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 STATF! NORMAL >^CHOOL 
 
 JLOS AlNGELEiS, UaLIFOKNIA
 
 /%uti^ 
 
 .^t^CLOLA^ 
 
 A New English Grammar 
 
 BY 
 
 J. B. WISELY, A. M., 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION, 
 INDIANA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 t ^ -^'^ 
 
 " There is haraii,' anythii-g more interesting than to see how the laws of 
 grammar, which seem it first sight so hard and arbitrary, are simply the 
 laws of the expression of logical relations in concrete form." 
 
 —C. C, EVERETT. 
 
 TERRE HAUTE, IND.: 
 
 THE INLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
 
 1898.
 
 CO] 
 
 J. 
 
 — BECKTOLD— 
 
 PRINTING AND BOOK MFG. CO. 
 ST. LOUIS, MO.
 
 \\ w 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 In attempting to write a text-book on grammar for the use 
 of seventh and eighth grade pupils in our public schools, the 
 author has been confronted by two problems : 
 
 1. The course of study in our com- 
 
 Two Problems. u i   j j a iu ^ 
 
 mon schools is so expanded at the present 
 
 time, so many new subjects have been introduced, that it is 
 not possible to treat any one of them exhaustively. It be- 
 comes a question, then, as to what should be taught and what 
 should be left unlearned concerning these subjects. 
 
 This book tries to present those topics which are vital in 
 the organization of the subject of grammar as set forth in 
 the introduction. All phases of historical grammar have 
 been purposely omitted, because that view is not necessary 
 in the organization of the subject, and it is thought thatthe 
 child, at this age, has not a sufficient basis for such a discus- 
 sion of the facts of grammar. 
 
 2. The author's somewhat extended experience in teach- 
 ing the subject in public and Normal schools, and his super- 
 vision of others in the work, has shown him how very easy 
 it is to make the study of grammar a bugbear, a deadening 
 verbal memory grind to children. It is thought that this is 
 not necessary but that the subject of grammar may be made 
 as interesting to the pupil as the study of botany, and that 
 it may be studied in much the same way.
 
 4 A New English Grammak. 
 
 We used to study botany, physics, cliem- 
 Sturtv ^^^^'y> from the text-book, much in the same 
 
 way as that in which we have been studying 
 grammar. Bacon, Agassiz, and others showed us the error 
 of our way. Now in the subject of botany, we study plants, 
 using the text as an aid, and in the ^ teaching of physics, 
 chemistry, etc., the laboratory is considered an essential. If 
 the teacher of science to-day had to give up his text-book or 
 his laboratory, he would, without hesitation, throw downthe 
 text. 
 
 .It is thought that this same spirit of in- 
 Invesfe- t'on ^estigation, this same personal examination 
 of the facts of the subject on the part of 
 each and every pupil, ought to be introduced into the study 
 of grammar; and that the great variety of sentences ought 
 to stand before the student of grammar, for his scrutiny and 
 examination, just as the great variety of plants is made to 
 appear to him by the teacher of botany. 
 
 The purpose of the author in this book 
 ^"^ ' ®* has been, then, to present suitable sentences 
 and to ask such questions upon them as will lead the pupil, 
 by the aid of the teacher, to construct the science of gram- 
 mar for himself. To this end only such definitions, state- 
 ments of facts, and explanations, as have been thought nec- 
 essary to help the teacher in leading the child to think his 
 way through the subject, have been inserted. 
 
 Definitions '^^^® definitions and principles thus in- 
 ancl serted are for the teacher and not for the pu- 
 
 Principles. pil. There is no need of committing any 
 law or principle of language from a text-book. All the 
 facts of the subject of grammar are embodied in the sen- 
 tence, and the pupil may study them directly, ^rs^ hand, just
 
 Preface. 5 
 
 as he studies the flower in botany or the rock in geology, and 
 if he should forget the rule, he has only to examine a few 
 sentences and restate it for himself. Nor is the teacher asked 
 to ACCEPT a single statement in this book. Grammar is not a^iat- 
 ter of authority; it is a thoughtTsubject, and if the teacher's 
 thought on the materials here presented should lead her to a 
 different conclusion from that stated in a definition, she 
 should not hesitate to change the definition. 
 
 Subject There is no need to tell the pupil that the 
 
 not flower has so many petals and so many se- 
 
 Arbitrary. pals, or to send him to a book to read it, says 
 the botanist; he can discover these facts for himself. Can 
 he not also discover t he uses of the substantive clause? If he 
 be able to see that the fish has so many spines in the dorsal 
 fin, why can he not see that the noun has gender, person, num- 
 ber, and case? 
 
 Resemblance There is a close resemblance between the 
 Between method of procedure here in the language 
 Grammar and studies and that followed in the study of 
 the Sciences, natural sciences. True, no special apart- 
 ment, fitted up with tables, cases of instruments, or bottles of 
 reagents, as in the sciences, is necessary; the real unit of 
 the subject, the sentence, is the material upon which we 
 work; the instruments are the minds of the pupils, con- 
 stantly at hand, and never in the way. 
 
 The superiority of this way of working in the language 
 studies over its recognized value in the natural sciences, will 
 at once appear, for the work can be carried on conveniently 
 without so many appliances, and without the di.sagreeable 
 associations which sometimes enter into such operations in 
 the scientific laboratory: '
 
 6 A New English Grammar. 
 
 The work as presented in this text, then, 
 
 of *theWork ^^ ^^^^'^ ^P°^ ^^® following thoughts: 
 
 1. That the sentence as determined by the 
 thought which it expresses, is the unit and subject of study in 
 grammar. 
 
 2. That there should be a two-fold purpose in the mind 
 of the teacher who teaches it; viz., to make the pupils famil- 
 iar with the principles which underlie correct sentence con- 
 struction, and to give them skill in the use of the sentence as 
 an instrument in expressing their thought. 
 
 The Labora- 3. That the method which should be 
 tory Method, pursued in studying the subject should be 
 
 inductive, and might appropriately be called the laboratory 
 
 method. 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind., Nov. 29, 1895.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Pages. 
 
 I. Preface 3-6 
 
 II. Introduction 9-38 
 
 III. Part I 39-180 
 
 1. The First Circle 39-45 
 
 a. The Subject as a Whole 39-41 
 
 b. The Sentence as a Whole 41-45 
 
 2. The Second Circle 45-55 
 
 a. Classes of Sentences on Basis of Meaning or Ef- 
 
 fect Produced Upon the Mind 45-53 
 
 b. Classes of Sentences on Basis of Form as Deter- 
 
 mined by the Form of the Thought 53-55 
 
 3. The Third Circle 55-106 
 
 a. Thought Material 55-60 
 
 b. Classesof Words 61-62 
 
 c. Modifiers 63- 65 
 
 d. Kinds of Predicates 66- 67 
 
 e. Uses of Words • 67-106 
 
 (1). In Simple Sentence 67-74 
 
 (2). In Compound Sentence 75- 85 
 
 (3). In Complex Sentence 85-106 
 
 /. Combinations of Words 71-106 
 
 (1). The Phrase 71-74 
 
 (2). The Clause 75-lOQ
 
 8 A New English Grammar. 
 
 4. "^he Fourth Circle 106-180 
 
 cr. Parts of Speech 106-180 
 
 (1). The Noun 106-118 
 
 (2). The Pronoun 119-124 
 
 (3). The Adjective 125-131 
 
 (4). The Verb 131-165 
 
 (5). The Adverb ' 165-169 
 
 (6). The Infinitive 169-172 
 
 -(7). The Participle 172-175 
 
 (8). The Preposition 175-178 
 
 (9). The Conjunction .178-180 
 
 IV. Partll 181_227 
 
 1. Introduction 183-186 
 
 2. Selections 184r-227 
 
 a. The Voyage r . . . 187-194 
 
 b. Scheme for the Study'of a Selection 194-195 
 
 c. The Widow and Her Son 196-204 
 
 d. The Blind Preacher 204-207 
 
 e. The Four Crafts-Men 208-212 
 
 /. A Tale of Two Brothers 213-215 
 
 g. The Chameleon 215-216 
 
 h. Await the Issue 217-219 
 
 V. Appendix A 220-222 
 
 VI. Index . 223-227
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 _ English grammar is that language study which has for its 
 subject-matter the sentence. It is both a science and an art. 
 
 As a science, it deals with the fundamentals 
 
 The Science. ^^ sentence structure. It makes known to 
 
 the student the laws and principles which underlie sentence 
 
 construction. As an art, it aims to enable the student to 
 
 acquire a skillful use of the sentence as an 
 
 e Art. instrument in expressing his thought. 
 
 These two phases of the subject are not inseparable. One 
 may understand the science of grammar and not be able to 
 use good English in conversation, and one may be very skill- 
 ful in the use of language and at the same time know little 
 or nothing about the laws and principles which govern cor- 
 rect sentence construction. If one had been brought up in 
 a family where he had always heard good English, if his 
 playmates and those with whom he had associated had al- 
 ways used good English, then his English would certainly be 
 pure ; but he would know nothing of the rules of grammar. 
 On the other hand, we have all known persons who could re- 
 peat rule after rule of grammar and yet could not speak cor- 
 rectly. 
 
 Mastery of As a mastery of the art side of grammar 
 
 the Art. is an accomplishment which comes only 
 
 through long and careful practice, it is essential that the
 
 10 A New English Grammar. 
 
 teacher devote much time to this side of the child's educa- 
 tion in English. His language will need the careful super- 
 vision of his teacher in all his work, and the pupil, himself, 
 should be made to feel that he must keep a constant watch 
 over his language in order to become proficient and skillful 
 in its use. Eternal vigilance on the part of both teacher and 
 pupil, is the price of pure English. Thescience of grammar 
 will help, to some extent, to give the pupil the art; it will 
 help him to judge when his sentences are correct, and to dis- 
 cover his own mistakes, but the use of good English must be 
 acquired largely by practice. 
 
 Value of Pur- In teaching any subject, the teacher should 
 pose. constantly bear in mind the end to be at- 
 
 tained. The teacher who sees clearly the end from the be- 
 ginning will be able, for the most part, to select such means 
 and devices as will bring about or accomplish this end. She 
 will waste no time on side issues or irrelevant matter, because 
 the purpose which she sees in the work draws her constantly 
 toward it and excludes everything which does not contribute 
 to that end. 
 
 If we say that the end of education is 
 
 Contribution moral character, then the chief value of 
 
 of the Subject ^^^^ ^^^. ^^ grammar lies in that element 
 
 to Character. , . , ., , ^^ ^ ^ it, i. 
 
 which it contributes to moral character. 
 
 And does the study of grammar really contribute anything 
 
 to moral character? I think so. 
 
 It Deals With In the study of grammar, the pupil's 
 
 Mind. attention is directed inward for the first 
 
 time. It is the only subject in the common school course 
 
 which requires the pupil to consider his mental acts as such.
 
 Intboduction. 11 
 
 Here he stops to consider for the first time the nature of that 
 for which the word, the phrase, the clause, the sentence 
 stands. He deals primarily with the forms of thought, pure 
 thought, of course in a very elementary way. This means 
 that he gets, in a limited way, a knowledge of the human 
 mind; he sees, to some extent, the delicate working, the mar- 
 velous powers of the human soul. Here he finds an oppor- 
 tunity for making distinctions and doing a kind of thinking 
 similar to that which he will do in psychology and logic. 
 He does closer and stronger thinking than that required in 
 arithmetic or physiology, because the subject-matter upon 
 which he is working is more subtile. This work which he 
 does here, gives him an element of moral character which he 
 could not get from the study of any other subject; viz., 
 acute intellectual judgment, without which there could be 
 no moral judgment and hence no moral character, for if the 
 element of moral judgment be left out of character, if the 
 individual be unable to make fine distinctions in questions 
 of right and wrong, strong moral character is impossible. 
 
 But while this is the great value of the 
 More Tmmedi- study of grammar, it is not the immediate 
 
 ^th^Sub^^ect"* end which the teacher keeps before her 
 
 day by day. The result stated above is 
 obtained only by keeping in mind the fact that the sentence 
 is the unit or subject-matter of grammar, and that all work 
 in the subject is: (1). To give pupils a knowledge of its 
 structure — the laws and principles which underlie its correct 
 construction, or the science of the English sentence. (2). 
 To give the pupils such a mastery of the sentence as an in- 
 strument in expressing thought as will enable them to use 
 it correctly — the art of the English sentence.
 
 12 A New English Grammab. 
 
 In order to accomplish these results, the 
 Characteristics teacher should bear in mind that : (1). 
 Subject Grammar is a subject in and of itself, 
 
 separate and apart from all text-books on 
 the subject, and if all the text-books on the subject were 
 swept from the face of the earth, we should still have the 
 subject of grammar. It has a central or organizing idea 
 which binds together the facts of the subject and indicates 
 their relations to all other facts of knowledge. (2). It is a 
 logical or thought subject. It is not arbitrary and mechani- 
 cal but reasonable. (3). It is analytic and inductive and 
 not synthetic and deductive, and should be taught according 
 to what might appropriately be called the laboratory method, 
 as explained in the preface. The purpose of the discussion 
 that follows is to make these three propositions clear to the 
 teacher and thus enable her to get above the common plane 
 of ordinary text-book grammar work. 
 
 GRAMMAR A SUBJECT IN ITSELF. 
 
 There is a body of facts which we call grammar. May 
 these facts be known scientifically, just as one would learn 
 the facts of botany, or must the student be required to com- 
 mit them' from a text? This group of facts is related to 
 other groups of facts. Grammar is related 
 other ^^ ^^® word studies of the language group. 
 
 Subjects. ^^ i^ ^^^^ ^ "^^^ relative of reading, compo- 
 sition and rhetoric, and literature — those 
 language studies which have discourse for their subject- 
 matter. Grammar is the handmaid of logic. All its forms 
 are determined by and adapted to the thought they express. 
 The relations which are found in the subject are logical rela- 
 tions and the true study of these facts is the study of the
 
 Intkoduction. 13 
 
 logic of the English sentence. Dr. C. C. Everett, of Harvard 
 University, in his "Science of Thought," says: 
 
 ^^ Certainly, while logic derives such help from grammar, the re- 
 verse should he done, and our grammars placed upon a direct logi- 
 cal footing P 
 
 When the student studies grammar in the light of the 
 relations set forth above, when he sees it as based upon and 
 growing out of logic, as a practical illustration of psychology, 
 as conditioned by the word studies, and as preparing for and 
 
 aiding in a mastery of the discourse studies, 
 
 Constructive j^g jg studying the subject "constructively," 
 
 „ " "^ ** as Dr. W. T. Harris says. Heretofore he has 
 
 learned a great many of the facts of orthog- 
 raphy, orthoepy, grammar, reading, composition, rhetoric, 
 and literature, but these are somewhat fused together in his 
 mind and mixed, to some extent, with the facts of history, 
 geography, and all other subjects which he has studied. Now 
 he sees the language group clearly set off from all other 
 studies, he sees the place of each study in this group, and he 
 sees all of them in the light of the studies upon which they are 
 based. 
 
 But while the student is coming into a 
 Facts of complete comprehension of the relations 
 rammar g^^^gfj above, he learns that the facts of 
 grammar have certain relations to one an- 
 other and to the subject as a whole. 
 
 In the consideration of such a common object as the table, 
 he has noticed that it is made up of parts, each one holding 
 a certain relation to every other one and all together forming 
 the whole. Without any one of these parts the whole would 
 not be complete. In this case, he sees a common idea, the
 
 14 A New E^fGLISH Grammar. 
 
 idea of design or purpose, embodied in every part of the 
 table and binding all the parts together into the whole. The 
 table is to write upon and at the same time is to be orna- 
 mental, and every part and attribute of it, legs, sides, top, 
 color, etc., embodies the central idea of the table. Why was 
 the table not painted red ? Why are the legs all the same 
 length? Why is this bit of carving on the side? Why is 
 it made of hard wood? To answer any of these questions 
 is to refer it to the central idea in the table. 
 
 It will be readily seen that the student might take another 
 view of the table. He might see it as a number of isolated 
 parts, existing in space — a mere heap of material. What is 
 the difference between this view and the first one? The 
 parts are all in the second view. The legs, tops, sidjes, etc., 
 every bit of carving, all the attributes of the parts, color, 
 form, etc., all materials are present. But the view of the 
 table is not the same as the first, because these parts are not 
 seen in their relations. They are not bound into a whole by 
 a unifying idea. 
 
 Two Views of It will be seen from the foregoing dis- 
 
 Any Subject. cussion that there were two phases or 
 sides in this first view of the table; viz., the part phase or 
 fact phase; and the relation phase or unifying idea. 
 
 It is claimed that the relations existing among the facts 
 of grammar are similar to the relations existing among the 
 parts of the table with one exception. The relations exist- 
 ing among the parts of the table are mechanical relations, 
 and the whole is a mechanical whole, while the relations ex- 
 isting among the facts of grammar are vital, and the subject 
 may be shown to be a vital unity.
 
 Introduction. 15 
 
 Two Points Grammar, then, may be viewed from these 
 of View. two points of view : (1). The student may 
 consider the fact side, sentences in their great variety of form 
 and many shades of meaning, together with the words which 
 compose these sentences in their various uses in the sen- 
 tences. These form the subject-matter of grammar, upon 
 which the mind of the student is to be exercised. (2). The 
 student may consider the relation phase of the subject. This 
 is the central idea, which is found in some measure embodied 
 in all the facts of the subject, and which binds them all to- 
 gether. 
 
 The two points just stated are not two different subjects. 
 They are the same thing viewed from two points of view; 
 it takes both to form the science of grammar ; and any knowl- 
 edge which leaves out either phase of the subject could not 
 be said to be a scientific knowledge of grammar. 
 
 Science, it has often been said, is organ- 
 
 What is it to J2ed knowledge or facts reduced to a sys- 
 „ , . 4- G • , t^m. To know a thing scientifically is to 
 tifically? know it in its relations. To know any 
 
 subject scientifically, is to know the rela- 
 tions which exist among the facts of that subject; to see the 
 relation of each fact to the other and to the whole through 
 or by means of the fundamental idea in the subject; and to 
 pee the relations of the subject as a whole to other subjects 
 of study. 
 
 This view of the subject cannot be gained by committing 
 rules and definitions from a text-book on grammar, however 
 good the rules and definitions may be. The student's mind 
 must come in contact with the real unit of the subject, if he 
 is to see relations. In short, the subject of grammar must 
 be viewed from the two points of view stated above in "(1)"
 
 16 A New English Grammar. * 
 
 and "(2)": the facts and the central or relating idea. When 
 one sees the subject in this way, he may be said to have an 
 organized knowledge of grammar. He sees the subject of 
 grammar as Paul saw the church when he said, " So we be- 
 ing many are one body in Christ, and every one members 
 one of another." 
 
 The sentence cannot say to the subject, "I have no need 
 of thee;" nor the adverb to the verb, "I have no need of 
 you;" nor can grammar say to the most insignificant fact in 
 it, "I have no need of you." For this body of facts which 
 belong to grammar, being many, are at the same time one, 
 by reason of a common idea which is found in all of them, 
 and every one members one of another. 
 
 Subject- It has been said that sentences in their 
 
 Matter. , manifold variety of form and many shades 
 of meaning, together with the multitude of facts concerning 
 them, which the student must know in order to understand 
 how thoughts are expressed in sentences, form the subject- 
 matter of grammar. The student is to think this vast array 
 of facts into an organized whole by means of what has been 
 called the "relation phase," or "unifying idea." This uni- 
 fying idea or central principle of the subject of grammar 
 must be a general truth, because every fact in the subject 
 must partake of its nature. It must be a primary truth, be- 
 cause every fact in the subject is to be built into it and con- 
 nected with it. It must be a determining idea or relating 
 truth, because, by means of it, all the facts of grammar are 
 to be logically arranged or organized. 
 
 The only use of a, sentence is to express a 
 thought. How does the sentence express 
 thought? The mowing machine expresses thought. By ob- 
 serving its parts and how they all cooperate to do the work
 
 Introduction. 17 
 
 of the machine, one can see design in it and adaptation of 
 means to end. He becomes aware of the fact that all this 
 existed in the mind of the inventor before it was put into 
 this form. The mower is simply the thought of the designer 
 objectified, and the machine expresses his thought. 
 
 Nature of The sentence does not express thought in 
 Judgment, the way indicated above. A judgment or 
 thought is a mental act in which the mind asserts a re- 
 lation between ideas. There are three elements in every such 
 judgment: (1). The idea about which the mind asserts 
 something, which may be called the thought subject. (2). 
 The idea which the mind thinks with the first idea and which 
 it affirms or denies of it. This may be called the thought 
 predicate. (3). The relation which the mind asserts between 
 these ideas, which is always one of agreement or disagreement 
 and which may be termed the thought relation. I have in 
 mind the idea, cloud, and the idea, fleecy, but these do not 
 form a judgment. I must see a relation between the two. 
 My mind must think the two ideas into a unity in which I 
 see fleecy as belonging to or forming one of the attributes of 
 cloud. In this way, my mind forms the judgment or thought 
 expressed by the sentence. The cloud is fleecy. It is this triple 
 unity which the sentence expresses, and in order to express 
 it, the sentence must take on the trijjle form of the thought. 
 
 Three Parts A sentence is the expression of a thought 
 of Sentence, or judgment in words. Why is it necessary 
 that the sentence have the triple form of the thought? (1). 
 A subject, expressing the thought subject of the judgment. 
 (2). A predicate, expressing the thought predicate of the 
 judgment. (3). A copula, expressing the thought relation 
 of the judgment. A picture expresses thought but it does 
 2
 
 18 A New English Grammar. 
 
 not express thought as the sentence does. There are no three 
 parts to the picture. It expresses thought by resemblance. 
 Its form is determined by the form of the object which it 
 represents. But there is no resemblance between the thought 
 and the sentence Avhich expresses it, such as exists in the pict- 
 ure. The thought is spiritual, subjective; the sentence is 
 physical, objective. The sentence is adapted to the thought 
 for the purpose of expressing it, and is determined by the 
 thought. Since the thought is not like the sentence and can- 
 not be like it in any other particular, except in the number 
 of its elements, the sentence, in order to express the thought, 
 must take on the triple form of the thought. The thought 
 imposes its form upon the sentence. 
 
 It might be said here, that grammarians. 
 
 Why do while recognizing the fact that the sentence 
 
 Grammarians u *i ^ ^ i, x • ■,-,•. j- 
 
 Say Two Parts? three^ parts, have not considered it ot 
 
 enough importance to make the distinc- 
 tion, at all times, between predicate and copula. Since the 
 thought predicate and thought relation are so frequently ex- 
 pressed by the same word, they have fallen into the inaccu- 
 racy of dividing sentences into two narts, a subject and a pred- 
 icate. 
 
 The greatest linguistf in this country says : 
 "The verb be, in all its various forms, has 
 come to stand as a mere connective of assertion between a 
 subject and some word or words describing that subject, and 
 so to have no meaning of its own except that of signifying 
 the assertion." And he adds, "Indeed, every verb admits of 
 
 "See Reed and Kollogg's IliglKir Lessons in English, beginning of lesson 29. Whit- 
 ney's Essentials of English Uianiinar, p. 158, par. 853. "Our Language," p 84 
 Lee and Hadley's Grammar, pp. 53-55. 
 
 t The late Dr. Williani Dwight Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit and comparative 
 Philology and instructor in modern hinguages in Yale College; author of "Lan- 
 guage and the Study of Language," " Life and Growth of Language," etc., etc.
 
 Introduction. 19 
 
 being taken apart, or analyzed, into some form of this copula 
 be, which expresses the act of assertion, and a predicate noun 
 or adjective (especially the verbal adjective, the present par- 
 ticiple), expressing the condition or quality or action predi- 
 cated. Thus, / stand is nearly I am erect, or, still more nearly, 
 I am standing; again. They beg, is equivalent to They are beg- 
 gars, or, They are begging J ^ 
 
 In the above examples, each sentence has three parts. For 
 example, in ''They are begging,^' the word, "They," is the 
 subject of the sentence and expresses the thought subject of 
 the judgment; the word, "begging," is the predicate of the sen- 
 tence and expresses the thought predicate of the judgment; 
 and the word, "are," is the copula of the sentence and ex- 
 presses the relation which the mind sees between the thought 
 subject and the thought predicate, or the thought relation of 
 the judgment. 
 
 Since every sentence must contain a verb, it follows, that, 
 if the above statement from Dr. Whitney is correct, every 
 sentence may not only be separated into three parts, but 
 must contain three parts, and no group of words can be a 
 sentence or can possibly express a thought, if it lack either a 
 subject or predicate or copula. 
 
 Psychologists In addition to the foregoing discussion, 
 
 and Logicians, which seems to the writer to set forth the 
 reason in the case, it might be said, that psychologists and 
 logicians in all times and almost without exception, have in- 
 sisted, that the sentence must have three parts corresponding 
 to the three elements of the judgment. The inaccuracy, on 
 the part of grammarians, has come about, as Dr. C. C. 
 Everett, of Harvard University, points out, because they 
 have divorced grammar from logic, which is sure to lead to 
 error, since the sentence is only an instrument in expressing
 
 so A New English Grammar. 
 
 the thought, and grammar is directly dependent upon logic 
 at every point. If one word contains two parts of the sen- 
 tence, in which it occurs, that is all the more reason why the 
 analysis of the student should be subtle enough to discover 
 that fact and to identify each part of the sentence with the 
 element of the thought which it expresses. To express two 
 elements of the thought in one part of the sentence would 
 be confusing to say the least. 
 Central Idea This fundamental attribute in the nature 
 Stated. of the sentence, as it is determined bv the 
 nature of the thought, is the most universal truth in the 
 subject of grammar. To put it in other words, the most 
 general truth, or central, or determining, or relating idea in 
 the subject *of grammar may be stated as follows: The three 
 elements of the thought as they are accurately expressed in the 
 three parts of the sentence. The student must see the sentence 
 as the expression of the thought. This it does in common 
 with a great many other things; the picture, the piece of 
 music, the statue, etc., all express thought ; but the sentence 
 is arbitrary, expressing thought in a particular way, by 
 means of its triple form, and the student must see this. This 
 states the end and purpose of all the study of the science of 
 grammar. Why does the student study the simple sentence 
 or the declarative sentence? To see how the three elements 
 of the thought are expressed in those language forms. He 
 wants to know how the sentence form which we call com- 
 plex is adapted to express the thought. Why does he study 
 noun or verb? To see what part they play in the expression 
 of the three elements of the thought in the three parts of 
 the sentence ; to see how these language forms are adapted to 
 the expression of the thought and how they are determined 
 by the thought.
 
 Intboduction. 81 
 
 How do we know that the principle just 
 How Do We stated is the most general, and, therefore, 
 Know This ,, • x xi .n i   i. r 
 
 is True? governing truth m the subject of gram- 
 
 mar? " By their fruits ye shall know 
 them." This is the truth which organizes the subject. It 
 touches every fact in the subject and is the essential attribute 
 of every such fact. It is the truth to which every question 
 concerning the subject of grammar must be referred for its 
 answer, just as every question concerning the table can be 
 answered only by referring it to the central idea in the table. 
 This central truth in the subject of grammar is the most 
 general truth in the subject, because every other fact of the 
 subject depends upon it. 
 
 The value of this view of the subject to 
 nn^ Xf. ^ *** ^-^6 teacher may be made clear by pointing 
 the Teacher ^^^^ what the governing or central idea of 
 any subject will indicate to the teacher 
 concerning that subject. The organizing truth of a subject 
 will determine the following points with regard to the sub- 
 ject: (1). It will set off the subject-matter of the study 
 from the subject-matter of all other studies. (2). It will in- 
 dicate the logical order of topics in the subject. (3). It will 
 determine the order in whicli the topics should be acquired 
 or presented. (4.) It will indicate the important and un- 
 important facts of the subject. (5). It will indicate the 
 ' important and unimportant elements in each fact in the sub- 
 ject. (6). It will test the definitions of the subject. (7). 
 It will indicate the mental steps which the student must take 
 to master the subject, and the materials which the teacher 
 must put before the pupil in order to induce his mind to take 
 these steps.
 
 22 A New English Grammar. 
 
 There must be some reason why mathe- 
 
 Central Idea maticians have grouped certain facts and 
 
 Sets Off Facts ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ arithmetic. It is not mere 
 
 chance that scientists inckidejust the facts 
 they do include in the subject of physiology and exclude all 
 other facts. There is certainly some method by which gram- 
 marians have been able to decide what facts constitute the 
 science of grammar. It is the central idea in the subject 
 which sets off the facts of that subject from all other facts. 
 The central idea or organizing truth of the subject is the most 
 universal attribute of the subject. Any fact possessing this 
 attribute is a fact of the subject. Any fact which has to do 
 with the accurate expression of the three elements of the 
 thought in the sentence form is a fact in grammar. 
 
