classify and state the use of each italicized word in the following sentences. Classify the sentences : 1. The large horse is doubtless exceedingly usefid to his owner. ~ 2. The house stands jhs< across the river. 3. The river is a mile broad. 4. The honest boy very promptly gave the man his money. 5. The lesson should have been prepared an hour sooner. 6. The river fell six inches. State all the uses and modifiers which attributive words may have in the simple sentence. Illustrate each by one example. The attributive verb is used in the simple sentence to form the principal part of the predicate and to express the thought relation. The following modifiers may belong to the attributive verb in the simple sentence: adverbial, direct objective, indirect objective, and adverbial objective. The adjective may be used in the simple sentence as the princi- pal part of the uncombined attributive predicate and as a modifier of a substantive word. An adjective may take an adverbial modifier, an indirect objective modifier, and an adverbial objective modifier. An adverb may be used in the simple sentence to modify a pure verb, an attributive verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a preposition. An adverb in the simple sentence may take an adverbial modifier and an adverbial objective modifier. (See Whitney, Par. 390.) EXERCISE 18. Relation Words in Simple Sentence. State the use of each italicized expression in the following sentences and classify the sentences : 1. You are doubtlesn right. 2. The bird built her nast just above the door. "0 A New English Grammar. 3. The boy w devoted to his mother. 4. The poet and scholar is dead. o. The arrow struck two inches below the center. State all the uses and modifiers of relation words in the simple sentence. Give one example of each. The pure verb has only one use; viz., to show the relation be- tween thought subject and thought predicate, and it has only one modifier— the adverbial. The preposition may be used as the relation word of a preposi- tional phr?se in the simple sentence, or it may be used to show the relation between an indirect object and the attribute which indi- rectly affects it. It may take an adverbial modifier and an adverbial objective modifier. The object of thought expressed by the indirect objective modifier is the indirect object; the object of thought expressed by the direct objective modifier is the direct object. The conjunction in the simple sentence has just one use; viz., to express the relation between ideas of equal rank. EXERCISE 19. Form and Feeling Words in Simple Sentence. State the use of the italicized words in the following and classify the sentences : 1. Poo/i .' I do not believe it. 2. Alas ! what mortal terror we are in. 3. Well, did you vote ? 4. Now, I do not believe a word of it. 5. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 6. There have always been people who loved to tell bad news. In addition to the words given above, we may have used in the simple sentence feeling words or interjections and form words or expletives. The Phrask. 71 EXERCISE 20. The Phrase. Nov we have worked out all the kind;? of words used in the sim- ple sentence, the uses of these words, and the niodiliers which oai h may take. Sometimes a number of words unite to express a single idea, or the group of words has the use of a single word ; e. g., The "speaker stood o» the platfonn. In this sentence, the group of words. " on the platform," expresses the idea of place. My brother arrivcil in ihf evening. In this example, the group of words, '' in the even- ing," expresses the idea of time. A man of uealth may do much good. The words, "of wealth," express one idea and the expres- sion might be changed to, -I vealthi/ man mai/ do much <jooiJ. State the use of each italicized expression in the following. Classify the expressions on as many diti'eront hases as you are ahle to discover by noting important diiVorences among the expressions. Name and define each class of expressions: 1. The State University o/'Jfjjimw/d is located in the citi/ of Min- neapolis. -. He has learned to love and obey his teacher. o. The boy to be chosen must be intelligent to be ustful. 4. He lives to assist his friends. 5. To lie willingh/ is base. 6. Walking the race was tiresome to tlie man wearing the blue coat. 7. We could not cross, being unable to ford the river. 8. Being a member of the regimoit, he passed unchallenged. 9. The city of large dimensions sends the most goods to foreign countries. 10. Out of sight is out of mind. 11. Civsar ??i/^/i/ have been king. .\ phrase is a group of words not having a subject, predicate, and copula, and used in the sentence with the value of a single word. On basis of oliaraotovistie Avord, i>iirases arc divided into four classes : prepositimial, infinitive, partii-ipfal, and verbal. 72 A New English Gkammar. A prepositional phrase is a phrase whose characteristic word is a preposition ; e. g., She loves to ride early in the morning. An infinitive phrase is a phrase whose characteristic word is an infinitive; e. g., To love the truth will make one happy. A pai'tioipial phrase is a phrase whose characteristix; word is a participle ; e. g., Holding Jds light high above his head, he peered into the darkness. A verhal phrase is a phrase whose characteristic word is a verb ; e. g., The child mighl have been lost in the storm. On basis of form, phrases are simple, complex, and com- pound. A simple phrase is a single phrase ; e. g., The sun shines in my eyes. A complex phrase is a phrase which has in it two or more phrases^one principal and the others subordinate; e. g., To think no evil in one's heart is a difficult thing. A compound phrase is a phrase which is made up of two or more phrases of equal rank; e. g., Children should be taught to love and to obey God. On basis of use, phrases are substantive and attributive. A substantive phrase is a phrase which is used in the sentence • with the value of a substantive word ; e. g., To go to church every Sunday is a small part of our christian duty. An attributive phrase is a phrase which is used in the sentence with the value of an attributive word; e. g., Abraham was called a friend of God. Attributive phrases may be adjective or adverbial. An adjective phrase is a phrase which is used in the sentence with the value of an adjective ; e. g., Truth crushed to earth will rise again. An adverbial phrase is a phrase which is ustd in the sentence with the value of an adverb ; e. g., Remember now thy Creator, in the days of thy yoidh. Simple Sentence with Compound Element. 78 EXERCISE 21. Simple Sentence with Compound Element. State whether or not the conjunction, in the following sentences, expresses the relation between coordinate thoughts, or between coordinate parts of the same thought : ~1. Mary learns easily but she forgets soon. 2. The cow and calf are together. 8. Pinks and roses are fragrant. 4. That is a red and white flower. o. Birds chirp and sing. 6. Five and four are nine. 7. You and I are going. 8. The great statesman and orator is dead. 9. The moon and stars are shining. 10. The scholar and poet was also a christian and patriot. State the difference between sentences having different uses of the conjunction. Define each kind of sentence illustrated in the preceding sentences. *Make an outline of the simple sentence. Grammarians have not distinguished clearly between a simple sentence witli a compound element and an abridged com- pound sentence. They would not distinguish between the sen- tences: Plnlcs and rosea are fragrant, and Five and four are nine. They would call each a simple sentence with a compound element. There is a clear distinction, however, between the two. The first one means, Pinks are fragrant and roses are fragrant. There are two assertions made, one of the idea, pinks, and one of the idea, roses. We do not have to think the two ideas together in order to assert the idea,/ra- grant, of them. It is, therefore, an abridged compound sentence. The second one cannot be expanded in that way. We cannot as- sert the idea, nine, of the ideas, five and four, taken separately, saying, ■■■• The teacher .should here have the pupils work out an outline of the simple sentence, similar to that given under " Modifiers." 76 A New English Grammar. A subordinate or dopoiulent clause is a clause which is used in the sentence with the value of a single word; e. g., The subject must obey his prince, because God commands it, and human laivs re- quire it. Sul)ordinate or dependent clauses are of two kinds: sub- stantive and attributive. A substantive clause is a clause which is used in the sentence with the value of a substantive word; e. g., Thou knowest that 1 love thee. An attributive clause is a clause which is used in the sentence with the*value of an attributive word ; e.g., Who woidd he free, them- selves must strike the blow. Attributive clauses are of two kinds : adjective and adverbial. An adjective clause is a clause which is used in the sentence with the value of an adjective; e. g., Mortals that woidd follow me, Love virtue; she alone is free. An adverbial clause is a clause which is used in the sentence with the value of an adverb; e. g., Or if Virtue feeble were, Heav'n itself wpuld 'stoop to her. EXERCISE 24. Relations Between Thoughts Expressed by the Mem- bers of Compound Sentences. Point out the clauses and conjunctions in the following, and try to state the kind of relation expressed by each con- junction : 1. I awoke and I got up at once. 2. The sun was up, but it was hidden behind the clouds. 3. The bird was shot or some one had struck it. 4. It is my duty, therefore I must do it. 5. A king must win or he must forfeit his crown forever. 6. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something until hereafter. Relations BetweenCooedinate Thoughts. 77 7. It is not snowing, nor is it raining. 8. Some are born great ; some achieve greatness ; and others have greatness thrust upon them. 9. The man dies but his memory lives. 10. The man pays his debts promptly, therefore he is honest. 11. Be temperate in youth or you will have to be abstinent in old age. 12. Of thy unspoken word thou art master ; thy spoken word is master of thee. 13. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up strife. 14. There was a gay maiden lived down by the mill — Ferry me over the ferry— Her hair was as bright as the waves of a rill, When the sun on the brink of his setting stands still, Her lips were as full as a cherry. 15. This world is all a fleeting show. For man's illusion given; The smiles of joy, the tears of woe, , Deceitful shine, deceitful flow — There's nothing true but heaven ! 16. The splendor falls on castle walls And snowy summits old in story; The long light shakes across the lakes. And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 17. And now there came both mist and snow. And it grew wondrous cold. And ice mast-high came floating by. As green as emerald. 18. The day is done; and slowly from the scene The stooping sun uj)gathers his spent shafts, And puts them back into his golden quiver. 19. Night dropped her sable curtain down, and pinned it with a star. 20. A blind man is a poor man, and blind a poor man is; for the former seeth no man, and the latter no man sees. 76 A New English Geammab. A subordinate or dopciiclent clause is a clause which is used in the sentence with the value of a single word; e. g., The subject must obey his |)rince, became God commands it, and human laws re- quire it. Subordinate or dependent clauses are of two kinds: sub- stantive and attributive. A substantive clause is a clause which is used in the sentence with the value of a substantive word; e. g., Thou knowest that 1 lave thee. An attribvitive clause is a clause which is used in the sentence with the'value of an attributive word; e.g., Who woidd be free, them- selves must strike the blow. Attributive clauses are of two kinds: adjective and adverbial. An adjective clause is a clause which is used in the sentence with the value of an adjective; e. g., Mortals that vmdd follow me, Love virtue; she alone is free. An adverbial clause is a clause which is used in the sentence with the value of an adverb ; e. g., Or if Virtue feeble were, Heav'n itself w^uld 'stoop to her. EXERCISE 24. Relations Between Thoughts Expressed by the Mem- bers of Compound Sentences. Point out the clauses and conjunctions in the following, and try to state the kind of relation expressed by each con- junction : 1. I awoke and I got up at once. 2. The sun was up, but it was hidden behind the clouds. 8. The bird was shot or some one had struck it. 4. It is my duty, therefore I must do it. 5. A king must win or he must forfeit his crown forever. 6. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something until hereafter. Relations BetweenCoordinate Thoughts. 77 7. It is not snowing, nor is it raining. 8. Some are born great ; some achieve greatness ; and others have greatness thrust upon them. 9. The man dies but his memory lives. 10. Tije man pays his debts promptly, therefore he is honest. 11. Be temperate in youtli or you will have to be abstinent in old age. 12. Of thy unspoken word thou art master ; thy spoken word is master of thee. 13. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up strife. 14. There was a gay maiden lived down by the mill — Ferry me over the ferry — Her hair was as bright as the waves of a rill, When the sun on the brink of his setting stands still. Her lips were as full as a cherry. 15. This world is all a fleeting show. For man's illusion given; The smiles of joy, the tears of woe, , Deceitful shine, deceitful flow — There's nothing true but heaven! 16. The splendor falls on castle walls And snowy summits old in story; The long light shakes across the lakes. And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 17. And now there came both mist and snow. And it grew wondrous cold. And ice mast-high came floating by, As green as emerald. 18. The day is done; and slowly from the scene The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts, And puts them back into his golden quiver. 19. Night dropped her sable curtain down, and pinned it with a star. 20. A blind man is a poor man, and blind a poor man is; for tlu' former seeth no man, and the latter no man sees. 78 A New Enqltsh Grammar. What is meant by the members of compound sentences? Define and illustrate the different kinds of relations which may exist between the thoughts expressed by the members of compound sentences. All the kinds of words used in the simple sentence are also used in the compound sentence, and they may have all the modifiers which they may take in the simple sentence. In addition to all the uses given in the simple sentence, the pronoun and adverb, in the •compound sentence, may each have a connective use; e. g.. The election, which was hotly contested, was lost; but the defeated party learned a valuable lesson when they saw their mistake. The conjunction in the compound sentence, in addition to the use given for it in the simple sentence, may also show the relation between thoughts. • The relations between coordinate thoughts, which the conjunc- tion expresses, are of four kinds: addition, opposition, alter- nation, and conclusion. The relation of addition is that relation which exists between coordinate thoughts when the thoughts are in the same line; the typical conjunction to express this relation is "and;" e. g.. The report is widely circulated and I believe it is true. The relation of opposition is that relation which exists between coordinate thoughts when the thoughts are not in the same line; one thought may be directly opposed to the other; e. g., Yov think he is dishoned hut he is not; or one thought may be opposed to what might be inferred from the other ; e.g., The water is very deep Init one can see the bottom. The typical conjunction to express this rela- tion is "but." The relation of alternation is that relation which exists be- tween coordinate thoughts when the mind accepts one and rejects the other; e. g., It is true or I am deceived; or when the mind rejects both; e. g.. He is neither intelligent nor is he a gentleman. The typical conjunction to express this relation is "or." The relation of conclusion is that relation which exists be- tween coordinate thoughts when one thought is an inference from the The Conjunction in the Compound Sentknce. 79 other; e. g., It is raining, therefore we cannot go. The typical conjunc- tion to express this relation is "therefore." The members of a compound sentence are the clauses which ex- press the coordinate, independent thoughts. EXERCISE 25. The Conjunction in tine Compound Sentence. State the members of the following compound sentences; the kinds of relation existing between the thoughts expressed by the members; the conjunction expressing the relation; and note and explain the punctuation: 1. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are they extremely warm in summer. 2. The man takes plenty of exercise ; he is well. 3. We must conquer our passions or they will conquer us. 4. People in the streets are carrying^ umbrellas; hence it must be raining. 5. Neither James nor John had his lesson. 6. Solomon was both learned and wise. 7. Though it is deep, yet it is clear. 8. I care not whether it rains or snows. 9. Unto us was the gospel preached as well as unto them. 10. The house was built upon a rock ; it did not fall. 11. The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs himself. 12. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should not be the web. 1.3. I was told to go else I should remain. 14. Be industrious, otherwise you will come to grief. 15. Margaret Fuller, whom the waves buried, accomplished much good; but she was taken away in the midst of her usefulness. 16. Ignorance is the curse of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven. 17. The conscious water saw its Lord, and blushed. 80 A New English Grammar. 18. The aspen heard them, and she trembled. 19. O dark and cruel deep, reveal The secret that thy waves conceal ! And ye wild sea-birds hither wheel And tell it me. 20. ~He cast off his friends as a huntsman his pack, For he knew when he wished he could whistle them back. 21. There is much that is deciduous in books, but all that gives them a title to rank as literature in the highest sense is perennial. 22. I do not like to say it, but he has sometimes smothered the child-like simplicity of Chaucer under feather-beds of verbiage. 23. Zeal and duty are not slow, But on occasion's forelock watchful wait. 24. Earth felt the wound; and nature from her seat Sighing, through all her works gave signs of woe. 25. In peace, thou art the gale of spring; in war, the mountain storm. State the typical conjunction used to express each kind of relation. Give the literal meaning of each. Write lists of conjunctions used to express the different kinds of relations existing between the thoughts expressed by the members of compound sentences. Be able to use each conjunction in sentences. EXERCISE 26. Punctuation of Compound Sentence. State the punctuation of the compound sentence, men- tioning all the modifying influences. The members of a compound sentence may be separated by a comma, semicolon, colon, or no mark at all. The kind of mark used will depend upon the following points. (1). Interpunctuation. (2). Presence or absence of the conjunction. (3). The kind of relation expressed. (4). Length of clauses. Punctuation of Compound Sentence. 81 Punctuate the following sentences, giving reasons; state the kind of relation existing between the thoughts expressed by the members; and separate each member into its principal parts : A. No one ought to wound the feelings of another or to insult him 2. A wise man se^k^to shine in himself a fool to outshine others 3. Men are not to be judged by their looks habits and appear- ances but by their lives 4. Stones grow plants grow animals grow feel and live 5. Avoid affectation it is a contemptible weakness 6. Harbor no malice in thy heart it will be a viper in the bosom 7. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and wise men use them 8. The wise man considers what he wants the fool what he abounds in 9. The noblest prophets have been children lisping the speech laughing the laugh of childhood 10. The mountains rise and circling oceans flow 11. He suffered but his pangs are o'er Enjoyed but his delights are fled Had friends his friends are now no more And foes his foes are dead 12. Swift to the breach his comrades fly Make way for liberty they cry And through the Austrian phalanx dart As rushed the spears through Arnold's heart 13. Leaves have their time to fall And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath And stars to set but all Thou hast all seasons for thine own Death 14. Themistocles was cautious and he was al^oyaliant but the wisdom of the serpent and the courage of the lion could not prevail against destiny 15. Turn gentle hermit of the vale And guide thy lonely way To where yon taper cheers the dale With hospitable ray 82 A New English Grammar. ^ EXERCISE 27. Definitions. Define and illustrate a regular compound sentence; an abridged compound sentence; a simple sentence with a com- pound element; and a compound-complex sentence. Be ready to expand your abridged compound sentences into regular compound sentences, and show that your simple sentences with compound elements cannot be expanded. A regular coinpoiincl sentence is a compound sentence in which all the elements of each thought are expressed; e. g., Faithful are the wounds of a friend, hut the kisses of an enemy are deceitful. An abridged compound sentence is a compound sentence in which the common elements of the thoughts are expressed but once ; e. g., May I govern my passions rvith absolute sway, And grow wiser and better as life wears away. A simple sentence with a compound element is a simple sentence some element of the thought expressed in which is a compound idea; e. g., Bread and milk is good food. A compound-complex sentence is a compound sentence having among its members one or more complex; e. g., Her sunny locks Hang on her temples like a golden fleece, Which makes her seat of Belmont, Colchos' sti-and, And many Jasons come in quest of her. EXERCISE 28. Analysis of Compound Sentence. State the following facts of the following sentences : 1. Classify the sentence. 2. Read the members. 3. Name the conjunction and state the kind of relation expressed by it. Analysis of Compound Sentenck. 83 4. Verify the punctuation. 5. Analyze each member. a. Give entire subject. b. Give entire predicate. c. Give entire relational element. d. Give principal word of the subject and the modi- fiers of it. e. Same of other parts. 1. Apply yourselves to study ; it will redound to your honor. 2. Every man desires to live long but no man would be old. 3. Few and short were the prayers we said, And we spake not a word of sorrow; But we silentlj' gazed on the face of the dead, And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 4. So Heaven decrees ; with Heaven who can contend ? 5. Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses of an enemy are deceitful. 0. May I govern my passions with absolute sway, And grow wiser and better as life wears away. / . Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 8. Upon her breast a sparkling cross she wore. Which Jews might kiss and infidels adore; Her lively looks a sprightly mind disclose — (Juick as her eyes, and as unfixed as those; Favors to none, to all she smiles extends ; Oft she rejects, but never once offends. '.I. Tlie vine still clings to the mouldering wall. But at every gust the dead leaves fall. 10. And as a hare, when hounds and horns pursue, Pants to the i^lace from whence at first he flew, [ still had hopes, my long vexations past. Hero to return, and die at home at last. 84 A New English Grammar. 11. Take her up tenderly, Lift her with care, Fasliioned so slenderly, Young and so fair. 12. Come as the winds come, when Forests are rended ; Come as the wind comes, when Navies are stranded. 13. Alas, 'tis true I have gone here and there, And made myself a motley to the view. Gored mine own thoughts, sold cheap what is most dear. 14. Fond fool ! six feet of earth is all thy store, * And he that seeks for all shall have no more. 15. This is the state of man: to-day he puts forth The tender leaves of hope; to-morrow blossoms. And bears his blushing honors thick upon him ; The third day comes a frost, a killing frost. 16. A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope ; a pretended patriot, he impoverished the country. 17. There are but few voices in the world but many echoes. 18. He is a freeman whom the truth makes free. And all are slaves beside. 19. And neither the angels in heaven above. Nor the demons down under the sea, Can ever dissever my soul from the soul Of the beautiful Annabel Lee. 20. Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund Day Stands tiptoe on the mountain tops. 21. Any nobleness begins at once to refine a man's features,— any meanness or sensuality to imbrute them. 22. This should have been a noble creature ; he Hath all the energy which would have made A goodly frame of glorious elements. Had they been wisely mingled. 23. But look, the morn in russet mantle clad Walks o'er the dew of yon high, eastern hill. The Substaktive Clause. 85 24. See how the morning opes her golden gates, And takes her farewell of the glorious sun ! 25. I saw from the beach when the morning was shining, A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on ; I came, when the sun o'er that beach was declining — The bark was still there, but the waters were gone. For other good sentences, see Part II. * Make an outline of the compound sentence. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. EXERCISE 29. The Substantive Clause. State the use of each italicized expression in the following sentences. Substitute a clause for each expression, making the sentences complex: 1. Weakness is your excuse. [Explanation.— The word, weakness, is here used as the subject of the sentence. We might substitute for it the following clause: That you are weak is your excuse. The clause is now used as the subject of the sentence.] 2. The result was the signing of the treaty. 3. They asked his presence. 4. This fact, the rotundity of the earth, is believed by all. .'). There is some dispute about the real discoverer of America, 6. We are desirous of your success. 7. They insisted on your remaining. State the use of the clause you have substituted in each case in the preceding sentences. * The teacher should here require the pupil to construct an outline similar to that constructed for "Modifiers" or " The Simple Sentence." 86 A New English Grammar. EXERCISE 30. Ill the following sentences, read the principal clause and then the subordinate. State the use of each subordinate clause. Note and explain the punctuation: 1. What you say is of little consequence. 2. My home is wherever I am happy. 3. I know not where they have laid him. 4. The fact, that it was done by him, is apparent. 5. He traded with what capital he had. 6. When letters were first used, is not certainly known. 7. A peculiarity of English is that it has so many borrowed words. 8. The fact, that mold is a plant, is wonderful. 9. That stars are suns, is the belief of astronomers. 10. Astronomers believe that stars are suns. 11. The belief of astronomers is that stars are suns. 12. The belief, that stars are suns, is held by astronomers. 13. That the caterpillar turns to a butterfly, is a curious fact. 14. The thought, that we are spinning around the sun some twenty miles a second, almost makes one dizzy. 15. We are quite sorry that it is so. 16. He was afraid lest he should fall. 17. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the pole. 18. They gave the goods to whoever wanted them. 19. The old lady put the question to whomever she met. 20. The missionaries preached to what people remained. State all the uses of the substantive clause, usual form, in the complex sentence. Write one original example of each use. The words used in forming the complex sentence, their uses, and the modifiers which may belong to them are all the same as in the compound sentence. The substantive clause in its usual form may have the follow- ing uses in the complex sentence: subject, predicate, appositive, The Quotation. - 8" direct objective, indirect objective, adverbial objective modifier, and principal part of a prepositional phrase. When the appositive clause does not restrict the word modified, or combine closely with it, it should be separated from the word it modifies by the comma. But the clause explanatory of the word, "it," is very seldom so set off. When the substantive clause is irregularly placed, it is set ofi'by the comma. When the principal clause breaks up the subordinate clause, it should be set off by the comma. When the clause ends in a verb and is followed by the same verb, the two should be separated by a comma. EXERCISE 31. The Quotation. State the principal clause and the subordinate clause in each of the following sentences. State the use of the subor- dinate clause. Note and explain the punctuation. How do the clauses differ from those in the preceding list? 1. "Mental power can never be gained from senseless fiction," says a certain writer. 2. The peacock struts about, saying, " What a fine tail I have! " o. Socrates's greatest saying was, " Know thyself." 4. Shakespeare's metaphor, ".Night's candles are burned out," is one of the finest in literature. 5. The shortest verse in the Bible is this: "Jesus wept." 6. " What have I done?" is asked by the knave and the thief. 7. Hamlet's exclamation M'as, " What a piece of work is man ! " 8. Cries of, " Long live the king! " rent the air. 9. The traveler said that he was weary. 10. The speaker said that Protection was a failure. 11. "You will," he said, "be well satisfied with the change." 88 A New English Grammar. 12. A writer says, "I have heard more than one person say, 'I am thankful.' " 13. I will ask you, " What can you do?" 14. The message ran thus: "England expects every man to do his duty." 15. Charles Lamb, reading the epitaphs in a church-yard, in- quired, "Where be all the bad people buried?" 16. In studying grammar through the English language, we must purge our minds of the wooden notion, tliat it is an inherent quality of a word to be this or that part of speech. 17. The whole force of conversation depends on how much you can take for granted. 