 This organizing truth in the subject is 
 Indicates Log-i- d^q most general or universal truth in the 
 *^^™ ^.^"^ ** subject. Every fact in the subiect is re- 
 lated to it. Some facts in the subject are 
 more closely related to it than others. The fact in the sub- 
 ject which stands most closely related to the organizing truth, 
 is first in the subject; one equally near in its relation to the 
 central truth is coordinate to it; one containing a less degree 
 of the central truth is subordinate to both; and so on with 
 all the facts of the subject. When each fact is given its place 
 in the subject, according to the relation which it bears to the 
 central idea, the subject is organized. This means that the 
 order of dependence among the facts of the subject has been 
 discovered; the relative importance of the facts and of the 
 elements in each fact may be seen; and the teacher sees the 
 order in which the facts of the subject should be presented 
 and why they should be presented in that ord«r
 
 Introduction. 23 
 
 Tests The organizing truth tests the definitions 
 
 Definitions, of the subject. Every fact in the subject 
 contains a certain degree of the general truth or universal 
 attribute of the subject. To define any fact of the subject 
 is to show its relation to the central idea of the subject. A 
 definition of the noun which does not show its relation to 
 the organizing truth of grammar, which does not show how 
 it helps to express the three elements of the thought in the 
 three parts of the sentence, is faulty. 
 
 Organized When the student sees the central idea of 
 Knowledge, the subject of grammar and all it indicates 
 with regard to the subject, as set forth in the preceding dis- 
 cussion, he may be said to have an organized or scientific 
 knowledge of the subject. 
 
 He is free from text-books, except as he uses them as a 
 means, and he sees the subject in the light of reason and in 
 all its relations. 
 
 Can the teacher be satisfied, or do intelligent work in the 
 school room, with a less comprehensive view? 
 
 The most severe criticism which could be 
 <-'riticism. pronounced upon grammarians and teachers 
 of grammar is that made by Dr. C. C. Everett, of Harvard, 
 when he says, they have divorced grammar from logic. And 
 any one who has carefully examined our text-books in gram- 
 mar, or observed thoughtfully much of the work done in our 
 schools in this subject, will be compelled to admit that there 
 is more truth than poetry in this charge. The study of 
 grammar has become largely a study of dry form; a mere 
 classification of words; a kind of jugglery with symbols. 
 What wonder that most boys and girls, with normal minds, 
 hate it !
 
 24 A New English Grammar. 
 
 But if, as Dr. Harris says*, "Grammar 
 True View, (jgfl^gg and fixes speech; by its mastery man 
 obtains the first mastery over his mind as an instrument. 
 * * * It is the key to all that is spiritual. * * * 
 Grammar as etymology and syntax initiates the pupil into 
 the general forms of thought itself. Thus there branch out 
 logic, psychology-, and metaphysics, as well as the various 
 phases of philosophy. Has it not been said, indeed, that 
 the father of logic discovered its forms through grammar? 
 Under a thin veil the pupil deals with pure thought when he 
 studies syntax" — if this be true, then there is no lack of op- 
 portunity for thinking in the study of grammar. 
 
 The sentence is only the "veil;" it is composed of mere 
 words; but this form has a content, the thought, and to un- 
 derstand the sentence, the student must be able to separate, 
 in thought, this form from its content. The student must 
 constantly hold these two elements in mind while dealing 
 with the sentence. When he considers the sentence, Glass is 
 brittle, he views it as the expression of a thought composed 
 of three elements: (1). A thought subject, the idea, glass; 
 (2). A thought predicate, the idea, brittle; (3). A thought re- 
 lation of agreement between the two. In. the expression itself, 
 he sees parts corresponding to the elements of the thought: 
 (1). A subject, the word, "glass," expressing the thought 
 subject; (2). A predicate, the word, "brittle," expressing 
 the thought predicate; (3). A copula or relational element, 
 the word, "is," expressing the thought relation. 
 
 When he considers the word, "sour," in 
 Two Elements. .^ . m ? • j 
 
 the sentence, 1 he sour apple ripened rap- 
 idly, he sees two elements; first the form or word and second, 
 its content. The word, ''sour," expresses an attribute which 
 
 "■See Report of Board of Public Schools, St. Louis, bound volume of 1872-78.
 
 Introduction. 26 
 
 belongs to the idea expressed by the word, "apple." So in 
 dealing with the word, "rapidly," he sees that it expresses an 
 attribute of the attribute expressed by the word, "ripened." 
 In each case the student is required first, to distinguish be- 
 tween the form, and its content, and second, to think the two 
 together again to see how the form organizes itself around 
 the thought and is determined by it. 
 
 Form and This seeing of form and content and the 
 
 Content. relation between the two cannot be too 
 strongly emphasized. The failure on the part of gramma- 
 rians and teachers to keep it in mind has given to the study 
 of grammar its formal and lifeless nature. The study of the 
 sentence from this point of view is no simple mental activity. 
 It requires the most careful attention and very close and 
 accurate thinking on the part of the student. He is first 
 conscious of the sentence form, a group of words, and hav- 
 ing obtained the thought which it expresses, he proceeds to 
 analyze that thought into its elements. He finds that there 
 are three principal elements in every thought; a thought sub- 
 ject, a thought predicate, and a thought relation, each of 
 which may be composed of several elements. Finally, he 
 associates each element of the thought with some part of 
 the sentence, thus making the parts of the sentence, the rela- 
 tions existing among them, and their relations to the thought, 
 to appear clearly. It will be seen that this is a complex ac- 
 tivity, the student being required to hold several points in 
 mind, while he thinks his way careful!}^ through the sen- 
 tence. These two processes of separating form and content 
 from each other, and each one into its elements, analysis, and 
 thinking form and content back again into a vital unity, in 
 order to see how the thought determines the form, synthesis, 
 are the two fundamental processes in the mastery of grammar
 
 28 A New English Grammar. 
 
 The principles already discussed would 
 Student Must indicate, that in thinking the almost infin- 
 
 c . ite variety of sentences into the unity of a 
 
 Sentences. . , '. . , ■, . . . i 
 
 single principle, and m gaining the mas- 
 tery over the sentence as an instrument for communicating 
 thought, it is necessary for the student to deal not with text- 
 books, but with this great variety of sentences. Text-books 
 are helpful to him in proportion to the degree in which they 
 put the subject-matter of grammar, the sentence, before him 
 in such a way as to help him think it through for himself. 
 But if all texts on grammar were destroyed, we should still 
 have the subject-matter of grammar, the sentence, left; and 
 the student might be led to construct the entire science of 
 grammar from his study of sentences. 
 
 GRAMMAR A LOGICAL SUBJECT. 
 
 Now perhaps enough has been said to show that the sub- 
 ject of grammar is a subject in itself; that it does not depend 
 upon text-books; that the unit of it is the sentence; and that 
 every principle, definition, and fact of the subject is wrapped 
 up there in the sentence. The subject has an organization 
 of its own, because it is a body of facts bound together, or 
 unified by a central idea or truth, which runs through or in- 
 heres in all the facts of the subject. 
 
 But now I wish to discuss the second proposition; viz., 
 Grammar is a reasonable or logical or thought subject, not 
 an arbitrary subject to be taken on authority. It is not to 
 be bolted or swallowed whole. 
 
 One often hears that the Golden Rule is true because it is 
 in the Bible. It is not true because it is in the Bible ; it is 
 in the Bible because it is true. Christ gave us many great
 
 Intkoduction. 27 
 
 truths, but not one of them is a truth because Christ gave 
 it; Christ gave them to us because they are truths. 
 
 So with the definitions and principles 
 Definitions and ^f ^]^g subject of grammar; they do not 
 
 calf, or Sweet, or Whitney has them in 
 his grammar. These men did not make or invent the prin- 
 ciples of our language and set them forth for us to commit 
 and follow the remainder of our days, nor could they or any 
 other men possibly do so. Grammarians have discovered 
 and stated the principles of language, and these principles 
 are true, if they are true, not because they are in the gram- 
 marians' books, but they are in the books because they are 
 true. 
 
 Sentence an The sentence is merely an instrument or 
 
 Instrument, means; it is not an end in itself. The only 
 legitimate use of a sentence is to express a thought. I am 
 aware of the fact that there are those who think that Brown- 
 ing and others like him, use sentences to cover up thought. 
 But this is an illegitimate use of the sentence even if Brown- 
 ing does use it so. A sentence is a group of words which 
 expresses a thought. This statement expresses the only true 
 function of the sentence. One mind has a thought to be 
 communicated to another mind; the sentence is the vehicle 
 of that thought. If there were no thoughts to be conveyed 
 from one mind to another, we should have no need in the 
 world for a sentence. 
 
 Since the sentence is an instrument or a means, it is like 
 all other instruments or means in one particular; viz., it is 
 determined by that which it is to do. We may surely say 
 of all instruments that they are made to suit the work which
 
 28 A New English Geammab. 
 
 they are to perform ; that which they are to do determines 
 them in every part and attribute. It would be ridiculous to 
 think that a man would attempt to make a mowing machine 
 without understanding the nature of grass, or the place in 
 which it grows, or its uses, etc. He might make it so that 
 it would run only on a smooth floor or concrete walk. 
 
 Nature of an Here is an instrument called the garden 
 Instrument, hoe. Why is its handle five feet long in- 
 stead of ten feet long? Why is it made of wood? Why is 
 it round and one inch in diameter instead of square and 
 three inches in diameter? Why is its blade four inches wide 
 and three inches long instead of ten inches wide and nine 
 inches long? Why is it sharp? And is it not easily seen 
 that it is the purpose of the instrument which determines 
 these points? How could any man who knew nothing of 
 the nature of plants and the soil in which they grow; who 
 did not know that weeds grow up among plants and must be 
 cut out, and that the soil about the roots of plants must be 
 stirred; how could a man ignorant of the nature of the work 
 which a garden hoe is to perform, make such an instrument? 
 And more, how could a person, ignorant of all this, under- 
 stand the instrument? 
 
 You are going along the street and you find a little wheel 
 with tiny cogs. What is the first question you ask about it? 
 Why it is this; where does it belong? what is its work? is 
 it a part of a watch or a bicycle, or what is it for? 
 
 How we Study If one did not understand the garden 
 an Instrument.- hoe, he might study it point by point. 
 He might see that the handle is long so that one need not 
 stoop over too much in digging with the tool. He might see 
 that the blade must be sharp so that it will cut the weeds
 
 Introduction. 29 
 
 and stir the hard ground easily, etc. Each time he notices 
 a characteristic of the hoe, he sees that there is something in 
 the nature of the work which it is to do that requires that 
 characteristic in the hoe. When he has mastered it, he sees 
 the appropriateness of this instrument to do its work, and 
 how the instrument depends upon its work for its nature. 
 
 Now there is nothing arbitrary or mechanical in the pro- 
 cess by which the individual has mastered the garden hoe, 
 if he has done it in the way indicated above. He takes noth- 
 ing for granted and nothing on authority. He sees the cor- 
 respondence between the nature of this instrument and the 
 nature of the work which it is to do, and if forty authors had 
 written text-books on the garden hoe, and every one of them 
 had said the handle should be three inches in diameter and 
 made of iron, he would not believe them. 
 
 Now the sentence is like the garden hoe. 
 
 Sentence jj^ ^]-,g^l^ j^ jg j^j-j instrument, and has a work 
 
 Adapted to tlie , r-   ^-^. • ^ ii 
 
 * , . to periorm; viz., the expression ot the 
 
 thought. And what does this mean? It 
 means that the sentence is adapted to the work of express- 
 ing the thought and that it is determined in every part and 
 attribute by the nature of the thought, which it expresses. 
 It is just as necessary to understand the thought and its na- 
 ture in order to understand the sentence, as it is to under- 
 stand the garden in order to comprehend the garden hoe. 
 
 But one may say then, how can you 
 Logic and^ keep from teaching logic and psychology 
 y gy jj-^ npi-ammar? No one who teaches gram- 
 
 mar scientifically can keep logic and psy- 
 chology out of his work, for grammar is dependent upon logic 
 at every point, and the explanation of every grammatical
 
 30 A New English Gkammar. 
 
 form involves the examination of a mental process. The 
 great difficulty is that grammarians have divorced grammar 
 and logic, in a great measure, and this has given to the sub- 
 iect its lifeless and formal nature. It has made it a mechan- 
 ical, deadening, memory grind, instead of an intelligent, 
 liealthful, life-giving, mental gymnastic. 
 
 One might turn to any part of the subject of grammar for 
 an illustration of the fact, that the sentence is adapted to the 
 expression of the thought and is determined in every part 
 and attribute by the nature of the thought; that it is impos- 
 sible to give any reasonable explanation of language forms 
 without viewing them in relation to the thought, which they 
 express. And I wish now to illustrate at some length, this 
 fundamental view of grammar. 
 
 The entire subject of grammar falls into four great circles 
 of work: 
 
 1. THE STUDY OF THE CLASS WHOLE. 
 
 In the first circle of the work, only those attributes or 
 characteristics of the sentence which are universal are no- 
 ticed. The student has as many different kinds of sen- 
 tences as can be obtained placed before him, and in all this 
 variety, he is asked to see the resemblances, the universal at- 
 tribute, which makes them all sentences. He finds that 
 some of these individual examples are long and some short; 
 some declarative and some interrogative; some simple and 
 some complex; some inverted order and some natural order; 
 but one characteristic is found in each of them. Not every 
 sentence is imperative; not every one has a compound subject; 
 but they all have either explicit or implicit in them, the 
 triple form, expressing the thought.
 
 Intkoduction. 31 
 
 This fact enables him to unify this great 
 ^^ ^' variety of sentences and to see the unity in 
 the thought of each sentence. It is not an easy matter for 
 the student to grasp the unity of the thought in a long and 
 involved sentence; to see the thought subject and thought 
 predicate, which the mind unites by an act of thinking into 
 the triple unity — the thought, which the sentence expresses. 
 But this is what he must do if he ever masters the sentence, 
 either as an instrument in expressing his own thought, or as 
 a medium for obtaining the thoughts of others. 
 
 Close of First At the close of this phase of his study in 
 Circle. grammar, the student should be able to take 
 any sentence, distinguish between its form and content, an- 
 alyze its content into its three essential elements, see the 
 triple organic form of the sentence as determined by the 
 thought, the relation of each element of the thought to its 
 corresponding part of the sentence, and should be able to 
 express the result of his thinking in some concise form such 
 as the following: 
 
 The large book is certainly very cheap. This is a sentence, 
 l^ecause it is the expression of a thought in words. The 
 subject of the sentence is the words, "The large book," 
 because they express the thought subject. The predicate 
 of the sentence is the words, "very cheap," because they 
 express the thought predicate. The copula of the sentence, 
 is the words, "is certainly," because they express the thought 
 relation, or unifying act of the mind. 
 
 Do Not Make It is not intended that the above form 
 
 Work Formal, shall always be used by the student in ex- 
 pressing the result of his thinking. The chief thing is to 
 have his mind perform the two mental processes of analysis
 
 82 A New English Grammar. 
 
 and synthesis as indicated above, and any set form of ex- 
 pressing the result is rather to be avoided, as having a ten- 
 dency to make the student mechanical and formal. 
 
 Throughout this entire first circle of the 
 work, the student's attention is directed to 
 but one thing — the universal sentence lorm as determined 
 by the thought. • He is not permitted to say that the idea 
 expressed by the word, "book," in the above sentence, is the 
 thought subject, or that the word, "book," is the subject of 
 the sentence; but he must see each element of the thought 
 and each part of the sentence as a unit. The idea expressed 
 by the words, "The large book," for that is one idea, though 
 a complex one, is the thought subject, and all these words 
 form the subject of the sentence. 
 
 When the student is able to see in any sentence, each one 
 of the three elements of the thought, which is expressed, and 
 see it as a unit, no matter how complex it may be, and when 
 he sees each of the essential parts of the sentence in the same 
 way, and has thought the whole into an organic unity, in 
 which he sees the sentence as standing for or expressing the 
 thought, he is ready to pass from the first circle of the gram- 
 mar work. 
 
 ^, „ , It will usually take considerable careful 
 
 Careful Work. , -^-u ^u \ j ^ ^ ui i,- ^ 
 
 work with the student to enable him to 
 
 do what is indicated above, but it is worth the effort, for the 
 student who has this ability is forever free from mechanical 
 or formal work in the subject, and is a long stride on his way 
 toward the mastery of grammar as based upon logic. 
 
 2. THE STUDY OF CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 
 
 In the second circle of the work, the pupil still deals with 
 sentences as wholes, but he finds there are likenesses and dif-
 
 Introduction. 33 
 
 ferences among them which enable him to classify them. 
 Basis of He notices that one kind expresses a phase 
 Meaning-. of thought which appeals to the intellect. 
 It communicates some information. 
 
 Another kind also expresses a phase of thought which ap- 
 peals to the intellect, but it inquires for information, asks 
 for some element of the thought which is unknown and 
 sought for. 
 
 Still another kind expresses a phase of thought which 
 awakens the emotions. Some information may be commu- 
 nicated, but it is to the end of awakening feeling. 
 
 Lastly, he notices that some sentences express thought 
 which is intended to produce an act of will. 
 
 So, on basis of meaning, or phase of mental activity which 
 is prominent, or power of mind addressed, he divides sen- 
 tences into the following classes: Declarative, Interrogative, 
 Exclamatory, Imperative. 
 
 Basis of Some thoughts are simple in structure; 
 
 Form. some are complex; some are compound. 
 The pupil will see that sentences must be of these kinds, 
 also, since they express the thoughts. He, therefore, classi- 
 fies sentences on basis of form, as determined by the form 
 of the thought expressed, into the following classes: Sim- 
 ple, Complex, and Compound. 
 
 Close of When the pupil is able to view sen- 
 
 Second Circle, tences, as determined by the thought, in 
 the ways just indicated, he is ready to pass from the second 
 circle of the grammar work. 
 
 3. THE STUDY OF THE ORGANIC PARTS OF THE SENTENCE. 
 
 In the third circle of the work, the study of the organic 
 parts of the sentence is taken up. Subjects of sentences are 
 3
 
 34 A New English Grammar. 
 
 Parts of not all of the same kind. Some are simple, 
 Sentence. consisting of but one word; others are long 
 and complex. This requires a combination of words, for, 
 however long the subject of the sentence may be, it must be 
 a unity. This means that the pupil must deal with the 
 words, composing the subject of the sentence, expressing the 
 unified thought subject, just as he has dealt with the sen- 
 Content and tence, which expresses the unity called 
 Extent. the thought. He must separate form from 
 
 content; the extent and content of ideas present them- 
 selves to him ; and he sees the whole sub- 
 ^ ^ ' ject of modifiers growing out of this distinc- 
 tion. He discusses the thought material or ideas, out of 
 Thought which thought subjects, thought predicates, 
 Material. and thought relations are made, and he sees 
 how the words composing the subjects, predicates, and copulas 
 of sentences may be unified, because of the ideas they ex- 
 press. He sees, for example, that in the sentence. The old 
 arm-chair is broken, he could not say that the word, "arm- 
 chair," is the subject of the sentence, because the mind does 
 not assert the idea, broken, of the idea, arm-chair ; but of the 
 idea, arm-chair, as changed by the ideas, the and old. 
 
 Parts Adapted Thus, all the different forms which sub- 
 to Elements of jects, predicates, and copulas may have, 
 Thought. Q^Q gggjj ^Q i^g adapted to the expression of 
 
 thought subjects, thought predicates, and thought relations 
 and determined by them. We have principal words and 
 Close of subordinate or modifying words in these 
 
 Third Circle. parts of the sentence, because we have 
 principal and subordinate ideas in the elements of the 
 thought expressed in these parts of the sentence.
 
 Introduction. 36 
 
 4. " PARTS OF SPEECH." 
 
 In the last circle of the grammar work, the student fin- 
 ishes the work for which he has laid the foundation in the 
 circle immediately preceding, so that the last circle is to the 
 third, what the second was to the first. In the third circle, 
 he became familiar with the different kinds of ideas ex- 
 pressed by words; viz., objects of thought, attributes, and 
 ideas of relation. On that basis, he classified words into 
 
 Classes of the following classes: substantive, attribu- 
 
 Words. tive, and relation words. Two other kinds, 
 
 he learned, were sometimes used without much meaning, 
 
 merely to fill out the form of the sentence; viz., form words 
 
 and feeling words. 
 
 Now, in the fourth circle, by observing likenesses and dif- 
 ferences, he subdivides these classes of words, and thus ar- 
 rives at "Parts of Speech." When the pupil sees the parts 
 Close of Fourth of speech, with all their properties, in the 
 Circle. same light in which he has seen all the 
 
 other parts of the sentence, as indicated in the previous dis- 
 cussion, he has finished the fourth circle of the grammar 
 work, and may be said to have fairly mastered the science of 
 
 the subject. 
 
 This fourth circle of work can never be 
 Conditions of mastered, it will be seen, until the pupil 
 Mastering- ^^^^ clearly that there are distinctions in 
 the Subject. ,,,.,., ,, i 
 
 thought, which give to the noun, gender, 
 
 person, number, and case; to the verb, voice, mode, tense, 
 etc. If the action of the mind in dealing with objective 
 things did not leave with it a notion of one and more than 
 one, the noun never would have had that property which we 
 call number; and if it were not possible for the mind to think 
 a relation between a thought subject and a thought predicate
 
 36 A New English Grammar. 
 
 in past time, present time, etc., the verb would never have 
 had that property which we call tense. 
 
 Use of tlie It might be said in passing, that the 
 
 Word "Circle." word, "circle,'' is an appropriate word to 
 name these phases of the grammar work, as, in each case, 
 the pupil starts with the sentence, — and after considering 
 parts, refers them all back to the sentence again; or he starts 
 with a whole, and, having reduced it to parts, recombines it 
 again into a whole — analysis and synthesis. The process is 
 a passing from unity, through great variety, back to the unity 
 of the thought, as expressed in the universal sentence form. 
 
 This is Not This view of the subject makes grammar 
 Arbitrary, a thought study, not a set of rules and princi- 
 ples to be accepted upon authority — and committed to mem- 
 ory; but a thing which is logical and is to be reasoned out 
 by the pupil. It is not a mere study of forms but a study 
 of forms as determined by the content which they express. 
 
 GRAMMAR IS AN INDUCTIVE SUBJECT. 
 It will be evident, I think, that the work which follows 
 and constitutes the subject-matter of this text, is arranged 
 according to the principles set forth in this discussion and 
 with this thought in mind: that grammar, when properly 
 Laboratory studied, is an inductive subject, and should 
 Method. be presented according to what might ap- 
 propriately be called the laboratory method. 
 
 If the scientific student wishes to make 
 Compared himself master of the mushroom, he goes 
 
 ^ * ^^* ^ *^ out into the fields and gathers a specimen 
 Sciences. ^^ every variety. He examines the speci- 
 
 mens carefully and tries to discover the com- 
 mon characteristics or uniyersal or essential marks which
 
 Introduction. 87 
 
 make them all mushrooms. By the aid of his glass and 
 knife, he finds out how the specimens differ and on basis of 
 the fundamental differences, he separates them into classes. 
 He takes advantage of the experience of other men, in work- 
 ing with mushrooms, as they have recorded it for him in 
 texts. By means of this experience, he verifies his own con- 
 clusions. Often, by means of this experience, he finds that 
 he has made mistakes in his work, and he returns to his 
 specimens to examine them more carefully and discover his 
 errors. When he has completed his work, he is authority on 
 mushrooms himself. 
 
 Why can't the student of grammar 
 Grammar Can gtudy the clause in this way? He will 
 , Th'^Wa ' ^^^ have as much difficulty in collecting 
 his specimens as the student of mush- 
 rooms had. He will need no microscope or scalpel. He 
 can see that each of his specimens has a subject, predicate, 
 and copula, and is used as a part of a sentence just as easily, 
 perhaps more easily, than the student of mushrooms saw the 
 common characteristics of mushrooms. He can also see dis- 
 tinctions which will enable him, on dificrent bases, to sep- 
 arate them into classes; as, substantive, attributive, simple, 
 complex, compound, adjective, adverbial, etc. In short, the 
 entire subject of clauses can be thought out from examples, 
 just as the entire subject of mushrooms was thought out from 
 the specimens, by the student. 
 
 Teacher and ^^ ^^ ^^^ claimed that the pupil in the 
 Text to Aid grades can do this without the aid of the 
 Pupil. teacher and the text. The teacher will 
 
 stimulate and direct his thought by proper questions and en- 
 couragement. The text will disclose to him the errors in his
 
 38 A New English Grammar. 
 
 conclusions and send him back to study the examples more 
 carefully. But when he is through with the subject, he will 
 see all of grammar in the sentence and it will be a reason- 
 able thing to him, not a set of dry, arbitrary rules. 
 
 The Difference ^^^*^ difference between grammar stud- 
 Between Life ied in this way, and technical grammar 
 and Death. • as it is too often taught, is the difference 
 between life and death to the student; it is the difference be- 
 tween an intelligent, healthful, life-giving, mental gymnastic, 
 and a mechanical, deadening, verbal memory grind. The 
 one process leaves him with the arbitrary technic of the sub- 
 ject, a mere crust, which he loathes; the other makes him 
 feel, as Dr. C. C. Everett* has said, that, "There is hardly 
 anything more interesting than to see how the laws of gram- 
 mar, which seem at first sight so hard and arbitrary, are sim- 
 ply the laws of the expression of logical relations in con- 
 crete form." 
 
 *See his " Science of Tliought," a book which no teacher of grammar should be 
 without, p. 82
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE SUBJECT AS A WHOLE. 
 
 EXERCISE 1 . 
 
 Give the literal meaning of the word, definition. 
 
 The word, definition, comes from the Latin, de, meaning, a part- 
 ing from, around, about, etc.; finire, to limit, to bound; and the suf- 
 fix, ion, the act of. Literally, then, the word means, the act of bound- 
 ing about, or the act of limiting from. 
 
 State the marks of a good definition. Illustrate by any 
 common definition. 
 
 The marks of a good definition are three: 
 \. Name the thing defined. 
 
 2. Put it into the smallest known class. 
 
 3. Give the marks or oiiaracteristics of it which set it off from 
 
 all other members of that class. 
 
 A noun is a substantive ivord which expresses an object of thought by 
 naming it. When we say, a noun, we have named the thing to 
 be defined ; when we say, is a substantive word, we have put it into 
 the smallest known class; when we say, which expresses an object of 
 thought by naming it, we have distinguished it from the other mem- 
 ber of this class, the pronoun. It is better to put the thing defined 
 into the smallest class than to put it into a large class, because that 
 gives us more characteristics of the thing, and, tlien, we have fewer 
 individuals from which to distinguish it. It must be put into a 
 known class, else one would not know what characteristics to attrib- 
 ute to the thing defined. 
 
 Note.— The teacher should have the pupils test all definitions by this standard.
 
 40 A New English Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISE 2. 
 
 Its Place in the Language Group. 
 
 To what group of subjects does grammar belong? Name 
 the other subjects of the group. How do you distinguish 
 grammar from the others? 
 
 Grammar belongs to that group of studies which we call language 
 studies, because it deals with or has for its subject-matter, language. 
 Arithmetic does not belong to this group, because its subject-matter 
 is not language, but number. 
 
 The other subjects of this group, which we study in the public 
 schools, are: Orthography, orthoepy, word analysis, composition 
 and rhetoric, reading, and literature. 
 
 Orthography, orthoepy, and word analysis deal Avith or have for 
 their subject-matter that unit of language which we call the word. 
 Composition and rhetoric, reading, and literature deal with or have 
 for their subject-matter that unit of language which we call dis- 
 course. Grammar deals with that unit of language which we call 
 the sentence. 
 
 It might be thought that in working with "Parts of Speech" in 
 grammar, we are dealing with words, A little reflection will show 
 us, however, that we are not dealing with a word as the unit. If 
 we ask. What part of speech is the word, ^'Jine?" we are unable to 
 tell until we see it in a sentence. If we say. It is a fine day, the 
 word, "fine," is an adjective. If we say. The fine was remitted, it is 
 a noun. If we say, I fine you ten dollars and costs, it is a verb. If 
 we ask, In what case is the word, "pen?" we cannot tell until we see 
 the word used in a sentence. If we say. My pen is gold, the word, 
 "pen," is in the nominative case. If we say, I write with my pen, it 
 is in the objective case. Much more might be said to show that 
 whenever we are dealing with words in the subject of grammar, 
 the sentence is still the unit. We deal with words only as parts 
 of sentences. 
 
 This, then, is the distinguishing mark of grammar. It has 
 for its unit the sentence. No other language subject deals 
 with the sentence or has it for its unit.
 
 Nature of the Sentence. 41 
 
 Define grammar. Show that your definition conforms to 
 
 the requirements of a true definition. 
 
 Grammar is that language study which has for its 
 subject-matter or vinit the sentence. 
 
 When we say, Grammar, we have named the thing defined. When 
 we say, is that language study, we have put it into the smallest, known 
 class. When we say, which has for its subject-matter or unit the sentence, 
 we have given the mark of it which sets it off from all other mem- 
 bers of that class. 
 
 With what does grammar deai or what is its subject-matter? 
 (Make an outline of language subjects, showing the place 
 of grammar among them.) 
 
 Language Studies. 
 
 1 . Unit — the word. 
 
 m. Orthography. 
 
 b. Orthoepj'. 
 
 c. Word analysis. 
 
 2. Unit— the sentence. 
 
 a. Grammar. 
 
 3. Unit — discourse. 
 
 a. Composition and rhetoric. 
 6. Reading. 
 c. Literature. 
 
 THE SENTENCE AS A WHOLE. 
 
 EXERCISE 3. 
 
 Nature of the Sentence. 
 
 What is a sentence? 
 
 A sentence is a group of words which expresses a 
 
 thought; e. g., James is a tall boy. 
 
 What is a thought or judgment? 
 
 A thought or judgment is a mental act in which the mind 
 sees or asserts a relation between ideas. I have in mind the idea,
 
 42 A New English Grammar. 
 
 apple. I also have in mind the idea, red. But these do not con- 
 stitute a thought or judgment so long as they are isolated, for 
 red may belong to cloud, or hall, or card; but so soon as my mind 
 thinks or asserts the idea, red, of the idea, apple, or sees that the 
 red is an attribute of the apple, or that it is not an attribute of the 
 apple, then it has a judgment which may be expressed in the sen- 
 tence. The apple is red, or The apple is not red. 
 
 What are the necessary elements of a thought or judgment? 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing example that a judgment or 
 thought has three necessary elements: 1. An idea about 
 which the mind thinks or asserts something. 2. An idea which the 
 mind thinks or asserts of the first idea. 3. A relation which it sees 
 to exist between the two and by which it unites the elements into 
 one thing — the judgment. 
 
 In the following sentences, point out the three elements of 
 each thought expressed : 
 
 1. The house is large. 
 
 2. The trees are maples. 
 
 3. The school studies. 
 
 Note.— other examples may be found in Part H. 
 
 Name and define each of the elements of a thought or judg- 
 ment. Illustrate. 
 
 These elements of the judgment, we call the thought subject, 
 the thought predicate, and the thought relation in order to 
 distinguish them from the parts of the sentence.* 
 
 The thought subject is that idea about which the mind thinks 
 or asserts something. 
 
 The thought predicate is the idea which the mind thinks or 
 asserts of the thought subject. 
 
 The thought relation is that idea of relation which the mind 
 sees to exist between the thought subject and thought predicate. 
 This relation is always one of agreement or one of disagreement. 
 
 <■ The teacher cannot drill too much on this point or be too careful to have the 
 pupil distinguish between the thought or judgment and the sentence.
 
 The Parts of the Sentence. 48 
 
 The mind always sees that the thought predicate is a part or attri- 
 bute of the thought subject; e. g., The man is charitable, The sun 
 shines. Or it sees that the thought subject is an individual or a 
 class of individuals and the thought predicate is an individual or a 
 class, and that one forms a part of the other; e. g., Monroe was a 
 statesman, Violets are plants. These men are natives. When the mind 
 thinks of any of these relations between thought subject and thought 
 predicate, we call it a relation of agreement. 
 
 But the mind may think just the opposite of this relation; i. e., it 
 may think the thought predicate as not belonging to the thought 
 subject, or that the thought subject is not a part of the thought 
 predicate; e. g., The man is not charitable, Monroe was not a states- 
 man. When the mind thinks this kind of relation between thought 
 subject and thought predicate, we call it a relation of disagreement. 
 
 In the thought or judgment expressed in the sentence, Webster, 
 the statesman, was a great lawyer, the idea, Webster, the statesman, is the 
 thought subject, because it is the idea about which the mind asserts 
 something. The idea, a great lawyer, is the thought predicate, be- 
 cause it is the idea which the mind asserts of the thought subject. 
 The thought relation is one of agreement, because the attributes of 
 a great lawyer, are asserted of Webster, the statesman, or are seen to 
 belong to him, or Webster, the statesman, is seen to constitute one of 
 the class, a great lawyer. 
 
 EXERCISE 4. 
 
 The Parts of the Sentence. 
 
 Name the parts of the sentence. To what elements of the 
 thought do they correspond? 
 
 The sentence exists for the purpose of expressing the thought. 
 There is no other use for a sentence. If there were no judgments to 
 express, we should have no use for sentences. The sentence, then, 
 is just a means or instrument. The means or instrument is always 
 adapted to the work which it is to perform. The sentence, then, 
 must be adapted to the thought. It must then have a part, express- 
 ing the thought subject; a part, expressing the thought predicate; 
 and a part, expressing the thought relation.* 
 
 * No thought is more vital in the subject of prammar than the one just stated. 
 The teacher will find a more extended discussion of it, beginning on page 18 of the 
 Introduction to " Studies in the Science of English Grammar."
 
 44 A New English Geammak. 
 
 The parts of a sentence are the subject, the predicate, 
 and the copula. 
 
 In the following sentences, point out the principal elements 
 of each thought expressed, and the corresponding parts of the 
 sentences: 
 
 1 . Science is organized knowledge. 
 
 2. Flowers are plants. 
 
 3. Knowledge ia power. 
 
 4. Planning saves time. 
 
 5. The human heart refuses to believe in a universe without a 
 purpose. 
 
 C\ Each is bound to all. 
 
 7. Artists are nearest God. 
 
 8. Do to-day thy nearest duty. 
 
 9. Could we rest, we must become smaller in soul. 
 Note.— Teacher may find other sentences in Part n. 
 
 Define each of the parts of the sentence. Give literal mean- 
 ing of each term. 
 
 The word, subject, comes from the Latin, sub, meaning under, and 
 jacere, meaning to throw. Literally, then, the word means to throw 
 under. 
 
 The word, predicate, comes from the Latin, prae, meaning before, 
 and dicare, meaning to make known, to declare. Literally, then, 
 the word means to make known or to declare before. 
 
 The word, copula, comes from the Latin, co, meaning together, and 
 apere, meaning to join, to seize. The word means, then, to seize or 
 join together. 
 
 The subject of the sentence is a word or group of words which 
 expresses the thought subject. 
 
 The predicate of the sentence is a word or group of words 
 which expresses the thought predicate. 
 
 The copula of the sentence is a word or group of words which 
 expresses the thought relation. 
 
 In the sentence. Science is organized knowledge, the subject of the 
 sentence is the word, science, because it expresses the thought subject.
 
 Classes of Sentences on Basis of Mea-ning. 
 
 45 
 
 The predicate of the sentence is the words, organized knowledge, be- 
 cause they express the thought predicate. The copula is the word, 
 is, because it expresses the thought relation. 
 
 (Make an outline of the principal elements of the thought 
 and the principal parts of the sentence.) 
 
 The thought ok judgment. 
 
 1. Definition. 
 
 2. Elements. 
 
 a. Thought subject. 
 
 b. Thought predicate, 
 c' Thought relation. 
 
 The sentence. 
 
 1. Definition. 
 
 2. Parts. 
 
 a. Subject. 
 h. Predicate. 
 c. Copula. 
 
 CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 
 
 EXERCISE 5. 
 
 On Basis of Meaning. 
 
 * State the efifect which eacli of the following sentences pro- 
 duces on the mind. Point out the principal elements of 
 each thought expressed : 
 
 1. The sun is shining brightly. 
 
 2. Is the sun shining brightly? 
 
 3. Oh, how brightly the sun is shining! 
 
 4. John, look out of the Vindow and see if the sun is shining 
 brightly. 
 
 5. Constant dropping wears away stone!?. 
 
 (i. Tom rowed with untired vigor, and with a difierent speed from 
 poor Maggie's. 
 
 7. Mercy, sir, how the folks will talk of it I 
 
 8. Men's evil manners live in brass, their virtues we write in water. 
 
 '■" These questions and fiugRestions should l)c simplified and expanded by the 
 teacher to suit the grade of mind witli which she is working. They are intended 
 to be suggestive, and any explanation the teacher can mal<e in assigning the lesson, 
 to make it more definite, will be helpful ; e. g., What is the meaning of each of the 
 following sentences? What does each one make you think? Suppose you used 
 each one yourself, what purpose would you have? etc., etc.
 
 46 A New English Gbammar. 
 
 9. Come, Rollo, let us take a walk. 
 
 10. "Think you, Abel," said Paul at last, "that the storm drove 
 thither?" 
 
 11. Whj' was the French Revolution so bloody and destructive ? 
 
 12. Praise ye the Lord. 
 
 13. Honey from out the quarreled hive I'll bring. 
 
 14. Lead us to some far-off sunny isle. 
 
 15. Where are you going, my pretty maid? 
 
 16. The teacher asked, " What are you doing?" 
 
 17. The Lord said to Cain, " Where is thy brother?" 
 
 18. Cain said, "Am I my brother's keeper?" 
 
 19. Judge not, that ye be not judged. 
 
 20. The way was long, the wind was cold, 
 The minstrel was infirm and old. 
 
 How many kinds of sentences do you find in the preceding 
 list? Define and illustrate each. On what basis is the divi- 
 sion made? 
 
 On basis of effect produced upon the mind, or purpose, 
 or meaning", sentences are of four kinds: Declarative, Interroga- 
 tive, Exclamatory, Imperative. 
 
 A declarative sentence is one which is addressed to the mind 
 for the purpose of giving it information; e. g., Men^s evil manners live 
 in brass, their virtues we -write in ivater. 
 
 An interrogative sentence is one which is addressed to the 
 mind for the purpose of obtaining information; e. g.. Why ivas the 
 French Revolution so bloody and destructive? 
 
 An exclamatory sentence is one which is addressed to the 
 mind for the purpose of awakening emotion ; e. g., Mercy, sir, how the 
 folks will talk oj it! 
 
 An imperative sentence is one which is addressed to the mind 
 for the purpose of moving the will ; e. g.. Come, Rollo, let us take a walk. 
 
 The Interrogative sentence always denotes that some element of 
 the thought is unknown and is sought for by the person using the 
 sentence. If one says. Who is in the room f he shows that his thought 
 subject is unknown and sought for. The word, who, indicates it, 
 and if you answer his question and say, James is in the room, you have
 
 Abkangembnt. 47 
 
 simply changed the word, who, to James, and have thereby supplied 
 the thought subject for which he was seeking. 
 
 In the sentence, What are you doing? the thought predicate is un- 
 known and sought for. It is indicated by the word, ivhat. In the 
 sentence. Whom do you wantf the direct object is unknown and 
 sought for. It is indicated by the word, Wwm. In the sentence, 
 h the room xvarmf the thought relation is unknown and sought for 
 and it is indicated by the arrangement of the sentence. If you 
 change the arrangement thus. The room is warm, there is no element 
 of the thought unknown and sought for. 
 
 EXERCISE 6. 
 
 Arrangement. 
 
 State concerning the following sentences, whether they 
 simply express a thought, or express a thought some element 
 of which is unknown and sought for. If the latter, state 
 what element of the thought is unknown and sought for. 
 State what word or words denote the unknown element of 
 thought, or what it is that tells you there is an unknown ele- 
 ment of thought. Also point out sentences which do neither 
 of the above and state their uses. 
 
 1. I am a poor man. 
 
 2. Who will help me ? 
 
 3. Every man's task is his life-preserver. 
 
 4. Whose book have you ? 
 
 5. What will you take ? 
 
 6. Of whom do you speak ? 
 
 7. When shall it be morn in the grave? 
 
 8. The devil can catch a lazy man with a bare hook. 
 
 9. Am I required to go? 
 
 10. Can'st thou number the stars? 
 
 11. Send the letter in the first mail. 
 
 12. Hath the rain a father? 
 
 13. How frightful is the grave! 
 
 14. Can'st thou stop the winds in their course?
 
 48 A New English Grammar. 
 
 15. Will you bring me the book ? 
 
 16. Bring me the book. 
 
 17. How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him that 
 bringeth glad tidings! 
 
 18. Children, obey your parents. 
 
 19. Go in peace and sin no more. 
 
 20. How far yon candle throws its little beam! 
 
 21. There is no place like home. 
 
 22. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 
 
 23. "If it feed nothing else," said Shylock, "it will feed my 
 revenge." 
 
 24. How wonderful is sleep ! 
 
 25. Be ye perfect, even as your Father in Heaven is perfect. 
 
 26. How completely his passion has blinded him ! 
 
 27. Consider my servant Job. 
 
 28. Thou Shalt not steal. 
 
 29. I wish to know how far it is to Xenia. 
 
 30. The truth, itself, is not believed, 
 From one who often has deceived. 
 
 31. My poor mother was worried all day. 
 
 32. The poor child is dead. 
 
 33. That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 
 
 34. Charity begins at home. 
 
 35. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to 
 conquer themselves. 
 
 Observe the position of the words in the preceding sen- 
 tences and state the arrangement of the different classes of 
 sentences. 
 
 What do we mean by arrangement? What kinds have 
 we? Define and illustrate each. Write a sentence with the 
 subject of thought unknown and sought for; the predicate 
 of thought or a part of it; the thought relation. What dis- 
 tinguishes an exclamatory sentence from a declarative sen-
 
 Arrangement. 49 
 
 tence which expresses feeling? Illustrate, What do we mean 
 by a sentence interrogative in form and declarative in mean- 
 ing; declarative in form but imperative in meaning; inter- 
 rogative in form and imperative in meaning? Illustrate each. 
 
 Arraugemeiit is the order in which the parts of the sentence 
 occur. 
 
 There are two main kinds : the regular or natural order and 
 the inverted order. 
 
 The natural order is that arrangement, usually found in de- 
 clarative sentences, in which the subject and its modifiers come first, 
 the copula and its modifiers next, and the predicate and its modi- 
 fiers last ; e. g., The devil can catch a lazy man with a bare hook. 
 
 The declarative sentence is not always arranged in this way ; e.g., 
 Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 
 
 By the inverted arrangement, we mean any order of the 
 parts of the sentence other than the natural order. 
 
 The usual arrangement for the declarative sentence is the natural 
 order. 
 
 If, in the interrogative sentence, the thought subject is unknown 
 and sought for, the arrangement is the natural order; e.g., Who 
 kilkd Cock Robin f When any other element of the thought is un- 
 known and sought for, the arrangement is inverted order. If there 
 is a word in the sentence which denotes the unknown element of 
 the thought, it will come first in the sentence; e. g.. Whom do ye 
 aeekf Sometimes a preposition will be used before it; e. g.. For 
 whom did he inquire f When the unknown element of the thought 
 is indicated by the arrangement of the sentence, the copula or an 
 auxiliary verb is used first in the sentence ; e. g., h the bridge safef 
 Do you believe his story? It will be noticed that this arrangement 
 occurs only when the thought relation is unknown and sought for. 
 
 The exclamatory sentence may have either arrangement. 
 
 The only peculiarity of the imperative sentence is that the sub- 
 ject of it is usually understood. 
 
 Since this division of sentences is on basis of meaning, or eflPect 
 produced upon the mind, the form, arrangement, or punctuation of 
 
 4
 
 50 A Nbw English Grammar. 
 
 the sentence which we may have under consideration, will not help 
 us to classify it. A declarative sentence may express feeling, but 
 its chief purpose will be to convey information. If we say, The poor 
 child is dead, we, no doubt, express emotion ; but if we are speaking 
 to one who does not know the fact, our purpose is clearly to convey 
 to him information, and the sentence is declarative. But we might 
 use the same words merely to express our emotion, in which case, 
 the sentence would be exclamatory. 
 
 If we say, Can^st thou stoj) the tvinds^ in their course? we are evidently 
 not seeking for information. We mean, It is impossible for any one 
 to stop the winds in their course, and the sentence is declarative. 
 
 If we saj', I wish you to close your books, the sentence has the ar- 
 rangement of a declarative sentence ; but it is evidently addressed 
 to the mind for the purpose of influencing the will. On basis of 
 meaning, it is imperative. 
 
 So in the sentence, Will you bring me a drink f the sentence is in- 
 terrogative in form and punctuation ; but it is imperative in mean- 
 ing, because it is addressed to the mind for the purpose of influen- 
 cing the will. 
 
 EXERCISE 7. 
 Punctuation. 
 Punctuate the following sentences, giving reasons : 
 
 1. OhKvhat a fall was there my countrymen , 
 
 2. Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness , 
 .3. Oh how happy I am . 
 
 4. Oh that I had the wings of a dove . 
 
 5. Alas that thou shouldst die 
 
 ti. Oh that this too too solid flesh would melt 
 
 7. Oh that those lips had language 
 
 8. Oh it hurts me 
 
 9. Oh father listen to mu 
 
 10. Oh wretched state 
 
 11. Oh where shall rest be found 
 
 12. Fie on him 
 
 13. Oh that I could And him 
 
 14. O bosom black as death 
 
 15. O for a kindly touch from that pure flame
 
 Punctuation. 61 
 
 16. O what a rapturous cry 
 
 17. Strike oh Muse in a measure bold 
 
 18. O what a fair and miuistering angel 
 
 19. A horse a horse my kingdom for a horse 
 
 20. What a piece of work is man how noble in reason how infi- 
 nite in faculties in form and moving how express and admirable in 
 action how like an angel in apprehension how like a god the beauty 
 of the world the paragon of animals 
 
 State the punctuation of the Declarative, Interrogative, 
 Exclamatory, and Imperative sentences. 
 
 All sentences should begin with capital letters. 
 
 The declarative sentence should close with a period. 
 
 The interrogative sentence should close with a question mark. 
 
 The exclamatory sentence must be considered with reference to 
 two points : 
 
 (1). The punctuation of the interjection. 
 
 (2). The punctuation at the close of the sentence. 
 
 If the interjection and the sentence express different emotions, the 
 interjection and the sentence should each be followed by an exclama- 
 tion point; e. g., Pshaivl what a stupid dolt! If the interjection and 
 the sentence unite pretty closely to express the same emotion, the 
 interjection may be followed by a comma and the sentence by an 
 exclamation point; e. g.. Oh, tvhat a rapturous cry! If the interjec- 
 tion and the sentence unite very closely to express the same emo- 
 tion, no mark need be placed after the interjection, but the sen- 
 tence should close with an exclamation point; e. g., Oh for a kind- 
 ling touch from that pure flame! If the interjection expresses the 
 emotion and the sentence is addressed to the mind for the purpose 
 of conveying information, asking for information, or influencing the 
 will, the interjection sliould be followed by an exclamation point 
 and the sentence by its appropriate mark; e. g., Oh! it hurts mc. 
 Fie ! What have I to do with love f Zounds ! bring the hoy to me. 
 
 When do we spell the word o-h and when 0? 
 
 Some authorities insist on using in direct address only, and oh 
 always to express emotion; but they are used indiscriminately by 
 the best writers. (See the dictionary, nndei' 0.)
 
 52 A New English Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISE 8. 
 
 Outline of Sentence. 
 
 Make an outline of sentences on basis of effect produced 
 upon the mind, or use, or meaning, including the following 
 points : 
 
 1. Definition. 
 
 2. Classes. 
 
 3. Arrangement. 
 
 4. Punctuation. 
 
 •Sentence. 
 
 ^"*' I. Definition. 
 II. Classes. 
 
 1. On basis of efi'ect produced upon the mind, or meaning, 
 or puipose. 
 (1). Declarative. 
 
 a. Definition. 
 
 b. Classes. 
 
 (a). Declarative in form and meaning. 
 (b). Interrogative in form and declara- 
 tive in meaning. 
 
 c. Arrangement. 
 
 d. Punctuation. 
 (2). Interrogative. 
 
 a. Definition. 
 
 b. Classes. 
 
 (a). Interrogative in form and meaning. 
 (b). Declarative in form and interroga- 
 tive in meaning. 
 
 c. Arrangement. 
 
 d. Punctuation. 
 (3). Exclamatory. 
 
 a. Definition. 
 
 b. Arrangement. 
 
 c. Punctuation. 
 (4). Imperative. 
 
 a. Definition. 
 
 b. Classes. 
 
 (a). Imperative in form and meaning. 
 
 (6). Interrogative in form and impera- 
 tive in meaning. 
 
 (o). Declarative in form and imperative 
 in meaning. 
 
 c. Arrangement. 
 
 d. Punctuation.
 
 As Determined by the Form of the Thought. 53 
 
 CLASSES OF SENTENCES. . 
 
 EXERCISE 9. 
 
 On Basis of Form as Determined by the Form of the 
 
 Thought 
 
 Examine the following sentences and be .tble to sui. 
 principal elements in the thought expressed by each, j.- 
 do the sentences differ? How many kinds are there on basi 
 of the fundamental difference? 
 
 1. Washington, the father of his country, was ourfii-st ( 
 
 2. Washington, who was the father of his country, was our tir 
 president. 
 
 3. Washington was the father of his country, and he was our lirst 
 president. 
 
 Name, give literal meaning of terms, and define the classes 
 of sentences just illustrated. Upon what basis is this division 
 made ? 
 
 On ba.sis of the form of the sentence as determined hy 
 the form of the thouj^iit, we have three kinds of sentences: 
 Simple, ComiKuind, and Complex. 
 
 The word, simple, comes from the Latin, sine, meaning without, and 
 plica, meaning a fold. The word Hterally means, then, without a fold. 
 
 The word, compound, comes from the Latin, com, or con, meaning 
 with or together, and ponere, meaning to place, to put, to lay. The 
 word hterally means, then, placed together or put togetlier. 
 
 The word, complex, comes from the Latin, com, or con, meaning 
 with or together, and plectere, meaning to twist. The word literall\ 
 means, then, twisted together. 
 
 A simple sentence is one which expresses only one thought 
 subject, one thought ])redicate, and one thought relation; e. g., 
 Charity begins at home. 
 
 A compound sentence is one which expresses two or more 
 coordinate, independent thoughts; e.g., Example appeals not to our 
 understanding alone, but it awakens our passions likewise.
 
 54 A New English Grammar. 
 
 A complex sentence is one which expresses one principal 
 thought and one or more subordinate thoughts; e.g., If you blow your 
 neighbor's f re, don't complain if the sparks fly in your face. 
 
 EXERCISE 10. 
 ('lassify the following sentences on the basis given above 
 and state the principal elements of each thought expressed: 
 
 1. William Cullen Bryant was born at Cummington, Massachu- 
 setts, November 3,. 1794. 
 
 2. The Embargo was published in Boston in 1809, and was written 
 when Bryant was but thirteen years old. 
 
 3. The Catskill Mountains have always been a region full of 
 fable. 
 
 4. He used to tell his story to every stranger that arrived at Mr. 
 Doolittle's hotel. 
 
 5. Rip's story was soon told, for the whole twenty years had 
 been to him but as one night. 
 
 6. There is a power whose care 
 
 Teaches thy way along that pathless coast. 
 
 7. Vainly the fowler's eye 
 
 Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong. 
 
 8. All that breathe will share thy destiny. 
 
 9. I have heard that nothing gives an author so great pleasure 
 as to have his works respectfully quoted by other learned authors. 
 
 10. This pleasure I have seldom enjoyed. 
 
 11. Silently, one by oiie, in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
 blossomed the lovely stars. 
 
 12. Example appeals not to our understanding alone, but it 
 awakens our passions likewise. 
 
 1.3. If thou didst ever thy dear father love, revenge his foul and 
 most uncommon murder. 
 
 14. There is no flock, however watched and tended, 
 But one dead lamb is there! 
 There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 
 But has one vacant chair 1
 
 Thought Material. 65 
 
 15. Thou lingering star, M-ith lessening ray, 
 
 That lov'st to greet the early morn, 
 Again thou usherest in the clay 
 My Mary from my soul was torn. 
 
 16. Lightly and brightly breaks away 
 
 The morning from her mantle gray. 
 
 17. The strength he gains is from the embrace he gives. 
 
 18. Softly sweet in Lydian measures, 
 Soon he soothed his soul to pleasures ; 
 War, he sung, is toil and trouble ; 
 Honor but an empty bubble. 
 
 19. If you blow your neighbor's fire, don't complain if the sparks 
 fly in your face. 
 
 20. Do not measure other people in your half bushel. 
 
 21. 'Tis an old maxim in the schools, 
 That flattery's the food of fools ; 
 Yet now and then your men of wit 
 Will condescend to take a bit. 
 
 22. 'Tis with our judgments as our watches : none 
 Are just alike, yet each believes his own. 
 
 2.3. Love is the ladder on which we climb 
 To a likeness with God, 
 
 24. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate. 
 All but the page prescribed, their present state. 
 
 25. Faith builds a bridge across the gulf of death, 
 other good sentences may be found in Part II. 
 
 THOUGHT MATERIAL AND CUSSES OF WORDS. 
 
 EXERCISE 11. 
 Thought Material. 
 Classify the ideas expressed by the words in the following 
 sentences. State how they are alike and how they difFei. 
 Classify the words in the sentences and state their uses:   
 1 . JeflTereon, the author of the constitution, was a great statesman .
 
 56 A New English Grammak. 
 
 2. The boy's friend ran home to send a telegram to his anxious 
 mother. 
 
 3. He, himself, sent his boy to me. 
 
 4. It is I ; be not afraid. 
 
 5. The people watched them in silence. 
 
 6. I will go with you. 
 
 7. He of the rueful countenance answered without delay. 
 
 8. Bread and milk is very good food. 
 
 9. The flag is red, white, and blue. 
 
 10. The tall boy is doubtless exceedingly helpful to his mother. 
 
 11. The well is just thirty feet deep. 
 
 12. The president administers the government very well for the 
 people. 
 
 13. You should have come an hour sooner. 
 
 14. The child read an hour 
 
 15. The man is doubtless honest. 
 
 16. The house stands just across the river. 
 
 17. The blue and yellow badge belongs to Michigan University. 
 
 18. The man gave money to the poor. 
 
 19. Minneapolis is a beautiful city. 
 
 20. Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again. 
 
 21. Goodness is commendable. 
 
 22. He left yesterday. 
 
 23. The stove is hot. 
 
 24. The smooth glass is transparent. 
 
 25. Dry leaves are brittle. 
 20. The soft fur is warm. 
 
 27. The sour cider was made to-day. 
 
 28. The red sky is beautiful. 
 
 29. The running stream murmurs sweetly. 
 
 30. The rushing storm is frightful. 
 
 31. Thisbe met a roaring lion. '*
 
 Thought Material. 67 
 
 32. The soul is that which thinks, feels, and wills. 
 
 33. Who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward or the 
 spirit of the beast which goeth downward? 
 
 34. The Mississippi is the longest river in the world. 
 
 35. There were giants in those days. 
 
 36. Pshaw ! I do not care a fig. 
 
 37. Now, Barrabas was a robber 
 
 38. Well, what did he say ? 
 
 39. Now then, I will proceed. 
 
 40. Man, like the child, accepts the proffered boon. 
 And clasps the bauble, where he asked the moon. 
 
 41. In the shipwreck of the state, trifles float and are preserved; 
 while everything solid and valuable sinks to the bottom, and is lost 
 forever. 
 
 42. In peace, children bury their parents ; in war, parents bury 
 their children. 
 
 43. If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores 
 but to diminish his desires. 
 
 44. Words are the counters of wise men, and the money of fools. 
 
 45. A juggler is a wit in things, and a wit, a juggler in words. 
 
 46. Charity creates much of the misery it relieves, but does not 
 relieve all the misery it creates. 
 
 47. Worth makes the man, the want of it the fellow. 
 
 48. Know then this truth, enough for man to know. 
 Virtue alone is happiness below. 
 
 49. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 
 
 50. The poor and the rich, the weak and the strong, the young 
 and the old have one common Father. 
 
 Name and define the classes of ideas you have found ex- 
 pressed in the preceding sentences. Name and define the 
 classes of words used in expressing them. What is the 
 basis of your division ? Give the literal meaning of object, 
 concrete, abstract, attribute, attributive, substantive.
 
 58 A New English Grammar. 
 
 Make a complete outline of thought material or ideas, and 
 words. 
 
 By thought material we mean the ideas out of which the mind 
 constructs thoughts. 
 
 There are three kinds of these ideas: ohjects of thought, 
 attrihvites, and relations. 
 
 If we consider such ideas as table, cloud, truth, mercy, goodness, we 
 will see that they are ideas about which the mind can tliink or affirm 
 something. We may say, Truth is everlasting, The table is too high. 
 
 These ideas differ from such as tall, round, of, is, and, about which 
 the mind can think or affirm nothing. "We cannot make tfie ideas, 
 tall, of, etc., the subjects of thoughts. 
 
 But the ideas, tall, round, long, hard, differ from the ideas, of, is, 
 and, etc. Such ideas as tall, round, long, hard, always belong to, or 
 constitute an element of other ideas. We must think a tall boy, or 
 long pencil, etc. But if we say, a man of wealth, the booh on the t'lhh', 
 the ink is black, the idea, of, is simply the connection which the mind 
 sees between the ideas, man and wealth; the idea, on, is the connec- 
 tion which the mind sees between the ideas, book and table; the 
 idea, is, is simply the relation which the mind sees between the 
 thought subject and the thought predicate. These ideas do not 
 belong to other ideas; the idea, on, belongs neither to book nor table; 
 it is simply the relation of the one to the other. 
 
 The word, object, comes from the Latin, ob, meaning against, and 
 jacere, meaning to throw. Literally, then, the word means that 
 which is thrown against. 
 
 An object of thought is an idea about which the mind can 
 affirm something. We must not think that it is always an objective 
 thing, or that it can be known only through the senses. The ideas, 
 soul, spirit, Jieaven, thought, brightness, faith, are objects of thought, just 
 as much as the ideas, knife, book, river, tree, are. 
 
 Objects of thought are again divided into two classes : abstract 
 and concrete. 
 
 The word, abstract, conies from the Latin, ah, meaning from, and 
 trahere, meaning to draw. Literally, then, the word means that 
 which is drawn from.
 
 Thought ]\Iaterial. 59 
 
 An abstract object of thougiit is one which was first known 
 as an attribute. The mind has thought it away from the object in 
 which it was found and has made an object of thought out of it ; e. g., 
 honesty, charity, brightness. 
 