18. Nathan Hale's only regret was, that he had but one life to give to his country. 19. Byron, seeing Moore eating an under-done beefsteak, asked if he were not afraid of committing murder after such a meal. 20. Lowell has long been certain that the greatest vice of Ameri- can writing and speaking is a studied want of simplicity. Explain the difference between a direct and an indirect quotation; between a substantive clause and a direct quota- tion; between a substantive clause and an indirect quotation. State the punctuation of the direct quotation. State all the uses of the direct quotation in the complex sentence. Write an original example of each use. The direct quotation may be used in the complex sentence as sub- ject, predicate, appositive modifier, direct objective modifier, and principal ]:>art of a prepositional phrase. A direct quotation should begin with a capital and be enclosed in quotation marks, and is usually separated from the rest of the sen- tence by the comma. A direct quotation, when a question or exclamation, should be followed by its appropriate mark. Punctuation and Capitalization. 89 When a direct quotation is broken up by another part of the sen- tence, each part of the quotation should be enclosed in quotation marks and separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma. A direct quotation formally introduced should be preceded by a colon. A quotation within a quotation should be enclosed in single quo- tation marks. EXERCISE 32. Punctuate and capitalize the following sentences, giving reasons: 1. This we know that our future depends upon our present 2. The story of Washington's hatchet it is now believed is untrue 3. Why me the stern usurper spared I knew not 4. The project it is certain will succeed 5. Whatever is is right 6. He said the maxim a fool and his money are soon parted is many times exemplified 7. In the New Testament are the following words Jesus answered the Jews is it not written in your law 8. The English said Voltaire gain two hours a day by clipping words 9. Gallop gasped Joris for Aix is in sight 10. The Queen said repeatedly with a firm voice into thy hands Lord I commend my spirit 11. You lazy fellow cried Hercules how dare you send for me till you have tried to do without me 12. Fly Rebecca for no human aid can avail you said Ivanhoe 13. Said the school master when asked about Esau the pupil said Esau wrote a famous book of fables and sold the copyright for a bottle of potash 14. What teacher of rhetoric has not sympathized with the der lightful Portia in the Merchant of Venice when she says with a sigh if to do were as easy as to know what were good to do chapels had been churches and poor men's cottages princes' palaces 90 A Nkw English Grammar. 15. Truth gets^ well says a certain writer even if she be run over by a locomotive 16. The Mohammedans say God gave two-thirds of all the beauty to Eve. 17. We daily verify the saying man's extremity is God's oppor- tunity 18. The principle involved in resistance to tyrants is obedience to God was the seminal principle of the American Revolution 19. The Ram's Horn says a self-made man likes to boast of his job 20. One historian says if we trac^k Queen Elizabeth through her tortuous mazes of lying and intrigue the sense of her greatness is almost lost in a sense of contempt State all the rules for punctuating the substantive clause, both in its usual form and as a direct quotation. EXERCISE 33. The Adjective Clause. State the use of each italicized expression in the following- sentences. State whether they narrow the meaning of the word modified or simply make prominent an attribute of an object of thought : 1. Mahomet, the founder of the faith of Islam, was born in Mecca. [ExPL.\NATioN. — The expression, "the founder of the faith of Islam," is an appositive modifier of the word, " Mahomet." It simply makes prominent an attribute of the object of thought expressed by that word. We could make a complex sentence out of it, as follows: Malwmet, ivho was the founder of the faith of Islam, ivas born in Mecca. The principal clause is, " Mahomet was born in Mecca." The subordinate clause is, " who was the founder of the faith of Islam," and it is descriptive. The connective word is, " who," and it has two uses: (1). It is the subject of the subordinate clause. (2). It expresses the relation between the principal thought and the sub- ordinate thought or it joins the subordinate to the principal clause.] 2. Sunderland's crime was never forgiven by James. The Adjective Clause. 91 3. A man of good character will win respect. 4. The prisoner, stupefied i^h terror, could not respond. ~5. The army, conquered at Waterloo, was commanded by Napoleon. (). Solomon, the builder of t1ie. Temple, was the son of David. 7. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 8. Eice, largely consumed by the natives of Eastern Asia, requires a damp soil. 9. Procrastination, the thief of time, is our worst enemy. 10. A selfish vc\&n,Alie ugliest thing upon which the angels leave to look, is a disgrace to humanity. Change each of the preceding sentences into a complex sentence. State the principal clause and the subordinate clause in each. State whether the subordinate clause is limit- ing or descriptive. Point out the connective word and state its uses. A limiting- adjective clause is an adjective clause whose chief use is to narrow the application of the woi'd it modifies. A descriptive adjective clause is an adjective clause whose chief use is to make prominent an attribute of the object of thought expressed by the word which it modifies. EXERCISE 34. Observe the preceding instructions with regard to the follow- ing sentences: 1. God rules the world, which he created. 2. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. 3. The man who conquers selfishness is brave. 4. The evil that men do lives after them. 5. I thrice presented him a kingly crown, which he did thrice refuse. 6. My father, whom jill loved, was fond of flowers. 7. The girl and the cat, that were in the room, were having a frolic. 8. The person who first ran to the sepulcher was a woman. 9. He purchased such books^ were wanted. 92 A New English Grammar. 10. To live in hearts we leave behind is not. to die. 11. There is not a man here but knows it. 12. There is no fireside, but has one vacant chair. 13. As many as received him, to them gave he power. 14. Such as I have, give I unto thee. 15. To him who in the love of nature holds communion with her visible forms, she speaks a various language. 16. It was to me that he gave the book. . 17. It was fromliim that I received the information. 18. The lever which moves the world's mind is the printing press. 19. The knights of the round table, who flourished in the reign of King Arthur, were brave. 20. Margaret Fuller, whom the waves buried, was a good woman. EXERCISE 35. State the use of each italicized expression in the following. Tr}^ to substitute one word for the entire italicized expres- sion in each case. State all the uses of the word Avhich you substitute: 1. He who wins may laugh. [Explanation.— In the above sentence, the word, "He," is the subject of the principal clause, " He may lau gh." The word, " who," is the subject of the subordinate clause, " who wins," and also ex- presses the relation between the principal thought and the subor- dinate thought or it joins the subordinate clause to the principal clause. The word, " whoever," might be substituted for, " He who." The word, "whoever," would then have three uses: Two substan- tive uses, subject of i^rincipal clause and subject of the subordinate clause; and one connective use, expressing the relation between the principal and the subordinate thought, or joining the subordinate to the principal clause.] 2. The thing ivhich is right is safe. 3. He wants anything which he sees. 4. Tlie person whom falsehood pleases, truth offends. 5. Do the thing which is right. The Adjective Clause. 93 6. The Xtord-ebsisieneihr-cFfiy person whom he loveth. 7. Any person who runs may read. 8. The person who keepeth the haw is a wise son. 9. I speak as to wise men: judge ye the thing which I say. i.0. The person who enters here should have a pure heart. EXERCISE 36. State all the uses of the italicized expressions in the fol- lowing. Expand the words so as more clearly to show all their uses: 1. W/ioewr sees not the sun is bhnd. 2. He 'knovii u'homever he has once seen. 3. Whx)so keepeth the law is a wise son. 4. Whatever he doeth shall prosper. "). Whosoever sweareth by the gift that is on the altar is guilty. 6. Whosever child you have wronged shall be avenged. 7. Whosewever sins ye forgive shall be forgiven. 8. I will be satisfied with whomsoever you may appoint. 9. You may have rvhichever you want. 10. Whatsoever ye shall ask, that will I do. 11. The child does whatever he pleases. 12. He will do what is right. 13. You may select whichsoever you desire. 14. What he says is true. 15. Whosoever shall smite you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also. 16. Into whatsoever city ye shall enter, inquire who is worthy. 17. Whosoever shall be ashamed of me, of him shall the son of man be ashamed. 18. Whoever studies will learn. 19. Whoever does no good does harm. 20. Whoever bring.s tlie treasure will receive the reward. Make complete lists of the simple and compound relative pronouns. State the kind of object expressed by each. Show 94 A Nkw English Grammar. how the compound relatives are formed. When is the word as used as a relative? Define relative pronoun; simple, com- pound. What is an antecedent? What determines the case form of the compound relative pronoun? State the punctua- tion of the adjective clause. Write a sentence in which the compound relative has a nominative use in the principal clause and an objective use in the subordinate clause; one in which the reverse is true. A relative pronoun is a pronoun which has a connective use. A simple relative pronoun is a relative pronoun which has one substantive use. A compound relative pronoun is a relative pronoun which has two substantive uses. An antecedent is that part of the sentence to which the con- nective word refers and to which it joins the subordinate clause. The case form of the compound relative pronoun must agree with its use in the subordinate clause. EXERCISE 37. Explain the use of the following italicized expressions, and the use of the clauses in which they occur. Substitute a single word for each italicized expression, and state the uses of the word thus substituted: 1. Youth is the time at ivhich the seeds of character are sown. [Explanation. — The^xpressiOB, "at which," in the above sen- tence, has two uses: (1). It modifies the word, "sown," in the sub- ordinate clause. It is an adverbial modifier, expressing the adverb- ial idea of time. (2). The word, "which," expresses the relation between the principal and the subordinate thoiighj;.^^' it joins the subordinate to the principal clause. The word, '^when-;" might be substituted for the italicized expression, "at which," thus: Youth is tJie time vjfien the seeds of character are sown. The word, " when," then has the two uses of the italicized expression.] 2. I saw tlic city in which Longfellow jlived. The Adjective Clause. 95 3. The place to uhich she fled is unknown. f-C^--'^ 4. I know a bank o?i which the wild thyme grows. *T^^ ^ 5. You take the means &2/ 'w7^^■c/^ I live. 4^^f**h - 6. This is the arrow vAth which he killed Cock Robin. 7. This is the house /roTO -uj/iic/i Arnold fled. , uU ■^'^'^ 8. I know the place of vhich you speak. ^^f-^'"'^ ' 9. I do not like the platform on irhich they stand. /*^a-<*^ *^ 10. The principle on vhich he acts is just. /^ '"^ EXERCISE 38. In the following sentences, state the principal clause; the subordinate clause and the word it modifies; the connective word and all its uses: 1. We came unto the laud whither thou sentest us. 2. I have shook off" the regal thoughts wherewith I reigned. 3. The play'.« the thing wherein I'll catch the conscience of the king. 4. It was a time when men's heart? were tried. T). The place where he fell is unknown. 0. He would give the duke no reasons why he followed a losing suit. 7. Mark those laws whereby the universe is conducted. 8. A depot is a place where stores are kept. 9. A verb is a word whereby the chief action of the mind is expressed. 10. The valley of Chamouni is a place where the traveler loves to linger for days and even for weeks. What is a conjunctive adverb? Make an outline of the adjective clause, showing all the words which may be used in joining it to the principal clause. A conjuiictivi^ adverb is an adverb which has a connective use. A simple conjunctive advevl) is a conjunctive adverb whicli has one adverV)ial use. 96 A New English Grammar. An adjective clause may be joined to the word which it modifies by a simple relative pronoun, a compound -relative pronoun, or a simple conjunctive adverb. The descriptive adjective clause should be separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma. EXERCISE 39. The Adverbial Clause. Explain the uses of the italicized expressions in the follow- ing sentences. Try to substitute a single word for each ex- pression, and then state all the uses of the substituted word : 1. Improve your moments during the time at which you are in school. [Explanation. ^In the above sentence, the expression, " during the time at which," has three uses : two adverbial uses and one con- nective use. The phrase, "during the time," modifies the word, "improve." It is an adverbial modifier, expressing the adverbial idea of time. The phrase, "at which," modifies the word, "are." It is an adverbial modifier, expressing the adverbial idea of time. The word, " which," expresses the relation between the principal and the subordinate thought, or it joins the subordinate to the principal clause. The word, " while," may be substituted for the italicized ex- pression, thus: Improve your moments while you are at school. Now the word, " while," has the three uses of the italicized expression.] 2. Swiftly glide the hours at the time at which the heart is young. 3. Smooth runs the water at the place at which the brook is deep. 4. At the time at which he slept, she over him would spread his mantle. 5. He sleeps at the place at which night overtakes him. 6. The boy does in the manner in which he pleases. 7. He became humbler in the degree in which he grew wiser. 8. Truth is strange in a degree in which fiction is not strange. 9. In the manner in which the twig is bent, the tree is inclined. 10. At the time at which Raleigh was launching paper navies, Shake- speare was stretching his baby hands for the moon. The Adverbial Clause. 97 Make a definition of the class of words you have just been substituting. A compound conjiuictive adverb is a conjunctive adverb which has two adverbial uses. EXERCISE 40. In the following sentences, state the principal clause; the subordinate clause, stating what word it modifies; the con- nective word and all its uses: 1. Gather dewdrops while they sparkle. 2. Peace rules the day when reason rules the hour. 3. Master, I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest. 4. Children of the Heavenly King, As we journey, let us sing. 5. When Greeks joined Greeks, then began the tug of war. 6. Where the bee sucks, there suck I. 7. Whither I go, ye cannot come. 8. When the heart beats no more, then the life ends. 9. Mammon wins his way, where seraphs might despair. 10. Wheresoever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered together. 11. Hell trembled as he strode. 12. In Britain, the conquered race became as barbarous as the conquerors were. 13. Death itself is not so painful as is this sudden horror and surprise. 14. His misery was such that none of the bystanders could refrain from weeping. 15. He gazed so long, that both his eyes were dazzled. 16. As heroes think, so thought the Bruce. 17. The earlier you rise, the better your nerves will bear study. 18. Pride may be pampered, while the flesh grows lean. 19. They are better than we had expected. 20. He was so weak, that he fell. 7 98 A New English Grammar. EXERCISE 41. State the use of the italicized words in the following sen- tences : 1 . I left before suuri se. 2. I left before the sun rose. [In the first sentence, the word, "before," is a preposition. How does its use in the first sentence differ from that in the second?] 3. George Washington died after the accomplishment of his great work. 4. George Washington died after his great work was accomplished. 5. The Lord hath blessed thee since my coming. 6. The Lord hath blessed thee since I came. 7. You should drink from the fountain of knowledge ere your departure. 8. You should drink from the fountain of knowledge ere you depart. 9. You may wait till the arrival of the train. 10. You may wait till the train arrives. 11. He sat and talked until his death. 12. He sat and talked until he died. t EXERCISE 42. State the principal and subordinate clauses in each of the following sentences, and explain the use of the connective: 1. He rushes to battle as if he were summoned to a banquet. [Explanation. — If the sentence were expanded, it would read: He rushes to battle as he would rush if he were summoned to a banquet. The principal clause is, "He rushes to battle." The subordin- ate clause is, "as he would rush if he were summoned to a ban- quet." The connective is the word, "as," and it is a compound conjunctive adverb. (See explanation above.) There is also a sub- ordinate clause in the subordinate clause ; viz., " if he were sum- moned to a banquet." The connective word is " if" and it is a pure .subordinate conjunction, i. e., it has no other use except to join the The Adverbial Clause. 99 subordinate clause to the principal clause, or we might say, it ex- presses the relation between the principal thought and the subor- dinate thought.] 2. Our friends visited us as frequently as they could. 8. I will run as far as God has any ground. 4. Oft as the morning dawns should gratitude arise. 5. His head ached, so that he could scarcely study. H. Since you insist upon it, I consent. 7. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew them in the wilderness. 8. Our fathers sought these shores in order that they might escape from persecution. 9. In case that we are beaten, we shall retreat. 10. How happy I could be with either, Were t'other dear charmer away. 11. Cursed be I, that I did so. 12. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 13. If the war of the Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom, it arrested its progress for a hundred years. 14. Obey the law of nature lest thou become unnatural. 15. Whereas the Embargo act injured the commerce of America, it was repealed. 16. I will pay him so he will have no excuse for returning. 17. Except ye become as little children, ye can in no wise enter the Kingdom of Heaven. 18. Unless you are competent, seek no promotion. 19. Ye know the heart of a stranger, seeing ye were strangers in a strange land. 20. That is strange, notwithstanding he is your neighbor. 21. I must go whether the train goes or not. 22. Although the wound soon healed again, yet, as he ran, he yelled for pain. 23. Milton almost requires a service to be played before you enter on him. 100 A New English Grammar. 24. The waves of Bound do not move so rapidly as the waves of light. 25. The more we know of ancient literature, the more we are i^truck with its modernness. Make an outline of the adverbial clause, state the kinds of connective words which may be used to join the adverbial clause to the principal clause, define and make lists of each of these classes of .connectives, and finish your outline* of the complex sentence. State the punctuation of the adverbial clause. The adverbial clause may be joined to the principal clause by the eonapound conjunctive adverb or the pure subordinate conjunction. The adverbial clause is set off by the comma when it does not closely follow and restrict the part of the sentence which it modifies. The causal clause is frequently separated from the rest of the sen- tence by the comma. EXERCISE 43. Analyze the following sentences according to the following form : 1. Classify the sentence as a whole. 2. State the principal parts of it. 3. Give the principal word in each part, and all its modifiers. 1. Where beams of warm imagination play, The memory's soft figures melt away. 2. He who knows only his own side of the case, knows little of that. '6. When we go forth in the morning, we lay a moulding hand upon our destiny. 4. Knowledge and timber should not be used much till they are seasoned. 5. Whoever seeks the good of others will himself be blessed. =■" An outline similar to those made for other topics. Analysis of Complex Sentences. 101 6. That man has been from time immemorial a right-handed animal, is beyond dispute. 7» If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning. S. Still the wonder grew. That one small head could carry all he knew. 9, The man who grumbles much prays little. 10. The smallest dewdrop, that lies on the meadow^ at night, has a star sleeping in its bosom. 11. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot, O'er the grave where our hero was buried. 12. All seems infected that the infected spy, As all looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. 13. All are but parts of one stupendous whole Whose body nature is, and God the soul. 14. Much pleased was he to find. That, though on pleasure she was bent, She had a frugal mind. 15. Too many who have not learned to follow, want to lead. 16. Some people appear to think that whining is religion. 17. When an honest man stays away from the polls, the devil votes. 18. It generally takes a blockhead a good jthile to find out what ails him. 19. One of the greatest foes the devil has is a Christian mother. 20. If our faults were written on our faces, how quickly we would all hang our heads. 21. As the genuineness of a coin is made apparent by the touch of an acid, so are the qualities of manhood manifested by the test of trial. 22. The man who lives only for himself will not have many mourners at his funeral. 102 A New English Grammar. 2.'i. Read from some humbler poet Whose songs gushed from his heart, As showers from the clouds of summer Or tears from the eyelids start. 24. A man he was to all the country dear, And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 25. Oh, well for the fisherman's boy That he shouts with his sister at play ! Oh, well for the sailor lad That he sings in his boat on the bay ! 26. You must wake and call me early, call me early, mother dear ; To-morrow'll be the happiest time of all the glad New Year; Of all the glad New Year, mother, the madde.st, merriest day; For I'm to be Queen o' the May, mother, I'm to be Queen o' the May. 27. Worth makes the man and want of it the fellow. 28. In one rude crash he struck the lyre, and swept with hurried hand the strings. 29. He listened to the song of the Sirens, yet he glided by with- out being seduced to their shore. 30. Joy comes, grief goes, we know not how ; Everything is happy now. Everything is upward striving; 'Tis as easy now for the heart to be true As for grass to be green or skies to be blue, — 'Tis the natural way of living. Define regular compound sentence, and abridged compound sentence. Review compound and complex sentences. other good sentences for analysis may be found in Part II. of this book. EXERCISE 44. Punctuation. Punctuate and capitalize the following, giving reasons : 1. It is mind after all which does the work of the world t 2. His passions however prevented his seeing the danger » PlTNCTUATIOX. 103 3. The affair passed off to your satisfaction no doubt 4. Nelson has at last got into the senate . 5. He promised however to set about refoim at once . (i. However much he promised it was but little that he performed 7. Here all is peace and quietness there all is turmoil and strife S. Why this is all wrong 9. 'Joseph who happened to be in the field at the time saw the carriage approach and in an ecstacy of delight hastened to meet it 10^ ff you would succeed in business be honest and industrious 11. The tree will not bear fruit in autumn unless it blossoms in the spring 12. Breathe into a man an earnest purpose and you awaken in him a new power 13. Give time to the study of nature whose laws are all deeply interesting 14. Those friendjj who in the native vigor of his powers per- ceived the dawn "of Robertson's future eminence were at length amply rewarded 15. He preaches most eloquently who leads the most pious life K). No thought can be just of which good sense is not the ground- work 17. There are men and women whose desire for knowledge is never satisfied 18. Modern engineering spans whole continents tunnels alike mountains and rivers and dykes out old ocean himself 19. Did God create for the poor a coarser earth a thinner air a paler sky 20. Aristotle Hamilton Wheatley and McCosh are high authori- ties in logic 21. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the young and the old have one common Father 22. Himself the greatest of agitators Napoleon became the most oppressive of tyrants 2.''. Paul the apostle was a man of energy 104 A New English Grammar. 24. The word poet meaning a maker a creator is derived from the Greek 25. The greatest poet among the ancients Homer like the great- est among the moderns Milton was blind 26. At the request of the Et Rev W H Hooker D D the vote was taken 27. I beg leave sir to present my friend Lord Hargrave 28. Show pity Lord O Lord forgive 29. Then came Jesus the doors being shut and stood in their midst ?>0. To obtain an education he was willing to make sacrifices 31. Awkward in person he was ill adapted to gain respect .32. Reading maketh a full man conference a ready man writing an exact man 33. Semiramis built Babylon Dido Carthage and Romulus Rome 34. Some one justly remarks it is a great loss to lose an affliction 35. Patrick Henry began his great speech by saying it is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope ^ ^ , 36. As we perceived the shadow to have moved but did not per- ceive its moving so our advances in learning consisting of such min- ute steps are perceivable only by the distance 37. So sad and dark a story is scarcely to be found in any work of fiction and we are little disposed to envy the moralist who can read it without being softened .38. If we think of glory in the field of wisdom in the cabinet of the purest patriotism of the highest integrity public and private of morals without a stain of religious feeling without intolerance and without extravagance the august figure of Washington presents it- self as the personation of all these 39. The temples are profaned the soldier's oath resounds in the house of God.the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofs horses neigh beside the altar, 40. Greece has given us three great historians namely Herodotus Xenophon and Thucydides Punctuation. 105 41. Adjective Pronouns are divided into three classes Distribu- tive Demonstrative and Indefinite 42. ^ Speaking of party Pope makes this remark there never was any party faction sect or cabal whatsoever in which the most igno- rant were not the most violent 43 Can these words add vigor to your hearts yes they can do it they have often done it 44. Yes my lords I am amazed at his lordship's speech 45. Shall a man obtain the favor of Heaven by impiety by mur- der by falsehood by theft 46. Oh what a fair and ministering angel 47. Ho trumpets sound a war-note 48. Socrates said that he believed the soul to be immortal 49. Some one has said what an argument for prayer is contained in the words Our Father which art in heaven 50. Trench says what a lesson the word diligence contains 51. There is but one object says Augustine greater than the soul and that is its Creator 52. Let me make the ballads of a nation said Fletcher and I care not who makes the laws 53. What do you think I'll shave you for nothing and give you a drink 54 To Greece we arc indebted for the three principal orders of architecture the Doric the Ionic and the Corinthian 55. He who is his own lawyer is said to have a fool for a client 56. 'Tis not the whole of life to live Nor all of death to die 57. To .honor God to benefit mankind To serve with lofty gifts the lowly needs Of the poor race for which the God-man died And do it all for love oh this is great 58. A still small voice spake unto me Thou art so full of misery Were it not 1)etter not to be 10() A New English Grammar. 69. The lilies behold liuvv we Preach without words of purity HO. And I will trust that He who heeds The life that hides in mead and wold Who hangs yon alder's crimson beads And stains these mosses green and gold Will still as He hath done incline His gracious ear to me and mine PARTS OF SPEECH. EXERCISE 45. Substantive Words. In the following sentences, point out the words which ex- press objects of thought, and state what kind of an object of thought each one expresses; notice how the word expresses the object of thought. Does it emphasize the common at- tributes of the object of thought or the peculiar attributes? Does it express the object of thought for the purpose of call- ing attention to that particular object of thought, or for the purpose of calling attention to its peculiarities? 1. The house is made of brick. 2. The cup and spoon were presents. :>. The horse is a useful animal. 4. The girl's cheeks are rosy. 5. The man placed his hand on the boy's head. B. The boat turned on her side. 7. Flesh and blood cannot enter the Kingdom of Heaven. 8. Silver and gold have I none. 9. The articles are made of wood and iron. 10. The odor of the flower was pleasant. SUBSTANIIVi; WOKDS. 107 11. Do you like the flavor of tlic fruit? 12. Thunder and lightning are frightful. 13. Then shall this body return to dust, and the soul to God, who gave it. 14. The man is six feet in height. 15. Truth is stranger than fiction. 16. The lad's goodness of heart atoned for his ugliness of feature. 17. His absence is more to be desired than his presence. 18. Caesar's anger knew no bounds. 19. Which was greater, Martin Luther or Mohammed ? 20. Oliver was on his way from Ludgate to Cornhill, when he met a group of boot-blacks. 21. A troop of children gamboled on the green. 22. The family became uneasy. 23. The school consisted of a dozen children. 