 The word, concrete, comes from the Latin, con, meaning witli or 
 together, and crescere, meaning to grow. Literally, then, the word 
 means to grow together. 
 
 A concrete object of thougiit is an object of thought which 
 was first known by its attributes ; e. g., sun, flower, river, spirit, air, 
 thought. 
 
 The word, attribute, comes from the Latin, ad, meaning to or upon, 
 and tribuere, meaning to bestow. Literally, then, the word means 
 that which is bestowed upon a thing. 
 
 An attribute is a mark or a characteristic by which we know 
 another idea ; e. g., broad, deep, soft, white. 
 
 Attributes may be divided into four classes: qualities, 
 actions, conditions, and relations. 
 
 An attribute of quality is a mark or characteristic which re- 
 mains permanent in the idea to w-hicli it belongs; e. g., Jong road, 
 golden hair, round pencil, etc. 
 
 An attribute of action is an attribute which distinguishes the 
 idea to which it belongs by what it does ; e. g., babbling brook, prat- 
 tling child, pacing horse. The bird sings, Alice studies. 
 
 An attribute of condition is an attribute which distinguishes 
 the idea to whicli it belongs by its relation to itself at some other 
 time; e. g., hot stove, dead grass, old hat. 
 
 An attribute of relation is an attribute which distinguishes 
 the idea to which it belongs by its connection with some other idea; 
 e. g., the boy on tJie front seat, man in tlie moon, the house which was 
 sold last tveek. 
 
 The word, relation, comes from the Latin, re, meaning again, back, 
 and /err^, meaning to bring, to bear, and ion, meaning the act of. 
 Literally, then, the word means the act of bearing back. 
 
 An idea of relation is the connection which the mind sees to 
 exist between ideas ; e. g., in, of, but, was, etc. 
 
 Ideas of relation are of two kinds : coordinate and subor- 
 dinate.
 
 60 A New English Grammar. ' 
 
 The word, coordinate, comes from the Latin, co or con meaning 
 with or together, and ordinare, meaning to regulate. Literally the 
 word means, then, to regulate with or together. 
 
 A coordinate relation is the idea of relation which the mind 
 sees to exist between ideas or thoughts of equal rank; e. g.. Bread 
 and milk is good food, How wonderful is sleep, Charity creates much 
 of the misery it relieves, hut does not relieve all the misery it creates. 
 
 The word subordinate, comes from the Latin, sub, meaning under, 
 and ordinare, meaning to set in order, to arrange. Literally, then, 
 the word means to arrange or to set in order under. 
 
 A subordinate relation is that idea of relation which the mind 
 sees to exist between ideas or thoughts of unequal rank ; e. g., Oliver 
 was on his way /ro?n Ludgate ^oCornhill, it;/i,ewhemetagroup 0/ boot- 
 blacks, " If it feed nothing else," said Shylock, " it will feed my re- 
 venge," The minstrel, who was infirm and old, was a great favorite. 
 
 Thought Material. 
 I. Definition. 
 II. Classes. 
 
 1. Objects of thought. 
 
 (1). Abstract. 
 (2). Concrete. 
 
 2. Attributes. 
 
 (1). Quality. 
 (2). Action. 
 (3). Condition. 
 (4). Relation. 
 
 3. Relations. 
 
 (1). Coordinate. 
 
 a. Between ideas of equal rank; e.g.. The 
 
 flag is red, white, and blue. 
 
 b. Between thoughts of equal rank; e.g.. 
 
 Who knoweth the spirit of man 
 that goeth upward or the spirit of 
 the beast which goeth downward? 
 (2). Subordinate. 
 
 a. Between ideas of unequal rank; e.g., 
 
 Lincoln, the martyr to the cause of 
 freedom, -'as a good president. 
 
 b. Between thougnts of unequal rank ; e. g., 
 
 The soul is that tvhich thinks, feels, 
 
 and wills, 
 
 Note.— Perhaps the ideas expressed by the words, if they express any ideas, 
 pshaw, pooh, alas, ah, and the like, are not included in the above classification. 
 These are not very important in the construction of judgments. Perhaps they are 
 attributes of relation.
 
 Words. 61 
 
 EXERCISE 12. 
 
 Words. 
 
 A ■word is a symbol which expresses an idea; e. g., toy, so, egg. 
 
 Since we have three great classes of ideas, we must have 
 three great classes of words, corresponding to them. They are 
 suhstantive words, attributive words, and relation words. 
 
 The word, substantive, comes from the Latin, sub, meaning under, 
 stare, meaning to stand, and live, meaning relating to. Literally, 
 then, the word means relating to that which stands under. 
 
 A substantive word is a word which expresses an object of 
 thought; e. g., desert, gold, valley, he, they. 
 
 On basis of the manner in which they express objects 
 of thought, substantive words are divided into nouns and pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 A noun is a substantive word which expresses an object of 
 thought by naming it; e. g., Harry, town, stream. 
 
 A pronoun is a substantive word which expresses an object of 
 thought without naming it; c. g., it, we. 
 
 The word, attributive, comes from the Latin, at or ad, meaning to 
 or upon, trihuere, meaning to bestow, and iive, meaning relating to. 
 Literally, then, the word means relating to that which is bestowed 
 upon a thing. 
 
 An attributive word is a word which expresses an attribute; 
 e.g., long way, )veary traveler. 
 
 There are three classes of attributive words : adjectives, ad- 
 verbs, and attributive verlxs. 
 
 An adjective is an attributive word which expresses an attribute 
 of an object of thought without asserting it; e.g., small boy. The 
 apple is red. 
 
 An adverb is an attributive word which expresses an attribute of 
 an attribute or of a relation; e. g., swiftly, sweetly, soundly. 
 
 An attributive verli s an attributive word which expresses an 
 attribute of an object of thought and asserts it; e. g., walked, laughed, 
 told. 
 
 A relation word is a word which expresses an idea of relation ; 
 e. g., arc, to, and.
 
 62 A New English Grammar. 
 
 On basis of the kinds of ideas of relation to be expressed, 
 there are three kinds of relation words; viz., conjunctions, 
 prepositions, and pure verbs. 
 
 A conjunction is a relation word which expresses a relation be- 
 tween coordinate ideas or between thoughts; e. s-, Yellow and blue 
 is a pretty combination, He desired to pray but it was denied him, 
 This is the place /or I know the house. 
 
 A preposition is a relation word which expresses a relation be- 
 tween ideas of unequal rank; e.g., Star 0/ the east, Visions in the 
 night. 
 
 A pure verb is a relation word which expresses the relation be- 
 tween thought subject and thought predicate only. 
 
 Note.— The only pure verb in the English language is the verb be in all its forms. 
 A few other verbs are sometimes used as pure verbs. (See Whitney, p. 158.) 
 
 Words. 
 
 I. Definition. 
 II. Classes. 
 
 1. Substantive. 
 
 (1). Noun. 
 (2). Pronoun. 
 
 2. Attributive. 
 
 (1). Adjective. 
 
 (2). Adverb. 
 
 (3). Attributive verb 
 
 3. Relation words. 
 
 (1). Conjunction. 
 (2). Preposition. 
 (3). Pure verb. 
 
 Note.— Perhaps the words, pshnw, pooh, alas, ah, as well as such words as there 
 in the sentence, There were giants in those days, or ircll in the sentence, Well, did you 
 volef would not be included in the above classification. They are not very import- 
 ant in the expression of the thought. The first, may be called interjections or feel- 
 ing words; the last, form words or expletives. 
 
 An interjection or feeling- word is a word which expresses 
 an idea of feeling or emotion ; e. g.. Oh, alas. 
 
 A form word or expletive is a word which does not help to 
 express the thought, but changes the arrangement of the sentence 
 or in some way adds to its form; e.g.. There is a pleasure in the 
 pathless wood.
 
 Modifiers. 63 
 
 MODIFIERS. 
 
 EXERCISE 13. 
 
 Explain tlje use of each italicized expression in the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 1. James, the maso7i, is ill. 
 
 2. Man/s book is soiled. 
 
 .3. The great plains are good grazing districts. 
 
 4. The ichite snow hurts my eye». 
 
 5. He sold Henry a booh. 
 
 6. The work was neatly done. 
 
 7. The child was good in school. 
 
 8. The boy was tardy yesterday. 
 
 9. He comes because he is entertained. 
 
 10. The man is charitable in his way. 
 
 1 1 . The apple is very sweet. 
 
 12. The girl is often tardy. 
 
 13. The stranger is charitable, tlad Itc may receive praise. 
 
 14. The teacher is strict with his pupils. 
 
 15. The boy went along with his mother. 
 
 16. The judge is generous except ivitJi his enemies. 
 
 17. The minister had lately come from the East. 
 
 18. The cistern had been filled //-om the spout. 
 
 19. The girl is not good, even if she is entertained. 
 
 20. The garden was prepared icith the spade. 
 
 21. It I?, probably true. 
 
 22. The story is certainly interesting and perhaps true. 
 
 23. He traded with an Indian. 
 
 24. He built the house with his aim money. 
 
 25. The demonstration is necessarily true. 
 
 26. The ground is not wet. 
 
 27. Cleveland is at this time president.
 
 64 A New English Grammar. 
 
 28. When the shadows of evening fall, the sunbeams fly away. 
 
 29. We stood upon the ragged rocks 
 Whf'.n the long day was nearly done. 
 
 30. Make hay ivhile the sun shines. 
 
 31. Some must watch tohile others weep. 
 
 32. The buttercup comes early in the spring, 
 
 33. The party walked home. 
 
 34. The river is .a mile broad. 
 
 35. You should have come an hour eooneT. 
 
 36. The bird built her nest six inches above the door. 
 
 Classify, name, and define the expreseions considered in 
 the preceding sentences. What is the basis of your division ? 
 Make a complete outline of modifiers. 
 
 A modifier is a word or group of words which expresses an id^a 
 that changes some other idea and which is not asserted of that 
 other idea; e. g., The tall tree is a pine. The word, " tall," expresses 
 an idea which changes the idea, tree, and the idea, tall, is not asserted 
 of the idea, t7ee. 
 
 Modifiers always express objects of thought or attributes ; hence, 
 we have substantive modifiers and attributive modifiers. • 
 
 A sub.stantive modifier is a modifier which expresses an object 
 of thought ; e. g., James sold his hone. 
 
 An attributive modiflei? is a modifier which expresses an attri- 
 bute ; e. g.. Large crowds attended the meetings. 
 
 Substantive modifiers are divided into the following classes : ap- 
 positive, possessive, direct objective, indirect objective, 
 adverbial objective. 
 
 An appositive modifier is a substantive modifier which ex- 
 presses the same object of thought as the word which it modifies; 
 e. g., My father, the minister, io well known here. 
 
 A possessive modifier is a substantive modifier which changes 
 the meaning of the word wliich it modifies by denoting possession; 
 e. g., The king's head was in danger.
 
 Modifiers. 65 
 
 A direct objective modifier is a substantive modifier the object 
 of thought expressed by which, is directly affected by the attribute 
 expressed by the word which it modifies ; e. g., My son loves money. 
 
 An indirect objective modifier is a substantive modifier the 
 object of thought expressed by which, is indirectly affected by the 
 attribute expressed by the word which it modifies ; e, g., My son, 
 take your father the book. 
 
 An adverbial objective modifier is a substantive modifier 
 which expresses an adverbial idea;, e. g., We talked tivo hours,. 
 
 Attributive modifiers are divided into the following classes: ad- 
 jective and adverbial. 
 
 An adjective modifier is an attributive modifier which ex- 
 presses an unasserted attribute of an object of thought ; e. g.. The 
 melancholy days have come. 
 
 An advei'bial modifier is an attributive modifier which ex- 
 presses an attribute of an attribute or of a relation ; e. g., They were 
 irarmly received. She has always been kind. 
 
 The ideas which may be expressed by the adverbial modifier are 
 time, place, cause, manner, degree, frequency, purpose, accompani- 
 ment, exclusion, direction, source, concession, doubt, necessity, ne- 
 gation, certainty, reason, condition, etc. These may be found illus- 
 trated and should be worked out from the sentences above. 
 
 Modifiers. 
 
 1. Definition. 
 II. Classes. 
 
 1. Substantive. 
 
 (1). Definition. 
 (2). Classes. 
 
 a. Appositive. 
 
 /'. Possessive. 
 
 c. Direct Objective. 
 
 d. Indirect Objective. 
 
 e. Adverbial Objective. 
 
 2. Attributive. 
 
 1). Definition. 
 (2). .Classes. 
 
 a. Adjective. 
 /;. Adverbial.
 
 66 A New English Grammar. 
 
 PREDICATES. 
 
 EXERCISE 14. 
 
 State the use of each italicized expression in the following : 
 
 1. Corwin was an excellent advocate. 
 
 2. The stranger listened eagerly to the story. 
 
 3. The ]^^xm€tl-Schoo{ is a s^jQlJor teachers. 
 
 4. The boys were haxuisaijie and ing/niy. 
 
 5. Languages have long, almost always indeed, been a subject of 
 study. 
 
 6. But one may be an accomplished linguist, reading and speaking 
 many tongues, without being an adept in the science of language. 
 
 7. Professor Max Miiller, of the University of Oxford, and Pro- 
 fessor William Dwight Whitney, of Yale, are the great authorities on 
 the science of language. 
 
 8. Is the pen mightier thau. the sword ? 
 
 9. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 
 10. It takes two to quarrel. 
 
 What differences have you noticed in the predicates of 
 the preceding sentences? Name and define the classes. 
 Upon what basis have you divided them ? 
 
 The predicate is that part of the sentence which expresses the 
 thought predicate ; e. g.. The snow falls. 
 
 On basis of form, predicates are conibiiied and uncom- 
 bined. 
 
 A <M)iiiT)iiied predicate is a predicate in which the principal 
 part of the thought predicate and the thought relation are expressed 
 by one word; e. g., Tom loves his mother. In this example, the prin- 
 cipal part of the thought predicate and the thought relation are ex- 
 pressed by the word, " loves." 
 
 An iinconibined predicate is a predicate in which the principal 
 part of the thought predicate and the thought relation are expressed 
 in different words; e.g., The earthquake was horrible in this region.
 
 Substantive Words in Simple Sentence. 67 
 
 In this example, the principal part of the thought predicate is ex- 
 pressed by the word, " horrible," and the thought relation is ex- 
 pressed by the word, " was." 
 
 On basis of idea expressed or meaning-, predicates are sub- 
 stantive or attributive. 
 
 A substantive predicate is a predicate which expresses an 
 object of thought; e. g., Time is money. 
 
 An attributive predicate is a predicate which expresses an 
 attribute; e. g., A rolling stone gathers no moss. 
 
 Predicates. 
 
 I. Definition. 
 II. Classes. 
 
 1. On basis of form. 
 
 (1). Combined. 
 (2). Uncombined. 
 
 2. On basis of idea expressed or meaning. 
 
 (1). Substantive. 
 (2). Attributive. 
 
 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
 
 EXERCISE 15. 
 
 Substantive Words in Simple Sentence. 
 
 State the uses of the italicized words in the following sen- 
 tences. Classify the sentences and the italicized words: 
 
 1. Washington, the &rst president of the United States, was a great 
 statesman. 
 
 2. The child's anxious teacher sent the hoy home to hi.s mother. 
 '.J. Gad, a troop shall overtake him. 
 
 4. He, himself, wrote me the note. 
 
 5. It is T. 
 
 6. The teacher saw them studying. 
 
 7. Without me, ye can do nothing.
 
 68 A New English Grammar. 
 
 8. I alone am left to tell the story, 
 
 9. Yellow and blue makes^a pretty badge. 
 
 10. The flower is red and white. 
 
 11. I, myself, will assist you. 
 
 12. A righteous man needs no monument. 
 
 13. God does not expect us to have charity for dn. 
 
 14. Dyed whiskers are like hypocrisy. 
 
 15. They deceive only one person. 
 
 EXERCISE 16. 
 
 Noun and Pronoun in Simple Sentence. 
 
 State all the uses of the noun and pronoun in the simple 
 sentence and state all the modifiers which may belong to 
 them. 
 
 In the simple sentence, the noun may be used as subject, predi- 
 cate, appositive, possessive, direct objective, indirect objective, or 
 adverbial objective modifier, principal word of a prepositional 
 phrase, and absolutely or independently. 
 
 Note.— These points together with all that follow, are illustrated in the sen- 
 tences. The teacher should have the pupil think out these results from the sen- 
 tences. 
 
 In the simple sentence, the noun may have the following modi- 
 fiers : appositive, possessive, limiting adjective modifier, descriptive 
 adjective modifier. 
 
 A limiting- adjective iiioditler is an adjective modifier, the 
 chief purpose of which is to narrow the meaning or application of 
 the word it modifies ; e. g^, These men are foreigners. 
 
 A descriptive adjective modifier is an adjective modifier, the 
 chief purpose of which is to make prominent the attribute which 
 it expresses; e. g., The blue sky is beautiful. 
 
 The uses of the pronoun in the simple sentence are the same as 
 those of the noun, except that it is not used as an adverbial object- 
 ive modifier. 
 
 The modifiers of the pronoun are the same as those of the noun, 
 except that it does not take the possessive modifier.
 
 Relation Words in Simple Sentence. 69 
 
 EXERCISE 17. 
 
 Attributive Words in Simple Sentence. 
 
 Classify and state the use of each italicized word in the 
 
 following sentences. Classify the sentences : 
 
 1. The large horse is doubtless exceedingly usefid to his owner. 
 
 ~ 2. The house stands jhs< across the river. 
 
 3. The river is a mile broad. 
 
 4. The honest boy very promptly gave the man his money. 
 
 5. The lesson should have been prepared an hour sooner. 
 
 6. The river fell six inches. 
 
 State all the uses and modifiers which attributive words 
 may have in the simple sentence. Illustrate each by one 
 example. 
 
 The attributive verb is used in the simple sentence to form the 
 principal part of the predicate and to express the thought relation. 
 
 The following modifiers may belong to the attributive verb in the 
 simple sentence: adverbial, direct objective, indirect objective, and 
 adverbial objective. 
 
 The adjective may be used in the simple sentence as the princi- 
 pal part of the uncombined attributive predicate and as a modifier 
 of a substantive word. 
 
 An adjective may take an adverbial modifier, an indirect objective 
 modifier, and an adverbial objective modifier. 
 
 An adverb may be used in the simple sentence to modify a pure 
 verb, an attributive verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a preposition. 
 
 An adverb in the simple sentence may take an adverbial modifier 
 and an adverbial objective modifier. (See Whitney, Par. 390.) 
 
 EXERCISE 18. 
 Relation Words in Simple Sentence. 
 
 State the use of each italicized expression in the following 
 sentences and classify the sentences : 
 
 1. You are doubtlesn right. 
 
 2. The bird built her nast just above the door.
 
 "0 A New English Grammar. 
 
 3. The boy w devoted to his mother. 
 
 4. The poet and scholar is dead. 
 
 o. The arrow struck two inches below the center. 
 
 State all the uses and modifiers of relation words in the 
 simple sentence. Give one example of each. 
 
 The pure verb has only one use; viz., to show the relation be- 
 tween thought subject and thought predicate, and it has only one 
 modifier— the adverbial. 
 
 The preposition may be used as the relation word of a preposi- 
 tional phr?se in the simple sentence, or it may be used to show the 
 relation between an indirect object and the attribute which indi- 
 rectly affects it. It may take an adverbial modifier and an adverbial 
 objective modifier. 
 
 The object of thought expressed by the indirect objective modifier 
 is the indirect object; the object of thought expressed by the 
 direct objective modifier is the direct object. 
 
 The conjunction in the simple sentence has just one use; viz., 
 to express the relation between ideas of equal rank. 
 
 EXERCISE 19. 
 
 Form and Feeling Words in Simple Sentence. 
 
 State the use of the italicized words in the following and 
 classify the sentences : 
 
 1. Poo/i .' I do not believe it. 
 
 2. Alas ! what mortal terror we are in. 
 
 3. Well, did you vote ? 
 
 4. Now, I do not believe a word of it. 
 
 5. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 
 
 6. There have always been people who loved to tell bad news. 
 
 In addition to the words given above, we may have used in the 
 simple sentence feeling words or interjections and form words or 
 expletives.
 
 The Phrask. 71 
 
 EXERCISE 20. 
 The Phrase. 
 
 Nov we have worked out all the kind;? of words used in the sim- 
 ple sentence, the uses of these words, and the niodiliers which oai h 
 may take. Sometimes a number of words unite to express a single 
 idea, or the group of words has the use of a single word ; e. g., The 
 "speaker stood o» the platfonn. In this sentence, the group of words. 
 " on the platform," expresses the idea of place. My brother arrivcil 
 in ihf evening. In this example, the group of words, '' in the even- 
 ing," expresses the idea of time. A man of uealth may do much 
 good. The words, "of wealth," express one idea and the expres- 
 sion might be changed to, -I vealthi/ man mai/ do much <jooiJ. 
 
 State the use of each italicized expression in the following. 
 Classify the expressions on as many diti'eront hases as you 
 are ahle to discover by noting important diiVorences among 
 the expressions. Name and define each class of expressions: 
 
 1. The State University o/'Jfjjimw/d is located in the citi/ of Min- 
 neapolis. 
 -. He has learned to love and obey his teacher. 
 o. The boy to be chosen must be intelligent to be ustful. 
 
 4. He lives to assist his friends. 
 
 5. To lie willingh/ is base. 
 
 6. Walking the race was tiresome to tlie man wearing the blue coat. 
 
 7. We could not cross, being unable to ford the river. 
 
 8. Being a member of the regimoit, he passed unchallenged. 
 
 9. The city of large dimensions sends the most goods to foreign 
 countries. 
 
 10. Out of sight is out of mind. 
 
 11. Civsar ??i/^/i/ have been king. 
 
 .\ phrase is a group of words not having a subject, predicate, and 
 copula, and used in the sentence with the value of a single word. 
 
 On basis of oliaraotovistie Avord, i>iirases arc divided into four 
 classes : prepositimial, infinitive, partii-ipfal, and verbal.
 
 72 A New English Gkammar. 
 
 A prepositional phrase is a phrase whose characteristic word 
 is a preposition ; e. g., She loves to ride early in the morning. 
 
 An infinitive phrase is a phrase whose characteristic word is an 
 infinitive; e. g., To love the truth will make one happy. 
 
 A pai'tioipial phrase is a phrase whose characteristix; word is a 
 participle ; e. g., Holding Jds light high above his head, he peered into 
 the darkness. 
 
 A verhal phrase is a phrase whose characteristic word is a verb ; 
 e. g., The child mighl have been lost in the storm. 
 
 On basis of form, phrases are simple, complex, and com- 
 pound. 
 
 A simple phrase is a single phrase ; e. g., The sun shines in my 
 
 eyes. 
 
 A complex phrase is a phrase which has in it two or more 
 phrases^one principal and the others subordinate; e. g., To think 
 no evil in one's heart is a difficult thing. 
 
 A compound phrase is a phrase which is made up of two or 
 more phrases of equal rank; e. g., Children should be taught to love 
 and to obey God. 
 
 On basis of use, phrases are substantive and attributive. 
 
 A substantive phrase is a phrase which is used in the sentence • 
 with the value of a substantive word ; e. g., To go to church every 
 Sunday is a small part of our christian duty. 
 
 An attributive phrase is a phrase which is used in the sentence 
 with the value of an attributive word; e. g., Abraham was called a 
 friend of God. 
 
 Attributive phrases may be adjective or adverbial. 
 
 An adjective phrase is a phrase which is used in the sentence 
 with the value of an adjective ; e. g., Truth crushed to earth will rise 
 again. 
 
 An adverbial phrase is a phrase which is ustd in the sentence 
 with the value of an adverb ; e. g., Remember now thy Creator, in 
 the days of thy yoidh.
 
 Simple Sentence with Compound Element. 78 
 
 EXERCISE 21. 
 Simple Sentence with Compound Element. 
 
 State whether or not the conjunction, in the following 
 sentences, expresses the relation between coordinate thoughts, 
 or between coordinate parts of the same thought : 
 ~1. Mary learns easily but she forgets soon. 
 
 2. The cow and calf are together. 
 
 8. Pinks and roses are fragrant. 
 
 4. That is a red and white flower. 
 
 o. Birds chirp and sing. 
 
 6. Five and four are nine. 
 
 7. You and I are going. 
 
 8. The great statesman and orator is dead. 
 
 9. The moon and stars are shining. 
 
 10. The scholar and poet was also a christian and patriot. 
 
 State the difference between sentences having different uses 
 of the conjunction. Define each kind of sentence illustrated 
 in the preceding sentences. *Make an outline of the simple 
 sentence. 
 
 Grammarians have not distinguished clearly between a simple 
 sentence witli a compound element and an abridged com- 
 pound sentence. They would not distinguish between the sen- 
 tences: Plnlcs and rosea are fragrant, and Five and four are nine. They 
 would call each a simple sentence with a compound element. There 
 is a clear distinction, however, between the two. The first one means, 
 Pinks are fragrant and roses are fragrant. There are two assertions 
 made, one of the idea, pinks, and one of the idea, roses. We do not 
 have to think the two ideas together in order to assert the idea,/ra- 
 grant, of them. It is, therefore, an abridged compound sentence. 
 
 The second one cannot be expanded in that way. We cannot as- 
 sert the idea, nine, of the ideas, five and four, taken separately, saying, 
 
 ■■■• The teacher .should here have the pupils work out an outline of the simple 
 sentence, similar to that given under " Modifiers."
 
 76 A New English Grammar. 
 
 A subordinate or dopoiulent clause is a clause which is used 
 in the sentence with the value of a single word; e. g., The subject 
 must obey his prince, because God commands it, and human laivs re- 
 quire it. 
 
 Sul)ordinate or dependent clauses are of two kinds: sub- 
 stantive and attributive. 
 
 A substantive clause is a clause which is used in the sentence 
 with the value of a substantive word; e. g., Thou knowest that 1 
 love thee. 
 
 An attributive clause is a clause which is used in the sentence 
 with the*value of an attributive word ; e.g., Who woidd he free, them- 
 selves must strike the blow. 
 
 Attributive clauses are of two kinds : adjective and adverbial. 
 
 An adjective clause is a clause which is used in the sentence 
 with the value of an adjective; e. g., 
 
 Mortals that woidd follow me, 
 Love virtue; she alone is free. 
 
 An adverbial clause is a clause which is used in the sentence 
 with the value of an adverb; e. g., 
 
 Or if Virtue feeble were, 
 
 Heav'n itself wpuld 'stoop to her. 
 
 EXERCISE 24. 
 
 Relations Between Thoughts Expressed by the Mem- 
 bers of Compound Sentences. 
 
 Point out the clauses and conjunctions in the following, 
 and try to state the kind of relation expressed by each con- 
 junction : 
 
 1. I awoke and I got up at once. 
 
 2. The sun was up, but it was hidden behind the clouds. 
 
 3. The bird was shot or some one had struck it. 
 
 4. It is my duty, therefore I must do it. 
 
 5. A king must win or he must forfeit his crown forever. 
 
 6. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something 
 until hereafter.
 
 Relations BetweenCooedinate Thoughts. 77 
 
 7. It is not snowing, nor is it raining. 
 
 8. Some are born great ; some achieve greatness ; and others 
 have greatness thrust upon them. 
 
 9. The man dies but his memory lives. 
 
 10. The man pays his debts promptly, therefore he is honest. 
 
 11. Be temperate in youth or you will have to be abstinent in 
 old age. 
 
 12. Of thy unspoken word thou art master ; thy spoken word is 
 master of thee. 
 
 13. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir 
 up strife. 
 
 14. There was a gay maiden lived down by the mill — 
 
 Ferry me over the ferry— 
 Her hair was as bright as the waves of a rill, 
 When the sun on the brink of his setting stands still, 
 
 Her lips were as full as a cherry. 
 
 15. This world is all a fleeting show. 
 
 For man's illusion given; 
 The smiles of joy, the tears of woe, , 
 
 Deceitful shine, deceitful flow — 
 
 There's nothing true but heaven ! 
 
 16. The splendor falls on castle walls 
 
 And snowy summits old in story; 
 The long light shakes across the lakes. 
 And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 
 
 17. And now there came both mist and snow. 
 And it grew wondrous cold. 
 
 And ice mast-high came floating by. 
 As green as emerald. 
 
 18. The day is done; and slowly from the scene 
 The stooping sun uj)gathers his spent shafts, 
 And puts them back into his golden quiver. 
 
 19. Night dropped her sable curtain down, and pinned it with a 
 star. 
 
 20. A blind man is a poor man, and blind a poor man is; for the 
 former seeth no man, and the latter no man sees.
 
 76 A New English Geammab. 
 
 A subordinate or dopciiclent clause is a clause which is used 
 in the sentence with the value of a single word; e. g., The subject 
 must obey his |)rince, became God commands it, and human laws re- 
 quire it. 
 
 Subordinate or dependent clauses are of two kinds: sub- 
 stantive and attributive. 
 
 A substantive clause is a clause which is used in the sentence 
 with the value of a substantive word; e. g., Thou knowest that 1 
 lave thee. 
 
 An attribvitive clause is a clause which is used in the sentence 
 with the'value of an attributive word; e.g., Who woidd be free, them- 
 selves must strike the blow. 
 
 Attributive clauses are of two kinds: adjective and adverbial. 
 
 An adjective clause is a clause which is used in the sentence 
 with the value of an adjective; e. g., 
 
 Mortals that vmdd follow me, 
 Love virtue; she alone is free. 
 
 An adverbial clause is a clause which is used in the sentence 
 with the value of an adverb ; e. g., 
 
 Or if Virtue feeble were, 
 
 Heav'n itself w^uld 'stoop to her. 
 
 EXERCISE 24. 
 
 Relations Between Thoughts Expressed by the Mem- 
 bers of Compound Sentences. 
 
 Point out the clauses and conjunctions in the following, 
 and try to state the kind of relation expressed by each con- 
 junction : 
 
 1. I awoke and I got up at once. 
 
 2. The sun was up, but it was hidden behind the clouds. 
 8. The bird was shot or some one had struck it. 
 
 4. It is my duty, therefore I must do it. 
 
 5. A king must win or he must forfeit his crown forever. 
 
 6. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something 
 until hereafter.
 
 Relations BetweenCoordinate Thoughts. 77 
 
 7. It is not snowing, nor is it raining. 
 
 8. Some are born great ; some achieve greatness ; and others 
 have greatness thrust upon them. 
 
 9. The man dies but his memory lives. 
 
 10. Tije man pays his debts promptly, therefore he is honest. 
 
 11. Be temperate in youtli or you will have to be abstinent in 
 old age. 
 
 12. Of thy unspoken word thou art master ; thy spoken word is 
 master of thee. 
 
 13. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir 
 up strife. 
 
 14. There was a gay maiden lived down by the mill — 
 
 Ferry me over the ferry — 
 Her hair was as bright as the waves of a rill, 
 When the sun on the brink of his setting stands still. 
 
 Her lips were as full as a cherry. 
 
 15. This world is all a fleeting show. 
 
 For man's illusion given; 
 The smiles of joy, the tears of woe, , 
 
 Deceitful shine, deceitful flow — 
 
 There's nothing true but heaven! 
 
 16. The splendor falls on castle walls 
 
 And snowy summits old in story; 
 The long light shakes across the lakes. 
 And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 
 
 17. And now there came both mist and snow. 
 And it grew wondrous cold. 
 
 And ice mast-high came floating by, 
 As green as emerald. 
 
 18. The day is done; and slowly from the scene 
 The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts, 
 And puts them back into his golden quiver. 
 
 19. Night dropped her sable curtain down, and pinned it with a 
 star. 
 
 20. A blind man is a poor man, and blind a poor man is; for tlu' 
 former seeth no man, and the latter no man sees.
 
 78 A New Enqltsh Grammar. 
 
 What is meant by the members of compound sentences? 
 
 Define and illustrate the different kinds of relations which 
 
 may exist between the thoughts expressed by the members 
 
 of compound sentences. 
 
 All the kinds of words used in the simple sentence are also used 
 in the compound sentence, and they may have all the modifiers 
 which they may take in the simple sentence. In addition to all the 
 uses given in the simple sentence, the pronoun and adverb, in the 
 •compound sentence, may each have a connective use; e. g.. The 
 election, which was hotly contested, was lost; but the defeated party 
 learned a valuable lesson when they saw their mistake. 
 
 The conjunction in the compound sentence, in addition to the 
 use given for it in the simple sentence, may also show the relation 
 between thoughts. • 
 
 The relations between coordinate thoughts, which the conjunc- 
 tion expresses, are of four kinds: addition, opposition, alter- 
 nation, and conclusion. 
 
 The relation of addition is that relation which exists between 
 coordinate thoughts when the thoughts are in the same line; the 
 typical conjunction to express this relation is "and;" e. g.. The 
 report is widely circulated and I believe it is true. 
 
 The relation of opposition is that relation which exists 
 between coordinate thoughts when the thoughts are not in the same 
 line; one thought may be directly opposed to the other; e. g., Yov 
 think he is dishoned hut he is not; or one thought may be opposed to 
 what might be inferred from the other ; e.g., The water is very deep Init 
 one can see the bottom. The typical conjunction to express this rela- 
 tion is "but." 
 
 The relation of alternation is that relation which exists be- 
 tween coordinate thoughts when the mind accepts one and rejects the 
 other; e. g., It is true or I am deceived; or when the mind rejects 
 both; e. g.. He is neither intelligent nor is he a gentleman. The typical 
 conjunction to express this relation is "or." 
 
 The relation of conclusion is that relation which exists be- 
 tween coordinate thoughts when one thought is an inference from the
 
 The Conjunction in the Compound Sentknce. 79 
 
 other; e. g., It is raining, therefore we cannot go. The typical conjunc- 
 tion to express this relation is "therefore." 
 
 The members of a compound sentence are the clauses which ex- 
 press the coordinate, independent thoughts. 
 
 EXERCISE 25. 
 
 The Conjunction in tine Compound Sentence. 
 
 State the members of the following compound sentences; 
 the kinds of relation existing between the thoughts expressed 
 by the members; the conjunction expressing the relation; 
 and note and explain the punctuation: 
 
 1. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are 
 they extremely warm in summer. 
 
 2. The man takes plenty of exercise ; he is well. 
 
 3. We must conquer our passions or they will conquer us. 
 
 4. People in the streets are carrying^ umbrellas; hence it must 
 be raining. 
 
 5. Neither James nor John had his lesson. 
 
 6. Solomon was both learned and wise. 
 
 7. Though it is deep, yet it is clear. 
 
 8. I care not whether it rains or snows. 
 
 9. Unto us was the gospel preached as well as unto them. 
 
 10. The house was built upon a rock ; it did not fall. 
 
 11. The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs himself. 
 
 12. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should 
 not be the web. 
 
 1.3. I was told to go else I should remain. 
 
 14. Be industrious, otherwise you will come to grief. 
 
 15. Margaret Fuller, whom the waves buried, accomplished much 
 good; but she was taken away in the midst of her usefulness. 
 
 16. Ignorance is the curse of God, knowledge the wing wherewith 
 we fly to heaven. 
 
 17. The conscious water saw its Lord, and blushed.
 
 80 A New English Grammar. 
 
 18. The aspen heard them, and she trembled. 
 
 19. O dark and cruel deep, reveal 
 The secret that thy waves conceal ! 
 And ye wild sea-birds hither wheel 
 And tell it me. 
 
 20. ~He cast off his friends as a huntsman his pack, 
 
 For he knew when he wished he could whistle them back. 
 
 21. There is much that is deciduous in books, but all that gives 
 them a title to rank as literature in the highest sense is perennial. 
 
 22. I do not like to say it, but he has sometimes smothered the 
 child-like simplicity of Chaucer under feather-beds of verbiage. 
 
 23. Zeal and duty are not slow, 
 
 But on occasion's forelock watchful wait. 
 
 24. Earth felt the wound; and nature from her seat 
 Sighing, through all her works gave signs of woe. 
 
 25. In peace, thou art the gale of spring; in war, the mountain 
 storm. 
 
 State the typical conjunction used to express each kind of 
 relation. Give the literal meaning of each. Write lists of 
 conjunctions used to express the different kinds of relations 
 existing between the thoughts expressed by the members of 
 compound sentences. Be able to use each conjunction in 
 sentences. 
 
 EXERCISE 26. 
 Punctuation of Compound Sentence. 
 
 State the punctuation of the compound sentence, men- 
 tioning all the modifying influences. 
 
 The members of a compound sentence may be separated by a 
 comma, semicolon, colon, or no mark at all. 
 
 The kind of mark used will depend upon the following points. 
 (1). Interpunctuation. (2). Presence or absence of the conjunction. 
 (3). The kind of relation expressed. (4). Length of clauses.
 
 Punctuation of Compound Sentence. 81 
 
 Punctuate the following sentences, giving reasons; state the 
 kind of relation existing between the thoughts expressed by 
 the members; and separate each member into its principal 
 parts : 
 
 A. No one ought to wound the feelings of another or to insult him 
 
 2. A wise man se^k^to shine in himself a fool to outshine others 
 
 3. Men are not to be judged by their looks habits and appear- 
 ances but by their lives 
 
 4. Stones grow plants grow animals grow feel and live 
 
 5. Avoid affectation it is a contemptible weakness 
 
 6. Harbor no malice in thy heart it will be a viper in the bosom 
 
 7. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and 
 wise men use them 
 
 8. The wise man considers what he wants the fool what he 
 abounds in 
 
 9. The noblest prophets have been children lisping the speech 
 laughing the laugh of childhood 
 
 10. The mountains rise and circling oceans flow 
 
 11. He suffered but his pangs are o'er 
 
 Enjoyed but his delights are fled 
 Had friends his friends are now no more 
 And foes his foes are dead 
 
 12. Swift to the breach his comrades fly 
 Make way for liberty they cry 
 
 And through the Austrian phalanx dart 
 As rushed the spears through Arnold's heart 
 
 13. Leaves have their time to fall 
 
 And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath 
 
 And stars to set but all 
 Thou hast all seasons for thine own Death 
 
 14. Themistocles was cautious and he was al^oyaliant but the 
 wisdom of the serpent and the courage of the lion could not prevail 
 against destiny 
 
 15. Turn gentle hermit of the vale 
 
 And guide thy lonely way 
 To where yon taper cheers the dale 
 With hospitable ray
 
 82 A New English Grammar. 
 
 ^ EXERCISE 27. 
 
 Definitions. 
 Define and illustrate a regular compound sentence; an 
 abridged compound sentence; a simple sentence with a com- 
 pound element; and a compound-complex sentence. Be ready 
 to expand your abridged compound sentences into regular 
 compound sentences, and show that your simple sentences 
 with compound elements cannot be expanded. 
 
 A regular coinpoiincl sentence is a compound sentence in 
 which all the elements of each thought are expressed; e. g., Faithful 
 are the wounds of a friend, hut the kisses of an enemy are deceitful. 
 
 An abridged compound sentence is a compound sentence in 
 which the common elements of the thoughts are expressed but once ; 
 e. g., May I govern my passions rvith absolute sway, 
 
 And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
 
 A simple sentence with a compound element is a simple 
 sentence some element of the thought expressed in which is a 
 compound idea; e. g., Bread and milk is good food. 
 
 A compound-complex sentence is a compound sentence 
 having among its members one or more complex; e. g., 
 Her sunny locks 
 
 Hang on her temples like a golden fleece, 
 Which makes her seat of Belmont, Colchos' sti-and, 
 And many Jasons come in quest of her. 
 
 EXERCISE 28. 
 Analysis of Compound Sentence. 
 
 State the following facts of the following sentences : 
 
 1. Classify the sentence. 
 
 2. Read the members. 
 
 3. Name the conjunction and state the kind of relation 
 expressed by it.
 
 Analysis of Compound Sentenck. 83 
 
 4. Verify the punctuation. 
 
 5. Analyze each member. 
 
 a. Give entire subject. 
 
 b. Give entire predicate. 
 
 c. Give entire relational element. 
 
 d. Give principal word of the subject and the modi- 
 
 fiers of it. 
 
 e. Same of other parts. 
 
 1. Apply yourselves to study ; it will redound to your honor. 
 
 2. Every man desires to live long but no man would be old. 
 
 3. Few and short were the prayers we said, 
 
 And we spake not a word of sorrow; 
 But we silentlj' gazed on the face of the dead, 
 And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 
 
 4. So Heaven decrees ; with Heaven who can contend ? 
 
 5. Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses of an 
 enemy are deceitful. 
 
 0. May I govern my passions with absolute sway, 
 And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
 
 / . 
 
 Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 
 And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 
 
 8. Upon her breast a sparkling cross she wore. 
 Which Jews might kiss and infidels adore; 
 Her lively looks a sprightly mind disclose — 
 (Juick as her eyes, and as unfixed as those; 
 Favors to none, to all she smiles extends ; 
 Oft she rejects, but never once offends. 
 
 '.I. Tlie vine still clings to the mouldering wall. 
 But at every gust the dead leaves fall. 
 
 10. And as a hare, when hounds and horns pursue, 
 Pants to the i^lace from whence at first he flew, 
 [ still had hopes, my long vexations past. 
 Hero to return, and die at home at last.
 
 84 A New English Grammar. 
 
 11. Take her up tenderly, 
 
 Lift her with care, 
 
 Fasliioned so slenderly, 
 
 Young and so fair. 
 
 12. Come as the winds come, when 
 
 Forests are rended ; 
 Come as the wind comes, when 
 Navies are stranded. 
 
 13. Alas, 'tis true I have gone here and there, 
 And made myself a motley to the view. 
 
 Gored mine own thoughts, sold cheap what is most dear. 
 
 14. Fond fool ! six feet of earth is all thy store, * 
 And he that seeks for all shall have no more. 
 
 15. This is the state of man: to-day he puts forth 
 The tender leaves of hope; to-morrow blossoms. 
 And bears his blushing honors thick upon him ; 
 The third day comes a frost, a killing frost. 
 
 16. A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope ; a pretended 
 patriot, he impoverished the country. 
 
 17. There are but few voices in the world but many echoes. 
 
 18. He is a freeman whom the truth makes free. 
 And all are slaves beside. 
 
 19. And neither the angels in heaven above. 
 Nor the demons down under the sea, 
 Can ever dissever my soul from the soul 
 Of the beautiful Annabel Lee. 
 
 20. Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund Day 
 Stands tiptoe on the mountain tops. 
 
 21. Any nobleness begins at once to refine a man's features,— 
 any meanness or sensuality to imbrute them. 
 
 22. This should have been a noble creature ; he 
 Hath all the energy which would have made 
 A goodly frame of glorious elements. 
 
 Had they been wisely mingled. 
 
 23. But look, the morn in russet mantle clad 
 Walks o'er the dew of yon high, eastern hill.
 
 The Substaktive Clause. 85 
 
 24. See how the morning opes her golden gates, 
 And takes her farewell of the glorious sun ! 
 
 25. I saw from the beach when the morning was shining, 
 
 A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on ; 
 I came, when the sun o'er that beach was declining — 
 The bark was still there, but the waters were gone. 
 For other good sentences, see Part II. 
 
 * Make an outline of the compound sentence. 
 
 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
 
 EXERCISE 29. 
 
 The Substantive Clause. 
 
 State the use of each italicized expression in the following 
 sentences. Substitute a clause for each expression, making 
 the sentences complex: 
 
 1. Weakness is your excuse. 
 
 [Explanation.— The word, weakness, is here used as the subject of 
 the sentence. We might substitute for it the following clause: That 
 you are weak is your excuse. The clause is now used as the subject 
 of the sentence.] 
 
 2. The result was the signing of the treaty. 
 
 3. They asked his presence. 
 
 4. This fact, the rotundity of the earth, is believed by all. 
 
 .'). There is some dispute about the real discoverer of America, 
 
 6. We are desirous of your success. 
 
 7. They insisted on your remaining. 
 
 State the use of the clause you have substituted in each 
 case in the preceding sentences. 
 
 * The teacher should here require the pupil to construct an outline similar to 
 that constructed for "Modifiers" or " The Simple Sentence."
 
 86 A New English Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISE 30. 
 
 Ill the following sentences, read the principal clause and 
 
 then the subordinate. State the use of each subordinate 
 clause. Note and explain the punctuation: 
 
 1. What you say is of little consequence. 
 
 2. My home is wherever I am happy. 
 
 3. I know not where they have laid him. 
 
 4. The fact, that it was done by him, is apparent. 
 
 5. He traded with what capital he had. 
 
 6. When letters were first used, is not certainly known. 
 
 7. A peculiarity of English is that it has so many borrowed words. 
 
 8. The fact, that mold is a plant, is wonderful. 
 
 9. That stars are suns, is the belief of astronomers. 
 
 10. Astronomers believe that stars are suns. 
 
 11. The belief of astronomers is that stars are suns. 
 
 12. The belief, that stars are suns, is held by astronomers. 
 
 13. That the caterpillar turns to a butterfly, is a curious fact. 
 
 14. The thought, that we are spinning around the sun some twenty 
 miles a second, almost makes one dizzy. 
 
 15. We are quite sorry that it is so. 
 
 16. He was afraid lest he should fall. 
 
 17. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the pole. 
 
 18. They gave the goods to whoever wanted them. 
 
 19. The old lady put the question to whomever she met. 
 
 20. The missionaries preached to what people remained. 
 
 State all the uses of the substantive clause, usual form, in 
 
 the complex sentence. Write one original example of each use. 
 
 The words used in forming the complex sentence, their uses, and 
 the modifiers which may belong to them are all the same as in the 
 compound sentence. 
 
 The substantive clause in its usual form may have the follow- 
 ing uses in the complex sentence: subject, predicate, appositive,
 
 The Quotation. - 8" 
 
 direct objective, indirect objective, adverbial objective modifier, and 
 principal part of a prepositional phrase. 
 
 When the appositive clause does not restrict the word modified, 
 or combine closely with it, it should be separated from the word it 
 modifies by the comma. But the clause explanatory of the word, "it," 
 is very seldom so set off. 
 
 When the substantive clause is irregularly placed, it is set ofi'by 
 the comma. 
 
 When the principal clause breaks up the subordinate clause, it 
 should be set off by the comma. 
 
 When the clause ends in a verb and is followed by the same verb, 
 the two should be separated by a comma. 
 
 EXERCISE 31. 
 
 The Quotation. 
 
 State the principal clause and the subordinate clause in 
 each of the following sentences. State the use of the subor- 
 dinate clause. Note and explain the punctuation. How do 
 the clauses differ from those in the preceding list? 
 
 1. "Mental power can never be gained from senseless fiction," 
 says a certain writer. 
 
 2. The peacock struts about, saying, " What a fine tail I have! " 
 o. Socrates's greatest saying was, " Know thyself." 
 
 4. Shakespeare's metaphor, ".Night's candles are burned out," 
 is one of the finest in literature. 
 
 5. The shortest verse in the Bible is this: "Jesus wept." 
 
 6. " What have I done?" is asked by the knave and the thief. 
 
 7. Hamlet's exclamation M'as, " What a piece of work is man ! " 
 
 8. Cries of, " Long live the king! " rent the air. 
 
 9. The traveler said that he was weary. 
 
 10. The speaker said that Protection was a failure. 
 
 11. "You will," he said, "be well satisfied with the change."
 
 88 A New English Grammar. 
 
 12. A writer says, "I have heard more than one person say, 'I 
 am thankful.' " 
 
 13. I will ask you, " What can you do?" 
 
 14. The message ran thus: "England expects every man to do 
 his duty." 
 
 15. Charles Lamb, reading the epitaphs in a church-yard, in- 
 quired, "Where be all the bad people buried?" 
 
 16. In studying grammar through the English language, we must 
 purge our minds of the wooden notion, tliat it is an inherent quality 
 of a word to be this or that part of speech. 
 
 17. The whole force of conversation depends on how much you 
 can take for granted. 
 
 18. Nathan Hale's only regret was, that he had but one life to 
 give to his country. 
 
 19. Byron, seeing Moore eating an under-done beefsteak, asked if 
 he were not afraid of committing murder after such a meal. 
 
 20. Lowell has long been certain that the greatest vice of Ameri- 
 can writing and speaking is a studied want of simplicity. 
 
 Explain the difference between a direct and an indirect 
 quotation; between a substantive clause and a direct quota- 
 tion; between a substantive clause and an indirect quotation. 
 State the punctuation of the direct quotation. State all the 
 uses of the direct quotation in the complex sentence. Write 
 an original example of each use. 
 
 The direct quotation may be used in the complex sentence as sub- 
 ject, predicate, appositive modifier, direct objective modifier, and 
 principal ]:>art of a prepositional phrase. 
 
 A direct quotation should begin with a capital and be enclosed in 
 quotation marks, and is usually separated from the rest of the sen- 
 tence by the comma. 
 
 A direct quotation, when a question or exclamation, should be 
 followed by its appropriate mark.
 
 Punctuation and Capitalization. 89 
 
 When a direct quotation is broken up by another part of the sen- 
 tence, each part of the quotation should be enclosed in quotation 
 marks and separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma. 
 
 A direct quotation formally introduced should be preceded by a 
 colon. 
 
 A quotation within a quotation should be enclosed in single quo- 
 tation marks. 
 
 EXERCISE 32. 
 
 Punctuate and capitalize the following sentences, giving 
 reasons: 
 
 1. This we know that our future depends upon our present 
 
 2. The story of Washington's hatchet it is now believed is untrue 
 
 3. Why me the stern usurper spared I knew not 
 
 4. The project it is certain will succeed 
 
 5. Whatever is is right 
 
 6. He said the maxim a fool and his money are soon parted is 
 many times exemplified 
 
 7. In the New Testament are the following words Jesus answered 
 the Jews is it not written in your law 
 
 8. The English said Voltaire gain two hours a day by clipping 
 words 
 
 9. Gallop gasped Joris for Aix is in sight 
 
 10. The Queen said repeatedly with a firm voice into thy hands 
 Lord I commend my spirit 
 
 11. You lazy fellow cried Hercules how dare you send for me till 
 you have tried to do without me 
 
 12. Fly Rebecca for no human aid can avail you said Ivanhoe 
 
 13. Said the school master when asked about Esau the pupil said 
 Esau wrote a famous book of fables and sold the copyright for a 
 bottle of potash 
 
 14. What teacher of rhetoric has not sympathized with the der 
 lightful Portia in the Merchant of Venice when she says with a sigh 
 if to do were as easy as to know what were good to do chapels had 
 been churches and poor men's cottages princes' palaces
 
 90 A Nkw English Grammar. 
 
 15. Truth gets^ well says a certain writer even if she be run over 
 by a locomotive 
 
 16. The Mohammedans say God gave two-thirds of all the beauty 
 to Eve. 
 
 17. We daily verify the saying man's extremity is God's oppor- 
 tunity 
 
 18. The principle involved in resistance to tyrants is obedience 
 to God was the seminal principle of the American Revolution 
 
 19. The Ram's Horn says a self-made man likes to boast of his job 
 
 20. One historian says if we trac^k Queen Elizabeth through her 
 tortuous mazes of lying and intrigue the sense of her greatness is 
 almost lost in a sense of contempt 
 
 State all the rules for punctuating the substantive clause, 
 both in its usual form and as a direct quotation. 
 
 EXERCISE 33. 
 
 The Adjective Clause. 
 
 State the use of each italicized expression in the following- 
 sentences. State whether they narrow the meaning of the 
 word modified or simply make prominent an attribute of an 
 object of thought : 
 
 1. Mahomet, the founder of the faith of Islam, was born in Mecca. 
 
 [ExPL.\NATioN. — The expression, "the founder of the faith of 
 Islam," is an appositive modifier of the word, " Mahomet." It simply 
 makes prominent an attribute of the object of thought expressed 
 by that word. We could make a complex sentence out of it, as 
 follows: Malwmet, ivho was the founder of the faith of Islam, ivas born in 
 Mecca. The principal clause is, " Mahomet was born in Mecca." 
 The subordinate clause is, " who was the founder of the faith of 
 Islam," and it is descriptive. The connective word is, " who," and it 
 has two uses: (1). It is the subject of the subordinate clause. (2). 
 It expresses the relation between the principal thought and the sub- 
 ordinate thought or it joins the subordinate to the principal clause.] 
 
 2. Sunderland's crime was never forgiven by James.
 
 The Adjective Clause. 91 
 
 3. A man of good character will win respect. 
 
 4. The prisoner, stupefied i^h terror, could not respond. 
 
 ~5. The army, conquered at Waterloo, was commanded by Napoleon. 
 (). Solomon, the builder of t1ie. Temple, was the son of David. 
 
 7. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 
 
 8. Eice, largely consumed by the natives of Eastern Asia, requires a 
 damp soil. 
 
 9. Procrastination, the thief of time, is our worst enemy. 
 
 10. A selfish vc\&n,Alie ugliest thing upon which the angels leave to look, 
 is a disgrace to humanity. 
 
 Change each of the preceding sentences into a complex 
 sentence. State the principal clause and the subordinate 
 clause in each. State whether the subordinate clause is limit- 
 ing or descriptive. Point out the connective word and state 
 
 its uses. 
 
 A limiting- adjective clause is an adjective clause whose chief 
 use is to narrow the application of the woi'd it modifies. 
 
 A descriptive adjective clause is an adjective clause whose 
 chief use is to make prominent an attribute of the object of thought 
 expressed by the word which it modifies. 
 
 EXERCISE 34. 
 Observe the preceding instructions with regard to the follow- 
 ing sentences: 
 
 1. God rules the world, which he created. 
 
 2. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. 
 
 3. The man who conquers selfishness is brave. 
 
 4. The evil that men do lives after them. 
 
 5. I thrice presented him a kingly crown, which he did thrice 
 refuse. 
 
 6. My father, whom jill loved, was fond of flowers. 
 
 7. The girl and the cat, that were in the room, were having a 
 frolic. 
 
 8. The person who first ran to the sepulcher was a woman. 
 
 9. He purchased such books^ were wanted.
 
 92 A New English Grammar. 
 
 10. To live in hearts we leave behind is not. to die. 
 
 11. There is not a man here but knows it. 
 
 12. There is no fireside, but has one vacant chair. 
 
 13. As many as received him, to them gave he power. 
 
 14. Such as I have, give I unto thee. 
 
 15. To him who in the love of nature holds communion with her 
 visible forms, she speaks a various language. 
 
 16. It was to me that he gave the book. . 
 
 17. It was fromliim that I received the information. 
 
 18. The lever which moves the world's mind is the printing press. 
 
 19. The knights of the round table, who flourished in the reign 
 of King Arthur, were brave. 
 
 20. Margaret Fuller, whom the waves buried, was a good woman. 
 
 EXERCISE 35. 
 
 State the use of each italicized expression in the following. 
 Tr}^ to substitute one word for the entire italicized expres- 
 sion in each case. State all the uses of the word Avhich you 
 substitute: 
 
 1. He who wins may laugh. 
 
 [Explanation.— In the above sentence, the word, "He," is the 
 subject of the principal clause, " He may lau gh." The word, " who," 
 is the subject of the subordinate clause, " who wins," and also ex- 
 presses the relation between the principal thought and the subor- 
 dinate thought or it joins the subordinate clause to the principal 
 clause. The word, " whoever," might be substituted for, " He who." 
 The word, "whoever," would then have three uses: Two substan- 
 tive uses, subject of i^rincipal clause and subject of the subordinate 
 clause; and one connective use, expressing the relation between the 
 principal and the subordinate thought, or joining the subordinate 
 to the principal clause.] 
 
 2. The thing ivhich is right is safe. 
 
 3. He wants anything which he sees. 
 
 4. Tlie person whom falsehood pleases, truth offends. 
 
 5. Do the thing which is right.
 
 The Adjective Clause. 93 
 
 6. The Xtord-ebsisieneihr-cFfiy person whom he loveth. 
 
 7. Any person who runs may read. 
 
 8. The person who keepeth the haw is a wise son. 
 
 9. I speak as to wise men: judge ye the thing which I say. 
 i.0. The person who enters here should have a pure heart. 
 
 EXERCISE 36. 
 
 State all the uses of the italicized expressions in the fol- 
 lowing. Expand the words so as more clearly to show all 
 their uses: 
 
 1. W/ioewr sees not the sun is bhnd. 
 
 2. He 'knovii u'homever he has once seen. 
 
 3. Whx)so keepeth the law is a wise son. 
 
 4. Whatever he doeth shall prosper. 
 
 "). Whosoever sweareth by the gift that is on the altar is guilty. 
 
 6. Whosever child you have wronged shall be avenged. 
 
 7. Whosewever sins ye forgive shall be forgiven. 
 
 8. I will be satisfied with whomsoever you may appoint. 
 
 9. You may have rvhichever you want. 
 
 10. Whatsoever ye shall ask, that will I do. 
 
 11. The child does whatever he pleases. 
 
 12. He will do what is right. 
 
 13. You may select whichsoever you desire. 
 
 14. What he says is true. 
 
 15. Whosoever shall smite you on the right cheek, turn to him 
 the other also. 
 
 16. Into whatsoever city ye shall enter, inquire who is worthy. 
 
 17. Whosoever shall be ashamed of me, of him shall the son of 
 man be ashamed. 
 
 18. Whoever studies will learn. 
 
 19. Whoever does no good does harm. 
 
 20. Whoever bring.s tlie treasure will receive the reward. 
 
 Make complete lists of the simple and compound relative 
 pronouns. State the kind of object expressed by each. Show
 
 94 A Nkw English Grammar. 
 
 how the compound relatives are formed. When is the word 
 as used as a relative? Define relative pronoun; simple, com- 
 pound. What is an antecedent? What determines the case 
 form of the compound relative pronoun? State the punctua- 
 tion of the adjective clause. Write a sentence in which the 
 compound relative has a nominative use in the principal 
 clause and an objective use in the subordinate clause; one in 
 which the reverse is true. 
 
 A relative pronoun is a pronoun which has a connective use. 
 
 A simple relative pronoun is a relative pronoun which has 
 one substantive use. 
 
 A compound relative pronoun is a relative pronoun which 
 has two substantive uses. 
 
 An antecedent is that part of the sentence to which the con- 
 nective word refers and to which it joins the subordinate clause. 
 
 The case form of the compound relative pronoun must agree 
 with its use in the subordinate clause. 
 
 EXERCISE 37. 
 