24. Jupiter is larger than Venusr'l 25. Paul was the greatest missionary the church has ever had. Name and define the class of words with which you have been dealing. Divide this class of words into sub-classes. State the bases of your divisions. Name and define each class. A substantive word is a word that expresses an object of thought. Substantive words are classified into two classes, iioiiiis and pronouns, on the basis of the way in which the object of thought is expressed. A noun is a substantive word that expresses an object of thought by naming it. A pronoun is a substantive word that expresses an object of thought without naming it. Nouns are classified into two classes, proper and coiunion, on the basis of the class of attributes emphasized in the object of thought expressed by the noun. 108 A New English Grammar. A proper noun is a noun that expresses an object of thought in which the particular attributes are emphasized. A coninioii noun is a noun that expresses an object of thought in which the general attributes are emphasized. Nouns are, again, classified into two classes, abstract and con- crete, on the basis of the kinds of objects of thought expressed. An abstract novin is a noun that expresses an abstract object of thought. A concrete noun is a noun that expresses a concrete object of thought. It will be noticed in studying concrete nouns that some of them express objects of thought that are ideas of material objects, while others express objects of thought that are ideas of immaterial ob- jects. The first may be called material novms. Examples of this class are, table, house, ground. The second may be called immate- rial nouns. Examples of this class are, God, soul, mind. Again, some of the material nouns express objects of thought that are individuals of a class or a class, or a collection of individu- als thought as one, or a substance. On this basis we have class nouns, collective nouns, and substance nouns. A class noun is a noun that expresses an object of thought which is an individual of a class or a class ; e. g,, book, man, animal. A collective noun is a noun that expresses an object of thought which is composed of individuals thought as one, e. g., school, army, troop. A substance noun is a noun that expresses an object of thought which is the material or substance of which something is composed. EXERCISE 46. Gender. In the following sentences, state the sex of the objects of thought expressed by the italicized words : 1 . The boy learns rapidlj'. 2. The girl assists her brother. ?>. The child was carried to its mother. 4. Willow trees grow rapidly. 5. The eye of day hath oped its lid. Gendek. 109 What property of substantive words depends upon the abo\e noticed distinctions? Define. How many kinds would we have? Why? Define each. Upon what basis is this division made? How are these different kinds of sub- stantive words distinguished? Gender is the property of substantive words that depends upon the relation the object of thought expressed by the substantive word bears to sex. On the basis of the relation of the object of thought to sex, we have four classes of gender: masculine, feminine, common and neuter. Mascviline gender is that gender which denotes that the object of thought expressed by the substantive word is of the male sex. Feminine g-ender is that gender which denotes that the object of thought expressed by the substantive word is of the female sex. Common gender is that gender which denotes that the object of thought expressed by the substantive word has sex, but does not indicate which sex it is. Neuter gender is that gender which denotes that the object of thought expressed by the substantive word has no sex. We distinguish masculine gender nouns from feminine gender nouns by some change in the form of the word. We distinguish the common gender nouns and neuter gender nouns by the kinds of ob- jects of thought which they express. >foTE.— Gender may be defined as that property of the substantive word which distinguishes the object of thought expressed in regard to sex. With this definition in mind, we would have two classes of gender: the masculine and feminine, and the property would be given to those substantive words which really make the distinction in regard to the sex of the object of thought expressed and not to any others. Since some substantive words express sex oV)jects of thought, but do not distinguish which sex, they are for convenience said to be of common gender. 110 A New English Grammar. EXERCISE 47. Write the following words in two columns; in one column, write the masculine form of each word, and in the other, the feminine: Bachelor, bride, sister, boy, cock, duck, earl, mother, gentleman, hart, female, man, Mr., sir, niece, son, aunt, Charles, Augustus, ab- bott, baron, hostess, actor, prior, benefactor, executor, murderer, sorcerer, man-servant, he-bear, female-descendant, cock sparrow, Mr. Smith, pea-cock, poet, witch, lad, lion, heroine, prince, beau, duke, emperor, queen, husband, papa, negro, mistress, widow, goose, nun, deacon, heir, Jew, patron, governor, administrator, and prophet. EXERCISE 48. Irregularities in Gender. Notice the irregularities in the gender of the nouns in the following sentences, and explain each: 1. The ship has lost her rudder. 2. The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews. 3. The sun in his glory appears ; the moon in her wane hides her face. 4. The nightingale sings her song. 5. The lion meets his foe boldly. 6. The fox made his escape. 7. Heirs are often disappointed. 8. The English are a proud nation. 9. The poets of America should be honored. 10. The bee on its wing Never pauses to sing ; The child in its weakness Is master of all. Person'. Ill EXERCISE 49. Person. In the following sentences, state the relations of the objects of thought, expressed by the italicized words, to the speaker : 1. J, W. R- Merriam. governor of Minnesota, declare it to be true. 2. I hope, Jolui, that you will remember that character is more precious than gold. 3. Tears fall sometimes when hearts are least willing to show grief. 4. Mr. Sewell has the pleasure of informing Mr. Mason that he has been elected president of the literary soc?e<j/. 5. You are the gentleman who so kindly assisted me. Name and define this property of substantive words. State the diiferent kinds or classes, and define and illustrate each. How is this property indicated in nouns? How in pronouns? Illustrate. Person is that property of the substantive word which denotes the relation the object of thought expressed by the substantive word bears to the speaker. We have noticed in the sentences above that the object of thought expressed by the substantive word may bear three different relations to the speaker; viz., identity, person spoken to, and person or thing spoken of. On this basis, we have three classes of person : the first person, second person, and third person. First person is the person of that substantive word which expresses the speaker. Second person is the person of that substantive word which expresses an object of thought that is addressed by the speaker. Third person is the person of that substantive word which expresses an object of thought that is spoken of by the speaker. This property is indicated in nouns by the relation the object of thought expressed bears to the speaker, and not by any change in the form of the word. 112 A New English Grammak. EXERCISE 50. Number. State whether the italicized words, in the following sen- tences, express one or more than one individual: 1. We shall start for California in the morning. 2. We went from New York to Philadelphia in three hours. 3. Birds of beautiful plumage flew around us in great numbers. 4. In my hurry, my foot slipped, and /fell to the ground. 5. The cork oak grows in large quantities in the Spanish peninsula. What is the property of substantive words observed in the preceding sentences called ? Divide into classes, define and illustrate. How is this property indicated in nouns ? State the gen- eral rule. State five or six special rules for the forma- tion of plurals. What class of nouns change form and re- tain their identit}^? What classes may properly have this property and retain their identity? Illustrate. Number is that property of the substantive word which denotes whether the object of thought expressed is one or more than one. On this basis, there are two classes: singular, and plural. Singular number is the number of that substantive word that expresses cue object of thought. Plural number is the number of that substantive word that ex- presses more than one object of thought. This property is generally indicated by some change in the form of the word. The general and special rules may be stated after a careful study of the following words has been made. Case. 113 EXERCISE 51. Write the following words in two columns; in one col- umn, write the singular form of each word, and in the other the plural : Book, desk, sin, church, witness, glory, sky, money, wife, knife, strife, life, fife, cargo, negro, folio, quarto, trio, no, men, ox, mice, teeth, geese, p, q, 6, 7, +, *, brother-in-law, court-martial, wagon-load, ox-cart, handful, ipse dixit, tete-a-tetes, piano-forte, man-servant. Knight-templar, Miss Seward, Mr. Casad, Sir Isaac Newton, Dr. Benson, Mrs. Henderson, brother, die, fish, genius, index, jjenny, pea, Sarah, oh, my, ah, calculus, arcanum, criterion, thesis, analysis, antithesis, parenthesis, nebula, phenomena, calyx, strata, silver, vinegar, hemp, darkness, oil, ashes, assets, bellows, clothes, scissors, shears, tongs, news, molasses, lungs, alms, corps, mumps, measles, odds, riches, series, suds, tidings, wages, ethics, politics, mathemat- ics, optics, physics, pedagogics, sheep, deer, couple, salmon, trout, gross, hose, yoke, hiss, adz, sash, embryo, grotto, oratorio, buffalo, mosquito, tomato, potato, valley, chimney, money, duty, spy, cow, foot, bandit, cherub, formula, memorandum, focus, terminus, erra- tum, medium, axis, genus, automaton, hypothesis, V)asis, crisis, ellipsis, Mrs., Mr., eaves, custom, letter, number, pain, part, liberty, virtue, vices, attorney-general, head, belief, brief, bluff, cliff, staff, ditty, daisy, baby, buoy, turkey, berry, fairy, soliloquy, tray, Chi- nese, Japanese, forget-me-not. (See Dictionary.) EXERCISE 52. Case. In the following sentences, state the relation of each itali- cized word to the other words in the sentence : 1. Blue-Island is a toivn, situated on ii bluff, which rises abruptly from a prairie. 2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are derived from TyndaWs version. 3. They scaled Mont Blanc — the great mountain. 4. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero. 5. This house was Longfelloiv, the poet's home. 8 114 A New English Grammar. 6. James, the student, is a writer — a journalist. 7. You, a farmer, may be a scholar. 8. Children, be honest and true. 9. We spoke of Tennyson, the dead poet. 10. Blaine died in Washington City, the c'apital of the United States. 11. iiTe gave me the 600/;. 12. They walked ten miles, a long distance, 13. T/ie?/ wished hirn to study tow. 14. His being ill prevented our going. 15. The law of the Lo7-d is perfect, rejoicing the heart. Name and define the different kinds of relations which you have found substantive words to have in the preceding sentences. Bring to class one good example of the noun and one of the pronoun used in each of these possible rela- tions. How is the possessive case of the noun indicated? Substantive words have nine different relations in the sentence. The substantive words that have the relation of subject, predicate, used in direct address, used independently, or appositive modifier of any one of these, are said to have the nominative relation. Substantive words that have the relation of possessive modifier, or in apposition with it, are said to have the possessive relation. Substantive words that have the relation of adverbial objective modifier, direct objective modifier, indirect objective modifier, or principal part of the prepositional phrase, or in apposition with any one of these, are said to be in the objective relation. Case is that property of a substantive word that is the relation the substantive word bears to other words in the sentence. Since the relations are groifped into three groups, there are three cases : nominative, possessive, and objective. Nominative case is the case of that substantive word that has a nominative relation. Possessive case is the case of that substantive word that has a possessive relation. ' Objective case is the case of that substantive word that has an objective relation. Casb. 115 EXERCISE 53. Correct the spelling of nouns used in the possessive case in the following sentences : 1. The sailors life was in danger. 2. Mens destinies are in their own hands. 3. Childrens plays should be made a means of educating them. 4. Daniel Websters speeches are marvels of oratory. 5. The Bishop of Dublin palace was destroyed by fire. 6. Baker and Watsons store has been sold. 7. Webster and Worcesters Dictionaries are much in demand. 8. Her Majesty, Queen Victorias government, has been much disturbed. 9. The captain of the Elbes wife was lost when the vessel sank. 10. The knight-templars costume was the most costly. 11. My brother-in laws house was destroyed by fire. 12. Do no wrong for conscience sake. 13. " For goodness sake ! " exclaimed the woman, " spare me my child!" 14. She had taken them all into her great heart — the boys sor- rows and the girls cares. 15. Mrs. Cass appearance gave life to the occasion. 16. Jonas Buss slate made the noise. 17. I got the money changed at Sloan the druggist. 18. His character stands out when you compare it with his uncle Henry of Hanover. 19. I would not have taken anybody else M'or^ for it. 20. I have granted your request but not anybody else; who elses could I grant ? 21. We frequently buy books at the book shop of Mr. Horns, on the Circle. 22. In spite of the guards precautions, the prisoner escaped. 23. Harris exposition of Hegels Logic will be found helpful to students. 116 A New English Grammar. 24. James task was finished early. 25. Moses law was formal. 26. Frances share of the fortune was badly managed. 27. Xerxes army was victorious. 28. The woman would accept neither her neighbors nor the countys offers of assistance. 29. Joris strength failed before he got to Aix. 30. I arranged for the money at Hill the banker. What is meant by inflection ? Illustrate. By inflection is meant the changes in the form of a word to indi- cate its different properties. EXERCISE 54. From the expressions inclosed in the marks of parenthesis in each of the following sentences, select the correct one. 1. I had a full understanding of (the fact's significance, the sig- nificance of the fact). 2. (Congress' act, the act of congress) was approved by the people 3. (My wife's picture, picture by my wafe) became famous. 4. He is a stranger (in the midst of us, in our midst). 5. Do not remain (on our account, on account of us). 6. He carried (a dice, die) in his vest pocket as a mascot. 7. The millennium is yet a long (way, ways) off. 8. The news (was, were) received with great demonstration. 9. (This, these) news created great consternation. 10. He rose to distniction between the twenty-fourth and twen- ty-fifth (year, years) of his life. 11. Are you an (alumni, alumnus) of this school ? 12. When I looked, I saw a (bacterium, bacteria). 13. Do you approve the change in the (curricula, curriculum) ? 14. (This, these) scanty data (is, are) not sufficient. 15. Agassiz's (dictum, dicta) was, "Study the fish." 16. This (phenomenon, phenomena) was observed many times. 17. Did you see the (harpist, harper) who played the beautiful air? Outline of Noun. 117 18. Do you expect a (rise, raise) in wages? 19. Is this the (person, party) in question ? 20. We are not looking at the question from the same (point of view, standpoint). Note.— The students .should be given general exercises in writing different forms of the noun and pronoun, used in indicating gender, person, number, and case. EXERCISE 55. Outline of Noun. Sum up with an outline, indicating all you have learned concerning the noun. Note. — ^This outline is put in for illustration. The teacher should have the pupils make a similar outline summing up the work on each "part of speech." OUTLINE OF THE NOUN. I. Noun. 1. Definition. 2. Classes. a. On basis of kind of attributes emphasized in object of thought. (1). Proper. (a). Definition. (2). Common. (o). Definition. {b). Classes on basis of nature of object of thought, r. Class. V. Definition. 2\ Collective. 1-. Definition. 3'. Substance. 1^ Definition. b. On basis of whether the object of thought expressed is an idea of a material or immaterial object. (1). Material. (a). Definition. (2). Immaterial. (a). Definition. c. On basis of kind of object of thought expressed. (1). Abstract. (a). Definition. (2). Concrete. (a). Definition. 118 A New English Grammar. 3. Properties. a. Gender. (1). Definition. (2). Classes on the basis of the relation of the object of thought to sex. (a). Masculine. 1.^ Definition. (6). Feminine. 1.^ Definition. (c). Common. , 1.^ Definition. (3). How distinguished. (4). Irregularities. b. Person. (1). Definition. (2). Classes on basis of relation of object of thought to the speaker. (a). First person. 1.' Definition. (6). Second person. 1.^ Definition. (c). Third person. 1.^ Definition. (3). How distinguished c. Number. (1). Definition. (2). Classes on basis of whether or not the noun expresses an object of thought that is one or more than one. (a). Singular. 1.1 Definition. (b). Plural. 1^ Definition. d. Case. (1). Definition. (2). Divisions of on basis of relation of the noun to other words in the sentence. (a). Nominative. 1.1 Definition. (6). Possessive. '^ 1.1 Definition, (c). Objective. 1.1 Definition. The Pronoun. 119 EXERCISE 56. The Pronoun. In the following sentences, point out the pronouns and state the relation between the object of thought, expressed by each one, and the speaker. Or state whether the object of thought, expressed by the pronoun, is the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. State what it is in the sentence or the word which gives you this information: 1. I am a poor man myself, and I can sympathize with him. 2. Nathan said to him, " Thou art the man." 3. He, himself, acknowledged his fault to me. 4. The book which the child has is not worth reading. 5. The point was well stated by the child, when he saw it. 6. You who are blest with plenty should be kind to the poor. 7. They who sow in folly shall reap in sorrow. 8. Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted. 9. Freely ye have received ; freely give. 10. Lay not up for yourselves treasures on earth. 11. We, ourselves, are at fault. 12. Who killed Cock Eobin ? 13. Our fathers, where are they ? 14. Which did you enjoy more, Fiske or Ridpath ? Separate the pronouns into classes. Give the basis of the division. Define and illustrate each class. State how the pronoun is like the noun, and how it differs from it. What is meant by antecedent? Give literal meaning of the word. Name all the pronouns in each class and give all their forms. On basis of the fundamental differences, pronouns are separated into three classes; viz., personal, relative, and interrogative. A personal pronoun is a pronoun which shows by its form the relation of the object of thought expressed by it to the speaker. 120 A New English Grammar. On basis of form, personal pronouns are divided into simple and compound. A simple personal pronoun is a personal pronoun in its sim- plest form. Tlie compound personal pronouns are formed by joining " self " or " selves " to some form of the simple personal pronoun. A relative pronoun is one that has a connective use in the sentence. A simple relative pronoun is a relative pronoun which has one substantive use. A compound relative pronoun is a relative pronoun which has two substantive uses. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun which denotes that some object of thought is unknown and sought for. Note.— The grammatical properties of tiie pronoun are tlie same as those of the noun. The only difference is that the pronoun has more forms to indicate these properties than the noun. Let the pupil work out all these forms carefully from the sentences given. The antecedent of a pronoun is a word, phrase, or clause, which expresses the same idea as the pronoun. EXERCISE 57. Properties of the Pronoun. State the antecedents of the following italicized pronouns. State the gender, person, and number of the pronouns. How do you determine these properties ? State any irregu- larity which you may discover. Give the rule in each case : 1. Each soldier drew his battle blade. 2. He liveth long who liveth well. 3. One's manners show his breeding. 4. The person who doeth good has his reward. 5. If any person in the audience objects, he will please stand. 6. The poor widow lost her only son. Properties of the Pronoun. 121 7. True to his flag, the soldier braved even death. 8. A pupil that is studious will learn. 9. He ivho runs may read. 10. He desired to pray but it was denied Mm. 11. He has squandered his money and he now regrets it. 12. You are here on time, Henry. 13. You are good children. 14. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord. 15. Thine ears have heard the joyful sound. 16. " We formerly thought diflTerently but now have cbanged our mind," wrote the editor. 17. It thundered as it seemed to me. 18. Come and trip it on the green. 19. "Which way I fly is hell ; myself am hell. 20. Try to see yourself as others see you. How are the compound personal pronouns formed? State their uses in the sentence. 21. Let every pupil use his own book. 22. If any one be found at fault, do unto him as you would wish to be done by. 23. You, he, and / were boys together. 24. A friend and I were talking the matter over. 25. Whoever comes will take your place. 26. I must do whatever seems best. 27. I will give you whatsoever is right. £8,) They censure whomever I commend. 29. They wist not what it was. ^ I will call whomever you ask. How are the compound relative pronouns formed? What determines their case forms? 122 A New English Grammar. EXERCISE 58. Explain the use of the italicized words in the following sentences : 1. T'F/io discovered America ? 2. WJio were killed ? 3. Which are the boys in trouble ? 4. Which is the Jew and which the merchant here? 5. What are these people ? 6. What is the man ? 7. I know who killed Cock Robin. 8. I will tell you what I will take. 9. I know which is most valuable. 10. I see which will come next. EXERCISE 59. From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthesis in each of the following sentences, select the correct one. 1. (Its, it's) tower leaned. 2. Is that friend of (your's, yours) with you yet ? 3. He was a man (as, who) could be depended upon. 4. He adopts the same rules in Sunday-school (as, that) he adopts in his day school. 5. Such devices (which, as) you have in mind are important. 6. He now thinks that foolish (which, what) he once thought wise. 7. (What, whatever) can the man want? 8. I cannot pay (the two of, both of) them. 9. Oh, if it had only been (me, I) ! 10. You and (I, me) are invited. 11. Our father brought you and (I, me) a present. 12. Wretched people console themselves when they see many who are quite as (bad, badly) off as (them, they). Pbonoun. 123 13. Let (him, he) who made thee, answer this. 14. You are somewhat taller than (me, I). 15. There is no one that I like better than (he, him). 16. I was sure of its being (he, him). 17. I do not mind (his, him) going out evenings. 18. He was associated with Longfellow and other poets for (which, whom) America is noted. 19. (Who, whom) shall the party put forward? 20. Find out (who, whom) the hat belongs to. 21. (Who, whom) could that be? 22. I saw my friend (who, whom) I had once thought would suc- ceed in business, fail. 23. She lived with an aunt (who, whom), she said, treated her shamefully. 24. Then came another man (who, whom), they all declared, was best of the performers. 25. Under this tree (the bark of which, whose bark) is scarred in many places, Washington took command of the army. 26. This is a point (the consideration of which, whose considera- tion) has caused much trouble. 27. This is the tree (that, which) was struck by lightning. 28. To come so near winning the prize and yet lose it, I could never stand (it, that). 29. She is a better student than (any one, either) of her three brothers. 30. (Either, any one) of the ten points is worth remembering, but the (latter, last) is most essential. 31. (All, each) of the children took an apple. 32. I am (the one, he, the person) who signaled the train. 33. He gets Emerson's ideas, (the ones, those) that are most es- sential, on first reading. 34. When (one, a person, we) (comes, come) to think of it, (he, one, we) (takes, take) (one's, his, our) (life, lives) in (one's, his, our) (hand, hands) every time (one, he, we) (boards, board) a train. 124 A New English Grammar. 35. If any one has lost baggage, the matter will be investigated for (you, him) free of charge. 36. Soldier after soldier took up the cry, and added (their, his) voice to the mighty din. 37. Every one was absorbed in (his or her, his, their) own pleas- ure, or was bitterly resenting the absence of the pleasure (he or she, they, he) expected. 38. Everybody thought it right to extend (his, their) sympathy. 39. I like to see"each of them doing well— in (their, his) own way at least. 40. Anybody can catch trout, if (he, they) can find the trout. 41. Everybody was there, if (he, they) could possibly go. 42. He heard of a man whose life had been spent on the water and (whose, his) record was good. 43. The undersigned is sorry to say that he took a hat from the rack which is not (mine, his). 44. When I close my eyes, I can see pictures like (the ones, those) presented. 45. The two brothers love (one another, each other). EXERCISE 60. Fill the fol lowing blanks with the pro p er forms of the compouncTrelative pronoun, whoever: (^ The old man put the question to — he met (^ I am satisfied with r- you have selected. 3. I am ready to entertain W may be sent. 4. The Lord loveth doeth His will. (^ You must restore i^<'^''~ book you have taken. 6. Make yourself agreeable to you meet. 7. Tell the truth to asks it. 8. Contest the ground with opposes you. ^ The lady inquired of she saw. 10. The missionary preached to remained. Make an outline for the pronoun similar to that made for the noun. The Adjective. 125 EXERCISE 61, The Adjective. Point out the adjectives in the following sentences. Divide them into as many different classes as the fundamental dif- ferences among them would indicate. State your basis of division in each case. Define and illustrate each kind : 1. A beautiful, pink sea-shell was found by little Mary on the sandy beach. 2. Large and small streams flow from great mountains. 3. Fine feathers do not make fine birds. 4. Bob looked with longing eyes at the red cranberry sauce and steaming turkey. 5. Soft, fleecy clouds o'erhung the sky. 6. Give us this day our daily bread. 7. The children are having a gala time. 8. The fresh-looking youth was very much embarrassed. 9. The new-born babe received the gifts of the wise men. 10. Those islands belong to the United States. 1 1 . These rude instruments were used by this savage people. 12. AH the government officials are well paid. 13. Yonder pond contains figh. 14. That book was written by John Fiske. 15. This proposition is unreasonable. 16. Which way did he go? 17. What book do you most prefer ? 18. I know which way the deer went. 19. I see what books are needed. 20. A few ducks were seen by the sportsmen. 21. Some money was earned by the boy. 22. Each warrior drew his battle blade. 23. Every man stood to his post. 24. Neither man was right, and yet I would not censure either one. 126 A New English Ghammar. 25. We were interested in watching two large prairie fires. 26. Fifty men were in line. 27. James is the third pupil in the row. 28. Washington was the first President of the United States. 29. This is a threefold punishment. 30. Let us make a double house. An adjective is an attributive word which expresses an attrib- ute of an object of thought without asserting it A simple adjective is one which we cannot trace back to a simpler form in our language. Derivative adjectives are those which have been formed bv adding prefixes or making other changes in the form of other words in our language. Compound adjectives are adjectives that have been formed by putting together two or more words that are used independently in our language. A descriptive adjective is an adjective whose chief useia to make prominent an attribute of an object of thought. A limiting adjective is an adjective whose chief use is to narrow the application of a substantive word. A pronominal adjective is a limiting adjective which may have a substantive use. . A demonstrative adjective is a pronominal adjective which expresses the relation which an object of thought bears to the speaker. An interrog:ative adjective is a pronominal adjective which denotes that an attribute of an object of thought is unknown and sought for. A relative adjective is a pronominal adjective which has a connective use. A quantitative adjective is a pronominal adjective which ex- presses the attribute of quantity or number indefinitely. A distributive adjective is a pronominal adjective which ex- presses the attribute of division or separation or isolation. Comparison. 127 A numeral adjective is a limiting adjective which expresses number or order definitely. A cardinal niinieral adjective is a numeral adjective which simply expresses number definitely. An ordinal numeral adjective is a numeral adjective which expresses the position of a thing in a series. A multiplicative adjective is a numeral adjective which im- plies multiplication. Articles are peculiar kinds of limiting adjectives placed before substantive words to show whether they are to be taken in a defi- nite or indefinite sense. The definite article, " the," shows that the substantive word which it precedes expresses some particular object of thought. The indefinite article, "a" or "an," shows that the substan- tive word which it precedes expresses an indefinite object of thought, or that the object of thought may be any^one^ a number. EXERCISE 62. Comparison. Explain the use of the following italicized expressions. How do they differ? What is the cause of this difference? 1. Ta// trees are easily blown over. 2. I am taller than my father. 3. The tallest boy in the room is also the best scholar. 4. The boy is a good scholar. 