 Explain the use of the following italicized expressions, and 
 the use of the clauses in which they occur. Substitute a single 
 word for each italicized expression, and state the uses of the 
 word thus substituted: 
 
 1. Youth is the time at ivhich the seeds of character are sown. 
 
 [Explanation. — The^xpressiOB, "at which," in the above sen- 
 tence, has two uses: (1). It modifies the word, "sown," in the sub- 
 ordinate clause. It is an adverbial modifier, expressing the adverb- 
 ial idea of time. (2). The word, "which," expresses the relation 
 between the principal and the subordinate thoiighj;.^^' it joins the 
 subordinate to the principal clause. The word, '^when-;" might be 
 substituted for the italicized expression, "at which," thus: Youth 
 is tJie time vjfien the seeds of character are sown. The word, " when," 
 then has the two uses of the italicized expression.] 
 
 2. I saw tlic city in which Longfellow jlived.
 
 The Adjective Clause. 95 
 
 3. The place to uhich she fled is unknown. f-C^--'^ 
 
 4. I know a bank o?i which the wild thyme grows. *T^^ ^ 
 
 5. You take the means &2/ 'w7^^■c/^ I live. 4^^f**h 
 - 6. This is the arrow vAth which he killed Cock Robin. 
 
 7. This is the house /roTO -uj/iic/i Arnold fled. , uU ■^'^'^ 
 
 8. I know the place of vhich you speak. ^^f-^'"'^ ' 
 
 9. I do not like the platform on irhich they stand. /*^a-<*^ *^ 
 10. The principle on vhich he acts is just. /^ '"^ 
 
 EXERCISE 38. 
 In the following sentences, state the principal clause; the 
 subordinate clause and the word it modifies; the connective 
 word and all its uses: 
 
 1. We came unto the laud whither thou sentest us. 
 
 2. I have shook off" the regal thoughts wherewith I reigned. 
 
 3. The play'.« the thing wherein I'll catch the conscience of the 
 king. 
 
 4. It was a time when men's heart? were tried. 
 T). The place where he fell is unknown. 
 
 0. He would give the duke no reasons why he followed a losing 
 suit. 
 
 7. Mark those laws whereby the universe is conducted. 
 
 8. A depot is a place where stores are kept. 
 
 9. A verb is a word whereby the chief action of the mind is 
 expressed. 
 
 10. The valley of Chamouni is a place where the traveler loves to 
 linger for days and even for weeks. 
 
 What is a conjunctive adverb? Make an outline of the 
 adjective clause, showing all the words which may be used 
 in joining it to the principal clause. 
 
 A conjuiictivi^ adverb is an adverb which has a connective use. 
 
 A simple conjunctive advevl) is a conjunctive adverb whicli 
 has one adverV)ial use.
 
 96 A New English Grammar. 
 
 An adjective clause may be joined to the word which it modifies 
 by a simple relative pronoun, a compound -relative pronoun, or a 
 simple conjunctive adverb. 
 
 The descriptive adjective clause should be separated from the rest 
 of the sentence by the comma. 
 
 EXERCISE 39. 
 The Adverbial Clause. 
 
 Explain the uses of the italicized expressions in the follow- 
 ing sentences. Try to substitute a single word for each ex- 
 pression, and then state all the uses of the substituted word : 
 
 1. Improve your moments during the time at which you are in school. 
 [Explanation. ^In the above sentence, the expression, " during 
 
 the time at which," has three uses : two adverbial uses and one con- 
 nective use. The phrase, "during the time," modifies the word, 
 "improve." It is an adverbial modifier, expressing the adverbial 
 idea of time. The phrase, "at which," modifies the word, "are." 
 It is an adverbial modifier, expressing the adverbial idea of time. 
 The word, " which," expresses the relation between the principal and 
 the subordinate thought, or it joins the subordinate to the principal 
 clause. The word, " while," may be substituted for the italicized ex- 
 pression, thus: Improve your moments while you are at school. Now 
 the word, " while," has the three uses of the italicized expression.] 
 
 2. Swiftly glide the hours at the time at which the heart is young. 
 
 3. Smooth runs the water at the place at which the brook is deep. 
 
 4. At the time at which he slept, she over him would spread his 
 mantle. 
 
 5. He sleeps at the place at which night overtakes him. 
 
 6. The boy does in the manner in which he pleases. 
 
 7. He became humbler in the degree in which he grew wiser. 
 
 8. Truth is strange in a degree in which fiction is not strange. 
 
 9. In the manner in which the twig is bent, the tree is inclined. 
 10. At the time at which Raleigh was launching paper navies, Shake- 
 speare was stretching his baby hands for the moon.
 
 The Adverbial Clause. 97 
 
 Make a definition of the class of words you have just been 
 substituting. 
 
 A compound conjiuictive adverb is a conjunctive adverb 
 which has two adverbial uses. 
 
 EXERCISE 40. 
 In the following sentences, state the principal clause; the 
 subordinate clause, stating what word it modifies; the con- 
 nective word and all its uses: 
 
 1. Gather dewdrops while they sparkle. 
 
 2. Peace rules the day when reason rules the hour. 
 
 3. Master, I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest. 
 
 4. Children of the Heavenly King, 
 As we journey, let us sing. 
 
 5. When Greeks joined Greeks, then began the tug of war. 
 
 6. Where the bee sucks, there suck I. 
 
 7. Whither I go, ye cannot come. 
 
 8. When the heart beats no more, then the life ends. 
 
 9. Mammon wins his way, where seraphs might despair. 
 
 10. Wheresoever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered 
 together. 
 
 11. Hell trembled as he strode. 
 
 12. In Britain, the conquered race became as barbarous as the 
 conquerors were. 
 
 13. Death itself is not so painful as is this sudden horror and 
 surprise. 
 
 14. His misery was such that none of the bystanders could refrain 
 from weeping. 
 
 15. He gazed so long, that both his eyes were dazzled. 
 
 16. As heroes think, so thought the Bruce. 
 
 17. The earlier you rise, the better your nerves will bear study. 
 
 18. Pride may be pampered, while the flesh grows lean. 
 
 19. They are better than we had expected. 
 
 20. He was so weak, that he fell. 
 
 7
 
 98 A New English Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISE 41. 
 
 State the use of the italicized words in the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1 . I left before suuri se. 
 
 2. I left before the sun rose. 
 
 [In the first sentence, the word, "before," is a preposition. How 
 does its use in the first sentence differ from that in the second?] 
 
 3. George Washington died after the accomplishment of his 
 great work. 
 
 4. George Washington died after his great work was accomplished. 
 
 5. The Lord hath blessed thee since my coming. 
 
 6. The Lord hath blessed thee since I came. 
 
 7. You should drink from the fountain of knowledge ere your 
 departure. 
 
 8. You should drink from the fountain of knowledge ere you 
 depart. 
 
 9.   You may wait till the arrival of the train. 
 
 10. You may wait till the train arrives. 
 
 11. He sat and talked until his death. 
 
 12. He sat and talked until he died. 
 
 t EXERCISE 42. 
 
 State the principal and subordinate clauses in each of the 
 following sentences, and explain the use of the connective: 
 
 1. He rushes to battle as if he were summoned to a banquet. 
 
 [Explanation. — If the sentence were expanded, it would read: 
 He rushes to battle as he would rush if he were summoned to a banquet. 
 The principal clause is, "He rushes to battle." The subordin- 
 ate clause is, "as he would rush if he were summoned to a ban- 
 quet." The connective is the word, "as," and it is a compound 
 conjunctive adverb. (See explanation above.) There is also a sub- 
 ordinate clause in the subordinate clause ; viz., " if he were sum- 
 moned to a banquet." The connective word is " if" and it is a pure 
 .subordinate conjunction, i. e., it has no other use except to join the
 
 The Adverbial Clause. 99 
 
 subordinate clause to the principal clause, or we might say, it ex- 
 presses the relation between the principal thought and the subor- 
 dinate thought.] 
 
 2. Our friends visited us as frequently as they could. 
 
 8. I will run as far as God has any ground. 
 
 4. Oft as the morning dawns should gratitude arise. 
 
 5. His head ached, so that he could scarcely study. 
 H. Since you insist upon it, I consent. 
 
 7. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew 
 them in the wilderness. 
 
 8. Our fathers sought these shores in order that they might 
 escape from persecution. 
 
 9. In case that we are beaten, we shall retreat. 
 
 10. How happy I could be with either, 
 Were t'other dear charmer away. 
 
 11. Cursed be I, that I did so. 
 
 12. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 
 
 13. If the war of the Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom, 
 it arrested its progress for a hundred years. 
 
 14. Obey the law of nature lest thou become unnatural. 
 
 15. Whereas the Embargo act injured the commerce of America, 
 it was repealed. 
 
 16. I will pay him so he will have no excuse for returning. 
 
 17. Except ye become as little children, ye can in no wise enter 
 the Kingdom of Heaven. 
 
 18. Unless you are competent, seek no promotion. 
 
 19. Ye know the heart of a stranger, seeing ye were strangers in 
 a strange land. 
 
 20. That is strange, notwithstanding he is your neighbor. 
 
 21. I must go whether the train goes or not. 
 
 22. Although the wound soon healed again, yet, as he ran, he 
 yelled for pain. 
 
 23. Milton almost requires a service to be played before you enter 
 on him.
 
 100 A New English Grammar. 
 
 24. The waves of Bound do not move so rapidly as the waves of 
 light. 
 
 25. The more we know of ancient literature, the more we are 
 i^truck with its modernness. 
 
 Make an outline of the adverbial clause, state the kinds of 
 
 connective words which may be used to join the adverbial 
 
 clause to the principal clause, define and make lists of each 
 
 of these classes of .connectives, and finish your outline* of the 
 
 complex sentence. State the punctuation of the adverbial 
 
 clause. 
 
 The adverbial clause may be joined to the principal clause by the 
 eonapound conjunctive adverb or the pure subordinate conjunction. 
 
 The adverbial clause is set off by the comma when it does not 
 closely follow and restrict the part of the sentence which it modifies. 
 
 The causal clause is frequently separated from the rest of the sen- 
 tence by the comma. 
 
 EXERCISE 43. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences according to the following 
 form : 
 
 1. Classify the sentence as a whole. 
 
 2. State the principal parts of it. 
 
 3. Give the principal word in each part, and all its modifiers. 
 
 1. Where beams of warm imagination play, 
 The memory's soft figures melt away. 
 
 2. He who knows only his own side of the case, knows little of that. 
 
 '6. When we go forth in the morning, we lay a moulding hand 
 upon our destiny. 
 
 4. Knowledge and timber should not be used much till they are 
 seasoned. 
 
 5. Whoever seeks the good of others will himself be blessed. 
 
 =■" An outline similar to those made for other topics.
 
 Analysis of Complex Sentences. 101 
 
 6. That man has been from time immemorial a right-handed 
 animal, is beyond dispute. 
 
 7» If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her 
 cunning. 
 
 S. Still the wonder grew. 
 
 That one small head could carry all he knew. 
 
 9, The man who grumbles much prays little. 
 
 10. The smallest dewdrop, that lies on the meadow^ at night, has 
 a star sleeping in its bosom. 
 
 11. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot, 
 O'er the grave where our hero was buried. 
 
 12. All seems infected that the infected spy, 
 As all looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. 
 
 13. All are but parts of one stupendous whole 
 Whose body nature is, and God the soul. 
 
 14. Much pleased was he to find. 
 
 That, though on pleasure she was bent, 
 She had a frugal mind. 
 
 15. Too many who have not learned to follow, want to lead. 
 
 16. Some people appear to think that whining is religion. 
 
 17. When an honest man stays away from the polls, the devil 
 votes. 
 
 18. It generally takes a blockhead a good jthile to find out what 
 ails him. 
 
 19. One of the greatest foes the devil has is a Christian mother. 
 
 20. If our faults were written on our faces, how quickly we would 
 all hang our heads. 
 
 21. As the genuineness of a coin is made apparent by the touch 
 of an acid, so are the qualities of manhood manifested by the test 
 of trial. 
 
 22. The man who lives only for himself will not have many 
 mourners at his funeral.
 
 102 A New English Grammar. 
 
 2.'i. Read from some humbler poet 
 
 Whose songs gushed from his heart, 
 As showers from the clouds of summer 
 Or tears from the eyelids start. 
 
 24. A man he was to all the country dear, 
 And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 
 
 25. Oh, well for the fisherman's boy 
 
 That he shouts with his sister at play ! 
 Oh, well for the sailor lad 
 That he sings in his boat on the bay ! 
 
 26. You must wake and call me early, call me early, mother dear ; 
 To-morrow'll be the happiest time of all the glad New Year; 
 Of all the glad New Year, mother, the madde.st, merriest day; 
 For I'm to be Queen o' the May, mother, I'm to be Queen o' 
 
 the May. 
 
 27. Worth makes the man and want of it the fellow. 
 
 28. In one rude crash he struck the lyre, and swept with hurried 
 hand the strings. 
 
 29. He listened to the song of the Sirens, yet he glided by with- 
 out being seduced to their shore. 
 
 30. Joy comes, grief goes, we know not how ; 
 Everything is happy now. 
 Everything is upward striving; 
 
 'Tis as easy now for the heart to be true 
 
 As for grass to be green or skies to be blue, — 
 
 'Tis the natural way of living. 
 
 Define regular compound sentence, and abridged compound 
 sentence. Review compound and complex sentences. 
 
 other good sentences for analysis may be found in Part II. of this book. 
 
 EXERCISE 44. 
 Punctuation. 
 
 Punctuate and capitalize the following, giving reasons : 
 
 1. It is mind after all which does the work of the world t 
 
 2. His passions however prevented his seeing the danger »
 
 PlTNCTUATIOX. 103 
 
 3. The affair passed off to your satisfaction no doubt 
 
 4. Nelson has at last got into the senate . 
 
 5. He promised however to set about refoim at once . 
 
 (i. However much he promised it was but little that he performed 
 
 7. Here all is peace and quietness there all is turmoil and strife 
 
 S. Why this is all wrong 
 
 9. 'Joseph who happened to be in the field at the time saw the 
 carriage approach and in an ecstacy of delight hastened to meet it 
 
 10^ ff you would succeed in business be honest and industrious 
 
 11. The tree will not bear fruit in autumn unless it blossoms in 
 the spring 
 
 12. Breathe into a man an earnest purpose and you awaken in 
 him a new power 
 
 13. Give time to the study of nature whose laws are all deeply 
 interesting 
 
 14. Those friendjj who in the native vigor of his powers per- 
 ceived the dawn "of Robertson's future eminence were at length 
 amply rewarded 
 
 15. He preaches most eloquently who leads the most pious life 
 
 K). No thought can be just of which good sense is not the ground- 
 work 
 
 17. There are men and women whose desire for knowledge is 
 never satisfied 
 
 18. Modern engineering spans whole continents tunnels alike 
 mountains and rivers and dykes out old ocean himself 
 
 19. Did God create for the poor a coarser earth a thinner air a 
 paler sky 
 
 20. Aristotle Hamilton Wheatley and McCosh are high authori- 
 ties in logic 
 
 21. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the young 
 and the old have one common Father 
 
 22. Himself the greatest of agitators Napoleon became the most 
 oppressive of tyrants 
 
 2.''. Paul the apostle was a man of energy
 
 104 A New English Grammar. 
 
 24. The word poet meaning a maker a creator is derived from the 
 Greek 
 
 25. The greatest poet among the ancients Homer like the great- 
 est among the moderns Milton was blind 
 
 26. At the request of the Et Rev W H Hooker D D the vote was 
 taken 
 
 27. I beg leave sir to present my friend Lord Hargrave 
 
 28. Show pity Lord O Lord forgive 
 
 29. Then came Jesus the doors being shut and stood in their 
 midst 
 
 ?>0. To obtain an education he was willing to make sacrifices 
 
 31. Awkward in person he was ill adapted to gain respect 
 
 .32. Reading maketh a full man conference a ready man writing 
 an exact man 
 
 33. Semiramis built Babylon Dido Carthage and Romulus Rome 
 
 34. Some one justly remarks it is a great loss to lose an affliction 
 
 35. Patrick Henry began his great speech by saying it is natural 
 to man to indulge in the illusions of hope ^ ^ , 
 
 36. As we perceived the shadow to have moved but did not per- 
 ceive its moving so our advances in learning consisting of such min- 
 ute steps are perceivable only by the distance 
 
 37. So sad and dark a story is scarcely to be found in any work 
 of fiction and we are little disposed to envy the moralist who can 
 read it without being softened 
 
 .38. If we think of glory in the field of wisdom in the cabinet of 
 the purest patriotism of the highest integrity public and private of 
 morals without a stain of religious feeling without intolerance and 
 without extravagance the august figure of Washington presents it- 
 self as the personation of all these 
 
 39. The temples are profaned the soldier's oath resounds in the 
 house of God.the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofs horses 
 neigh beside the altar, 
 
 40. Greece has given us three great historians namely Herodotus 
 Xenophon and Thucydides
 
 Punctuation. 105 
 
 41. Adjective Pronouns are divided into three classes Distribu- 
 tive Demonstrative and Indefinite 
 
 42. ^ Speaking of party Pope makes this remark there never was 
 any party faction sect or cabal whatsoever in which the most igno- 
 rant were not the most violent 
 
 43 Can these words add vigor to your hearts yes they can do it 
 they have often done it 
 
 44. Yes my lords I am amazed at his lordship's speech 
 
 45. Shall a man obtain the favor of Heaven by impiety by mur- 
 der by falsehood by theft 
 
 46. Oh what a fair and ministering angel 
 
 47. Ho trumpets sound a war-note 
 
 48. Socrates said that he believed the soul to be immortal 
 
 49. Some one has said what an argument for prayer is contained 
 in the words Our Father which art in heaven 
 
 50. Trench says what a lesson the word diligence contains 
 
 51. There is but one object says Augustine greater than the soul 
 and that is its Creator 
 
 52. Let me make the ballads of a nation said Fletcher and I care 
 not who makes the laws 
 
 53. What do you think I'll shave you for nothing and give you a 
 drink 
 
 54 To Greece we arc indebted for the three principal orders of 
 architecture the Doric the Ionic and the Corinthian 
 
 55. He who is his own lawyer is said to have a fool for a client 
 
 56. 'Tis not the whole of life to live 
 Nor all of death to die 
 
 57. To .honor God to benefit mankind 
 
 To serve with lofty gifts the lowly needs 
 
 Of the poor race for which the God-man died 
 
 And do it all for love oh this is great 
 
 58. A still small voice spake unto me 
 Thou art so full of misery 
 Were it not 1)etter not to be
 
 10() A New English Grammar. 
 
 69. The lilies behold liuvv we 
 
 Preach without words of purity 
 
 HO. And I will trust that He who heeds 
 The life that hides in mead and wold 
 Who hangs yon alder's crimson beads 
 And stains these mosses green and gold 
 Will still as He hath done incline 
 His gracious ear to me and mine 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 EXERCISE 45. 
 
 Substantive Words. 
 
 In the following sentences, point out the words which ex- 
 press objects of thought, and state what kind of an object of 
 thought each one expresses; notice how the word expresses 
 the object of thought. Does it emphasize the common at- 
 tributes of the object of thought or the peculiar attributes? 
 Does it express the object of thought for the purpose of call- 
 ing attention to that particular object of thought, or for the 
 purpose of calling attention to its peculiarities? 
 
 1. The house is made of brick. 
 
 2. The cup and spoon were presents. 
 :>. The horse is a useful animal. 
 
 4. The girl's cheeks are rosy. 
 
 5. The man placed his hand on the boy's head. 
 B. The boat turned on her side. 
 
 7. Flesh and blood cannot enter the Kingdom of Heaven. 
 
 8. Silver and gold have I none. 
 
 9. The articles are made of wood and iron. 
 10. The odor of the flower was pleasant.
 
 SUBSTANIIVi; WOKDS. 107 
 
 11. Do you like the flavor of tlic fruit? 
 
 12. Thunder and lightning are frightful. 
 
 13. Then shall this body return to dust, and the soul to God, 
 who gave it. 
 
 14. The man is six feet in height. 
 
 15. Truth is stranger than fiction. 
 
 16. The lad's goodness of heart atoned for his ugliness of feature. 
 
 17. His absence is more to be desired than his presence. 
 
 18. Caesar's anger knew no bounds. 
 
 19. Which was greater, Martin Luther or Mohammed ? 
 
 20. Oliver was on his way from Ludgate to Cornhill, when he 
 met a group of boot-blacks. 
 
 21. A troop of children gamboled on the green. 
 
 22. The family became uneasy. 
 
 23. The school consisted of a dozen children. 
 
 24. Jupiter is larger than Venusr'l 
 
 25. Paul was the greatest missionary the church has ever had. 
 
 Name and define the class of words with which you have 
 been dealing. Divide this class of words into sub-classes. 
 State the bases of your divisions. Name and define each 
 class. 
 
 A substantive word is a word that expresses an object of 
 thought. 
 
 Substantive words are classified into two classes, iioiiiis and 
 pronouns, on the basis of the way in which the object of thought 
 is expressed. 
 
 A noun is a substantive word that expresses an object of thought 
 by naming it. 
 
 A pronoun is a substantive word that expresses an object of 
 thought without naming it. 
 
 Nouns are classified into two classes, proper and coiunion, on 
 the basis of the class of attributes emphasized in the object of 
 thought expressed by the noun.
 
 108 A New English Grammar. 
 
 A proper noun is a noun that expresses an object of thought in 
 which the particular attributes are emphasized. 
 
 A coninioii noun is a noun that expresses an object of thought 
 in which the general attributes are emphasized. 
 
 Nouns are, again, classified into two classes, abstract and con- 
 crete, on the basis of the kinds of objects of thought expressed. 
 
 An abstract novin is a noun that expresses an abstract object 
 of thought. 
 
 A concrete noun is a noun that expresses a concrete object 
 of thought. 
 
 It will be noticed in studying concrete nouns that some of them 
 express objects of thought that are ideas of material objects, while 
 others express objects of thought that are ideas of immaterial ob- 
 jects. The first may be called material novms. Examples of this 
 class are, table, house, ground. The second may be called immate- 
 rial nouns. Examples of this class are, God, soul, mind. 
 
 Again, some of the material nouns express objects of thought 
 that are individuals of a class or a class, or a collection of individu- 
 als thought as one, or a substance. 
 
 On this basis we have class nouns, collective nouns, and 
 substance nouns. 
 
 A class noun is a noun that expresses an object of thought which 
 is an individual of a class or a class ; e. g,, book, man, animal. 
 
 A collective noun is a noun that expresses an object of thought 
 which is composed of individuals thought as one, e. g., school, army, 
 troop. 
 
 A substance noun is a noun that expresses an object of thought 
 which is the material or substance of which something is composed. 
 
 EXERCISE 46. 
 Gender. 
 
 In the following sentences, state the sex of the objects of 
 thought expressed by the italicized words : 
 
 1 . The boy learns rapidlj'. 
 
 2. The girl assists her brother. 
 
 ?>. The child was carried to its mother. 
 
 4. Willow trees grow rapidly. 
 
 5. The eye of day hath oped its lid.
 
 Gendek. 109 
 
 What property of substantive words depends upon the 
 abo\e noticed distinctions? Define. How many kinds 
 would we have? Why? Define each. Upon what basis is 
 this division made? How are these different kinds of sub- 
 stantive words distinguished? 
 
 Gender is the property of substantive words that depends upon 
 the relation the object of thought expressed by the substantive 
 word bears to sex. 
 
 On the basis of the relation of the object of thought to sex, we 
 have four classes of gender: masculine, feminine, common 
 and neuter. 
 
 Mascviline gender is that gender which denotes that the object 
 of thought expressed by the substantive word is of the male sex. 
 
 Feminine g-ender is that gender which denotes that the object 
 of thought expressed by the substantive word is of the female sex. 
 
 Common gender is that gender which denotes that the object 
 of thought expressed by the substantive word has sex, but does not 
 indicate which sex it is. 
 
 Neuter gender is that gender which denotes that the object of 
 thought expressed by the substantive word has no sex. 
 
 We distinguish masculine gender nouns from feminine gender 
 nouns by some change in the form of the word. We distinguish the 
 common gender nouns and neuter gender nouns by the kinds of ob- 
 jects of thought which they express. 
 
 >foTE.— Gender may be defined as that property of the substantive 
 word which distinguishes the object of thought expressed in regard 
 to sex. With this definition in mind, we would have two classes of 
 gender: the masculine and feminine, and the property would be 
 given to those substantive words which really make the distinction 
 in regard to the sex of the object of thought expressed and not to 
 any others. 
 
 Since some substantive words express sex oV)jects of thought, but do 
 not distinguish which sex, they are for convenience said to be of 
 common gender.
 
 110 A New English Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISE 47. 
 
 Write the following words in two columns; in one column, 
 write the masculine form of each word, and in the other, 
 the feminine: 
 
 Bachelor, bride, sister, boy, cock, duck, earl, mother, gentleman, 
 hart, female, man, Mr., sir, niece, son, aunt, Charles, Augustus, ab- 
 bott, baron, hostess, actor, prior, benefactor, executor, murderer, 
 sorcerer, man-servant, he-bear, female-descendant, cock sparrow, 
 Mr. Smith, pea-cock, poet, witch, lad, lion, heroine, prince, beau, 
 duke, emperor, queen, husband, papa, negro, mistress, widow, goose, 
 nun, deacon, heir, Jew, patron, governor, administrator, and prophet. 
 
 EXERCISE 48. 
 
 Irregularities in Gender. 
 
 Notice the irregularities in the gender of the nouns in the 
 following sentences, and explain each: 
 
 1. The ship has lost her rudder. 
 
 2. The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews. 
 
 3. The sun in his glory appears ; the moon in her wane hides 
 her face. 
 
 4. The nightingale sings her song. 
 
 5. The lion meets his foe boldly. 
 
 6. The fox made his escape. 
 
 7. Heirs are often disappointed. 
 
 8. The English are a proud nation. 
 
 9. The poets of America should be honored. 
 
 10. The bee on its wing 
 Never pauses to sing ; 
 The child in its weakness 
 Is master of all.
 
 Person'. Ill 
 
 EXERCISE 49. 
 Person. 
 
 In the following sentences, state the relations of the objects 
 of thought, expressed by the italicized words, to the speaker : 
 
 1. J, W. R- Merriam. governor of Minnesota, declare it to be true. 
 
 2. I hope, Jolui, that you will remember that character is more 
 precious than gold. 
 
 3. Tears fall sometimes when hearts are least willing to show 
 grief. 
 
 4. Mr. Sewell has the pleasure of informing Mr. Mason that he has 
 been elected president of the literary soc?e<j/. 
 
 5. You are the gentleman who so kindly assisted me. 
 
 Name and define this property of substantive words. 
 State the diiferent kinds or classes, and define and illustrate 
 each. How is this property indicated in nouns? How in 
 pronouns? Illustrate. 
 
 Person is that property of the substantive word which denotes 
 the relation the object of thought expressed by the substantive word 
 bears to the speaker. We have noticed in the sentences above that 
 the object of thought expressed by the substantive word may bear 
 three different relations to the speaker; viz., identity, person spoken 
 to, and person or thing spoken of. On this basis, we have three 
 classes of person : the first person, second person, and third 
 person. 
 
 First person is the person of that substantive word which 
 expresses the speaker. 
 
 Second person is the person of that substantive word which 
 expresses an object of thought that is addressed by the speaker. 
 
 Third person is the person of that substantive word which 
 expresses an object of thought that is spoken of by the speaker. 
 
 This property is indicated in nouns by the relation the object of 
 thought expressed bears to the speaker, and not by any change in 
 the form of the word.
 
 112 A New English Grammak. 
 
 EXERCISE 50. 
 Number. 
 
 State whether the italicized words, in the following sen- 
 tences, express one or more than one individual: 
 
 1. We shall start for California in the morning. 
 
 2. We went from New York to Philadelphia in three hours. 
 
 3. Birds of beautiful plumage flew around us in great numbers. 
 
 4. In my hurry, my foot slipped, and /fell to the ground. 
 
 5. The cork oak grows in large quantities in the Spanish peninsula. 
 
 What is the property of substantive words observed in the 
 preceding sentences called ? Divide into classes, define and 
 illustrate. 
 
 How is this property indicated in nouns ? State the gen- 
 eral rule. State five or six special rules for the forma- 
 tion of plurals. What class of nouns change form and re- 
 tain their identit}^? What classes may properly have this 
 property and retain their identity? Illustrate. 
 
 Number is that property of the substantive word which denotes 
 whether the object of thought expressed is one or more than one. 
 On this basis, there are two classes: singular, and plural. 
 
 Singular number is the number of that substantive word that 
 expresses cue object of thought. 
 
 Plural number is the number of that substantive word that ex- 
 presses more than one object of thought. 
 
 This property is generally indicated by some change in the form 
 of the word. 
 
 The general and special rules may be stated after a careful study 
 of the following words has been made.
 
 Case. 113 
 
 EXERCISE 51. 
 
 Write the following words in two columns; in one col- 
 umn, write the singular form of each word, and in the other 
 the plural : 
 
 Book, desk, sin, church, witness, glory, sky, money, wife, knife, 
 strife, life, fife, cargo, negro, folio, quarto, trio, no, men, ox, mice, teeth, 
 geese, p, q, 6, 7, +, *, brother-in-law, court-martial, wagon-load, 
 ox-cart, handful, ipse dixit, tete-a-tetes, piano-forte, man-servant. 
 Knight-templar, Miss Seward, Mr. Casad, Sir Isaac Newton, Dr. 
 Benson, Mrs. Henderson, brother, die, fish, genius, index, jjenny, 
 pea, Sarah, oh, my, ah, calculus, arcanum, criterion, thesis, analysis, 
 antithesis, parenthesis, nebula, phenomena, calyx, strata, silver, 
 vinegar, hemp, darkness, oil, ashes, assets, bellows, clothes, scissors, 
 shears, tongs, news, molasses, lungs, alms, corps, mumps, measles, 
 odds, riches, series, suds, tidings, wages, ethics, politics, mathemat- 
 ics, optics, physics, pedagogics, sheep, deer, couple, salmon, trout, 
 gross, hose, yoke, hiss, adz, sash, embryo, grotto, oratorio, buffalo, 
 mosquito, tomato, potato, valley, chimney, money, duty, spy, cow, 
 foot, bandit, cherub, formula, memorandum, focus, terminus, erra- 
 tum, medium, axis, genus, automaton, hypothesis, V)asis, crisis, 
 ellipsis, Mrs., Mr., eaves, custom, letter, number, pain, part, liberty, 
 virtue, vices, attorney-general, head, belief, brief, bluff, cliff, staff, 
 ditty, daisy, baby, buoy, turkey, berry, fairy, soliloquy, tray, Chi- 
 nese, Japanese, forget-me-not. 
 
 (See Dictionary.) 
 
 EXERCISE 52. 
 Case. 
 
 In the following sentences, state the relation of each itali- 
 cized word to the other words in the sentence : 
 
 1. Blue-Island is a toivn, situated on ii bluff, which rises abruptly 
 from a prairie. 
 
 2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are 
 derived from TyndaWs version. 
 
 3. They scaled Mont Blanc — the great mountain. 
 
 4. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero. 
 
 5. This house was Longfelloiv, the poet's home. 
 
 8
 
 114 A New English Grammar. 
 
 6. James, the student, is a writer — a journalist. 
 
 7. You, a farmer, may be a scholar. 
 
 8. Children, be honest and true. 
 
 9. We spoke of Tennyson, the dead poet. 
 
 10. Blaine died in Washington City, the c'apital of the United States. 
 
 11. iiTe gave me the 600/;. 
 
 12. They walked ten miles, a long distance, 
 
 13. T/ie?/ wished hirn to study tow. 
 
 14. His being ill prevented our going. 
 
 15. The law of the Lo7-d is perfect, rejoicing the heart. 
 
 Name and define the different kinds of relations which 
 you have found substantive words to have in the preceding 
 sentences. Bring to class one good example of the noun 
 and one of the pronoun used in each of these possible rela- 
 tions. 
 
 How is the possessive case of the noun indicated? 
 
 Substantive words have nine different relations in the sentence. 
 The substantive words that have the relation of subject, predicate, 
 used in direct address, used independently, or appositive modifier 
 of any one of these, are said to have the nominative relation. 
 
 Substantive words that have the relation of possessive modifier, 
 or in apposition with it, are said to have the possessive relation. 
 
 Substantive words that have the relation of adverbial objective 
 modifier, direct objective modifier, indirect objective modifier, or 
 principal part of the prepositional phrase, or in apposition with 
 any one of these, are said to be in the objective relation. 
 
 Case is that property of a substantive word that is the relation the 
 substantive word bears to other words in the sentence. Since the 
 relations are groifped into three groups, there are three cases : 
 nominative, possessive, and objective. 
 
 Nominative case is the case of that substantive word that has 
 a nominative relation. 
 
 Possessive case is the case of that substantive word that has a 
 possessive relation. 
 
 ' Objective case is the case of that substantive word that has an 
 objective relation.
 
 Casb. 115 
 
 EXERCISE 53. 
 Correct the spelling of nouns used in the possessive case 
 in the following sentences : 
 
 1. The sailors life was in danger. 
 
 2. Mens destinies are in their own hands. 
 
 3. Childrens plays should be made a means of educating them. 
 
 4. Daniel Websters speeches are marvels of oratory. 
 
 5. The Bishop of Dublin palace was destroyed by fire. 
 
 6. Baker and Watsons store has been sold. 
 
 7. Webster and Worcesters Dictionaries are much in demand. 
 
 8. Her Majesty, Queen Victorias government, has been much 
 disturbed. 
 
 9. The captain of the Elbes wife was lost when the vessel sank. 
 
 10. The knight-templars costume was the most costly. 
 
 11. My brother-in laws house was destroyed by fire. 
 
 12. Do no wrong for conscience sake. 
 
 13. " For goodness sake ! " exclaimed the woman, " spare me my 
 child!" 
 
 14. She had taken them all into her great heart — the boys sor- 
 rows and the girls cares. 
 
 15. Mrs. Cass appearance gave life to the occasion. 
 
 16. Jonas Buss slate made the noise. 
 
 17. I got the money changed at Sloan the druggist. 
 
 18. His character stands out when you compare it with his uncle 
 Henry of Hanover. 
 
 19. I would not have taken anybody else M'or^ for it. 
 
 20. I have granted your request but not anybody else; who elses 
 could I grant ? 
 
 21. We frequently buy books at the book shop of Mr. Horns, on 
 the Circle. 
 
 22. In spite of the guards precautions, the prisoner escaped. 
 
 23. Harris exposition of Hegels Logic will be found helpful to 
 students.
 
 116 A New English Grammar. 
 
 24. James task was finished early. 
 
 25. Moses law was formal. 
 
 26. Frances share of the fortune was badly managed. 
 
 27. Xerxes army was victorious. 
 
 28. The woman would accept neither her neighbors nor the 
 countys offers of assistance. 
 
 29. Joris strength failed before he got to Aix. 
 
 30. I arranged for the money at Hill the banker. 
 
 What is meant by inflection ? Illustrate. 
 
 By inflection is meant the changes in the form of a word to indi- 
 cate its different properties. 
 
 EXERCISE 54. 
 From the expressions inclosed in the marks of parenthesis 
 in each of the following sentences, select the correct one. 
 
 1. I had a full understanding of (the fact's significance, the sig- 
 nificance of the fact). 
 
 2. (Congress' act, the act of congress) was approved by the people 
 
 3. (My wife's picture, picture by my wafe) became famous. 
 
 4. He is a stranger (in the midst of us, in our midst). 
 
 5. Do not remain (on our account, on account of us). 
 
 6. He carried (a dice, die) in his vest pocket as a mascot. 
 
 7. The millennium is yet a long (way, ways) off. 
 
 8. The news (was, were) received with great demonstration. 
 
 9. (This, these) news created great consternation. 
 
 10. He rose to distniction between the twenty-fourth and twen- 
 ty-fifth (year, years) of his life. 
 
 11. Are you an (alumni, alumnus) of this school ? 
 
 12. When I looked, I saw a (bacterium, bacteria). 
 
 13. Do you approve the change in the (curricula, curriculum) ? 
 
 14. (This, these) scanty data (is, are) not sufficient. 
 
 15. Agassiz's (dictum, dicta) was, "Study the fish." 
 
 16. This (phenomenon, phenomena) was observed many times. 
 
 17. Did you see the (harpist, harper) who played the beautiful air?
 
 Outline of Noun. 117 
 
 18. Do you expect a (rise, raise) in wages? 
 
 19. Is this the (person, party) in question ? 
 
 20. We are not looking at the question from the same (point of 
 view, standpoint). 
 
 Note.— The students .should be given general exercises in writing different forms 
 of the noun and pronoun, used in indicating gender, person, number, and case. 
 
 EXERCISE 55. 
 
 Outline of Noun. 
 
 Sum up with an outline, indicating all you have learned 
 concerning the noun. 
 
 Note. — ^This outline is put in for illustration. The teacher should 
 have the pupils make a similar outline summing up the work on 
 each "part of speech." 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE NOUN. 
 
 I. Noun. 
 
 1. Definition. 
 
 2. Classes. 
 
 a. On basis of kind of attributes emphasized in object of thought. 
 (1). Proper. 
 
 (a). Definition. 
 (2). Common. 
 
 (o). Definition. 
 
 {b). Classes on basis of nature of object of thought, 
 r. Class. 
 
 V. Definition. 
 2\ Collective. 
 
 1-. Definition. 
 3'. Substance. 
 1^ Definition. 
 
 b. On basis of whether the object of thought expressed is an 
 
 idea of a material or immaterial object. 
 (1). Material. 
 
 (a). Definition. 
 (2). Immaterial. 
 
 (a). Definition. 
 
 c. On basis of kind of object of thought expressed. 
 (1). Abstract. 
 
 (a). Definition. 
 (2). Concrete. 
 
 (a). Definition.
 
 118 A New English Grammar. 
 
 3. Properties. 
 
 a. Gender. 
 
 (1). Definition. 
 
 (2). Classes on the basis of the relation of the object of 
 thought to sex. 
 
 (a). Masculine. 
 1.^ Definition. 
 
 (6). Feminine. 
 1.^ Definition. 
 
 (c). Common. , 
 1.^ Definition. 
 
 (3). How distinguished. 
 
 (4). Irregularities. 
 
 b. Person. 
 
 (1). Definition. 
 
 (2). Classes on basis of relation of object of thought to the 
 speaker. 
 
 (a). First person. 
 1.' Definition. 
 
 (6). Second person. 
 1.^ Definition. 
 
 (c). Third person. 
 1.^ Definition. 
 
 (3). How distinguished 
 
 c. Number. 
 
 (1). Definition. 
 
 (2). Classes on basis of whether or not the noun expresses 
 an object of thought that is one or more than one. 
 
 (a). Singular. 
 1.1 Definition. 
 
 (b). Plural. 
 1^ Definition. 
 
 d. Case. 
 
 (1). Definition. 
 
 (2). Divisions of on basis of relation of the noun to other 
 words in the sentence. 
 (a). Nominative. 
 1.1 Definition. 
 (6). Possessive. 
 '^ 1.1 Definition, 
 
 (c). Objective. 
 1.1 Definition.
 
 The Pronoun. 119 
 
 EXERCISE 56. 
 The Pronoun. 
 
 In the following sentences, point out the pronouns and 
 state the relation between the object of thought, expressed 
 by each one, and the speaker. Or state whether the object 
 of thought, expressed by the pronoun, is the speaker, the 
 person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. State 
 what it is in the sentence or the word which gives you this 
 information: 
 
 1. I am a poor man myself, and I can sympathize with him. 
 
 2. Nathan said to him, " Thou art the man." 
 
 3. He, himself, acknowledged his fault to me. 
 
 4. The book which the child has is not worth reading. 
 
 5. The point was well stated by the child, when he saw it. 
 
 6. You who are blest with plenty should be kind to the poor. 
 
 7. They who sow in folly shall reap in sorrow. 
 
 8. Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted. 
 
 9. Freely ye have received ; freely give. 
 
 10. Lay not up for yourselves treasures on earth. 
 
 11. We, ourselves, are at fault. 
 
 12. Who killed Cock Eobin ? 
 
 13. Our fathers, where are they ? 
 
 14. Which did you enjoy more, Fiske or Ridpath ? 
 
 Separate the pronouns into classes. Give the basis of the 
 division. Define and illustrate each class. State how the 
 pronoun is like the noun, and how it differs from it. What 
 is meant by antecedent? Give literal meaning of the word. 
 Name all the pronouns in each class and give all their forms. 
 
 On basis of the fundamental differences, pronouns are separated 
 into three classes; viz., personal, relative, and interrogative. 
 
 A personal pronoun is a pronoun which shows by its form the 
 relation of the object of thought expressed by it to the speaker.
 
 120 A New English Grammar. 
 
 On basis of form, personal pronouns are divided into simple and 
 compound. 
 
 A simple personal pronoun is a personal pronoun in its sim- 
 plest form. 
 
 Tlie compound personal pronouns are formed by joining 
 " self " or " selves " to some form of the simple personal pronoun. 
 
 A relative pronoun is one that has a connective use in the 
 sentence. 
 
 A simple relative pronoun is a relative pronoun which has 
 one substantive use. 
 
 A compound relative pronoun is a relative pronoun which 
 has two substantive uses. 
 
 An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun which denotes that 
 some object of thought is unknown and sought for. 
 
 Note.— The grammatical properties of tiie pronoun are tlie same as those of the 
 noun. The only difference is that the pronoun has more forms to indicate these 
 properties than the noun. Let the pupil work out all these forms carefully from 
 the sentences given. 
 
 The antecedent of a pronoun is a word, phrase, or clause, which expresses the 
 same idea as the pronoun. 
 
 EXERCISE 57. 
 Properties of the Pronoun. 
 
 State the antecedents of the following italicized pronouns. 
 State the gender, person, and number of the pronouns. 
 How do you determine these properties ? State any irregu- 
 larity which you may discover. Give the rule in each case : 
 
 1. Each soldier drew his battle blade. 
 
 2. He liveth long who liveth well. 
 
 3. One's manners show his breeding. 
 
 4. The person who doeth good has his reward. 
 
 5. If any person in the audience objects, he will please stand. 
 
 6. The poor widow lost her only son.
 
 Properties of the Pronoun. 121 
 
 7. True to his flag, the soldier braved even death. 
 
 8. A pupil that is studious will learn. 
 
 9. He ivho runs may read. 
 
 10. He desired to pray but it was denied Mm. 
 
 11. He has squandered his money and he now regrets it. 
 
 12. You are here on time, Henry. 
 
 13. You are good children. 
 
 14. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord. 
 
 15. Thine ears have heard the joyful sound. 
 
 16. " We formerly thought diflTerently but now have cbanged our 
 mind," wrote the editor. 
 
 17. It thundered as it seemed to me. 
 
 18. Come and trip it on the green. 
 
 19. "Which way I fly is hell ; myself am hell. 
 
 20. Try to see yourself as others see you. 
 
 How are the compound personal pronouns formed? State 
 their uses in the sentence. 
 
 21. Let every pupil use his own book. 
 
 22. If any one be found at fault, do unto him as you would wish 
 to be done by. 
 
 23. You, he, and / were boys together. 
 
 24. A friend and I were talking the matter over. 
 
 25. Whoever comes will take your place. 
 
 26. I must do whatever seems best. 
 
 27. I will give you whatsoever is right. 
 £8,) They censure whomever I commend. 
 29. They wist not what it was. 
 
 ^ I will call whomever you ask. 
 
 How are the compound relative pronouns formed? What 
 determines their case forms?
 
 122 A New English Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISE 58. 
 Explain the use of the italicized words in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 1. T'F/io discovered America ? 
 
 2. WJio were killed ? 
 
 3. Which are the boys in trouble ? 
 
 4. Which is the Jew and which the merchant here? 
 
 5. What are these people ? 
 
 6. What is the man ? 
 
 7. I know who killed Cock Robin. 
 
 8. I will tell you what I will take. 
 
 9. I know which is most valuable. 
 10. I see which will come next. 
 
 EXERCISE 59. 
 
 From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthesis 
 in each of the following sentences, select the correct one. 
 
 1. (Its, it's) tower leaned. 
 
 2. Is that friend of (your's, yours) with you yet ? 
 
 3. He was a man (as, who) could be depended upon. 
 
 4. He adopts the same rules in Sunday-school (as, that) he 
 adopts in his day school. 
 
 5. Such devices (which, as) you have in mind are important. 
 
 6. He now thinks that foolish (which, what) he once thought 
 wise. 
 
 7. (What, whatever) can the man want? 
 
 8. I cannot pay (the two of, both of) them. 
 
 9. Oh, if it had only been (me, I) ! 
 
 10. You and (I, me) are invited. 
 
 11. Our father brought you and (I, me) a present. 
 
 12. Wretched people console themselves when they see many 
 who are quite as (bad, badly) off as (them, they).
 
 Pbonoun. 123 
 
 13. Let (him, he) who made thee, answer this. 
 
 14. You are somewhat taller than (me, I). 
 
 15. There is no one that I like better than (he, him). 
 
 16. I was sure of its being (he, him). 
 
 17. I do not mind (his, him) going out evenings. 
 
 18. He was associated with Longfellow and other poets for 
 (which, whom) America is noted. 
 
 19. (Who, whom) shall the party put forward? 
 
 20. Find out (who, whom) the hat belongs to. 
 
 21. (Who, whom) could that be? 
 
 22. I saw my friend (who, whom) I had once thought would suc- 
 ceed in business, fail. 
 
 23. She lived with an aunt (who, whom), she said, treated her 
 shamefully. 
 
 24. Then came another man (who, whom), they all declared, 
 was best of the performers. 
 
 25. Under this tree (the bark of which, whose bark) is scarred 
 in many places, Washington took command of the army. 
 
 26. This is a point (the consideration of which, whose considera- 
 tion) has caused much trouble. 
 
 27. This is the tree (that, which) was struck by lightning. 
 
 28. To come so near winning the prize and yet lose it, I could 
 never stand (it, that). 
 
 29. She is a better student than (any one, either) of her three 
 brothers. 
 
 30. (Either, any one) of the ten points is worth remembering, 
 but the (latter, last) is most essential. 
 
 31. (All, each) of the children took an apple. 
 
 32. I am (the one, he, the person) who signaled the train. 
 
 33. He gets Emerson's ideas, (the ones, those) that are most es- 
 sential, on first reading. 
 
 34. When (one, a person, we) (comes, come) to think of it, (he, 
 one, we) (takes, take) (one's, his, our) (life, lives) in (one's, his, 
 our) (hand, hands) every time (one, he, we) (boards, board) a train.
 
 124 A New English Grammar. 
 
 35. If any one has lost baggage, the matter will be investigated 
 for (you, him) free of charge. 
 
 36. Soldier after soldier took up the cry, and added (their, his) 
 voice to the mighty din. 
 
 37. Every one was absorbed in (his or her, his, their) own pleas- 
 ure, or was bitterly resenting the absence of the pleasure (he or she, 
 they, he) expected. 
 
 38. Everybody thought it right to extend (his, their) sympathy. 
 
 39. I like to see"each of them doing well— in (their, his) own way 
 at least. 
 
 40. Anybody can catch trout, if (he, they) can find the trout. 
 
 41. Everybody was there, if (he, they) could possibly go. 
 
 42. He heard of a man whose life had been spent on the water 
 and (whose, his) record was good. 
 
 43. The undersigned is sorry to say that he took a hat from the 
 rack which is not (mine, his). 
 
 44. When I close my eyes, I can see pictures like (the ones, those) 
 presented. 
 
 45. The two brothers love (one another, each other). 
 
 EXERCISE 60. 
 Fill the fol lowing blanks with the pro p er forms of the 
 compouncTrelative pronoun, whoever: 
 
 (^ The old man put the question to — he met 
 
 (^ I am satisfied with r- you have selected. 
 
 3. I am ready to entertain W may be sent. 
 
 4. The Lord loveth doeth His will. 
 
 (^ You must restore i^<'^''~ book you have taken. 
 
 6. Make yourself agreeable to you meet. 
 
 7. Tell the truth to asks it. 
 
 8. Contest the ground with opposes you. 
 
 ^ The lady inquired of she saw. 
 
 10. The missionary preached to remained. 
 
 Make an outline for the pronoun similar to that made for 
 the noun.
 
 The Adjective. 125 
 
 EXERCISE 61, 
 
 The Adjective. 
 
 Point out the adjectives in the following sentences. Divide 
 them into as many different classes as the fundamental dif- 
 ferences among them would indicate. State your basis of 
 division in each case. Define and illustrate each kind : 
 
 1. A beautiful, pink sea-shell was found by little Mary on the 
 sandy beach. 
 
 2. Large and small streams flow from great mountains. 
 
 3. Fine feathers do not make fine birds. 
 
 4. Bob looked with longing eyes at the red cranberry sauce and 
 steaming turkey. 
 
 5. Soft, fleecy clouds o'erhung the sky. 
 
 6. Give us this day our daily bread. 
 
 7. The children are having a gala time. 
 
 8. The fresh-looking youth was very much embarrassed. 
 
 9. The new-born babe received the gifts of the wise men. 
 
 10. Those islands belong to the United States. 
 
 1 1 . These rude instruments were used by this savage people. 
 
 12. AH the government officials are well paid. 
 
 13. Yonder pond contains figh. 
 
 14. That book was written by John Fiske. 
 
 15. This proposition is unreasonable. 
 
 16. Which way did he go? 
 
 17. What book do you most prefer ? 
 
 18. I know which way the deer went. 
 
 19. I see what books are needed. 
 
 20. A few ducks were seen by the sportsmen. 
 
 21. Some money was earned by the boy. 
 
 22. Each warrior drew his battle blade. 
 
 23. Every man stood to his post. 
 
 24. Neither man was right, and yet I would not censure either one.
 
 126 A New English Ghammar. 
 
 25. We were interested in watching two large prairie fires. 
 
 26. Fifty men were in line. 
 
 27. James is the third pupil in the row. 
 
 28. Washington was the first President of the United States. 
 
 29. This is a threefold punishment. 
 
 30. Let us make a double house. 
 
 An adjective is an attributive word which expresses an attrib- 
 ute of an object of thought without asserting it 
 
 A simple adjective is one which we cannot trace back to a 
 
 simpler form in our language. 
 
 Derivative adjectives are those which have been formed bv 
 adding prefixes or making other changes in the form of other words 
 in our language. 
 
 Compound adjectives are adjectives that have been formed 
 by putting together two or more words that are used independently 
 in our language. 
 
 A descriptive adjective is an adjective whose chief useia to 
 make prominent an attribute of an object of thought. 
 
 A limiting adjective is an adjective whose chief use is to 
 narrow the application of a substantive word. 
 
 A pronominal adjective is a limiting adjective which may 
 have a substantive use. . 
 
 A demonstrative adjective is a pronominal adjective which 
 expresses the relation which an object of thought bears to the 
 speaker. 
 
 An interrog:ative adjective is a pronominal adjective which 
 denotes that an attribute of an object of thought is unknown and 
 sought for. 
 
 A relative adjective is a pronominal adjective which has a 
 connective use. 
 
 A quantitative adjective is a pronominal adjective which ex- 
 presses the attribute of quantity or number indefinitely. 
 
 A distributive adjective is a pronominal adjective which ex- 
 presses the attribute of division or separation or isolation.
 
 Comparison. 127 
 
 A numeral adjective is a limiting adjective which expresses 
 number or order definitely. 
 
 A cardinal niinieral adjective is a numeral adjective which 
 simply expresses number definitely. 
 
 An ordinal numeral adjective is a numeral adjective which 
 expresses the position of a thing in a series. 
 
 A multiplicative adjective is a numeral adjective which im- 
 plies multiplication. 
 
 Articles are peculiar kinds of limiting adjectives placed before 
 substantive words to show whether they are to be taken in a defi- 
 nite or indefinite sense. 
 
 The definite article, " the," shows that the substantive word 
 which it precedes expresses some particular object of thought. 
 
 The indefinite article, "a" or "an," shows that the substan- 
 tive word which it precedes expresses an indefinite object of 
 thought, or that the object of thought may be any^one^ a number. 
 
 EXERCISE 62. 
 
 Comparison. 
 
 Explain the use of the following italicized expressions. 
 How do they differ? What is the cause of this difference? 
 
 1. Ta// trees are easily blown over. 
 
 2. I am taller than my father. 
 
 3. The tallest boy in the room is also the best scholar. 
 
 4. The boy is a good scholar. 
 
 5. To be is better than to seem. 
 
 6. A teacher may be pleasant and at the same time strict ; in 
 fact, the more pleasant she is, the more strict she can afford to be. 
 
 7. While she is the most strict mother I know, she is also the 
 most pleasant with her children. 
 
 What is this difference among adjectives, which you have 
 just been explaining, called ? Define it. What classes or 
 kinds do you discover ? State the basis of your division.
 
 128 A New English Geammae. 
 
 Define and illustrate each kind. When is each kind used? 
 Observe, in the above sentences, how this property of adject- 
 ives is indicated. State the different ways and illustrate 
 each. 
 
 Comparison is that variation in the form of the attributive 
 word which shows whether the attribute expressed by it has been 
 compared with the same attribute in another idea, or merely with 
 our idea of that attribute. 
 
 The fact that attributes exist in ideas in different degrees gives 
 rise to comparison. 
 
 The positive degree is that form of the attributive word which 
 shows that no comparison of the attribute with the same attribute 
 in another idea has been made. 
 
 The comparative tleg"ree is that form of the attributive word 
 which shows that the attribute expressed by it has been compared 
 with the same attribute in one other idea. 
 
 The supei'lative degree is that form of the attributive word 
 
 which shows that the attribute expressed by it has been compared 
 
 with the same attribute in at least two other ideas. 
 
 Note.— The superlative degree is sometimes used according to good usage, and 
 in literature, when only two ideas are compared as to the attribute exjjressed by 
 the attributive word; e. g., Which is the best of the two? The comparative is also 
 used sometimes when more than two ideas are compared as to the attribute ex- 
 pressed by the attributive word; e. g., This man is belter than any of his fellows. 
 Note.— These definitions will serve as well for the adverb as for the adjective. 
 The teacher can easily lead the pupils to see that these degrees of comparison are 
 shown in three ways; viz., by inflection, by composition, irregularly. 
 
 EXERCISE 63. 
 Uses and Modifiers of Adjectives. 
 
 State the use of the italicized expressions in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 1. The white rose is beautiful. 
 
 2. He who dares stand for the right, though he stand alone, is 
 truly brave. 
 
 3. The river is a mile broad. 
 4 The girl is cruel to her pets.
 
 Uses and Modifiers of Abjectives. 129 
 
 5. A child's kiss 
 
 Set on thy sighing lips, shall make thee glad; 
 A poor man served by thee, shall make thee rich; 
 A sick man helped by thee, shall make thee strong; 
 Thou shalt be served thyself by every sense 
 Of service which thou renderest. 
 
 State the uses of the adjective and the modifiers which 
 may belong to it. Illustrate. 
 
 EXERCISE 64. 
 
 State the meaning of each of the following words when 
 
 used as adjectives. Compare the words in cases in which 
 
 such comparison will help to bring out the meaning more 
 
 clearly : 
 
 each this which few 
 
 every these what less 
 
 either that the only 
 
 neither those a or an 
 
 ea(?h other one another 
 
 Use the following adjectives correctly, in sentences: 
 Beautiful, magnificent, pretty, handsome, awful, dreadful, 
 lovely, those, drowned, fewer, less, healthy, healthful, much, 
 most, nice, well, mad, angry, vexed, plenty, quite a, a con- 
 siderable, a great, a large, real, elegant, opposite, contrary 
 
 EXERCISE 66. 
 From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthe- 
 sis in each of the following sentences, select the correct one: 
 
 1. The boy was permitted to go (everywhere, every wheres). 
 
 2. My daughter may be described as (having a light complex- 
 ion, being light-complected). 
 
 3. We thus had more, not (less, fewer) friends. 
 
 4. One can hardly think of a man (more, better) suited to the 
 place. 
 
 9
 
 130 A New English Grammar. 
 
 5. The people had never seen a (costlier, more costlier) equipage. 
 
 6. This is true of (most, almost) all my friends. 
 
 7. Nobody was (like, likely) to see him. 
 
 8. The town was (quite, plenty) large enough. 
 
 9. There isn't a (sightlier, finer) place in town. 
 
 10. Do you like (this, these) sort of books? 
 
 11. How do yop like (that, those) kind of gowns? 
 
 12. This point is (easiest, most easily) seen. 
 
 13. My conscience feels (easily, easy). 
 
 14. The girl looked (prettily, pretty). 
 
 15. The teacher feels (bad, badly) to-day. 
 
 16. The party went (solid, solidly) for free trade. 
 
 17. She was not (only, alone) a true woman, but a kind friend also. 
 
 18. The boy (only) tried (only) three times. 
 
 19. That they use money is true of (both, each) (parties, party). 
 
 20. (Each, every) dog has his day. 
 
 21. (Each, every) day in the year should be the happiest day. 
 
 22. We should avoid (many, much) of the baser struggles of life. 
 
 23. He has caught (many, much) fish to-day. 
 
 24. Will (all, the whole) finance ministers and upholsterers and 
 confectioners of modern Europe undertake, in joint-stock company, 
 to make one shoe-black happy ? 
 
 25. Of the states of the union named, the (first four, four first) 
 were the last admitted. 
 
 26. He says some very (aggravating, irritating) things. 
 
   27. In consequence of (aggravating, irritating) circumstances, he 
 was punished severely. 
 
 28. The statement seems hardly (creditable, credible). 
 
 29. Here, too, Sydney Carton is an (exceptional, exceptionable) 
 man.
 
 The Verb. 131 
 
 30. I shall not go (further, farther). 
 
 31. Rice is (healthy, healthful, wholesome) food. 
 
 32. The scene from the window was (luxuriant, luxurious). 
 
 33. The boy told a (pitiable, pitiful) story. 
 
 34. The spider spins a (subtle, subtile) web. 
 
 35. There is a (continual, continuous) hurry to be oflf. 
 
 36. The eky gradually became (cloudless, more and more cloud- 
 less). 
 
 37. The shouts gradually became (more and more inaudible, in- 
 audible). 
 
 38. In this characteristic, Coleridge is (unique, most unique). 
 
 39. The vote was (so nearly unanimous, so unanimous) that the 
 crowd shouted. 
 
 40. "We go about, professing openly (total isolation, the totalest 
 isolation). 
 