5. To be is better than to seem. 6. A teacher may be pleasant and at the same time strict ; in fact, the more pleasant she is, the more strict she can afford to be. 7. While she is the most strict mother I know, she is also the most pleasant with her children. What is this difference among adjectives, which you have just been explaining, called ? Define it. What classes or kinds do you discover ? State the basis of your division. 128 A New English Geammae. Define and illustrate each kind. When is each kind used? Observe, in the above sentences, how this property of adject- ives is indicated. State the different ways and illustrate each. Comparison is that variation in the form of the attributive word which shows whether the attribute expressed by it has been compared with the same attribute in another idea, or merely with our idea of that attribute. The fact that attributes exist in ideas in different degrees gives rise to comparison. The positive degree is that form of the attributive word which shows that no comparison of the attribute with the same attribute in another idea has been made. The comparative tleg"ree is that form of the attributive word which shows that the attribute expressed by it has been compared with the same attribute in one other idea. The supei'lative degree is that form of the attributive word which shows that the attribute expressed by it has been compared with the same attribute in at least two other ideas. Note.— The superlative degree is sometimes used according to good usage, and in literature, when only two ideas are compared as to the attribute exjjressed by the attributive word; e. g., Which is the best of the two? The comparative is also used sometimes when more than two ideas are compared as to the attribute ex- pressed by the attributive word; e. g., This man is belter than any of his fellows. Note.— These definitions will serve as well for the adverb as for the adjective. The teacher can easily lead the pupils to see that these degrees of comparison are shown in three ways; viz., by inflection, by composition, irregularly. EXERCISE 63. Uses and Modifiers of Adjectives. State the use of the italicized expressions in the following sentences : 1. The white rose is beautiful. 2. He who dares stand for the right, though he stand alone, is truly brave. 3. The river is a mile broad. 4 The girl is cruel to her pets. Uses and Modifiers of Abjectives. 129 5. A child's kiss Set on thy sighing lips, shall make thee glad; A poor man served by thee, shall make thee rich; A sick man helped by thee, shall make thee strong; Thou shalt be served thyself by every sense Of service which thou renderest. State the uses of the adjective and the modifiers which may belong to it. Illustrate. EXERCISE 64. State the meaning of each of the following words when used as adjectives. Compare the words in cases in which such comparison will help to bring out the meaning more clearly : each this which few every these what less either that the only neither those a or an ea(?h other one another Use the following adjectives correctly, in sentences: Beautiful, magnificent, pretty, handsome, awful, dreadful, lovely, those, drowned, fewer, less, healthy, healthful, much, most, nice, well, mad, angry, vexed, plenty, quite a, a con- siderable, a great, a large, real, elegant, opposite, contrary EXERCISE 66. From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthe- sis in each of the following sentences, select the correct one: 1. The boy was permitted to go (everywhere, every wheres). 2. My daughter may be described as (having a light complex- ion, being light-complected). 3. We thus had more, not (less, fewer) friends. 4. One can hardly think of a man (more, better) suited to the place. 9 130 A New English Grammar. 5. The people had never seen a (costlier, more costlier) equipage. 6. This is true of (most, almost) all my friends. 7. Nobody was (like, likely) to see him. 8. The town was (quite, plenty) large enough. 9. There isn't a (sightlier, finer) place in town. 10. Do you like (this, these) sort of books? 11. How do yop like (that, those) kind of gowns? 12. This point is (easiest, most easily) seen. 13. My conscience feels (easily, easy). 14. The girl looked (prettily, pretty). 15. The teacher feels (bad, badly) to-day. 16. The party went (solid, solidly) for free trade. 17. She was not (only, alone) a true woman, but a kind friend also. 18. The boy (only) tried (only) three times. 19. That they use money is true of (both, each) (parties, party). 20. (Each, every) dog has his day. 21. (Each, every) day in the year should be the happiest day. 22. We should avoid (many, much) of the baser struggles of life. 23. He has caught (many, much) fish to-day. 24. Will (all, the whole) finance ministers and upholsterers and confectioners of modern Europe undertake, in joint-stock company, to make one shoe-black happy ? 25. Of the states of the union named, the (first four, four first) were the last admitted. 26. He says some very (aggravating, irritating) things. 27. In consequence of (aggravating, irritating) circumstances, he was punished severely. 28. The statement seems hardly (creditable, credible). 29. Here, too, Sydney Carton is an (exceptional, exceptionable) man. The Verb. 131 30. I shall not go (further, farther). 31. Rice is (healthy, healthful, wholesome) food. 32. The scene from the window was (luxuriant, luxurious). 33. The boy told a (pitiable, pitiful) story. 34. The spider spins a (subtle, subtile) web. 35. There is a (continual, continuous) hurry to be oflf. 36. The eky gradually became (cloudless, more and more cloud- less). 37. The shouts gradually became (more and more inaudible, in- audible). 38. In this characteristic, Coleridge is (unique, most unique). 39. The vote was (so nearly unanimous, so unanimous) that the crowd shouted. 40. "We go about, professing openly (total isolation, the totalest isolation). Make a complete outline of the adjective, showing defini- tion, classes on different bases, properties and syntax. EXERCISE 66. The Verb. In the following sentences, state the use of each italicized expression. Note how one differs from the other and classify them. Name and define each class : 1. The sun is ninety-two millions of miles away. 2. The soldier was without food for three days. 3. Tom Brown has been in many escapades. 4. The sun gives light and heat. 5. The general gave his order in a very loud tone. 6. Leland Stanford has given a great deal of money to found a university at Palo Alto. 132 A New English Grammar. 7. The minister frequently quotes from the Talmud. 8. The speaker quoted Webster in support of his view. 9. The attorney has quoted much that is not to the point. 10. Not to know me, argues yourself unknown. 11. They arjrwed the point an hour. 12. I have argued the question from every point of view. Explanation.— From the italicized expressions above, the teacher may lead the pupil to think out the following: A verb is a word which asserts, or a verb is a word which ex- presses relation between thought subject and thought predicate., The principal parts of verbs are those forms from which all the other forms of the verb are derived. They are the present, the past, and the past or perfect participle. We need only to know these forms to understand all the inflections of the verb. A reg-ular verb is a verb which forms its past indicative and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present indicative; e.g., learn, learned, learned; love, loved, loved An irregular verb is a verb which forms its past indicative and perfect participle in some other way than by adding d or ed to the present indicative; e. g., write, ivrote, ivritten. A pure verb or copulative verb is a relation word which merely asserts a thought predicate of a thought subject, or a pure verb is a relation word which expresses the relation between thought subject and thought predicate only. Note.— The verb " be " in its various forms is the only pure verb in the English language. But there are some other verbs which are almost always used in the same way. They are as follows: become, grow, get, turn, remain, continue, stay, seem, appear, look.sound, smell, feel, stand, sit, go, move, and perhaps a few others (See Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, Par. 353, etc.) An attributive verb is a verb which expresses an attribute of an object of thought and asserts it ; e. g., He tells the story well. Note.— The exercises that follow are intended to give the pupils a great deal of practice in learning the principal parts of verbs. Irregular Verbs. 133 EXERCISE 67.— Irregular Verbs. Be able to give the principal parts of the following verbs : abide do lead shake stick awake draw lean shall sting be dream leap shear stink bear drink learn shed stride beat drive leave shine strike begin dwell lend shoe string bend eat let shoot strive bereave fall lie show strow,-ew beseech feed light shred sweat bid feel lose shrink swear bind fight make shut sweep bite find may sing swim bleed flee mean sink swing blow fling meet sit take break fly mete slay teach breed forsake must , sleep tear bring freeze need / slide tell build freight ought V sling think burn get pen vslink thrive burst gild put slit throw buy gird quit smell thrust can give quoth smite tread cast go read sow wake catch grind reave speak wax chide grow rend speed wear choose liang rid spell weave cleave have ride spend weep cling hear ring spill wend clothe heave rise spin wet come hide run spit whet cost hit say split will creej) hold see spoil win crow hurt seek spread wind cut keep seethe spring wit dare kneel sell stand work deal knit send stave wring dig know set steal write 134 A New English Grammar. EXERCISE 68. Forms of Irregular Verbs. Be able to fill the following blanks with any appropriate verb from the preceding list. Omit the word, it, if necessary to make the form suit the meaning of the verb: 1. I it now. 2. I it a week ago. 3. I have — : — it lately. 4. He it now. 5. He it a week ago. 6. He has it lately. 7. They may to-day. 8. They yesterday. 9. They had before you came. EXERCISE 69. Speak and Write. Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of speak and ivrite. 1. She very well. 2. You have too soon. 3. I should have sooner. 4. Have they to you? 5. Has James to you about it ? 6. Who said you had about it? EXERCISE 70. Do. Supply the proper forms of do: 1. I as I was told. 2. My work is . 3. Who the mischief? 4. The boy has his work well. 5. Who said I that ? 6. Sarah it herself. 7. Mary her example. Forms of Irregular Verbs. 135 EXERCISE 71. Choose. Insert the proper forms of choose: 1. I the blue pencil. 2. Americans freedom of thought. 3. I to go ashore. 4. Henry was first. 5. My sister herself the goods. G. He should have been . 7. Will you first? EXERCISE 72 Raise and Rise. Insert the proper forms of rai^e or rise in the following : 1. He from the chair. 2. I have as early as five. 3. He that would thrive must by five. 4. Have you the window ? 5. Have you from your chair ? 6. What makes the bread ? 7. Yeast the bread. 8. The sun at six. 9. The river has a great deal. 10. I saw the sun this morning. 11. I cannot this window. 12. The sun at five this morning. 13. The sun has . 14. I wish you would from the floor. 136 A New English GrajMmar. EXERCISE 73. Forms of Other Verbs. In the following sentences, fill the blanks with the proper forms of lie, lay, sit, set, teach, learn, seem, appear, love, or like : 1. The boy up straight. . 2. I have up long enough. 3. the lamp on the table and by me. 4. James for his picture to-day. 5. I can my lesson. 6. Will you me to write ? 7. How long will it take you to me ? 8. I cannot my lesson. 9. Will you me to skate? 10. Do not ask me to you. 11. You will not me to swim. 12. He down to rest. 13. He the book down. 14. He had down to rest. 15. He had the book down. 16. He has the book down. 17. I will down and rest. 18. I will my pen down. 19. A man is on the porch. 20. James is out tomato plants. 21. The sun is just . 22. I am still. 23. I am tired of so still. 24. She is near the window. 25. The sun looks red. 26. Belle is under a tree in the yard. 27. She is to be satisfied. Forms of Other Verbs. 137 28. The dress to be new. 29. The day fine. 30. Did she to be contented? 81. The moon over the hill. 32. It to be red. 33. How did he to be? 34. The man to be well pleased. 35. I hope you will well. 36. I can well if I wish to. 37. The storm to be passing over. 38. The sun between the clouds. 39. I my brother. 40. The boy his sister. 41. Do you oranges ? 42. The child its parents, who arc dead. 43. I his appearance very much. 44. Do you amusements? 4.5. They Nat Goodwin. Note.— Other devices requiring the pupils to use the diflerent forms of irregular verbs in sentences, should be invented by the teacher. For example, the teacher, rising from her chair, says : "What do I do, Kate?" Kate : " You rise from your chair." Teacher: " What did I do, Tom?" Tom : " You rose from your chair." Teacher: " What have I done, Ned?" Ned : " You have risen from your chair." The teacher then breaks a piece of chalk, or writes on the board, or chooses a book, or speaks loudly, etc., etc., and asks the same questions. The exercise may be continued at will. EXERCISE 74. Classify the following italicized expressions on the basis previously discovered. State how the attributes expressed differ. State what classes of verbs w^e have on basis of this difference. Define and illustrate each class: 1. Hitch your wagon to a star. ,,^ ^ 2. Fulton invented the steamboat. 3. The robin picked the crumbs after hopping in at the window. 138 A New English Grammar. 4. We heard a highly instructive lecture. .^ * 5. We ivalked along the fragrant lanes. 6. We talked of pleasant times in olden days. 7. We journeyed through the fields together. 8. John Anderson, my jo John, We clam the hills thegither; And mony a canty day, John, We've /lad wi' ane anither: . Now we maun totter down, John, But hand in hand we'll go; And sleep thegither at the foot, John Anderson, my jo. On basis of the nature of the attribute expressed by attributive verbs, they are divided into transitive and intransitive. ^-^ A transitive verb is an attributive verb, which expresses an at- tribute of such a nature as to imply an object of thought which it may directly aflect; e. g.. Good men love the' truth. ^ An intransitive verb is an attributive verb which expresses an /^attribute o-f such a nature that it does not imply an object of thought which it may directly affect; e. g.. They walked through pleasant groves and shady lanes. EXERCISE 75. Special Classes of Verbs. State how the following italicized expressions dififer from the other verbs with which you have been dealing. What are such verbs called? Define and illustrate further: 1. " It snows!" cries the schoolboy. 2. It rains the livelong day, and mournful is the house. 3. They die the death of the righteous. 4. I hsive fought a good fight ; I have finished the faith. 5. He blew a blast upon the winding horn. 6. I will run as tar as God has any ground. Special Classes of Verbs. 139 7. You call me unbeliever, cut-throat dog, And spit upon my Jewish p;aber(Hne, And all for use of that which is mine own. ' 8. I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with you, and so following, but I will not eat with j^ou, drink with you, nor pray with you. 9. If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning. 10. I will never leave thee, nor forsake thee. 11. I may never see you again. 12. I may neither choose whom I would nor refuse whom I dis- like. 13. Is it not hard, Nerissa, that I cannot choose one nor refuse none? 14. " By my troth," quoth he, " you're a bold man." 15. It must not be. 16. One ought to love his neighbor as himself. 17. Every one owes himself an education. 18. He forces himself to be generous. 19. Christ made the water wine. 20. The traveler walked himself weary. 21. The singer sang her throat hoarse. 22. The lightning struck him dead. 23. He has told the story many times. 24. This above all: to thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day. Thou canst not then be false to any man. 25. Child, thou ivilt not leave thy mother so ? 26. Thou shall not bear false witness against thy neighbor. 27. We do reject the ofTer. 28. What should such fellows as I do crawling between earth and heaven. 29. He does confess he feels himself distracted; But from what cause, he will by no means speak. 140 A New English Grammar. Get the literal meaning of the following words: have, can, may, must, do, be, shall, and will. (See Dictionary.) There are some special classes of verbs on basis of peculiarities ])elonging to them. The principal classes of this kind are the fol- lowing: An iiuporsonal or iinipersonal verb is a verb which has the pronoun it for its subject when it expresses no particular object of thought, but only helps to express that some action or process is going on ; e. g., It Yains. A cognate verb is a verb which expresses an attribute that brings into existence a direct object, which is formed by making an object of thought out of the attribute expressed by the verb ; e. g., Let us die the death of the righteous. Note.— Some grammarians speak of a cognate object. It is evident from the above statement that a cognate object is only one kind of direct object. It is a direct object which is brought into existence by thinking the attribute expressed by the verb into an object of thought. A redundant verb is a verb which has more than one form for some one or more of its principal parts; e. g., run, ran or run, run. A defective verb is a verb which is wanting in some one or more of its principal parts ; e. g., may, might, . A reflexive verb is a verb which expresses an attribute that affects an object of thouglit which is identical with the thought subject; e. g., I hurt myself. A factitive or causative verb is a verb which expresses an attribute that is the cause of a change in the object of thought which it affects ; e. g., Christ made the water wine. An auxiliary verb is a verb which aids in forming the tense, mode, and voice forms of other verbs ; e. g., may, can. EXERCISE 76. May and Can. Fill the following blanks with may or can: 1. I ask a question ? 2. I start yet to-night. 3. Please, I take your book? Shall and Will. 141 4. The boy do better work. 5. How far you ride ? 6. The eagle carry off a child. 7. you see where you are going? 8. You take a walk. 9. stars be suns? 10. How you bear to leave ? State the difference between the meaning of the auxiliaries may and can. EXERCISE 77. Shall and "Will. State the meaning conveyed by the following italicized expressions : 1. I shall see Salvini. 2. I shall be drowned ; no one can save me. 3. You shall go. 4. He shall return at once. 5. Shall I assist you in mounting ? 6. Shall I be obliged to pay the debt for him ? 7. Shall you be at school this afternoon ? 8. Shall you suffer for his offense ? 9. Shall the boy bring the carriage ? 10. " I will be revenged," said Philip. 11 . I will be a good boy. 12. You will find me there. 13. You 'will obey me. 14. He will leave to-morrow. 15. He will apologize to you. 16. Will I give up my principle ? 17. Will you persist in your reckless course ? 18. Will the deed return to the doer? 19. Will he let you have your choice? 20. Will the house that is built upon a rock, fall? USES OK shall and WILL. I. Shall. 1. In the declarative sentence. a. With subject of the first person. (1). To express simple futurity. 142 A New English Grammar. (2). To express futurity accompanied by neces- sity in external circumstances, not under the control of the thought subject. b. With subject of second or third person. (1). To express futurity accompanied by neces- sity which is not under the control of the actor. 2. In the interrogative sentence. a. With subject of the first person. (1). Futurity accompanied by the will of the per- son addressed. (2). Futurity accompanied by necessity in ex- ternal circumstances. b. With subject of the second person. (1). Simple futurity. (2). Futurity accompanied by necessity in ex- ternal circumstances. c. With subject of the third person. (1). Futurity accompanied bythewillof the per- „^.„ son addressed. II. Will. 1. In the declarative sentence. a. With subject of the first person. (1). To express futurity accompanied by the re- solve of the speaker. (2). To express futurity with the assent or prom- ise of the speaker. b. With a subject of the second or third person. (1). To express simple futurity. (2.) To express futurity accompanied by the re- solve or determination of the speaker. 2. In the interrogative sentence. a. With subject of the first person. (1). To express futurity accompanied by the re- solve of the speaker. b. With subject of the second person. (1). To express futurity accompanied by deter- mination on the part of the thought sub- ject. Mode. 143 c. With subject of third person. (1). To express simple futurity. (2). To express futurity accompanied by the will of the thought subject. Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of shall or will: 1. He preach in the evening. 2. you go with us? 3. You have your way. 4v You can learn, if you study. . 5. We vote early. 6. We go in spite of you. 7. They go, if they can. 8. She not be allowed to go home alone. 9. You have gone before we arrive. 10. We be avenged. 11. If you see him, you find him busy. 12. you dine with us to-morrow ? 13. I read awhile. 14. I see him? 15. I read to you? 16. You have your money to-day. 17. He be punished for it. 18. I be happy to accept. 19. I die ere I obey him. 20. God not give us any more truth than we are willing to live. EXERCISE 78. Mode. State the relation, in each case, in the following sentences, between the thought expressed by the sentence, and the fact in the external world. State whether the thought expressed by the sentence is a reality ; or whether there is some doubt in the mindas to its reality; or whether it is a mere supposi- tion, and there is no fact in the external world corresponding 144 A New English Gkammak. to it; or if the thought in the mind corresponds to the fact in the external world on account of necessity in external circumstances, or will, outside of that of the actor: » 1. I can see the towers of London. 2. Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsels of the ungodly. 3. The mill will never grind with the water that is past. 4. My soul to-day is far away, Sailing the "Vesuvian bay. 5. The pen is mightier than the sword. 6. His work, in many respects, is very imperfect. 7. Slovenliness and indelicacy of character generally go together. ^ 8. When thy friend is denounced openly and boldly, espouse his cause. 9. Plutarch calls lying the vice of slaves. 10. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report. 11. If 't were done when 't is done, then 't were well. It were done quickly. 12. If he has been here, I have not seen him. f ?-v^» ^ 13. If he were here, I should like to meet him. a 14. If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died.cvH.^ 15. If thou be brave, I will conduct thee through this wilderness. 16. Were it not for leaving thee, my child, I could die happy. ' ■/ 17. He may study his lessons. 18. He may take my book. 19. If thou hadst said him nay, it had been sin. 20. It must be true. 21. Give me your hand. 22. Let this cup pass from me. 23. Down, slave, behold the governor! Down, Down! and beg for mercy. 24. Thou Shalt not steal. 25. Turn ye ! Turn ye again, Israel ! Mode. 145 What property of the verb is illustrated in the preceding sentences ? Define. State the different kinds or classes and illustrate each. Mode is that attribute of the verb which expresses the man- ner of the assertion. Mode is that attribute of the verb which ex- presses the phases of relation which exist between thought subject and thought predicate. Mode is that attribute of the verb which expresses the relation between the thought in the mind and the fact or reality in the external world. The following relations may exist between the thought in the mind and the fact or reality in the external world: 1. The thought in the mind may correspond to a reality in the external world and the mind may know it; e. g., Franklin was a philosopher. 2. The thought in the mind may or may not correspond to a reality in the external world and the mind is in doubt about it — doubtful mind as to an actual relation; e. g., If it be raining, I must remain. 3. The thought in the mind is a mere supposition and there is no reality in the external world corresponding to it, and the mind knows it ; e. g., If my father were here, I should be happy. ' 4. The thought in the mind corresponds to a fact or reality in the external world on account of necessity in external circum- stances, or will, outside of that of the actor; e. g., Sing me a merry lay, my lads. The first relation is expressed by the indicative mode; the sec- ond and third, by the subjunctive; the fourth, by the imperative. The indicative mode is that mode or manner of assertion which declares the relation seen between thought subject and thought predicate to be a reality. The indicative mode is that mode or manner of assertion which shows that the thought in the mind corresponds to the fact in the external world — the internal corresponds to the external. The subjunctive mode is that mode or manner of assertion which indicates that there is some doubt in the mind as to whether 10 / 146 A New English Grammar. the thought in the mind corresponds to a reality in the external world, or that the thought in the mind is a mere supposition and there is no fact in the external world corresponding to it. The imperative mode is that mode or manner of assertion which shows that the thought in the mind corresponds to the reality in the external world on account of necessity in external circumstances or will outside of that of the actor. Note.— Some grammarians give four modes; viz>, indicative, subjunctive, poten- tial, and imperative.' There is no serious objection to this division, but it does not seem to be necessary, as all relations between thought subjects and thought predi- cates may be classified under the three given above. (See Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, par. JT9 and 480.) EXERCISE 79. Tense. State whether the relation seen to exist between the thought subject and thought predicate, as expressed in each of the following sentences, is a relation which is seen to ex- ist in present time, or past time, or future time. State whether we use one or more than one of these periods of time in locating the relations : 1. The leaves tremble in the wind. 2. The sun is shining brightly. 3. Columbus discovered America in 1492. 4. We saw General Grant. 5. We shall attend the World's Fair. 6. Will you permit that I shall stand condemned ? 7. Feelest thou not, world, the earthquake of his chariot thundering up Olympus? 8. How sleep the brave, that sink to rest By all their country's wishes blest! 9. My sister was gathering flowers, 10. Be aye sticking in a tree, Jack; it'll be growing while ye're sleeping. Tense. 147 11. I have cautioned you frequently. 12. Wilfred had roused him to reply. 13. When I shall have hrought them into the land, then will they turn to other gods. 14. I have sung my song. 15. I had sung the song before you arrived. 16. I shall have sung the song before you arrive. 17. By slow degrees the whole truth has come out. 18. Matilda had taken her accustomed place in the window-seat. 19. I shall have seen all the wonders, when I write to you. 20. Plans and elevations of their palace have been made for them, and are now being engraved for the public. State the property of the verb ilhistrated in the preceding sentences. Define. State the different classes or kinds, and define and illustrate each. Tense is that property of the verb which indicates the time of the relation between thought subject and thought predicate. The absolute tenses are those tenses which use only one period of time in indicating the time of the relation expressed by the verb. They are as follows: The present tense is that absolute tense which uses the period of speaking in fixing the time of the relation expressed by the verb. The past tense is that absolute tense which uses the period of time wholly past in fixing the time of the relation expressed by the verb. The future tense is that absolute tense which uses the period of time to come in fixing the time of the relation expressedby the verb. The relative tenses are those tenses which use two periods of time in fixing the time of the relation expressed by the verb. They are as follows : The present perfect tense is that relative tense which fixes the time of the relation expressed by the verb in a period of time which includes a part of the past up to the present, including the instant of speaking. 148 A New English Grammar. The past perfect tense is that relative tense which fixes the time of the relation expressed by the verb in a period of time pre- vious to some period of past time. The future perfect tense is that relative tense which fixes the time of the relation expressed by the verb in a future time pre- vious to some other future time. EXERCISE 80. ^ Uses of Tense Forms. State the tense of each verb in the following sentences; state the time in which the relation between thought subject and thought predicate is seen to exist : 1. He hears his daughter's voice. 2. Man is mortal. 3. The man travels for Hermand and Knox. 4. My brother goes to New York to-morrow on business. 5. They cross the river ; they fire the town ; they form under cover of the smoke; they advance up the hill ; they are driven back. 6. I see the nation gathering her forces for the mighty struggle; they put forth one mighty efi'ort and the end comes. 7. The little birds sang gayly in the trees. 8. He preached in this little hamlet for many years. 9. If I should be there, you would be surprised. 10. If my sister were here, she would enjoy the lecture. 11. The teachers will go to Denver the coming summer. 12. He will wander in the woods day after day. 13. Milton has given us Comus. 14. The hour shall not strike till I have gained my point. 15. He had written the poem before this book appeared. 16. If I had walked rapidly, I should have overtaken you. 17. At the close of this year, I shall have finished my course. 18. The truth itself is not believed From one who often has deceived. Voice. 149 EXERCISE 81. Voice. State concerning the verbs in the following sentences, whether the attribute expressed by them is an attribute ex- erted by the thought subject and directed away from it, or whether it is exerted by some other object of thought and is directed toward or exerted upon the thought subject: 1. The engine draws the train. 2. The story has been told by many writers. 3. England had taxed the colonies unjustly. 4. Marco Polo tells us strange stories. 5. The Mississippi was discovered by De Soto in 1541. 6. The prudent neither waste time nor money. 7. Paris was besieged by the Prussians in 1871. 8. Every patriot will defend the flag. 9. Our friends came last week. 10. We were entertained in royal style. 11. The singer was fatigued by his exertions. 12. The traveler was weary. 13. The minister was fatigued. 14. I go where duty calls me. 15. The soldier was sleepy and tired. • Name and define the property of the verb illustrated in the preceding sentences. State the different kinds or classes. Define and illustrate each class. State and illustrate the dif- ferent ways in which the passive voice may be formed from the active. When does the combination of the past partici- ple with the different forms of the verb be form the passive voice; when does it not form the passive voice? Voice is that property of the attributive verb which shows whether the attribute expressed by it is exerted by the thought 150 A New English Grammar. subject and directed away from it or is exerted by some other object of thought and directed toward the thought subject. The active voice is that voice which shows that the attribute expressed by the verb is exerted or put forth by the thought sub- ject and is directed away from it. The passive voice is that voice which shows that the attribute expressed by the verb is exerted by an object of thought other than the thought subject and is directed toward or exerted upon the thought subject. The passive voice is formed by using some form of the verb be with the past participle of the verb ; e. g., The tree was blown down. Note.— The forms of the verb, be, unite with the past participle of the verb to form the passive voice when the participle denotes actual endurance of the attri- bute expressed by the participle, on the part of the thought subject; e. g., He was fatigued by his exertions. When the past participle denotes condition as a result of action its combination with the verb, be, docs not form the passive voice; e. g., He was f aligned. (See Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, par. 302.) The active voice may be changed to the passive in any one of the following ways: 1. By making the direct objective modifier of the verb in the active voice, the subject of the sentence in the passive voice; e. g., She canned the fruit, The fruit was canned by her. 2. When we have a prepositional phrase modifying the verb, we frequently separate the preposition and the principal word of the phrase, making the principal word of the phrase, in the active voice, the subject of the sentence in the passive, and attaching the preposition to the verb ; e. g., We had lived in that house a long time, That house had been lived in a long time by us. 3. When a verb is followed by a direct objective modifier and is modified by a prepositional phrase, either the direct objective mod- ifier or the principal word of the prepositional phrase may become the subject of the sentence in the passive; e. g., We take no notice of such fellows, No notice is taken of such fellows by us. Such fellows are taken no notice of by us. 4. The indirect objective modifier in the active voice, may be- come the subject of the sentence in the passive; e. g., I told him to leave, He was told to leave by me. Voice. 151 The passive voice may be used in tlie following ways : 1. When the agent is unknown; e.g., The dress was made by a person tvhose name I do not know. 2. When we wish to conceal the agent; e. g., The story tvas told to me by a person whose name I ivill not mention. 3. When we wish to make prominent the direct or indirect ob- ject in the active; e. g., The boy was abused by his conqjanion. 4. To preserve the unity of the sentence; e.g., The dress luas bought and worn by the same lady. 5. To give a pleasing variety to discourse; e. g., They sang a song; Emily gave a recitation; then the address icas delivered. 6. To avoid the frequent use of the pronoun, I; e. g., The phe- nomenon was not observed again for some time. Note.— Since the passive voice, as usually considered by grammarians, is that form in which the direct objective modifier in the active becomes the subject of the sentence in the passive, voice belongs only to transitive verbs, because only transi- tive verbs take direct objective modifiers. But as shown above, voice means more than this and hence is not strictly limited to transitive verbs. (See Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, par. 304.) Two classes of active verbs may be given: 1. Those active in form and meaning; e. g.. The mother loves her child. 2. Those active in form and passive in meaning; e. g., The child hurt itself. Two classes of passive verbs may be given: 1. Those passive in form and meaning; e.g., The train ivas wrecked on the bridge. 2. Those passive in form and not passive in meaning, sometimes called the neuter voice by grammarians; e.g., The woman tvas de- voted to her child. (See Lee and Hadley, p. 194.) State all the uses of the passive voice. Illustrate each by two or more examples. 152 A New English Grammar. EXERCISE 82. In the following sentences, state whether the verbs are active or passive: 1. If she hate me, then believe, She shall die ere I will grieve. 2. Where shall we dine to-day? 3. He that complies against his will •' Is of the same opinion still. 4. Frequently the exordium is too long, and the peroration in- terminable. 5. The mother loves her child. 6. The speaker corrected himself. 7. I held it truth, with him who sings To one clear harpin divers tones. That men may rise on stepping-stones, Of their dead selves to higher things. 8. The train was wrecked at midnight. 9. The slave was devoted to his master. 10. The truth, conned from the book by many readers, was car- ried away in their hearts. EXERCISE 83. Person and Number. Notice the person and number of each subject in the following sentences. Note the change in the verb to accom- modate the change in the subject : 1. I know that my Redeemer liveth. 2. He knows where the wild flowers grow. 3. They know how the wild flowers grow. 4. The scissors are dull. 3. Evil news rides post, while good news baits. 6. The tongs are hot. Person and Number. 153 7. The sheep was fast in the fence. 8. The sheep were driven to the pond and washed. 9. The school was dismissed for the holidays. 10. The school were not all present. 11. Henry, William, and Charles were kings. 12. The boy or his father is at fault. 13. Each man, woman, and child was given a prize. 14. Every boy and every girl is expected to be ol)edient. 15. The officers and not the private weve at fault. 1(). The children, or the servant, or I am to blame. 17. Red, white, and blue makes a pretty flag. 18. Grace and beauty is a desirable combination. 19. " Paint me as I am," said Cromwell. 20. " You are excused," said the teacher, in a pleasant voice. 21. He is the freeman, whom the truth makes free. 22. Thou art a pretty fellow ! 23. The storm was dreadful along the Atlantic coast. 24. The islands were beautiful as we sailed in and out among them. 25. 'Tis as easy as lying. 26. He prayeth best who loveth best All things, both great and small. 27. Thou standst on the threshold of life. 28. Thou waitest for the coming of thy mate. 29. Thou pretty child, why weepest thou? 30. I dare do all that may become a man ; Who dares do more is none. What is meant by person and number in the verb? In what sense may it be said to be a property of the verb? 154 A New English Grammar. What changes in form does the verb undergo to denote per- son and number? By observing the preceding, sentences, state the different kinds of subjects and how the verb accom- modates itself in form, to the form of the subject. The person and number of the verb are changes which its form nndergoes to mark its agreement with its subject. This change in fprm on the part of the verb does not indicate a change in meaning, so that person and number can scarcely be said to be a property of the verb. The subject is said to govern the verb which means simply that the verb accommodates itself in form to the form of the subject. In making the changes in the verb to indicate person, we add t, st, est, s, es, th, eth, to the present indicative. Number is indicated by a change in the word, as, am, are ; luas, were ; or by s as an end- ing for the singular, and leaving it off for the plural, as, knoios, know. Note.— Let the children work out the exceptions to the above statement. By a careful study of the sentences, the following facts may be seen: 1. A singular subject requires a singular verb. 2. A plural subject requires a plural verb. / 3. If a subject is plural in form and singular in meaning, usage determines the form of the verb ; sometimes it is singular and some- times it is plural. 4. Some subjects are plural in form but either plural or singular in meaning; the verb is plural. 5. Some subjects are singular in form but either singular or plural in meaning; the verb is singular or plural according to the meaning of the subject. 6. A subject which is a collective noun takes a singular verb if the collection is considered as a whole; it takes a plural verb if the mind dwells upon the individuals of the collection. Person and Number. 155 7. The compound subject or abridged compound sentence: a. Parts each singular and taken collectively, i. e., con- nected by and or some copulative conjunction, the verb must be plural. b. Parts singular and taken separately, i. e., connected by or or nor, or if preceded by each, every, or nOj though connected by and, the verb must be singular. c. If the parts of the subject are emphatically distin- guished, the principal subject determines the form of the verb. d. If the parts differ in person and number and are taken separately, the one nearest the verb determines its form. e. A subject compound in form but singular in meaning takes a singular verb. EXERCISE 84. Fill the following blanks with suitable words : 1. Either of you able to do it. 2. Each of the pupils studied the lesson. 3. Neither of the prisoners g"ilty of the charge. 4. No one of the animals dangerous. 5. Neither of them - ten years old. 6. No one of the men escaped. 7. Every man, woman, and child lost. 8. Neither of the boats injured. 9. The ashes light. 10. Oats a good price. 11. The molasses fine. 12. The news bad. 13. Politics his delight. 14. The deer pursued by the hunter. 15. Truth and Mercy met in the way. / 156 A New English Grammar. 16. Righteousness and Peace kissed each other. 17. The lion and the lamb lain down together. 18. Elegance and ease a combinatiou which pleases. EXERCISE 85. Conjugation of the Verb. Give the literal meaning of the word, conjugation. What is meant by the conjugation of the v6rb? Illustrate with any verb. Give the literal meaning of the word, synopsis. What is meant by the synopsis of the verb? Illustrate with any verb. The word, conjugation, comes from the Latin, con, meaning with, together; jugare, meaning, to join, and the suffix, ion, meaning, the act of. Literally the word means, the act of joining together. The conjugation of the verb is the giving of all its inflected forms which either express shades of its own meaning or adapt it to be used along with the different forms of other words. When all the forms for the different modes, tenses, voices, persons, and numbers of a verb have been given, the verb is said to be conjugated. By the synopsis of a verb is meant the giving of these forms of the verb in a single person and number. Note.— No advantage is to be gained by having children commit the conjuga- tions or synopses of certain verbs. They shdold know all these forms, however. The teacher might say to a pupil, " Make a sentence about Harry." Suppose the pupil says, " Harry sits at his desk." The teacher might then say, " Express that in the future tense." "Express it in the subjunctive mode, etc." Or a sentence may be taken from the book, and, after the children have given the mode, tense, voice, person, etc., of the verb, the teacher may ask them to change it to difTerent modes, tenses, numbers, etc. By using many devices of this kind, the teacher can fix in the mind of the child all the forms of the verb in connection with their meanings, and not as so many dry, arbitrary forms to be committed to memory. (See Appendix A. ) EXERCISE 86. Forms of Verb. Observe the form of the verb in each of the following sen- tences. State how the forms differ. What difference in FoKMS OF Verb. 157 meaning does this difference in form indicate ? Name, define, and illustrate the different forms which the verb may have: 1. I study my lessons carefully before coming to recitation. 2. Men rise above their animal natures and become divine. 3. I was studying when you called. 4. The sun was rising as we started. 5. The boy does study diligently. 6. I do rise betimes. 7. Do you study astronomy? 8. Do men rise in the world by mere chance? 9. I do not study when I should be sleeping. 10. Men do not rise in the world, because they do not put forth an effort to do so. 11. A bad man can have no possessions that are fire proof. 12. No man is right on any question unless the side he takes is God's side. 13. The man gains nothing who loses his character and saves his money. 14. For every fault we see in others, we have two of our own which we overlook. 15. He who thinks loosely will write loosely. The simple form of the verb is that form which we call the root ; e. g., write, look. The progressive form of the verb is that form which expresses its attribute in a state of continuance; e. g., writing, looking. The emphatic form of the verb is that form which emphasizes the attribute expressed by it ; e. g., do vjrite, do look. The interrogative form of the verb is that form which is used in asking a question ; e. g., Do you study f Do we write ? The negative form of the verb is that form which is used when the relation between thought subject and thought predicate is one of disagreement; e. g., I do not write. She does not look. Make a complete outline of the verb, including definition, classes, properties, etc. 158 A New English Grammar. EXERCISE 87. From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthesis in each of the following sentences, select the correct one: 1. The passenger (allows, admits, declares) that the time for starting has come. • 2. The child (did, done) it. 3. Tom (dove, dived) to the bottom several times. 4. Silver has (flowed, flown) into the treasury. 5. Have you (hanged, hung) the clothes out? 6. The prisoner was sentenced to be (hung, hanged). 7. I'll (learn, teach) a man to swim for five dollars. 8. He wouldn't (let, leave) me go. 9. I can (lend, loan) you some money. 10. He (lit, alighted) from his horse with great agility. 11. The child (plead, pleaded) sohardthatthe teacher let him off. 12. Trumbull had been used to having every attention (shown, showed) him. 13. It is (talked, said) privately that the bank is ruined. 14. The plant has (took, taken) root there. 15. I could have (gone, went). 16. In the afternoon, I (lied, lay) down. 17. He (laid, lay) down and fell into a heavy sleep. 18. I recalled the times I had (laid, lain) awake. 19. Orlando (lay, laid) Adam down carefully, and told him that lie would soon return with food. 20. Scott often gives us the picture of some old ruined abbey, (lying, laying) cold and deserted in the moonlight. 21. There let him (lay, lie). 22. If you had a strong fire, and your steam (was, were) inclined to (rise, raise) what (would, should) you do ? 23. More skilled to (rise, raise) the wretched than to (raise, rise). 24. Orville (seated, sat) her in the big chair. Forms of Verb. 169 25. She (sat, set) before the fire. 26. Did she (sit, set) still ? 27. You (are n't, ain't) so tall as your sister. 28. As it (don't, does n't) suit you, never mind. 29. He (does n't, don't) know me. 30. You (ought not to, should not, had n't ought to) whisper in the class. 31. You (were, was) in Boston then, (was n't, were n't) you? 32. How infinitely good you (was, were) to poor Mrs. Golds- worthy ! 33. " Sir," said the King, " was it not when you (were, was) op- posing me?" 34. (Can, may) I help you to the fruit? 35. If an author's ideas are original, he (can, may; safely fail in all other requirements. 36. I (shall, will) bring him over to the manor, if I (can, may). I don't say, if I (can, may). 37. Here we encountered an opposition which (must, had to) be overcome. 3S. They met a friend and one of them (had to, must) return with him to show him the way. 39. Never (shall, will) T see her more— never (will, shall) I see her more, till she is married. 40. We (shall, will) do our best to make you happy and hope that we (will, shall) succeed. 41. We (shall, will) bo killed together. 42. We (shall, will) have to go. 43. 1 leave early, and, accordingly (shall, will) be there. 44. Is the time coming when we (will, shall) desert Thackeray? 45. I (will, shall) be happy to see you there. 46. If we proceed on this principle, we (will, shall) lose every- thing. 47. "Not pay it! " says he, " but you (will, shall) pay it! ay, ay, you (will, shall) pay it!" 160 A New English Grammar. 48. You (shall, will) be elected, whoever may be your opponent. 49. Thou (shalt, wilt) not steal. 50. Sicinius. It is a mind That (shalt, will) remain a poison where it is, Not poison any further. Coriolanus. Shall remain! — Hear you thisTi-itou of the minnows? Mark you His absolute ("shall," "will")? 51. I am afraid that I (shall, will) not be there, and that you and he (shall, will) obtain the place. 52. He thinks that he (will, shall) come out with a profit. 53. If I (rise, raise) early enough, I (shall, will) see the sun (raise, rise). 54. He is afraid that he (will, shall) not pass his examination. 55. While he is wondering how long he (shall, will) live in this condition, a boat appears. 56. Surely goodness and mercy (will, shall) follow me all the days of my life, and I (will, shall) dwell in the house of the Lord forever. 57. The time is coming when the English language (shall, will) be the language of the globe. 58. (Will, shall) you bear the message? Or (shall, will) I? 59. (Shall, will) I speak to him? Or (shall, will) you? 60. (Shall, will) you be there? 61. Where (shall, wdll) I see the man? 62. How long (shall, will) we need to stay ? 63. When our friends (would, should) \yalk out, they (would, should) always go down by the lake. 64. The train (should, would) make better time than it does. 65. If it (should, would) be very cold, he (would, should) not start. 66. I knew that we (should, would) either go to the bottom to- gether or that she (would, should^ be the making of me. Forms of Verb. 161 67. If I had gone on the excursion, I (should, would) have needed money. 68. I (should, would) be pleased to meet your friend. 69. Taking this for granted, we (would, should) expect to find gold in every hill. 70. I (should, would) think that we (should, would) likely find the man at his home. 71. Thackeray says that he (should, would) have been proud (to be, to have been) Shakespeare's boot-black or Addison's errand-boy. 72. We thought that in taking this course we (would, should) escape criticism. 73. We hoped that she (should, would) soon visit us again. 74. As a friend, I (would, should) like to warn you. 75. I (would, should) be willing to go, if it were not for my friends. 76. If we (were, was) consulted, we (should, would) not want a change. J8. He had always thought he (would, should) like to go west. 79. He (bid, bade) them farewell. 80. The commander (bid, bade) the soldiers fire. 81. The man (bade, bid) one dollar for the book. 82. The water has not been (drank, drunk). 83. The weary traveler (drank, drunk) eagerly. 84. He (ate, eat) a hearty meal. 85. Before I had (got, gotten) my breath, men (came, come) run- ning after me. 86. The lamp was (lit, lighted) early. 87. The statement has been (proven, proved). 88. I have (rode, ridden) only a short (way, ways). 89. I have (awaked, awoke) in time. 90. Mr. Conklin regrets that a previous engagement (prevents, will prevent) him from accepting Mrs. Waller's invitation to dinner Tuesday. 11 162 A New English Grammar. 91. Mr. Curtis (accepts with pleasure, will be happy to accept) Mrs. Long's kind invitation for Saturday evening. 92. It (is, was) the duty of history to record inventions as well as wars. 93. It has always been a question with me whether scientific tastes (denote, denoted) a higher type of mind than aesthetic tastes. 94. It was (the business of Harvard, Harvard's business) (to be, to have been) on. the lookout, and (to secure, to have secured) all the glory it could. 95. Every bill shall be presented to the governor ; if he (approve, approves), he (shall, will) sign it. 96. Whether the encounter (alienate, alienates) friends or (raise, raises) up enemies, whether it (be fraught, is fraught) with physical risk or moral danger, whether it (lead, leads) to defeat or to total ruin, the editor who is worthy of the name will not shrink from the contest. 97. How terrible it would be if you (were, was) a saint! 98. If your home (were, was) not in Italy, you would feel as I do. 99. My wife is apt to look as if she {was, were) going to cry. 100. If I (was, were) you, I (should, would) let it pass. 101. The frigate now came tearing along as if she (were, was) alive and (were, was) feeling the fever of the chase. 102. If it (is, be) discouraging to notice (your own, one's own) faults in the second generation, it is still more so to encounter idi- osyncracies with which you have no association. 103. Three centuries of New England climate (has, have) made him quick-witted. 104. The persecutions of the chapel bell, sounding its unwel- come summons to six o'clock prayers, (interrupt, interrupts) my slumbers no more. 105. The gayety and the enthusiasm of the soul (recall, recalls) the last loiterer in the supper -room. 106. With two of his companions, he entered and (was, were) conducted through the place. Forms of Verb. 163 107. The mother, with two young children, (has, have) gone abroad. 108. The rehgion of this period, as well as that of the early- Christians, (was, were) entirely opposed to any such belief. 109. The Rev. Goldust, accompanied by his family, (has, have) left the city. 110. The whole system of mind-reading, mesmerism, and spir- itualism (seem, seetns) to be connected. 111. The formation of paragraphs (are, is) very important. 112. All that they could see of the mysterious person (was, were) his boots. 113. What (are, is) wanted (is, are) not more teachers, but better trained teachers. 114. Since this matter has been discussed, there (have, has) been many inquiries. 115. In the evening, there (was, were) always some social games. 116. In literature (is, are) embalmed the short stories of the day. 117. No one of these forty English words (were, was) in use before the battle of Hastings. 118. While either of these (is, are) hungry, nothing will ever give (them, him) sleep. 119. Neither of the girls (was, were) very much at (their, her) ease. 120. Neither the Bishop nor a recent writer in the Spectator (has, have) arrived at the truth. 121. She is one of the writers who (is, are) destined to be iiu- niortal. 122. We lament the excessive delicacy of his ideas, which (.pre- vents, prevent) one from grasping them. 12.3. The number of exercises (is, are) not great. 124. The majority of Indian marriages (is, arc) happy. 12.5. A multitude of heads, hats, fans, (were, was) waving. 126. One hundred dollars (has, have) been added. 164 A New English Grammar. 127. The Chamber of Commerce of Columbus (request, requests) your presence at its First Annual Dinner. 128. The committee (has called, have called) for more witnesses. 129. Thackeray gives Swift a much better character (than John- son, than Johnson does). 130. The government (has not and will not enter, has not en- tered and will not enter) into negotiations. 131. He (liked, loved) to wander through the woods. 132. The bill was (championed, supported) by senator Logan. 133. I did not (calculate, intend) to insult any one by the re- marks. 134. They (carried, fetched, brought) water from a spring nearby. 135. Mrs. Masters (claims, declares) that she is satisfied. 136. The senator (claims, wants) the floor. 137. We (admit, confess) the truth of that statement. 138. My friend failed to (materialize, appear). 139. The man (was shocked by electricity, received an electric shock). ^^ ^ 140. This (shows the measure of, sizes up) the man. 141. He (states, says) that he was hungry. 142. I am (stopping, staying, living) at the hotel. 143. The rumors of what (had taken place, occurred, transpired) were spread abroad. 144. I gladly (except, accept) your oflTer. 145. 'He grants all (accept, except) the last point. 146. She (expects, suspects) her brother to-morrow. 147. I (expect, suspect, think) you will find bad roads. 148. He completely (vanquished, downed) his opponent. 149. A beautiful doll came out and (gestured, gesticulated) sol- emnly. 150. The two men (were never neighborly, never neighbored), much to the regret of the Quaker. 151. Why do you (resurrect, revive) that old question ? The Adverb. 165 152. She (went to work as a clerk, began clerking) in a store. 153. People (are not very enthusiastic, don't enthuse) on the subject. 154. He (summoned, summonsed) me to his office. 155. Mr. Jackson was asked (to act as umpire, to umpire the game). 156. A vote of thanks was extended to Mr. Temple for (referee- ing the game, acting as referee of the game). 157. This ruling does not (efiect, affect) the case of the prisoner at the bar. 158. They sailed away without (affecting, effecting) their pur- pose. 159. The attribute expressed by a transitive verb directly (effects, affects) an object. 160. Has it (cultured, cultivated) the popular sensibilities? EXERCISE 88. The Adverb. State the use of each italicized word in the following : 1. The mountaia streams flow rapidly. 2. The sentence is undoubtedly a just one. ."!. The girl is exceedingly lonesome. 4. The vessel was wrecked when it was almost over the ocean. 5. We shall all meet there. (). The method is slow at first but will rapidly grow easier. 7. Occasionally written exercises should be substituted for the oral, when the teacher wishes to test the progress of the class. 8. I shall be glad to see you whenever you may stop. 9. I saw the place where the World's Fair buildings are to stand. 10. The young man was greatly respected in the town where he was born. 166 A New English Grammar. 11. No spot on earth, do I love more sincerely, Than old Virginia, the place where I was born. 12. He speaks mosi sincerely when in private conversation. 1 ;5. I sincerely hope for your success. 14. The prisoner begged hard for mercy. 15. The boy studies harder than his sister. 16. It rained hardest just after we started. 17. Now will we deal worse with thee than with them. 18. He is much taller than I. 19. He is more polite than his brother. 20. He is the most industrious boy in school. 21. The soul lives on forever. 22. We shall no doubt meet often hereafter. 28. I cannot believe otherunse. 24. The lady was greatly distressed by the news. 25. When shall we three meet again? 26. Where do the people congregate ? 27. I know why you have come. 28. I see how you made the mistake. 29. I can tell why the sun appears to rise and set. 30. There is the same reason for the study of language that there is for the study of thought. The careful study of language cannot fail to make the student acquainted with the laws of the human mind. EXERCISE 89. Define adverb. State the different classes which you have discovered in the preceding sentences. Define and illustrate in each case. State the basis of classification. ' State all the adverbial ideas which may be expressed by the adverb and give one example of each. ^Discuss comparison in connec- 1. See pp. Gl-63. 2. See pp. 123-124. The Advekb. 167 £ion with the adverb. Compare the adverb with the adjective with regard to comparison. State all the uses of the adverb and illustrate each. Name the modifiers which may belong to the adverb and give an example of each. Make out a list of errors most frequently made in the use of the adverb. An adverb is an attributive word which expresses an attribute of an attribute or of a relation. On basis of the part of the sentence modified, we have modal adverbs and regular adverbs. A modal adverb is an adverb which expresses an attribute of a relation; e. g., The iact is certainly significant. A reg"ular adverb is an adverb which expresses an attribute of an attribute; e. g., The stream flows rapidly. On basis of form or origin, we have simple, derivative, and coiupouiid adverbs. On basis of use in the sentence, we have conjunctive, inter- rogative, and pure adverbs. By studying the above sentences carefully, the student will see that the adverb may modify a pure verb, an attributive verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a preposition ; and that it may have an adverbial or an adverbial objective modifier. Note. — For other definitions, a discussion of comparison, the adverbial ideas expressed by the adverb, etc., see the subject of modifiers, complex sentence, the adjective, and other parts of this booli. EXERCISE 90. From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthe- sis in the following sentences, select the correct one: 1. He will (probably, likely) be here this evening. 2. That poem I like (better than, most of) any otlier single piece. 3. He was (nowhere, not nearly so) prolific a writer as Words- worth. 4. The outside of the earth, after it had cooled (some, some- what) was hard and solid. 168 A New English Grammar. 5. There is, (first, firstly) the distinction mentioned before. 6. The child was treated (ill, illy). 7. The statement amused the court (much, muchly). -s. He reasoned (thus, thusly). 9. Pope didn't translate the Iliad (accurate, accurately). 10. These poor people were not so (bad, badly) off. 11. Swift treated his child as (mean, meanly) as a child could be treated'. 12. Byron could be (terrible, terribly) scathing. 13. Trilby was (uncommon, uncommonly) tall. 14. Even his friends looked (coldly, cold) upon him. 15. The coat goes on (easy, easily). 16. The girl danced (graceful, gracefully). 17. We learned to appreciate a (real, really) clear day. 18. (Relatively to her population, England has— England has, relative to her population) nearly four times as many railway pas- sengers as the United States. 19. The girl was (too much surprised, too sjUjrprised) to answer. 20. The statement is not (likely, liable) to convince any one. 21. (As soon as, directly) I came, the child knew me. 22. (As soon as she had said, immediately she said) this, she was sorry for it. <■ 23. (After, once) the apology was made, he felt better. 24. He is not (as, so) old as you. 25. The house is not (so, as) dark as we thought it to be. 26. The boy was (rather, quite) tall for his age. 27. We had (quite a, a protracted) discussion in the meeting. 28. I remained until I heard (quite a numljer of, several) speeches. 29. Their misery impressed the minister (strongly, quite a great deal). 30. He dwelt on the point for (some time, quite a time). 31. The teacher's opinion was (much, very) respected. The Adverb. 169 32. I cannot walk (further, farther). 33. He wrote articles (which were even envied, which were en- vTed even) by his teachers. 34. Lane told them (not to shoot, to not shoot). 35. You've no idea what a bother it is (to be always, to always be) neat and in order. 36. He moved (that the subject be indefinitely postponed, to in- definitely postpone the subject). 37. The birds sing (beautiful, beautifully). 38. He spoke (clear and distinct, clearly and distinctly). 39. The moon shines (bright, brightly). 40. The old man looks (sad, sadly). Make an outline of the adverb similar to that made for other parts of speech. EXERCISE 91. The Infinitive. Explain the use of the following italicized expressions: 1. To be good is to he great. 2. To forgive is to he charitable. 3. The noblest revenge is to forgive. 4. My friend is about to depart. 5. All desire to live long but no one would be old. 6. It is easy to y?n(Z fault. 7. The lion, to speak figuratively, is the king of beasts. 8. My child is anxious to go to school.c^--^ 9. My friend failed to appear. 10. We believe in the life to come. 11. Time to come is called future time. 12. The children are to sing. 13. We are to have a jolly time. 14. We eat to live and do not live to eat. 170 A New English Grammar. 15. I know him to he a man. 16. They made Victoria queen. 17. The boy grew to he useful. 1 8. To learn a lesson accurately is diflBcult. 19. I love to read good books. 20. He loves to_send presents to his friends. 21. To coast, sliding, is fine sport. 22. To die, sleeping always, is not much to be dreaded. 23. Man never is, but always to he, blest. 2-1. To err is human. 25. To obey is to enjoy. 26. He loves to play. 27. He is trying to learn. 28. To spend money recklessly is criminal. 29. To report a speech correctly is difticult. 30. I study to learn. 31. They bade him depart. 32. I saw him fall. 33. I hoped to see you. 34. I intended to call for you. 35. He expected to see you yesterday. 56. To do justice and judgment is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice. 37. It is our duty to try and our determination to succeed. 38. They had dared to think for themselves. 39. Flee from the wrath to come. 40. I heard him declaim. » 41. He went to seg the World's Fair. 42. The gods are hard to reconcile. 43. The rain threatening to fall, we left early. 44. He told me w'hen to come. 45. They tried to cheat, rob, and murder him. The Infinitive. ' 171 46. I come not here to talk. 47. In sooth, deceit niaketh no mortal gay. 48. It is better to fight for the good than to rail at the ill. 49. Let the great world spin forever down the ringing grooves of change. 50. I saw along the winter snow a spectral column pour. EXERCISE 92. Define infinitive. State all the uses and modifiers which the infinitive may have. The infinitive may be defined on two bases; viz., on basis of its origin, or on basis of its use. On basis of its origin the infinitive is the root form of the verb without the asserting element. This definition would exclude the form in " ing," sometimes included in the infinitive. On basis of its use, the infinitive is a verbal noun, express- ing in noun form the attribute which the verb asserts. This defini- tion would include the form in " ing." Taking the first definition, the pupil may be led to see that the infinitive has the following uses: 1. Substantive; a. Subject of the sentence. b. Predicate of the sentence. c. Principal word in a prepositional phrase. d. Direct objective modifier. e. Appositive modifier. /. Independently. g. Indirect objective modifier. h. Adverbial objective modifier. (See Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, par. 448). 2. Attributive; v a. Adjective. ' \ b. Adverb, N 3. Relational ; a. As relational element in a clausal phrase. A clausal phrase is a group of words which has a subject-like element, a predicate- 172 A New English Grammar. like element, and a copula-like element, but it makes no assertion ; t'. g., I know him to be honest. It has the form of a clause but the value of a phrase. In the above illustration, the infinitive to be, is the relational or copula-like element. b. The infinitive has something of the same use when there is a double predicate in the sentence ; e. g., The boy grew to be useful. It seems that to be is here the copula-like element for the second part of the double predicate. The infinitive may have the following modifiers: adverbial, direct objective, indirect objective, adverbial objective, and appositive. Make an outline of the infinitive, summing up all the points you have learned. EXERCISE 93. The Participle. State the use of the italicized expressions in the following: 1. Walking rapidly develops the muscles. 2. Boxing is not fighting. 3. I heard the rushing of the storm. 4. He is anxious for learning. 5. We learn to do by doing. 6. That sport, racing, is dangerous. 7. His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. 8. His master beirig away, the work was neglected, t). The howling storm swept by us. 10. The plants are growing nicely. 11. I saw him coming to town. 12. The child grew interested in the story, i;-). The rain came dashing^ down. 14. The horse came trotting down the road. 15. Your mother being sick, I came. The Participle. 173 16. I thought about his being tired. 17. I came, being sick. 18. He stood, being hedtating in his manner. 19. Spelling, naming the letters of the word, is diflBcult. 20. We did not like Ms singing. 21. The boy is bringing the carriage. 22. Speaking to the boy, he said, "Go quickly." 23. Good singing is very attractive. 24. Thinking rapidly requires presence of mind. 25. The regiment, moving the battery to the hill, renews the en- gagement. 26. The class will soon be reading. 27. The soldier, deceived by the enemy, was slain. 28. The carriage being broken, we could not go farther. 29. Having lost our guide, we were unable to reach the village. 30. The money having been stolen, the bank closed its doors. 31. A penny given willingly is of greater value than a pound given grudgingly. 32. The spider, spinning his web, was an inspiration to Bruce. 33. The messenger, waving the packet to the crowd, appeared in the distance. 34. Christ, walking on the sea, came to his disciples. 35. John, the Baptist, came eating and drinking. Define participle; state all its uses in the sentence; and all the modifiers it may have. Make an outline of the in- finitive and participle, showing definitions, uses, and modi- fiers. Compare and contrast the infinitive and participle. The participle is the derived form of the verb without the as- serting element and may be used substantively or attributively. 174 A New English Grammar. By a careful study of the preceding sentences the pupils may see that the participle has the following uses; 1. Substantive. a. Subject of the sentence. b. Predicate of the sentence." c. Direct objective modifier. '"^ </., Indirect objective modifier. " c. Principal word in a prepositional phrase. ^ /. Appositive modifier. g. Independently 2. Attributive. a. Modifying adjective. b. Predicate adjective. c. Adjective-adverb. 3. Relational. a. Relational-like element of a clausal phrase. b. Relational-like element with second part of double predi- cate. The participle may take the following modifiers: a. Appositive. -' b. Possessive. c. Direct objective. d. . Indirect objective. €. Adverbial objective. /. Adjective. g. Adverbial. > EXERCISE 94. Point out the infinitives and participles in the following sentences and give the use of each : 1. Thoughts shut up, want air, And spoil like bales unopened to the sun. 2. Let us be content in work, To do the thing we can, and not presume To fret because it's little. 3. One day with life and heart, Is more than time enough to find a world. The Preposition. 175 4. Needful auxiliars are our friends, to give To social man true relish of himself. 5. Learn well to know how much need not be known, And what that knowledge which impairs your sense. 6. Let him not violate kind nature's laws, But own man born to live as well as die. 7. The blood more stirs To rouse a lion than to start a hare. 8. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend. Eternity mourns that. 9. It is the curse of kings to be attended By slaves that take their humors for a >varrant To break within the bloody house of life, And on the winking of authority, To understand a law. 10. Have you brave sons? Look in the next fierce brawl To see them die. Have ye fair daughters ? Look To see them live, torn from your arms, distained, Dishonored, and if ye dare call for justice, Be answered by the lash. EXERCISE 95. The Preposition. State the use of each italicized expression in the following sentences: 1. He was brave on the field of battle. 2. He triumphed in his death. 3. The boy is very popular with his playmates. 4. Samuel ofTered his seat to the lady. 5. The teacher gave the book to Sarah. 6. The slave was very grateful to his master. 7. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 176 . A New English Grammar. 8. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 9. Good deeds return to bless him who does them. 10. To waste in youth is to want in old age. Define the class of words with which you have been dealing. State and illustrate the uses of the class. Name the principal words belonging to this class. Make out a list of the principal errors, made in the use 'of these words. A preposition is a relation word which expresses the relation between ideas of unequal rank. The preposition has two uses. 1. It may be the relation word in a prepositional phrase; e. g., The steamer will arrive in the evening. 2. It may express the relation between an indirect object and the attribute which affects it; e. g., The boy gave the book <o his sister. Make a complete outline of this class of words. EXERCISE 96. From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthe- sis in each of the following sentences, select the correct one: 1. The vessel will arrive (within, inside of) two weeks. 2. He did not remember (sayine, of saying) that the thief was tall. 3. She replied, "Not that I (remember, remember of)." 4. Is your father (at, to) home? 5. The greatest masters of critical learning differ (among, from, with) one another. 6. They danced (round, around) the pole. 7. He was not successful, as a rule, (with, at) narrative. 8. There was the old man in the forest (back of, behind) the barn. 9. (Behind, back of) his falsehood, there is a truth. The Pkeposition. 177 10. I have no decided preference (between, among) these five authors. 11. There is some trouble (among, between) the teacher and his pupils. 12. She made a resolution (with, between) every mouthful, never to say one word to that magpie again. 13. He interfered with her sister's attachment (to, for) Mr. Bingley. ^ 14. The old clock on the- stairs frightened us (by, in) striking two. 15. Judged (from, by) this (stand-point, point of view) he was wanting. 16. He put the water (in, within) reach of the dog. 17. He went (in, into) the house. 18. He was thrown (into, in) the mud. 19. This merging of self (into, in) mankind is noble. 20. Put money (in, into) thy purse. 21. This discovery I made as soon as I was fairly (in, into) the room. 22. " Paracelsus " shows Browning's clever insight (into, of) man. 23. You have an advantage (of, over) me in that you know my name. 24. The difference (in, of) character (between, of) the two men (affected, effected) their writings. 25. There is no use (in. of ) my trying to get ready. 26. The remainder of his wages (is, are) deposited (on, to) his credit. 27. A lady who did not belong to some church, would be looked (on, at) askance. 28. The vessel was blown (on, onto) the rocks. 29. This was brought about (by, through) the services of friends. 30. His longer poems are of very different stamp (than, from) his shorter ones. 12 178 A New English Grammar. 31. "Wordsworth's "Skylark" is altogether different (to, from) Shelley's. 32. A difference arose (between, among) the two in their corres- pondence (with, to) each other. 33. Your decision accords (to, with) mine. 34. Gladstone set out (for, to) London. 35. The vessel sank far out (at, to) sea. 36. I believe, (on, to) the contrary, that Washington was the greatest of good men and the best of great men. 37. Byron's " Farewell " was written after his separation (from, with) his wife. 38. He was accompanied (by, with) his wife. , 39. I differ (from, with) you. 40. We parted (from, with) him at the corner. 41. He was fully alive to the advantages of foreign methods (as well as to the necessity of using them, as well as the necessity of using them). 42. I wrote (to him, him) in May. 43. I went to Chicago and (from thence, thence) to St. Louis. 44. They (pondered, pondered over) the question. 45. One calamity (follows, follows after) another. 46. The teacher (examined, examined into) the subject carefully. EXERCISE 97. The Conjunction. State the use of the italicized expressions in the following sentences: 1. Truth makes man free but error binds him in endless chains. 2. Sincerity and modesty are essential to good character. 3. The blue and white flower is a pansy. 4. Goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life. 5. I shall not proceed /or danger lurks in my course. The Conjunction. 179 - 6. I will have the heart of him if he forfeit. 7. 1 know that you will be pleased with my friends. 8. I see that you are disappointed in the book. 9. Bread and butter is palatable food. 10. I shall be sure to see you /or I live in the town. 11. Swearing is neither profitable nor pleasant. 12. You will have to study or you will get behind your class. 13. I have seen other people make the same mistake, therefore, I warn you. 14. Cunning may succeed for a time, but in the end, murder will out. 15. I oft delivered from his forfeitures Many that have at times made moan to me; Therefore he hates me. Define the class of words illustrated in the preceding sentences. What different kinds do you discover? Name and define each. State and illustrate the use of each class. The conjunction is a relation word which merely expresses an unasserted relation between ideas of equal rank or between thoughts of equal or unequal rank. There are two kinds of conjunctions: 1. The coordinate conjunction is a conjunction which ex- presses the relation between ideas or thoughts of equal rank. 2. The suboi'ilinatc conjunction is a conjunction which ex- presses the relation between thoughts of unequal rank. Make a complete outline of this class of words. EXERCISE 98. From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthe- sis in each of the following sentences, select the correct one: 1. I am not sure (as, that) either my brother or my friend can lielp you. 2. Then (as, like) all rich men do, he appealed to the public. 180 A New English Gkammar. 3. They were tdld not to leave (unless, without) they were sent for. 4. Then these same sisters of mercy are bathing the hot head (or, and) binding up the broken limb. 5. At that time he was going (and, or) coming twice a day. 6. My father is a wise (but, and) cautious man. 7. (Since, as) you are going my way, I might as well ride. 8. I loved Lincoln (as, because) he was a true man. 9. I consider him a superior man in (both, all) intellect, feel- ing, and courage. 10. They regret (how, that) they left school. 11. They told us (how, that) they had just visited Switzerland and (how, that) they had thought of boarding the Elbe. 12. (Though, if) science has made much progress, there are still many problems. 13. I am sure that it was neither my father (or, nor) my mother. 14. The book was neither so interesting (or, nor) so helpful as we had hoped to find it. 15. I have no word from the vessel (or, nor) do I expect any to- day. 16. (Though alone in the house, I was alone in the house but) I was not frightened. 17. He looked at me curiously (as if, as though) he knew me. 18. Very soon, (though, however), the sun appeared. 19. I smiled and tried to make myself agreeable (when, though) my head was almost bursting. 20. (While, when) walking out this morning, I found several dainty anemones. 21. To learn the subjects is a difficult task, (while, but) to teach them is much more difficult. 22. She was under the large tree in the yard, (while, and) be- side her was her book. PART II. INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND PART. The preceding pages deal largely with the scientific phase of the subject of grammar. If the student has mastered the work there presented, the subject of grammar appears to him in its logical relations; he has seen and understands the four circles of work, mentioned in the introduction; he sees the relation of each circle of the work to every other circle, and to the subject as a whole; and may be said to have organized the subject of grammar. This knowledge is necessary to any conscious mastery of language as an instrument in expressing thought. It is especially necessary for the teacher, who is to direct the child in the formation of language habits; for, how can she hope to guide the child aright in the formation of language habits, unless she knows the principles which underlie correct lan- guage forms? But the great weakness in the language power of the graduates of our public and high schools, lies not in their knowledge of the science side, but in their use of the language. It is not that they do not know principles, but they do not use the language in accordance with the princi- ples. They know that a pronoun which is used in the nominative relation, should have the nominative form; and they can "rattle off" the principal parts of irregular verbs fast enough to make an ordinary mortal dizzy ; but at the same time, they go right on saying, "It was not me who done it." What can we put into a text-book on grammar that will help students use the language in accordance with the prin- 184 A New English Grammar. ciples which they have learned ? How can we help students to become proficient in the art of grammar? Some devices and suggestions looking to this end have been given in the preceding pages. In addition to efforts of this kind, the student's language should be carefully watched and corrected by the teacher at all times. But the teacher has the students in language only a small part of the time. Can -she, in this brief period, counteract the in- fluence of the incorrect language they use in the recitations of all other subjects; of that which they hear and use upon the street, the play -ground, and at home? Unless the teacher can see to it that the students use good language in their recitations in history, geography, arithmetic, etc., either by carefully watching over their language herself, if she teaches the other subjects, or by obtaining the cooperation of her associates in the matter, if other teachers have charge of the work in these other subjects, surely she must be content with a low degree of proficiency, on the part of her pupils, in the use of our language. As teachers of English, we do not make enough of this point. More can be accomplished in the way of giving a student a mastery of the art side of language in one year's careful supervision of his oral and written language, than can be accomplished by five years' text-book work as it is usually done in the public schools. We encourage and fix inaccura- cies in language every time a student makes a mistake in our hearing, and we do not call his attention to it. We encourage and fix bad habits in language every time we call for written work of any kind, and do not hold the pupil responsible for the language he uses; especially is this true with pupils of the grades in our public schools. Another cause of the pupil's weakness in the use of the Introduction to the Second Part. 185 language is the fact that our recitations in school are scrappy and disconnected. The pupil talks only in reply to the teacher's questions, and then makes only one statement at a time, and this, too often, consists of only a single word. He hasn't much opportunity to show the teacher his bad habits in the use of language. We rarely ask a pupil to stand and talk continuously for even five minutes. We do not ask pupils to talk and write enough. But if students are to talk and write they must have something about which to talk and write. They do not care to thresh over old straw; they will not talk and write well, if they are compelled to say something that every one knows ; they want something new and fresh. The greatest weakness in our composition work is that we do not furnish pupils a motive for writing. We tell the boy to write a composition of three pages on the horse. He has no interest in the horse ; knows nothing new about it ; does not care to say what everybody knows; has no other motive for writing than to get the three pages full, and his composition will always show it. But if the boy is really interested in some- thing; if he can find out something new about it, or see some new thought in connection with it, he will write much better. It is to supply the material, to some extent, for such work as is indicated above, that the following pages are given. Let the students analyze and discuss the selections ; let them discover the idea which the author is setting forth; the pur- pose in the selection ; and let them see how all parts of the selection contribute to the accomplishment of this purpose. Let them notice the beauty of the language and its appro- priateness to express the thought. Let them discuss charac- ters, scenes, and events ; and let them write frequently about 186 A New English Grammar. them. Let them pursue mythological and historical refer- ences and write little stories in explanation of them. It is hoped that the following selections may serve at least four purposes : 1. They will furnish abundant sentences of sufficient variety to illustrate amply the work given in the first part of this book. 2. In dealing with the selections/ the students will be- come familiar with the language of the author and will un- consciously imitate it. 3. The consideration of the correspondence between the thought of the selection and the language in which it is expressed, will enable the student to see the beauty, appro- priateness, and strength of the language, thus furnishing him an ideal with which he can compare his own language. 4. They will furnish interesting topics which will help the teacher to supply the student with a motive for talking and writing. (The selections entitled The Voyage and The Widow and Her Son are taken from the latest edition of Irving's Sketch Book by kind permission of the authorized pub- lishers, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York.) THE VOYAGE. WASHINGTOX IRVING, " Ships, ships, I will descrie you Amidst the main, I will come and try you, What you are protecting, And projecting, What's your end and aim. One goes abroad for mei'chandise and trading, Another stays to keep his country from invading, A third is coming home with rich and wealthy lading. Halloo ! my fancie, whither wilt thou go? " — Old Poem. To an American visiting Europe, the long voyage he has to make is an excellent preparative. The temporary absence of worldly scenes and employments produces a state of mind peculiarly fitted to receive new and vivid impressions. The vast space of waters that separates the hemispheres is like a blank page in existence. There is no gradual transition by which, as in Europe, the features and population of one country blend almost imperceptibly with those of another. From the moment you lose sight of the land you have left, all is vacancy until you step on the opposite shore, and are launched at once into the bustle and novelties of another world. In travelling by land there is a continuity of scene, and a connected succession of persons and incidents that carry on the story of life, and lessen the effect of absence and separation. We drag, it is true, " a lengthening chain " at each remove of our pilgrimage ; but the chain is unbroken : we can trace it back link by link ; and we feel that the last still grapples 188 A New English Grammar. us to home. But a wide sea voyage severs us at once. It makes us conscious of being cast loose from the secure anchorage of settled life, and sent adrift upon a doubtful world. It interposes a gulf, not merely imaginary, but real, between us and our homes, — a gulf subject to tempest and fear and uncertainty, rendering distance palpable and return precarious. Such, at least, was the case with rnyself. As I saw the last blue line of my native land fade away like a cloud in the horizon, it seemed as if I had closed one volume of the world and its concerns, and had time for meditation before I opened another. That land, too, now vanishing from my view, which contained all most dear to me in life, — what vicissi- tudes might occur in it, what changes might take place in me, before I should visit it again! Who can tell, when he sets forth to wander, whither he may be driven by the uncertain currents of existence, or when he may return, or whether it may ever be his lot to revisit the scenes of his childhood ? I said that at sea all is vacancy; I should correct the expression. To one given to day-dreaming, and fond of losing himself in reveries, a sea voyage is full of subjects for meditation ; but then they are the wonders of the deep and of the air, and rather tend to abstract the mind from worldly themes. I delighted to loll over the quarter-rail- ing, or climb to the main-top, of a calm day, and muse for hours together on the tranquil bosom of a summer's sea; to gaze upon the piles of golden clouds just peering above the horizon, fancy them some fairy realms, and people them with a creation of my own ; to watch the gentle undulating billows, rolling their silver volumes as if to die away on those happy shores. There was a delicious sensation of mingled security and The Voyage. 189 awe while I looked down, from my giddy height, on the monsters of the deep at their uncouth gambols, — shoals of porpoises tumbling about the bow of the ship; the grampus slowly heaving his huge form above the surface; or the ravenous shark, darting, like a spectre, through the blue waters. My imagination would conjure up all that I had heard or rea,d of the watery world beneath me, — of the finny herds that roam its fathomless valleys, of the shapeless monsters that lurk among the very foundations of the earth, and of those wild phantasms that swell the tales of fishermen and sailors. Sometimes a distant sail, gliding along the edge of the ocean, would be another theme of idle speculation. How interesting this fragment of a world, hastening to rejoin the great mass of existence! What a glorious monument of human invention, which has in a manner triumphed over wind and wave ; has brought the ends of the world into communion ; has established an interchange of blessings, pouring into the sterile regions of the north all the luxuries of the south ; has diffused the light of knowledge and the charities of cultivated life; and has thus bound together those scattered portions of the human race, between which nature seemed to have thrown an insurmountable barrier. We one day descried some shapeless object drifting at a distance. At sea, everything that breaks the monotony of the surrounding expanse attracts attention. It proved to be the mast of a ship that must have been completely wrecked; for there were the remains of handkerchiefs, by which some of the crew had fastened themselves to this spar, to prevent their being washed off" by the waves. There was no trace by which the name of the ship could be ascertained. The wreck had evidently drifted about for many months; clusters of 190 A New English Grammar. shellfish had fastened about it, and long sea-weeds flaunted at its sides. But where, thought I, is the crew? Their struggle has long been over, — they have gone down amidst the roar of the tempest, — their bones lie whitening among the caverns of the deep. Silence, oblivion, like the waves, have closed over them, and no one can tell the story of their end. What sighs have been wafted after that ship! What prayers offered .up at the deserted fiVeside at home! How often has the mistress, the wife, the mother, pored over the daily news, to catch some casual intelligence of this rover of the deep! How has expectation darkened into anxiety, — anxiety into dread, — and dread into despair! Alas! not one memento may ever return for love to cherish. All that may ever be known is that she sailed from her port, "and was never heard of more! " The sight of this wreck, as usual, gave rise to many dismal anecdotes. This was particularly the case in the evening, when the weather, which had hitherto been fair, began to look wild and threatening, and gave indications of one of those sudden storms which will sometimes break in upon the serenity of a summer voyage. As we sat around the dull light of a lamp in the cabin, that made the gloom more ghastly, every one had his tale of shipwreck and disaster. I was particularly struck with a short one related by the captain. " As I was once sailing," said he, " in a fine stout ship across the banks of Newfoundland, one of those heavy fogs which prevail in those parts rendered it impossible for us to see far ahead, even in the daytime ; but at night the weather was so thick that we could not distinguish any object at twice the length of the ship. I kept lights at the mast-head, and a constant watch forward to look out for fishing-smacks, which are accustomed to lie at anchor on the banks. The wind The Voyage. 191 was blowing a smacking breeze, and we were going at a great rate through the water. Suddenly the watch gave the alarm of ' A sail ahead ! ' — it was scarcely uttered before we were upon her. She was a small schooner, at anchor, with her broadside toward us. The crew were all asleep, and had neglected to hoist a light. We struck her just amidships. The force, the size, and weight of our vessel bore her down below the waves ; we passed over her and were hurried on our course. As the crashing wreck was sinking beneath us, I had a glimpse of two or three half-naked wretches rushing from her cabin; they just started from their beds, to be swal- lowed shrieking by the waves. I heard their drowning cry mingling with the wind. The blast that bore it to our ears swept us out of all further hearing. I shall never forget that cry! It was some time before we could put the ship about, she was under such headway. We returned, as nearly as we could guess, to the place where the smack had anchored. We cruised about for several hours in the dense fog. We fired signal-guns, and listened if we might hear the halloo of any survivors; but all was silent, — We never saw or heard anything of them more." I confess these stories, for a time, put an end to all my fine fancies. The storm increased with the night. The sea was lashed into tremendous confusion. There was a fearful, sul- len sound of rushing waves and broken surges. Deep called unto deep. At times the black volume of clouds overhead seemed rent asunder by flashes of lightning, which quivered along the foaming Ijillows, and made the succeeding darkness doubly terrible. The thunders bellowed over the wild waste of waters, and were echoed and prolonged by the mountain waves. As I saw the ship staggering and plunging among these roaring caverns, it seemed miraculous that she regained 192 A New English Grammar. her balance, or preserved her buoyancy. Her yards would dip into the water: her bow was almost buried beneath the waves. Sometimes an impending surge appeared ready to overwhelm her, and nothing but a dexterous movement of the helm preserved her from the shock. When I retired to my cabin, the awful scene still followed me. The whistling of the wind through the rigging sounded like funereal wailings. The creaking of the masts, the strain- ing and groanings of bulkheads, as the ship labored in the weltering sea, were frightful. As I heard the waves rushing along the sides of the ship, and roaring in my very ear, it seemed as if Death were raging round this floating prison, seeking for his prey; the mere starting of a nail, the yawning of a seam, might give him entrance. / A fine day, however, with a tranquil sea and lavoring breeze, soon put all these dismal reflections to flight. It is impossible to resist the gladdening influence of fine weather and fair wind at sea. When the ship is decked out in all her canvas, every sail swelled and careering gayly over the curling waves, how lofty, how gallant, she appears, — how she seems to lord it over the deep! I might fill a volume with the reveries of a sea voyage, for with me it is almost a continual reverie, — but it is time to get to shore. It was a fine sunny morning when the thrilling cry of "Land!" was given from the mast-head. None but those who have experienced it can form an idea of the delicious throng of sensations which rush into an American's bosom when he first comes in sight of Europe. There is a volume of associations with the very name. It is the land of promise, teeming with everything of which his childhood has -heard or on which his studious years have pondered. The Voyage. 193 From that time until the moment of arrival, it was all feverish excitement. The ships of war, that prowled like guardian giants along the coast; the headlands of Ireland, stretching out into the channel ; the Welsh mountains, tower- ing into the clouds,— all were objects of intense interest. As we sailed up the Mersey, I reconnoitered the shores with a telescope. My eye dwelt with delight on neat cottages, with their trim shrubberies and green grass-plots. I saw the mouldering tuin of an abbey overrun with ivy, and the taper spire of a village church rising from the brow of a neighboring hill, — all were characteristic of England. The tide and wind were so favorable that the ship was enabled to come at once to the pier. It was thronged with people; some idle lookers-on, others eager expectants of friends or relatives. I could distinguish the merchant to whom the ship was consigned. I knew him by his calculat- ing brow and restless air. His hands were thrust into his pockets; he was whistling thoughtfully, and walking to and fro, a small space having been accorded him by the crowd in deference to his temporary importance. There were repeated chcerings and salutations interchanged between the shore and the ship, as friends happened to recognize each other. I particularly noticed one young woman of humble dress, but interesting demeanor. She was leaning forward from among the crowd ; her eye hurried over the ship as it neared the shore, to catch some wished-for countenance. She seemed disappointed and agitated, when I heard a faint voice call her name. It was from a poor sailor who had been ill all the voyage, and had excited the sympathy of every one on board. When the weather was fine, his messmates had spread a mat- tress for him on deck in the shade, but of late his illness had 60 increased that he had taken to his hammock, and only 13 194 A New English Grammar. breathed a wish that he might see his wife before he died. He had been helped on deck as we came up the river, and was now leaning against the shrouds, with a countenance so wasted, so pale, so ghastly, that it was no wonder even the eye of affection did not recognize him. But at the sound of his voice, her eye darted on his features; it read, at once, a whole volume of sorrow; she clasped her hands, uttered a faint shriek, and stood wringing them in silent agony. All now was hurry and bustle, — the meetings of acquaint- ances, the greetings of friends, the consultations of men of business. I alone was solitary and idle. I had no friend to meet, no cheering to receive. I stepped upon the land of my forefathers, but felt that I was a stranger in the land. SCHEME FOR THE STUDY OP A SELECTION. I. The Idea Treated. What is the idea about which the author is writing in this selection ? What is the idea treated by the author? What is the subject of the selection? What idea is the author trying to put before us? II. The Purpose Embodied in the Selection. What is the purpose embodied in the selection? What effect is produced on our minds by this selection? Think how you felt before you read this selection, then how you feel since you have read it; what change has it made in you? Is there a lesson taught by the selection; if so, what is the lesson? What do you think the author hoped to ac- complish by writing this selection? III. The Means Employed in the Accomplishment of the Purpose. Mention one point that the author has presented about the idea treated. Why did he tell us this? How does it help to accomplish the purpose ? Read the first paragraph. Why does the author tell us that which is expressed in it? How does this help to accomplish the purpose? Show how 9 Scheme for the Study of a Selection. 195 the thought of each paragraph helps to accompUsh the pur- pose. Has the author told all that could be \A-ritten about the idea treated? Mention some things which he has not told us. Why does he not tell us these things? Would they help to accomplish the purpose? Suppose he had left out the fourth paragraph, would the selection be complete ? Why? Suppose he had written the sixth paragraph before the third, would the purpose be just as well accomplished? Why? Is it necessary that the thought of the first para- graph be presented first; the second, next; the third, next, etc., to the end : or could the purpose be accomplished just as well, if the points were presented in a different order? Why? Show what you think the author must have done in writing this selection. If you were writing a composi- tion, what would you need to do first, second, third? Note. — It will be seen that the preceding outline may be used in dealing with any selection. The teacher should first work out all the points carefully with the children in recitation. The questions in the outline -have been repeated and stated in many diflerent ways in order to make them clear to the children. Perhaps, with some clas.ses, the teacher will need to make them still more simple. It will take several lessons to work out the thought of the selection well in this way. After this has been carefully done, the teacher may ask the pupils to write a paper embodying the following points : (1). The idea treated in the selection. (2). The purpose embodied in the selection. (.3). The means employed in the accomplishment of the purpose. Perhaps it will be more simple to tell them to write a paper, stating the idea treated in the selection ; the purpose embodied in the selection ; and showing how the author has ac- complished this purpose. Teach children a neat form for their compositions, the proper margins, the idea of the paragraph, and require neat work of them at all times. (See the author's elementary book, " Language Work for the Grades.") Notice the punctuation, spelling, use of capitals, sentence con- struction, etc. Read and correct the compositions in class, rewrite them, etc., always holding the children strictly responsible for all the work you require of them. 196 A New English Grammar. THE WIDOW AND HER SON WASHINGTON IRVING. Pittie olde age, within whose silver haires Honour and reverence evermore have rained. — Marlowe's Tamburlaine. Those who are in the habit of remarking such matters must have noticed the passive quiet of an English landscape on Sunday. The clacking of the mill, the regularly recurring stroke of the flail, the din of the blacksmith's hammer, the whistling of the ploughman, the jattling of the cart, and all other sounds of rural labor, are suspended. The very farm- dogs bark less frequently, being less disturbed by passing travellers. At such times I have almost fancied the wind sunk into quiet, and that the sunny landscape, with its fresh green tints melting into blue haze, enjoyed the hallowed calm. "Sweet day, so pure, so calm, so bright, The bridal of the earth and sky." Well was it ordained that the day of devotion should be a day of rest. The holy repose which reigns over the face of nature has its moral influence; every restless passion is charmed down, and we feel the natural religion of the soul gently springing up within us. For my part, there are feel- ings that visit me in a country church, amid the beautiful serenity of nature, which I experience nowhere else ; and if not a more religious, I think I am a better man on Sunday than on any other day of the seven. During my recent residence in the country I used fre- quently to attend at the old village church. Its shadowy aisles, its mouldering monuments, its dark oaken panelling, all reverend with the gloom of departed years, seemed to fit it for the haunt of solemn meditation ; but being in a wealthy, The "Widow and Her ISon. 197 aristocratic neighborhood, the glitter of fashion penetrated even into the sanctuary, and I felt myself continually thrown back upon the world by the frigidity and pomp of the poor worms around me. The only being in the whole congrega- tion who appeared thoroughly to feel the humble and pros- trate piety of a true Christian was a poor, decrepit old woman, bending under the weight of years and infirmities. She bore the trace of something better than abject poverty. The lin- gerings of decent pride were visible in her appearance. Her dress, though humble in the extreme, was scrupulously clean. Some trivial respect, too, had been awarded her, for she did not take her seat among the village poor, but sat alone on the steps of the altar. She seemed to have survived all love, all friendship, all society; and to have nothing left her but the hopes of heaven. When I saw her feebly rising and bending her aged form in prayer; habitually conning her prayer-book, which her palsied hand and failing eyes would not permit her to read, but which she evidently knew by heart; I felt persuaded that the faltering voice of that poor woman rose to heaven far before the responses of the clerk, the swell of the organ, or the chanting of the choir ! I am fond of loitering about country churches, and this was so delightfully situated that it frequently attracted me. It stood on a knoll, round which a small stream made a beautiful bend, and then wound its way through a long reach of soft meadow scenery. The church was surrounded by yew-trees which seemed almost coeval with itself. Its tall Gothic spire shot up lightly from among them, with rooks and crows generally wheeling about it. I was seated there one still sunny morning, watching two laborers who were digging a grave. They had chosen one of the most remote and neglected corners of the churchyard, where, from the 198 A New English Grammar. number of nameless graves around, it would appear that the indigent and friendless were huddled into the earth. I was told that the new-made grave was for the only son of a poor widow. While I was meditating on the distinctions of worldly rank which extend thus down into the very dust, the toll of the bell announced the approach of the funeral. They were the obsequies of poverty, with which pride had nothing to do: A coffin of the plainest material, without pall or other covering, was borne by some of the villagers. The sexton walked before with an air of cold indifference. There were no mock mourners in the trappings of affected Avoe; but there was one real mourner who feebly tottered after the corpse. It was the aged mother of the deceased, — the poor old woman whom I had seen seated on the steps of the altar. She was supported by a humble friend, who was endeavoring to comfort her. A few of the neighboring poor had joined the train, and some children of the village were running hand in hand, now shouting with unthinking mirth, and now pausing to gaze with childish curiosity on the grief of the mourner. As the funeral train approached the grave, the parson issued from the church porch, arrayed in the surplice, with prayer book in hand, and attended by the clerk. The service, how- ever, was a mere act of charit3^ The deceased had been desti- tute, and the survivor was penniless. It was shuffled through, therefore, in form, but coldly and unfeelingly. The well-fed priest moved but a few steps from the church door; his voice could scarcely be heard at the grave, and never did I hear the funeral service, — that sublime and touching ceremony, — turned into such a frigid mummery of words. I approached the grave. The coffin was placed on the ground. On it were inscribed the name and age of the de- The Widow and Her Son. 199 ceased, — "George Somers, aged twenty-six years." The poor mother had been assisted to kneel down at the head of it. Her withered hands were clasped, as if in prayer, but I could perceive by a feeble rocking of the body, and a convulsive motion of the lips, that she was gazing on the last relics of her son with the yearnings of a mother's heart. Preparations were made to deposit the coffin in the earth. There was that bustling stir which breaks so harshly on the feelings of grief and affection ; directions given in the cold tones of business; the striking of spades into sand and gravel; which, at the grave of those we love, is, of all sounds, the most withering. The bustle around seemed to waken the mother from a wretched reverie. She raised her glazed eyes and looked about with a faint wildness. As the men ap- proached with cords to lower the coffin into the grave, she wrung her hands and broke into an agony of grief. The poor woman who attended her took her by the arm endeavoring to raise her from the earth and to whisper something like consolation. "Nay, now, nay, now — don't take it so sorely to heart." She could only shake her head and wring her hands, as one not to be comforted. As they lowered the body into the earth, the creaking of the cords seemed to agonize her; but when, on some acci- dental obstruction, there was a jostling of the coffin, all the tenderness of the mother burst forth ; as if any harm could come to him who was far beyond the reach of worldly suf- fering. I could see no more — my heart swelled into my throat — my eyes filled with tears — I felt as if T were acting a barbar- ous part in standing by and gazing idly on this scene of ma- ternal anguish. I wandered to another part of the church- yard, where I remained until the funeral train had dispersed. 200 A New English Grammar. When I saw the mother slowly and painfully quitting the grave, leaving behind her the remains of all that was dear to her on earth, and returning to silence and destitution, my heart ached for her. What, thought I, are the distresses of the rich? They have friends to soothe — pleasures to beguile — a world to divert and dissipate their griefs. What are the sorrows of . the young? Their growing minds soon close above the wound — their elastic spirits soon rise beneath the pressure — their green and ductile affections soon twine round new objects. But the sorrows of the poor, who have no out- ward appliances to soothe — the sorrows of the aged, with whom life at best is but a wintry day, and who can look for no after-growth of joy — the sorrows of a widow, aged, soli- tary, destitute, mourning over an only son, the last solace of her years, — these are indeed sorrows which make us feel the impotency of consolation. It was some time before I left the churchyard. On my way homeward I met with the woman who had acted as comforter; she was just returning from accompanying the mother to her lonely habitation, and I drew from her some particulars connected with the affecting scene I had wit- nessed. The parents of the deceased had resided in the village from childhood. They had inhabited one of the neatest cottages, and by various rural occupations, and the assistance of a small garden, had supported themselves creditably and com- fortably, and led a happy and blameless life. They had one son, who had grown up to be the staff and pride of their age. "Oh, sir! " said the good woman, " he was such a comely lad, so sweet-tempered, so kind to every one around him, so dutiful to his parents! It did one's heart good to see him of a Sunday, drest out in his best, so tall, so straight, so cheery, The Widow and Her Son. 201 supporting his old mother to church, — for she was always fonder of leaning on George's arm than on her good-man's; and, poor soul, she might well be proud of him, for a finer lad there was not in the country round." Unfortunately, the son was tempted, during a year of scarcity and agricultural hardships, to enter into the service of one of the small craft that plied on a neighboring river. He had not been long in this employ when he was entrapped by a press-gang and carried off to sea. His parents received tidings of his seizure, but beyond that they could learn noth- ing. It was the loss of their main prop. The father, who was already infirm, grew heartless and melancholy, and sunk into his grave. The widow, left lonely in her age and feeble- ness, could no longer support herself, and came upon the parish. Still there was a kind feeling towards her throughout the village, and a certain respect as being one of the oldest inhabitants. As no one applied for the cottage in which she had passed so many happy days, she was permitted to remain in it, where she lived solitary and almost helpless. The few wants of nature were chiefly supplied from the scanty pro- ductions of her little garden, which the neighbors would now and then cultivate for her. It was but a few days before the time at which these circumstances were told me, that she was gathering some vegetables for her repast, when she heard the cottage door which faced the garden suddenly oi)ened. A stranger* came out and seemed to be looking eagerly and wildly around. He was dressed in seamen's clothes, was emaciated and ghastly pale, and bore the air of one broken by sickness and hard.ships. He saw her, and hastened to- wards her, but liis steps were faint and faltering; he sank on his knees before her, and sobbed Hke a child. The poor wo- man gazed upon him with a vacant and wandering eye. 202 A New English Grammar. "Oh, my dear, dear mother! don't you know your son? your poor boy George?'' It was indeed the wreck of her once noble lad, who, shattered by wounds, by sickness and foreign imprisonment, had at length dragged his wasted limbs home- ward to repose among the scenes of his childhood. I will not attempt to detail the particulars of such a meet- ing, where sorrow and joy were so conipletely blended: still he was alive! he-was come home! he might yet live to com- fort and cherish her old age! Nature, however, was exhaust- ed in him; and if anything had been wanting to finish the work of fate, the desolation of his native cottage would have been sufficient. He stretched himself on the pallet on which his widowed mother had passed many a sleepless night, and he never rose from it again. The villagers, when they heard that George Somers had returned, crowded to see him, offering every comfort and assistance that their humble means afforded. He was too weak, however, to talk, — he could onl}^ look his thanks. His mother was his constant attendant, and he seemed unwill- ing to be helped by any other hand. There is something in sickness that breaks down the pride of manhood; that softens the heart, and brings it back to the feelings of infancy. Who that has languished, even in ad- vanced life, in sickness and despondency; who that has pined on a weary bed in the neglect and loneliness of a foreign land; but has thought on the mother "that looked on his child- hood," that smoothed his pillow, and administered to his helplessness? Oh! there is an enduring tenderness in the love of a mother to her son that transcends all other affections of the heart. It is neither to be chilled by selfishness, nor daunted by danger, nor weakened by worthlessness, nor stifled by ingratitude. She will sacrifice every comfort to his con- The Widow and Her Sox. 203 venience; she will surrender every pleasure to his enjoyment; she will glory in his fame, and exult in his prosperity; and, if misfortune overtake him, he will be the dearer to her from misfortune; and if disgrace settle upon his name, she will still love and cherish him in spite of his disgrace; and if all the world beside cast him off, she will be all the world to him. Poor George Somers had known what it was to be in sick- ness, and none to soothe; lonely and in prison, and none to visit him. He could not endure his mother from his sight; if she moved away, his eye would follow her. She would sit for hours by his bed, watching him as he slept. Sometimes he would start from a feverish dream, and look anxiously up until he saw her bending over him ; when he would take her hand, lay it on his bosom, and fall asleep with the tranquil- ity of a child. In this way he died. My first impulse on hearing this humble tale of affliction was to visit the cottage of the mourner, and administer pe- cuniary assistance, and, if possible, comfort. I found, how- ever, on inquiry, that the good feelings of the villagers had prompted them to do everything that the case admitted; and as the poor knoAV best how to console each other's sorrows, I did not venture to intrude. The next Sunday I was at the village church; when, to my surprise, I saw the poor old woman tottering down the aisle to her accustomed seat on the steps of the altar. She had made an effort to put on something like mourning for her son; and nothing could be more touching than this struggle between pious affection and utter poverty: a black ribbon or so, a faded black handkerchief, and one or two more such humble attempts to express by outward signs that grief which passes show. When I looked round upon the 204 A New English Grammar. storied monuments, the stately hatchments, the cold marble pomp with which grandeur mourned magnificently over de- parted pride, and turned to this poor widow, bowed down by age and sorrow at the altar of her God, and offering up the prayers and praises of a pious, though a broken heart, I felt that this living monument of real grief was worth them all! I related her story to some of the wealthy members of the congregation, and they were moved by it. They exerted themselves to render her situation more comfortable, and to lighten her afflictions. It was, however, but smoothing a few steps to the grave. In the course of a Sunday or two after, she was missed from her usual seat at church, and be- fore I left the neighborhood I heard, with a feeling of satis- faction, that she had quietly breathed her last, and had gone to rejoin those she loved, in that world where sorrow is never known, and friends are never parted. THE BUND PREACHER.* ( From The Letters of the British Spy.) WILLIAM WIRT. It was one Sunday, as I travelled through the county of Orange, that my eye was caught by a cluster of horses tied near a ruinous old wooden house in the forest, not far from - the roadside. Having frequently seen such objects before in travelling through these States, I had no difficulty in under- standing that this was a place of religious worship. Devotion alone should have stopped me to join in the duties of the congregation; but I must confess that curiosity to hear the preacher of such a wilderness was not the least of * James Waddel, " the blind preacher," was born in Ireland in 1739, and died in Louisa county, Va., 17th Sept., 1805. lie was the teacher of James Madison. Wirt's account of him was written in 1803. The Blind Preacher. 205 my motives. On entering I was struck with his preternatural appearance. He was a tall and very spare old man ; his head, which was covered with a white linen cap, his shrivelled hands, and his voice, were all shaking under the influence of a palsy, and a few moments ascertained to me that he was perfectly l)lind. The first emotions which touched my breast were those of mingled pity and veneration. But, ah! . . . how soon were all my feelings changed! The lips of Plato were never more worthy of a prognostic swarm of bees than were the lips of this holy man. It was a day of the administration of the sacrament, and his subject, of course, was the passion of our Saviour. I had heard the subject handled a thousand times: I had thought it exhausted long ago. Little did I suppose that in the wild woods of America I was to meet with a man whose eloquence would give to this topic a new and more sublime pathos than I had ever before witnessed. As he descended from the pulpit to distribute the mystic symbols, there was a peculiar, a more than human, solemnity in his air and manner which made my blood run cold and my whole frame shiver. He then drew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour — his trial before Pilate, his ascent up Calvary, his crucifixion, and his death. I knew the whole history, but never until then had I heard the circumstances so selected, so arranged, so colored. It was all new, and I seemed to have heard it for the first time in my life. His enunciation was so deliberate that his voice trembled on every syllable, and every heart in the assembly trembled in unison. His peculiar phrases had that force of description that the original scene appeared to be, at that moment, acting l)cfore our eyes. We saw the very faces of the Jews — the staring, 206 A New English Grammar. frightful distortions of malice and rage. We saw the buffet; my soul kindled with a flame of indignation and my hands were involuntarily and convulsively clenched. But when he came to touch on the patience, the forgiving meekness, of our Saviour; when he drew, to the life, his blessed eyes streaming in tears to heaven, his voice breathing to God a soft and gentle prayer of his pardon on his enemies, " Father, forgive them, for" they know not what they do," the voice of the preacher, which had all along faltered, grew fainter and fainter, until, his utterance being entirely obstructed by the force of his feelings, he raised his handkerchief to his eyes and burst into a loud and irrepressible flood of grief. The effect is inconceivable. The whole house resounded with the mingled groans and sobs and shrieks of the congregation. It was some time before the tumult had subsided so far as to permit him to proceed. Indeed, judging by the usual, but fallacious, standard of my own weakness, I began to be very uneasy for the situation of the preacher. For I could not conceive how he would be able to let his audience down from the height to which he had wound them, without impairing the solemnity and dignity of his subject or perhaps shocking them by the abruptness of the fall. But no; the descent was as beautiful and sublime as the elevation had been rapid and enthusiastic. The first sentence with which he broke the awful silence was a quotation from Rousseau : " Socrates died like a phi- losopher, but Jesus Christ like a God." I despair of giving you any idea of the effect produced by this short sentence, unless you could perfectly conceive the whole manner of the man as well as the peculiar crisis in the discourse. Never before did I completely understand what Demosthenes meant by laying such stress on delivery. You The Blind Preacher. 207 are to bring before you the venerable figure of the preacher; his bhndness, constantly recalling to your recollection old Homer, Ossian, and Milton, and associating with his per- formance the melancholy grandeur of their geniuses; you are to imagine that you hear his slow, solemn, well-accented enunciation, and his voice of affecting, trembling melody; you are to remember the pitch of passion and enthusiasm to which the congregation were raised; and then the few min- utes of portentious, death-like silence which reigned through- out the house; the preacher, removing his white handker- chief from his aged face, even yet wet from the recent tor- rent of his tears, and slowly stretching forth the palsied hand which holds it, begins the sentence, "Socrates died like -a philosopher" — then pausing, raising his other hand, pressing them both, clasped together, with warmth and energy to his breast, lifting his "sightless balls" to heaven, and pouring his whole soul into his tremulous voice, "but Jesus Christ — like a God!" If he had been indeed and in truth an an^el of light, the effect could scarcely have been more divine. Whatever I had been able to conceive of the sublimity of Massillon or the force of Bourdaloue had fallen far short of the power which I felt from the delivery of this simple sentence. The blood which just before had rushed in a hurricane upon my brain, and, in the violence and agony of my feelings, had held my whole system in suspense, now ran back into my heart with a sensation which I cannot describe — a kind of shuddering, delicious horror. The paroxysms of blended pity and indignation to which I had been transported sub- sided into the deepest self-abasement, humility, and adora- tion. I had just been lacerated and dissolved by sympathy for our Saviour as a fellow-creature, but now, with fear and trembling, I adored him as — "a God." 208 A New English Grammar. THE FOUR CRAFTS-MEN. " Dear children," said a poor man to his four sons, " I have nothing to give you ; you must go out into the wide world and try your luck. Begin by learning some craft or another, and see how you can get on." So the four brothers took their walking-sticks in their hands, and their little bundles on their shoulders, and after bidding their father good-bye, went all out at the gate together. When they had got on some way they came to four cross-ways, each leading to a different country. Then the eldest said, " Here we must part; but this day four years we will come back to this spot; and in the meantime each must try what he can do for him- self." So each brother went his way; and as the eldest was has- tening on a man met him, and asked him where he was going, and what he wanted. " I am going to try my luck in the world, and should like to begin by learning some art or trade," answered he. "Then," said the man, "go with me, and I will teach you how to become the cunningest thief that ever was." "No," said the other, "that is not an honest calling, and what can one look to earn by it in the end but the gallows? " "Oh!" said the man, "you need not fear the gallows; for I will only teach you to steal what will be fair game: I meddle with nothing but what no one else can get or care anything about, and where no one can find you out." So the young man agreed to follow his trade, and he soon showed himself so clever, that nothing could escape him that he had once set his mind upon. The second brother also met a man, who, when he found out what he was setting out upon, asked him what craft he The Four Crafts-Men. 209 meant to follow. " I do not know yet," said he. " Then come with me, and be a star-gazer. It is a noble art, for nothing can be hidden from you, when once you understand the stars." The plan pleased him much, and he soon became such a skillful star-gazer, that when he had served out his time, and wanted to leave his master, he gave him a glass, and said, " With this you can see all that is passing in the sky and on the earth, and nothing can be hidden from you." The third brother met a huntsman, who took him with him, and taught him so well all that belonged to hunting, that he became very clever in the craft of the woods; and when he left his master he gave him a bow, and said, " What- ever you shoot at with this bow you will be sure to hit." The youngest brother likewise met a man who asked him what he wished to do. "Would not you like," said he, " to be a tailor?" "Oh, no!" said the young man; "sitting cross-legged from morning to night, working backwards and forwards with a needle and goose, will never suit me." "Oh!" answered the man, "that is not my sort of tailoring; come with me, and you will learn quite another kind of craft from that." Not knowing what better to do, he came into the plan, and learned tailoring from the beginning ; and when he left his master, he gave him a needle, and said, you can sew anything with this, be it as soft as an egg or as hard as steel ; and the joint will be so fine that no seam will be seen. After the space of four years, at the time agreed upon, the four brothers met at the four cross-roads ; and having wel- comed each other, set off towards their father's home, where they told him all that had happened to them, and how each had learned some craft. Then, one day, as they were sitting before the house under a very high tree, the father said, " I should like to try what 14 210 A New English Grammar. each of you can do in this way." So he looked up, and said to the second son, " At the top of this tree there is a chaffinch's nest ; tell me how many eggs there are in it." The star-gazer took his glass, looked up, and said, "Five." " Now," said the father to the eldest son, " take away the eggs without letting the bird that is sitting upon them and hatching them know anything of what you are doing." So the cunning thief climbed up the tree, and brought away to his father the five eggs from under the bird ; and it never saw or felt what he was doing, but kept sitting on at its ease. Then the father took the eggs, and put one on each corner of the table, and the fifth in the middle ; and said to the hunts- man, " Cut all the eggs in two pieces at one shot." The huntsman took up his bow, and at one shot struck all the five eggs as his father wished. "Now comes your turn," said he to the young tailor; " sew the eggs and the young birds in them together again, so neatly that the shot shall have done them no harm." Then the tailor took his needle, and sewed the eggs as he was told ; and when he had done, the thief was sent to take them back to the nest, and put them under the bird without its knowing it. Then she went on sitting, and hatched them ; and in a few days they crawled out, and had only a little red streak across their necks, where the tailor had sewn them together. " Well done, sons ! " said the old man: " you have made good use of your time, and learnt something worth the knowing; but I am sure I do not know which ought to have the prize. Oh ! that a time might soon come for you to turn your skill to some account! " Not long after this there was a great bustle in the country; for the king's daughter had been carried off by a mighty dragon, and the king mourned over his loss day and night, The Four Crafts-Men. 211 and made it known that whoever brought her back to him should have her for a wife. Then the four brothers said to each other, " Here is a chance for us; let us try what we can do." And they agreed to see whether they could not set the princess free. "I will soon find out where she is, however," said the star-gazer, as he looked through his glass: and he soon cried out, "I see her afar off, sitting upon a rock in the sea; and I can spy the dragon close by, guarding her." Then he Avent to the king, and asked for a ship for himself and his brothers ; and they sailed together over the sea, till they came to the right place. There they found the princess sitting, as the star-gazer had said, on the rock ; and the dragon was lying asleep, with his head upon her lap. " I dare not shoot at him," said the huntsman, " for I should kill the beautiful young lady also." " Then I will try my skill," said the thief; and went and stole her away from un- der the dragon, so quietly and gently that the beast did not know it, but went on snoring. Then away they hastened with her full of joy in their boat towards the ship; but soon came the dragon roaring behind them through the air; for he awoke and missed the princess. But when he got over the boat, and wanted to pounce upon them and carry off the princess, the huntsman took up his bow and shot him straight through the heart, so that he fell down dead. They were still not safe; for he was such a great beast that in his fall he overset the boat, and they had to swim in the open sea upon a few planks. So the tailor took his needle, and with a few large stitches put some of the planks together; and he sat down upon these, and sailed about and gathered up all the pieces of the boat; and then tacked them together so quickly that the boat was soon ready, and they then reached the ship and got home safe. 212 A New English Grammar. When they had brought home the princess to her father, there was great rejoicing ; and he said to the four brothers, " One of you shall marry her, but you must settle amongst yourselves which it is to be." Then there arose a quarrel between them; and the star-gazer said, "If I had not found the princess out, all your skill would have been of no use ; therefore she ought to be mine." " Your seeing her would have been of no use," said the thief, " if I had not taken her away from the dragon ; therefore she ought to be mine." "No, she is mine," said the huntsman; "for if I had not killed the dragon, he would, after all, have torn you and the princess into pieces." " And if I had not sewn the boat to- gether again," said the tailor, " you would all have been drowned ; therefore she is mine. " Then the king put in a word, and said, " Each of you is right ; and as all can not have the young lady, the best way is for neither of you to have her : for the truth is, there is somebody she likes a great deal better. But to make up for your loss, I will give each of you, as a reward for his skill, half a kingdom." So the brothers agreed that this plan would be much better than either quarreling or marrying a lady who had no mind to have them. And the king then gave to each half a king- dom, as he had said ; and they lived very happily the rest of their days, and took good care of their father; and some- body took better care of the young lady, than to let either the dragon or one of the Craftsmen have her again. A Tale of Two Brothers. 213 A TALE OF TWO BROTHERS. Abram and Zimri owned a field together — A level field hid in a happy vale. They plowed it with one plow, and in the spring Sowed, walking side by side, the fruitful seed. In harvest, when the glad earth smiles with grain, Each carried to his home one half the sheaves, And stored them with much labor in his barns. Now, Abram had a wife and seven sons ; But Zimri dw'elt alone w'ithin his house. One night, before the sheaves were gathered in, As Zimri lay upon his lonely bed. And counted in his mind his little gains, He thought upon his brother Abram's lot, And said, " I dwell alone within my house, But Abram hath a wife and seven sons; And yet we share the harvest sheaves alike. He surely needeth more for life than I: I will arise, and gird myself, and go Down to the field, and add to his from mine." So he arose, and girded up his loins. And went out softly to the level field. The moon shone out from dusky bars of clouds, The trees stood black against the cold blue sky, The branches waved and whispered in the wind. So Zimri, guided by the shifting light, Went down the mountain-path, and found the field. Took from his store of sheaves a generous third, And bore them gladly to his brother's heap; And then went back to sleep, and happy dreams. Now, that same night, as Abram lay in bed, Thinking upon his blissful state in life, He thought upon his brother Zimri's lot, And said, "He dwells within his house alone; Hegoeth forth to toil with few to lielp; 214 A New English Grammar. He goeth home at night to a cold house, And hath few other friends but me and mine " (For these two tilled the happy vale alone): " While I, whom Heaven hath very greatly blessed, Dwell happy with my wife and seven sons, Who aid me in my toil, and make it light. And yet we share the harvest sheaves alike. This surely is not pleasing unto God: I will arise, and gird myself, and go Out to the field, and borrow from my store, And add unto my brother Zimri's pile." So he arose, and girded up his loins, And went down softly to the level field. The moon shone out from silver bars of clouds, The trees stood black against the starry sky. The dark leaves waved and whispered in the breeze. So Abram, guided by the doubtful light, Passed down the mountain-path, and found the field, Took from his store of sheaves .a generous third And added them unto his brother's heap; Then he went back to sleep, and happy dreams So the next morning with the early sun The brothers rose, and went out to their toil. And when they came to see the heavy sheaves, Each wondered in his heart to find his heap. Though he had given a third, was still the same. Now, the next night went Zimri to the field, Took from his store of sheaves a generous share, And placed them on his brother Abram's heap. And then lay down behind his pile to watch. The moon looked out from bars of silvery cloud, The cedars stood up black against the sky. The olive-branches whispered in the wind. Then Abram came down softly from his home. And, looking to the right and left, went on, Took from his ample store a generous third. The Chameleon. 215 And laid it on his brother Zimri's pile. Then Zimri rose, and caught him in his arms, And wept upon his neck, and kissed his cheek: And Abram saw the whole, and could not speak ; Neither could Zimri. So they walked along Back to their homes, and thanked their God in prayer That he had bound them in such loving bands. THE CHAMELEON. JAMES MERRICK Oft has it been my lot to mark A proud, conceited, talking spark. Returning from his finish'd tour, Grown ten times perter than before. Whatever word you chance to drop, The travell'd fool your mouth will stop — " Sir, if my judgment you'll allow — I've seen — and sure 1 ought to know." So begs you'd pay a due submission. And acquiesce in his decision. Two travellers of such a cast. As o'er Arabia's wilds they pass'd. And on their way, in friendly ctiat. Now talk'd of this, and then of that ; Discours'd a while 'raongst other matter. Of the Chameleon's form and nature. "A stranger animal," cries one, " Sure never liv'd beneath the sun ! A lizzard's body, lean and long, A fish's head, a serpent's tongue. Its foot with triple claws disjoin'd. And what a length of tail behind! How slow its pace! and tlien it's hue — Who ever saw so fine a bluel "' " Hold there," the other quick replies, " 'Tis green : I saw it with these eyes, 216 A New English Grammar. As late with open mouth it lay, And warm'd it in the sunny ray: Stretch'd at its ease the beast I view'd, And saw it eat the air for food." "I've seen it, sir, as well as you, And must again affirm it blue. At leisure I the beast survey'd. Extended in the cooling shade." " ' Tis green ! ' tis green, sir, I assure ye " — "Green!" cries the other, in a fury — "Why, sir, d'ye think I've lost my eyes?" " 'Twere no great loss," the friend replies; " For if they always serve you thus, You'll find them but of little use." So high at last the contest rose. From words they almost came to blows: When luckily came by a third ; To him the question they referr'd. And begg'd he'd tell them, if he knew. Whether the thing was green or blue. " Sirs,"' cries the umpire, "cease your pother, The creature's — neither one nor t'other. I caught the animal last night. And view'd it o'er by candle light : I mark'd it well — 'twas black as jet — You stare — but, sirs, I've got it yet, Andean produce it." — "Pray, sir, do; I'll lay my life the thing is blue." — "And I'll be sworn, that when you've seen The reptile, you'll pronounce it green." — " Well then, at once to end the doubt;" Replies the man, " I'll turn him out; And when before your eyes I've set him. If >ou don't find him black, I'll eat him." He said — then full before their sight Produc'd the beast— and lo! — 'twas white. Await the Issue. 217 AWAIT THE ISSUE. THOMAS CARLYLE. In this, God's world, with its wild whirling eddies and mad foam oceans, where men and nations perish as if without law, and judgment for an unjust thing is sternly delayed, dost thou think that there is, therefore, no justice? It is what the fool hath said in his heart. It is what the wise, in all times were wise because they denied, and knew forever not to be. I tell thee again there is nothing else but justice. One strong thing I find here below: the just thing, the true thing. My friend, if thou hadst all the artillery of Woolwich trundling at thy back in support of an unjust thing, and infinite bonfires, visibly waiting ahead of thee, to blaze centuries long for thy victory on behalf of it, I would advise thee to call halt, to fling down thy baton and say, "In God's name No!*' Thy "success?" Poor devil, what will thy success amount to? If the thing is unjust, thou hast not succeeded, no, not though bonfires blazed from north to south, and bells rang, and editors wrote leading articles, and the just thing lay trampled out of sight, to all mortal eyes an abolished and annihilated thing. Success? In a few years thou wilt be dead and dark — all cold, eyeless, deaf; no blaze of bonfires, ding-dong of bells, or leading articles visible or audible to thee again at all forever. What kind of success is that? It is true all goes by approximation in this world; with any not insupportable approximation we must be pa- tient. There is a noble conservatism as well as an ignoble. Would to Heaven, for the sake of conservatism itself, the noble alone were left, and the ignoble, by some kind severe hand, were ruthlessly lopped away, forbidden any more to show itself! For it is the right and noble alone that will 218 A New E^nglish Grammar. have victory in this struggle; the rest is wholly an obstruc- tion, a postponement and fearful imperilment of the victory. Toward an eternal centre of right and nobleness, and of that only^ is all this confusion tending. We already know whither it is tending; what will have victory, what will have none! The Heaviest will reach the centre. The Heaviest, sinking through complex fluctuating media and vortices, has its de- flections, its obstructions, nay, at times its resiliences, its re- boundings; whereupon some blockhead shall be heard jubi- lating: "See, your Heaviest ascends!" but at all moments it is moving centreward, fast as is convenient for it; sinking, sinking; and by laws older than the world, old as the Maker's first plan of the world, it has to arrive there. Await the issue. In all battles, if you await the issue, each fighter has prospered according to his right. His right and his might, at the close of the account, were one and the same. He has fought with all his might, and in exact pro- portion to all his right, he has prevailed. His very death is no victory over him. He dies indeed; but his work lives, very truly lives. A heroic Wallace, quartered on the scaffold, cannot hinder that his Scotland become, one day, a part of England; but he does hinder that it become, on tyrannous, unfair terms, a part of it; commands still, as with a god's voice, from his Valhalla and Temple of the Brave, that there be a just, real union, as of brother and brother, not a false and merely semblant one, as of slave and master. If the union with England be in fact one of Scotland's chief bless- ings, we thank Wallace withal that it was not the chief curse. Scotland is not Ireland; no, because brave men rose there and said, "Behold, ye must not tread us down like slaves; and ye shall not, and cannot !" Fight on, thou brave true heart and falter not, through dark fortune and through Await the Issue. 219 bright. The cause thou fightest for, so far as it is true, no farther, yet precisely so far, is very sure of victory. The false- hood alone of it will be conquered, will be abolished, as it ought to be; but the truth of it is part of Nature's own laws, cooperates with the world's eternal tendencies, and cannot be conquered. Appendix A. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB, "BE." PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. be, or am was INDICATIVE MODE. been Singular. Present Tense. Plural. am are art are is Singular. Past Tense. are Plural, was were wast (wert) were was SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. were Singular. Present Tense. Plural, be be be be be Singular. Past Tense. be Plural, were were wert, were were were were IMPERATIVE MODE. be Infinitives. be, or to be Note. — For the future tenses, use shall with vdll with the second and third to denote simple For the perfect tenses, use proper form of has feet participle of the verb. Participles. being, been the first person and futurity. (Seep. 141) or have with the per- Appendix. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB, "SEE." Active Voice. PRINCIPAL PARTS. 221 Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. See saw INDICATIVE MODE. Present Tense. seen Singular. Plural. 1. I see 1. We see 2. Thou seest 2. You see 3. He sees Past Tense. 3. They see Singular. Plural. 1. I saw 1. We saw 2. Thou sawest 2. You saw 3. He saw SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Tense. 3. They saw Singular. Plural. 1. If I see 1. If we see 2. If thou see 2. If you see 3. If he see Past Tense. 3. If they see Singular. Plural. 1. If I saw 1. If we saw 2. If thou saw 2. If you saw 3. If he saw IMPERATIVE MODE. See 3. If they saw Infinitives. Participle. see, to see seeing 222 A New English Grammar. Singular. 1. I am seen 2. Thou art seen 3. He is seen Singular. 1. I was seen 2. Thou wast seen 3. He was seen Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Past Tense. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular. 1. If I be seen. 2. If thou be seen 3. If he be seen Singular. 1. If I were seen 2. If thou wert seen 3. If he were seen Past Tense. IMPERATIVE MODE. t Singular. Be (thou) seen Infinitive. To be seen Plural. 1. We are seen 2. You are seen 3. They are seen Plural. 1. We were seen 2. You were seen 3. They were seen Plural. 1. If we be seen 2. If you be seen 3. If they be seen Plural. 1. If we were seen 2. If you were seen 3. If they were seen Plural. Be (ye or you) seen Participles. Being seen, Seen Note. — For future and perfect tenses, see note at close of the con- jugation of the verb, be. INDEX. Thi' ri'^rences are to pages. Abridged compound sentence, 7n, 82. Absolute construction of noun, 68. Abstract nouns, 108. A criticism, 23. Active voice, 150. Active verbs, classes, 151. Active voice, changed to passive, 150. Addition, 78. Adjective, 125 ; descriptive and limTtTng, 126; simple, deriva- tive, and compound, 126; divi- sion into classes, 126; inflection of adjectives, 127; comparison, 128; predicate, qualified by ad- verbs, 128; use of adjective as noun, 54. Adjective clause, 76, 90. Adjective phrase, 72. Adjective modifier, 65. Adverb, 165; division into classes, 1()7; simple, derivative, and compound, 167; comparison, 166. Adverbial clause, 76, 96. Adverbial modifier, 65. Adverbial phrase, 72. Adverbial objective modifier, 65. Adversative conjunctions, 78. Agreement, 43. Alternation, 78. Alternative conjunctions, 78. Analysis of compound sentence, 82. An inductive subject, 36. Antecedent, 94, 120. Appendix A, 220. Appositive modifier, 65. Arrangement, 47. dj^ Articles, 127. ^ Art side of grammar, 9. A Tale of Two Brothers, 213. Attributes, 59; quality, 59; action, 59; condition, 59; relation, 59. Attributive predicate, 67. Attributive words in simple sen- tence, 69. Attributive words, 61. Auxiliary verbs, 140. Await the Issue, 217. 224 A New English Grammar. Cardinal numerals, 127. Careful work, 32. Case, in noun and pronoun, 113. Causal conjunctions, 78. Causative verbs, 140. Central idea, 16, 20, 22. Characteristics of the subject, 12. Choose, 135. Classes of words, 35, 64. Clause, 75 ; individual, 75 ; co- ordinate, 75 ; principal or inde- pendent, 75 ; subordinate or dependent, 76 ; substantive, 76 ; attributive, 76 ; adjective, 76 ; adverbial, 76. Close of first circle, 31. Close of fourth circle, 35. Close of second circle, 33. Close of third circle, 34. Cognate verb, 140. Collective nouns, 108. Combined predicate, 66. Common nouns, 108. Comparative degree, 128. Comparison of adjectives, 127. Complex sentences, 54, 85. Compound-complex sentence, 82. Compound relative pronouns, 94. Compound sentence, 53, 75. Conclusion, 78. Conditions of mastering the sub- ject, 35. Conditional clause, 99. Conjunctive adverb, 95 ; simple, 95 ; compound, 97. Conjugation of verb, 156, 220. Conjunction, 178 ; classes, 179. Coordinate members of a sen- tence, 78, 79. Copula, 44. Copulative conjunctions, 78. Constructive study of grammar, 13. Content and extent, 7, 34. Contribution of subject to char- acter, 10. Declarative sentence, 46. Declension, of noun and pronoun, 120. Definite article, 127. Definition of grammar, 41. Definitions and principles, 2, 27. Dependent clause, 76. Descriptive adjective clause, 91. Descriptive adjective modifier, 68. Direct and indirect objective modifiers, 65. Direct and indirect objects, 70. Distinguishing mark of subject, 40. Double predicates, 172. Do, 134. Elements of judgment, 42. Emphatic verb phrases, 157. Exclamatory sentence, 46. Extent, 7, 34. Explanatory clause, 91. Expletive, 62. Facts of grammar, 13. Factitive verb, 140. Feminine gender, 109. First person, 111. First circle, 30, 41. Formal work, 31. Index. 225 Form and feeling words in sim- ple sentence, 70. Future -tense, 147. Gender in nouns, 108 ; in pro- nouns, 120. Grammar a logical subject, 26. (Grammar a subject in itself, 12. How know central idea ? 21 . Introduction, 9. Introduction to second part, 183. Imperative mode, 146. Imperative sentence, 46. Impersonal verbs, 140. Indefinite article, 127. Indicative mode, 145. Indirect objective modifier, 65. Infinitive, 169. Inflection, 15(H, 220. Interjection, 62. Interrogative pronouns, 120. Interrogative sentence, 4(>. Intransitive verb, K!S. Inverted order of sentence, 40. Irregtilar verbs, i:52, 1.33, 1:54. Irregularities in gender, 110. It deal8 with mind, 10. Judgment, 41. .ludgment, nature of, 17, 41. Laboratory method, 6, 3(). Life of the subject, 38. Limiting adjective clause, 01. Limiting adjective modifier, 68. Logical order of topics, 22. Logic and psychology in gram- mar, 29. Main idea, 32. Ma.sculine gender, 109. Mastery of art, 9. 15 Members of compound sentence, J8, 79. Method of study, 4. Model adverbs, 167. Modifiers, 34 ; substantive, 64 ; attributive, 64 ; appositive, 64 ; possessive, 64 ; direct objective, ()5 ; indirect objective, 65 ; ad- verbial objective, 65 ; adjective, 65 ; adverbial, 65 ; outline, 65. ^lore immediate purpose, 11. ^Multiplicative adjectives, 127. Natural order, 40. Mode, 143. Nature of an instrument, 28 ; How studied, 28. Nature of the work, 6. Neuter gender, 109. New conjugation, 220. Nominative case, 114. Noun, 106; classes, 108; inflec- tion, 109; construction, 68; properties, 108. Number, 112, 152. Numerals, 129. O and o-h, 51. (objective modifiers, 65. Objective case, 114. Object of thought, 58; concrete, 58 ; abstract, 59. Old conjugation, 220. Opposition. 78. Ordinate numerals, 127. Organic parts of sentence, 33. Organ izatitin of subject, 9. C)rganized knowledge, 23. Outline of noun, 117, 118. Outline of sentence, 52. 226 A New English Gammar. Outline of thought material, 60. Parts of sentence, 17, 43, 34 ; Adapted to elements of thought, o4. Participles, 172. Parts of speech, 35, 106. Passive voice, 150, 151. Passive verbs, classes, 151. Past paiticiple, 222.. Past perfect tense, 148. Past tense, 147. Perfect tense, 147. Person, 111, 152. Personal pronouns, lUl, 120. Personified objects, 110. Phrase, 71 ; prepositional, 72 ; in- finitive, 72; participial, 72; ver- bal, 72 ; simple, 72 ; complex, 72 ; compound, 72 ; substan- tive, 72 ; attributive, 72 ; ad- jective, 72 ; adverbial, 72 ; clausal, 171. Place of grammar in language group, 40. Plural number, 112. Positive degree in adjective and adverb, 128, 106. Possessive case, 114. Possessive modifier, ()4. Predicate of sentence, (iO. Predicate adjective, (iU. Preface, 3. Preposition, 175; uses, 176. Present participle, 221. Present tense, 147. Principal clause, 75. Principal parts of verbs, 132. Pronominal adjectives, 126. Pronoun, 119; classes, 119; uses, 68 ; properties, 120. '"' Proper nouns, 108. Psychologists and logicians, 19. Punctuation, 102 ; of adverbial clause, 100 ; of adjective clause, 96. Punctuation of compound sen- tence, 80. Punctuation of exclamatory sen- tence, 51. Pure subordinate conjunction, 100. Pure verb, 132. Purpose, 4, 10. Quantitative adjectives, 126. Quotation, 87 ; uses, 87 ; direct, 88 ; indirect, 88 ; punctuation of 88, 89. Raise, 135. ' Reflexive verbs, 140. Regular compound sentence, 82. Related to other subjects, 12. Relation, 59 ; coordinate, tK) ; subordinate, 00. Relation words in the simple sen- tence, 69, 70. _ Relative pronouns, 94, 120. Relation words, 61, 62. Resemblance between grammar and the sciences, 5, 36. Rise, 135. Rule for person and number of verbs, 154, 155. Second person. 111. Second circle, 32. Sentence an instrument, 27, 43 ; adapted to thought, 29. Index. 227 Scheme for the study of a selec- tion, 194. Science side of grammar, '». Sentence, 41 ; classes, 3:;, 45. Shall and tirill,Ul. Simple sentence. 53 . 07. Simple sentence with compound element, 73, 82. Singular number, Hi, 152. Speak, 134. Spirit of investigation, 4. Students must deal with sen- tences, 26. Study of classes of sentences, 32. Study of the class whole, 30, 41. Subject-matter, IB. Subject not arbitrary, 5. Subject of sentence, 44. Subjunctive mode, 145. Subordinate clause, 76. 85. 87, 90, 96. Subordinate conjunction, 100. Substantive predicate, 67. Substantive words in simple sen- tence, 68. Substantive words, 61 . Substantive clause, 76, 85. Superlative degree, 1 28. Tense, 146. Teacher and text to aid pupil, 37- Test for definitions, 2:}, 39. The Blind Preacher, 204. The Chameleon, 215. The Four Crafts-Men, 208. The Voyage, 187. The Widow and Her Son, 196. Third person. 111. Third circle, 33. Thought material, 34, 55. Transitive verb, 138. True view, 24. Two elements, 24 ; form and con- tent, 25. Two points of view, 15. Two problems, 3. Two views of a subject, 14. Uncombined predicate, 66. Unit of subject, 40. Unity, 31. Use of word "circle," 36. Uses and modifiers of adjective, 128. Uses of infinitive, 171, 172. Uses of participle, 174. Uses of passive voice, 151. Uses of tense forms, 148. Value of organized view to teacher, 21. Value of purpose, 10. Verb, 131 ; classes, 128 ; proper- ties, 143, 146, 149, 152. Verbal phrase, 72. Vocative, 62. Voice, 149. What is it to know a subject scientifically? 15. Whitney, 18. Why do grammarians say two parts? 18. Words, (jl ; substantive, 6J ; noun, 61 ; pronoun, 61 ; attributive, 61 ; adjective, 61 ; adverb, 61 ; attributive verb, 61 ; relation word. Hi ; conjunction, 62; pre- position, 62 ; pure verb, 62 ; in- terjection or feeling word, 62 ; form word or expletive, 62 ; outline, 62. 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