 Make a complete outline of the adjective, showing defini- 
 tion, classes on different bases, properties and syntax. 
 
 EXERCISE 66. 
 The Verb. 
 
 In the following sentences, state the use of each italicized 
 expression. Note how one differs from the other and classify 
 them. Name and define each class : 
 
 1. The sun is ninety-two millions of miles away. 
 
 2. The soldier was without food for three days. 
 
 3. Tom Brown has been in many escapades. 
 
 4. The sun gives light and heat. 
 
 5. The general gave his order in a very loud tone. 
 
 6. Leland Stanford has given a great deal of money to found a 
 university at Palo Alto.
 
 132 A New English Grammar. 
 
 7. The minister frequently quotes from the Talmud. 
 
 8. The speaker quoted Webster in support of his view. 
 
 9. The attorney has quoted much that is not to the point. 
 
 10. Not to know me, argues yourself unknown. 
 
 11. They arjrwed the point an hour. 
 
 12. I have argued the question from every point of view. 
 
 Explanation.— From the italicized expressions above, the teacher 
 may lead the pupil to think out the following: 
 
 A verb is a word which asserts, or a verb is a word which ex- 
 presses relation between thought subject and thought predicate., 
 
 The principal parts of verbs are those forms from which all 
 the other forms of the verb are derived. They are the present, the 
 past, and the past or perfect participle. We need only to 
 know these forms to understand all the inflections of the verb. 
 
 A reg-ular verb is a verb which forms its past indicative and 
 perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present indicative; e.g., 
 learn, learned, learned; love, loved, loved 
 
 An irregular verb is a verb which forms its past indicative and 
 perfect participle in some other way than by adding d or ed to the 
 present indicative; e. g., write, ivrote, ivritten. 
 
 A pure verb or copulative verb is a relation word which 
 merely asserts a thought predicate of a thought subject, or a pure 
 verb is a relation word which expresses the relation between 
 thought subject and thought predicate only. 
 
 Note.— The verb " be " in its various forms is the only pure verb in the English 
 language. But there are some other verbs which are almost always used in the 
 same way. They are as follows: become, grow, get, turn, remain, continue, stay, 
 seem, appear, look.sound, smell, feel, stand, sit, go, move, and perhaps a few others 
 
 (See Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, Par. 353, etc.) 
 
 An attributive verb is a verb which expresses an attribute of 
 an object of thought and asserts it ; e. g., He tells the story well. 
 
 Note.— The exercises that follow are intended to give the pupils a great deal of 
 practice in learning the principal parts of verbs.
 
 
 
 Irregular Verbs. 
 
 133 
 
 
 EXERCISE 67.— Irregular Verbs. 
 
 
 Be able to give the 
 
 principal 
 
 parts of the following verbs : 
 
 abide 
 
 do 
 
 lead 
 
 shake 
 
 stick 
 
 awake 
 
 draw 
 
 lean 
 
 shall 
 
 sting 
 
 be 
 
 dream 
 
 leap 
 
 shear 
 
 stink 
 
 bear 
 
 drink 
 
 learn 
 
 shed 
 
 stride 
 
 beat 
 
 drive 
 
 leave 
 
 shine 
 
 strike 
 
 begin 
 
 dwell 
 
 lend 
 
 shoe 
 
 string 
 
 bend 
 
 eat 
 
 let 
 
 shoot 
 
 strive 
 
 bereave 
 
 fall 
 
 lie 
 
 show 
 
 strow,-ew 
 
 beseech 
 
 feed 
 
 light 
 
 shred 
 
 sweat 
 
 bid 
 
 feel 
 
 lose 
 
 shrink 
 
 swear 
 
 bind 
 
 fight 
 
 make 
 
 shut 
 
 sweep 
 
 bite 
 
 find 
 
 may 
 
 sing 
 
 swim 
 
 bleed 
 
 flee 
 
 mean 
 
 sink 
 
 swing 
 
 blow 
 
 fling 
 
 meet 
 
 sit 
 
 take 
 
 break 
 
 fly 
 
 mete 
 
 slay 
 
 teach 
 
 breed 
 
 forsake 
 
 must 
 
 , sleep 
 
 tear 
 
 bring 
 
 freeze 
 
 need 
 
 / slide 
 
 tell 
 
 build 
 
 freight 
 
 ought V 
 
 sling 
 
 think 
 
 burn 
 
 get 
 
 pen 
 
 vslink 
 
 thrive 
 
 burst 
 
 gild 
 
 put 
 
 slit 
 
 throw 
 
 buy 
 
 gird 
 
 quit 
 
 smell 
 
 thrust 
 
 can 
 
 give 
 
 quoth 
 
 smite 
 
 tread 
 
 cast 
 
 go 
 
 read 
 
 sow 
 
 wake 
 
 catch 
 
 grind 
 
 reave 
 
 speak 
 
 wax 
 
 chide 
 
 grow 
 
 rend 
 
 speed 
 
 wear 
 
 choose 
 
 liang 
 
 rid 
 
 spell 
 
 weave 
 
 cleave 
 
 have 
 
 ride 
 
 spend 
 
 weep 
 
 cling 
 
 hear 
 
 ring 
 
 spill 
 
 wend 
 
 clothe 
 
 heave 
 
 rise 
 
 spin 
 
 wet 
 
 come 
 
 hide 
 
 run 
 
 spit 
 
 whet 
 
 cost 
 
 hit 
 
 say 
 
 split 
 
 will 
 
 creej) 
 
 hold 
 
 see 
 
 spoil 
 
 win 
 
 crow 
 
 hurt 
 
 seek 
 
 spread 
 
 wind 
 
 cut 
 
 keep 
 
 seethe 
 
 spring 
 
 wit 
 
 dare 
 
 kneel 
 
 sell 
 
 stand 
 
 work 
 
 deal 
 
 knit 
 
 send 
 
 stave 
 
 wring 
 
 dig 
 
 know 
 
 set 
 
 steal 
 
 write
 
 134 A New English Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISE 68. 
 Forms of Irregular Verbs. 
 
 Be able to fill the following blanks with any appropriate 
 verb from the preceding list. Omit the word, it, if necessary 
 to make the form suit the meaning of the verb: 
 
 1. I it now. 
 
 2. I it a week ago. 
 
 3. I have — : — it lately. 
 
 4. He it now. 
 
 5. He it a week ago. 
 
 6. He has it lately. 
 
 7. They may to-day. 
 
 8. They yesterday. 
 
 9. They had before you came. 
 
 EXERCISE 69. 
 Speak and Write. 
 
 Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of speak 
 and ivrite. 
 
 1. She very well. 
 
 2. You have too soon. 
 
 3. I should have sooner. 
 
 4. Have they to you? 
 
 5. Has James to you about it ? 
 
 6. Who said you had about it? 
 
 EXERCISE 70. 
 Do. 
 
 Supply the proper forms of do: 
 
 1. I as I was told. 
 
 2. My work is . 
 
 3. Who the mischief? 
 
 4. The boy has his work well. 
 
 5. Who said I that ? 
 
 6. Sarah it herself. 
 
 7. Mary her example.
 
 Forms of Irregular Verbs. 135 
 
 EXERCISE 71. 
 Choose. 
 
 Insert the proper forms of choose: 
 
 1. I the blue pencil. 
 
 2. Americans freedom of thought. 
 
 3. I to go ashore. 
 
 4. Henry was first. 
 
 5. My sister herself the goods. 
 
 G. He should have been . 
 
 7. Will you first? 
 
 EXERCISE 72 
 Raise and Rise. 
 
 Insert the proper forms of rai^e or rise in the following : 
 
 1. He from the chair. 
 
 2. I have as early as five. 
 
 3. He that would thrive must by five. 
 
 4. Have you the window ? 
 
 5. Have you from your chair ? 
 
 6. What makes the bread ? 
 
 7. Yeast the bread. 
 
 8. The sun at six. 
 
 9. The river has a great deal. 
 
 10. I saw the sun this morning. 
 
 11. I cannot this window. 
 
 12. The sun at five this morning. 
 
 13. The sun has . 
 
 14. I wish you would from the floor.
 
 136 A New English GrajMmar. 
 
 EXERCISE 73. 
 Forms of Other Verbs. 
 
 In the following sentences, fill the blanks with the proper 
 forms of lie, lay, sit, set, teach, learn, seem, appear, love, or like : 
 
 1. The boy up straight. 
 
 . 2. I have up long enough. 
 
 3. the lamp on the table and by me. 
 
 4. James for his picture to-day. 
 
 5. I can my lesson. 
 
 6. Will you me to write ? 
 
 7. How long will it take you to me ? 
 
 8. I cannot my lesson. 
 
 9. Will you me to skate? 
 
 10. Do not ask me to you. 
 
 11. You will not me to swim. 
 
 12. He down to rest. 
 
 13. He the book down. 
 
 14. He had down to rest. 
 
 15. He had the book down. 
 
 16. He has the book down. 
 
 17. I will down and rest. 
 
 18. I will my pen down. 
 
 19. A man is on the porch. 
 
 20. James is out tomato plants. 
 
 21. The sun is just . 
 
 22. I am still. 
 
 23. I am tired of so still. 
 
 24. She is near the window. 
 
 25. The sun looks red. 
 
 26. Belle is under a tree in the yard. 
 
 27. She is to be satisfied.
 
 Forms of Other Verbs. 137 
 
 28. The dress to be new. 
 
 29. The day fine. 
 
 30. Did she to be contented? 
 
 81. The moon over the hill. 
 
 32. It to be red. 
 
 33. How did he to be? 
 
 34. The man to be well pleased. 
 
 35. I hope you will well. 
 
 36. I can well if I wish to. 
 
 37. The storm to be passing over. 
 
 38. The sun between the clouds. 
 
 39. I my brother. 
 
 40. The boy his sister. 
 
 41. Do you oranges ? 
 
 42. The child its parents, who arc dead. 
 
 43. I his appearance very much. 
 
 44. Do you amusements? 
 
 4.5. They Nat Goodwin. 
 
 Note.— Other devices requiring the pupils to use the diflerent forms of irregular 
 verbs in sentences, should be invented by the teacher. For example, the teacher, 
 rising from her chair, says : 
 
 "What do I do, Kate?" 
 
 Kate : " You rise from your chair." 
 
 Teacher: " What did I do, Tom?" 
 
 Tom : " You rose from your chair." 
 
 Teacher: " What have I done, Ned?" 
 
 Ned : " You have risen from your chair." 
 
 The teacher then breaks a piece of chalk, or writes on the board, or chooses a 
 book, or speaks loudly, etc., etc., and asks the same questions. The exercise may 
 be continued at will. 
 
 EXERCISE 74. 
 
 Classify the following italicized expressions on the basis 
 previously discovered. State how the attributes expressed 
 differ. State what classes of verbs w^e have on basis of this 
 difference. Define and illustrate each class: 
 
 1. Hitch your wagon to a star. ,,^ ^ 
 
 2. Fulton invented the steamboat. 
 
 3. The robin picked the crumbs after hopping in at the window.
 
 138 A New English Grammar. 
 
 4. We heard a highly instructive lecture. .^ 
 * 5. We ivalked along the fragrant lanes. 
 
 6. We talked of pleasant times in olden days. 
 
 7. We journeyed through the fields together. 
 
 8. John Anderson, my jo John, 
 We clam the hills thegither; 
 And mony a canty day, John, 
 We've /lad wi' ane anither: . 
 Now we maun totter down, John, 
 But hand in hand we'll go; 
 And sleep thegither at the foot, 
 John Anderson, my jo. 
 
 On basis of the nature of the attribute expressed by attributive 
 verbs, they are divided into transitive and intransitive. 
 
 ^-^ A transitive verb is an attributive verb, which expresses an at- 
   tribute of such a nature as to imply an object of thought which it 
 may directly aflect; e. g.. Good men love the' truth. 
 
 ^ An intransitive verb is an attributive verb which expresses an 
 /^attribute o-f such a nature that it does not imply an object of thought 
 which it may directly affect; e. g.. They walked through pleasant 
 groves and shady lanes. 
 
 EXERCISE 75. 
 
 Special Classes of Verbs. 
 
 State how the following italicized expressions dififer from 
 the other verbs with which you have been dealing. What 
 are such verbs called? Define and illustrate further: 
 
 1. " It snows!" cries the schoolboy. 
 
 2. It rains the livelong day, and mournful is the house. 
 
 3. They die the death of the righteous. 
 
 4. I hsive fought a good fight ; I have finished the faith. 
 
 5. He blew a blast upon the winding horn. 
 
 6. I will run as tar as God has any ground.
 
 Special Classes of Verbs. 139 
 
 7. You call me unbeliever, cut-throat dog, 
 And spit upon my Jewish p;aber(Hne, 
 
 And all for use of that which is mine own. ' 
 
 8. I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with 
 you, and so following, but I will not eat with j^ou, drink with you, 
 nor pray with you. 
 
 9. If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her 
 cunning. 
 
 10. I will never leave thee, nor forsake thee. 
 
 11. I may never see you again. 
 
 12. I may neither choose whom I would nor refuse whom I dis- 
 like. 
 
 13. Is it not hard, Nerissa, that I cannot choose one nor refuse 
 none? 
 
 14. " By my troth," quoth he, " you're a bold man." 
 
 15. It must not be. 
 
 16. One ought to love his neighbor as himself. 
 
 17. Every one owes himself an education. 
 
 18. He forces himself to be generous. 
 
 19. Christ made the water wine. 
 
 20. The traveler walked himself weary. 
 
 21. The singer sang her throat hoarse. 
 
 22. The lightning struck him dead. 
 
 23. He has told the story many times. 
 
 24. This above all: to thine own self be true, 
 And it must follow, as the night the day. 
 Thou canst not then be false to any man. 
 
 25. Child, thou ivilt not leave thy mother so ? 
 
 26. Thou shall not bear false witness against thy neighbor. 
 
 27. We do reject the ofTer. 
 
 28. What should such fellows as I do crawling between earth and 
 heaven. 
 
 29. He does confess he feels himself distracted; 
 
 But from what cause, he will by no means speak.
 
 140 A New English Grammar. 
 
 Get the literal meaning of the following words: have, can, 
 may, must, do, be, shall, and will. (See Dictionary.) 
 
 There are some special classes of verbs on basis of peculiarities 
 ])elonging to them. The principal classes of this kind are the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 An iiuporsonal or iinipersonal verb is a verb which has the 
 pronoun it for its subject when it expresses no particular object of 
 thought, but only helps to express that some action or process is 
 going on ; e. g., It Yains. 
 
 A cognate verb is a verb which expresses an attribute that 
 
 brings into existence a direct object, which is formed by making an 
 
 object of thought out of the attribute expressed by the verb ; e. g., 
 
 Let us die the death of the righteous. 
 
 Note.— Some grammarians speak of a cognate object. It is evident from the 
 above statement that a cognate object is only one kind of direct object. It is a 
 direct object which is brought into existence by thinking the attribute expressed 
 by the verb into an object of thought. 
 
 A redundant verb is a verb which has more than one form for 
 some one or more of its principal parts; e. g., run, ran or run, run. 
 
 A defective verb is a verb which is wanting in some one or 
 more of its principal parts ; e. g., may, might, . 
 
 A reflexive verb is a verb which expresses an attribute that 
 affects an object of thouglit which is identical with the thought 
 subject; e. g., I hurt myself. 
 
 A factitive or causative verb is a verb which expresses an 
 attribute that is the cause of a change in the object of thought 
 which it affects ; e. g., Christ made the water wine. 
 
 An auxiliary verb is a verb which aids in forming the tense, 
 mode, and voice forms of other verbs ; e. g., may, can. 
 
 EXERCISE 76. 
 May and Can. 
 Fill the following blanks with may or can: 
 
 1. I ask a question ? 
 
 2. I start yet to-night. 
 
 3. Please, I take your book?
 
 Shall and Will. 141 
 
 4. The boy do better work. 
 
 5. How far you ride ? 
 
 6. The eagle carry off a child. 
 
 7. you see where you are going? 
 
 8. You take a walk. 
 
 9. stars be suns? 
 
 10. How you bear to leave ? 
 
 State the difference between the meaning of the auxiliaries 
 may and can. 
 
 EXERCISE 77. 
 Shall and "Will. 
 State the meaning conveyed by the following italicized 
 expressions : 
 
 1. I shall see Salvini. 
 
 2. I shall be drowned ; no one can save me. 
 
 3. You shall go. 
 
 4. He shall return at once. 
 
 5. Shall I assist you in mounting ? 
 
 6. Shall I be obliged to pay the debt for him ? 
 
 7. Shall you be at school this afternoon ? 
 
 8. Shall you suffer for his offense ? 
 
 9. Shall the boy bring the carriage ? 
 
 10. " I will be revenged," said Philip. 
 
 11 . I will be a good boy. 
 
 12. You will find me there. 
 
 13. You 'will obey me. 
 
 14. He will leave to-morrow. 
 
 15. He will apologize to you. 
 
 16. Will I give up my principle ? 
 
 17. Will you persist in your reckless course ? 
 
 18. Will the deed return to the doer? 
 
 19. Will he let you have your choice? 
 
 20. Will the house that is built upon a rock, fall? 
 
 USES OK shall and WILL. 
 
 I. Shall. 
 
 1. In the declarative sentence. 
 
 a. With subject of the first person. 
 
 (1). To express simple futurity.
 
 142 A New English Grammar. 
 
 (2). To express futurity accompanied by neces- 
 sity in external circumstances, not under 
 the control of the thought subject. 
 b. With subject of second or third person. 
 
 (1). To express futurity accompanied by neces- 
 sity which is not under the control of the 
 actor. 
 2. In the interrogative sentence. 
 
 a. With subject of the first person. 
 
 (1). Futurity accompanied by the will of the per- 
 son addressed. 
 
 (2). Futurity accompanied by necessity in ex- 
 ternal circumstances. 
 
 b. With subject of the second person. 
 
 (1). Simple futurity. 
 
 (2). Futurity accompanied by necessity in ex- 
 ternal circumstances. 
 
 c. With subject of the third person. 
 
 (1). Futurity accompanied bythewillof the per- 
 
 „^.„ son addressed. 
 
 II. Will. 
 
 1. In the declarative sentence. 
 
 a. With subject of the first person. 
 
 (1). To express futurity accompanied by the re- 
 solve of the speaker. 
 
 (2). To express futurity with the assent or prom- 
 ise of the speaker. 
 
 b. With a subject of the second or third person. 
 
 (1). To express simple futurity. 
 (2.) To express futurity accompanied by the re- 
 solve or determination of the speaker. 
 
 2. In the interrogative sentence. 
 
 a. With subject of the first person. 
 
 (1). To express futurity accompanied by the re- 
 solve of the speaker. 
 
 b. With subject of the second person. 
 
 (1). To express futurity accompanied by deter- 
 mination on the part of the thought sub- 
 ject.
 
 Mode. 143 
 
 c. With subject of third person. 
 
 (1). To express simple futurity. 
 (2). To express futurity accompanied by the will 
 of the thought subject. 
 Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of shall or 
 will: 
 
 1. He preach in the evening. 
 
 2. you go with us? 
 
 3. You have your way. 
 
 4v You can learn, if you study. . 
 
 5. We vote early. 
 
 6. We go in spite of you. 
 
 7. They go, if they can. 
 
 8. She not be allowed to go home alone. 
 
 9. You have gone before we arrive. 
 
 10. We be avenged. 
 
 11. If you see him, you find him busy. 
 
 12. you dine with us to-morrow ? 
 
 13. I read awhile. 
 
 14. I see him? 
 
 15. I read to you? 
 
 16. You have your money to-day. 
 
 17. He be punished for it. 
 
 18. I be happy to accept. 
 
 19. I die ere I obey him. 
 
 20. God not give us any more truth than we are willing 
 
 to live. 
 
 EXERCISE 78. 
 
 Mode. 
 
 State the relation, in each case, in the following sentences, 
 between the thought expressed by the sentence, and the fact 
 in the external world. State whether the thought expressed 
 by the sentence is a reality ; or whether there is some doubt 
 in the mindas to its reality; or whether it is a mere supposi- 
 tion, and there is no fact in the external world corresponding
 
 144 A New English Gkammak. 
 
 to it; or if the thought in the mind corresponds to the fact 
 in the external world on account of necessity in external 
 circumstances, or will, outside of that of the actor: 
 » 1. I can see the towers of London. 
 
 2. Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsels of the 
 ungodly. 
 
 3. The mill will never grind with the water that is past. 
 
 4. My soul to-day is far away, 
 Sailing the "Vesuvian bay. 
 
 5. The pen is mightier than the sword. 
 
 6. His work, in many respects, is very imperfect. 
 
 7. Slovenliness and indelicacy of character generally go together. 
 ^ 8. When thy friend is denounced openly and boldly, espouse 
 
 his cause. 
 
 9. Plutarch calls lying the vice of slaves. 
 
 10. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is 
 just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report. 
 
 11. If 't were done when 't is done, then 't were well. 
 It were done quickly. 
 
 12. If he has been here, I have not seen him. f ?-v^» ^ 
 
 13. If he were here, I should like to meet him. a 
 
 14. If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died.cvH.^ 
 
 15. If thou be brave, I will conduct thee through this wilderness. 
 
 16. Were it not for leaving thee, my child, I could die happy. 
 ' ■/ 17. He may study his lessons. 
 
 18. He may take my book. 
 
 19. If thou hadst said him nay, it had been sin. 
 
 20. It must be true. 
 
 21. Give me your hand. 
 
 22. Let this cup pass from me. 
 
 23. Down, slave, behold the governor! 
 Down, Down! and beg for mercy. 
 
 24. Thou Shalt not steal. 
 
 25. Turn ye ! Turn ye again, Israel !
 
 Mode. 145 
 
 What property of the verb is illustrated in the preceding 
 sentences ? Define. State the different kinds or classes and 
 illustrate each. 
 
 Mode is that attribute of the verb which expresses the man- 
 ner of the assertion. Mode is that attribute of the verb which ex- 
 presses the phases of relation which exist between thought subject 
 and thought predicate. Mode is that attribute of the verb which 
 expresses the relation between the thought in the mind and the 
 fact or reality in the external world. 
 
 The following relations may exist between the thought in the 
 mind and the fact or reality in the external world: 
 
 1. The thought in the mind may correspond to a reality in the 
 external world and the mind may know it; e. g., Franklin was a 
 philosopher. 
 
 2. The thought in the mind may or may not correspond to a 
 reality in the external world and the mind is in doubt about it — 
 doubtful mind as to an actual relation; e. g., If it be raining, I must 
 remain. 
 
 3. The thought in the mind is a mere supposition and there is 
 no reality in the external world corresponding to it, and the mind 
 knows it ; e. g., If my father were here, I should be happy. ' 
 
 4. The thought in the mind corresponds to a fact or reality in 
 the external world on account of necessity in external circum- 
 stances, or will, outside of that of the actor; e. g., Sing me a merry 
 lay, my lads. 
 
 The first relation is expressed by the indicative mode; the sec- 
 ond and third, by the subjunctive; the fourth, by the imperative. 
 
 The indicative mode is that mode or manner of assertion 
 which declares the relation seen between thought subject and 
 thought predicate to be a reality. The indicative mode is that 
 mode or manner of assertion which shows that the thought in the 
 mind corresponds to the fact in the external world — the internal 
 corresponds to the external. 
 
 The subjunctive mode is that mode or manner of assertion 
 which indicates that there is some doubt in the mind as to whether 
 
 10 
 
 /
 
 146 A New English Grammar. 
 
 the thought in the mind corresponds to a reality in the external 
 world, or that the thought in the mind is a mere supposition and 
 there is no fact in the external world corresponding to it. 
 
 The imperative mode is that mode or manner of assertion 
 which shows that the thought in the mind corresponds to the 
 reality in the external world on account of necessity in external 
 circumstances or will outside of that of the actor. 
 
 Note.— Some grammarians give four modes; viz>, indicative, subjunctive, poten- 
 tial, and imperative.' There is no serious objection to this division, but it does not 
 seem to be necessary, as all relations between thought subjects and thought predi- 
 cates may be classified under the three given above. (See Whitney's Essentials of 
 English Grammar, par. JT9 and 480.) 
 
 EXERCISE 79. 
 
 Tense. 
 
 State whether the relation seen to exist between the 
 thought subject and thought predicate, as expressed in each 
 of the following sentences, is a relation which is seen to ex- 
 ist in present time, or past time, or future time. State 
 whether we use one or more than one of these periods of 
 time in locating the relations : 
 
 1. The leaves tremble in the wind. 
 
 2. The sun is shining brightly. 
 
 3. Columbus discovered America in 1492. 
 
 4. We saw General Grant. 
 
 5. We shall attend the World's Fair. 
 
 6. Will you permit that I shall stand condemned ? 
 
 7. Feelest thou not, world, the earthquake of his chariot 
 thundering up Olympus? 
 
 8. How sleep the brave, that sink to rest 
 By all their country's wishes blest! 
 
 9. My sister was gathering flowers, 
 
 10. Be aye sticking in a tree, Jack; it'll be growing while ye're 
 sleeping.
 
 Tense. 147 
 
 11. I have cautioned you frequently. 
 
 12. Wilfred had roused him to reply. 
 
 13. When I shall have hrought them into the land, then will they 
 turn to other gods. 
 
 14. I have sung my song. 
 
 15. I had sung the song before you arrived. 
 
 16. I shall have sung the song before you arrive. 
 
 17. By slow degrees the whole truth has come out. 
 
 18. Matilda had taken her accustomed place in the window-seat. 
 
 19. I shall have seen all the wonders, when I write to you. 
 
 20. Plans and elevations of their palace have been made for 
 them, and are now being engraved for the public. 
 
 State the property of the verb ilhistrated in the preceding 
 sentences. Define. State the different classes or kinds, and 
 define and illustrate each. 
 
 Tense is that property of the verb which indicates the time of 
 the relation between thought subject and thought predicate. 
 
 The absolute tenses are those tenses which use only one period 
 of time in indicating the time of the relation expressed by the verb. 
 They are as follows: 
 
 The present tense is that absolute tense which uses the period 
 of speaking in fixing the time of the relation expressed by the verb. 
 
 The past tense is that absolute tense which uses the period of 
 time wholly past in fixing the time of the relation expressed by the 
 verb. 
 
 The future tense is that absolute tense which uses the period of 
 time to come in fixing the time of the relation expressedby the verb. 
 
 The relative tenses are those tenses which use two periods of 
 time in fixing the time of the relation expressed by the verb. They 
 are as follows : 
 
 The present perfect tense is that relative tense which fixes 
 the time of the relation expressed by the verb in a period of time 
 which includes a part of the past up to the present, including the 
 instant of speaking.
 
 148 A New English Grammar. 
 
 The past perfect tense is that relative tense which fixes the 
 time of the relation expressed by the verb in a period of time pre- 
 vious to some period of past time. 
 
 The future perfect tense is that relative tense which fixes 
 the time of the relation expressed by the verb in a future time pre- 
 vious to some other future time. 
 
 EXERCISE 80. 
 
 ^ Uses of Tense Forms. 
 
 State the tense of each verb in the following sentences; 
 state the time in which the relation between thought subject 
 and thought predicate is seen to exist : 
 
 1. He hears his daughter's voice. 
 
 2. Man is mortal. 
 
 3. The man travels for Hermand and Knox. 
 
 4. My brother goes to New York to-morrow on business. 
 
 5. They cross the river ; they fire the town ; they form under 
 cover of the smoke; they advance up the hill ; they are driven back. 
 
 6. I see the nation gathering her forces for the mighty struggle; 
 they put forth one mighty efi'ort and the end comes. 
 
 7. The little birds sang gayly in the trees. 
 
 8. He preached in this little hamlet for many years. 
 
 9. If I should be there, you would be surprised. 
 
 10. If my sister were here, she would enjoy the lecture. 
 
 11. The teachers will go to Denver the coming summer. 
 
 12. He will wander in the woods day after day. 
 
 13. Milton has given us Comus. 
 
 14. The hour shall not strike till I have gained my point. 
 
 15. He had written the poem before this book appeared. 
 
 16. If I had walked rapidly, I should have overtaken you. 
 
 17. At the close of this year, I shall have finished my course. 
 
 18. The truth itself is not believed 
 From one who often has deceived.
 
 Voice. 149 
 
 EXERCISE 81. 
 
 Voice. 
 
 State concerning the verbs in the following sentences, 
 whether the attribute expressed by them is an attribute ex- 
 erted by the thought subject and directed away from it, 
 or whether it is exerted by some other object of thought and 
 is directed toward or exerted upon the thought subject: 
 
 1. The engine draws the train. 
 
 2. The story has been told by many writers. 
 
 3. England had taxed the colonies unjustly. 
 
 4. Marco Polo tells us strange stories. 
 
 5. The Mississippi was discovered by De Soto in 1541. 
 
 6. The prudent neither waste time nor money. 
 
 7. Paris was besieged by the Prussians in 1871. 
 
 8. Every patriot will defend the flag. 
 
 9. Our friends came last week. 
 
 10. We were entertained in royal style. 
 
 11. The singer was fatigued by his exertions. 
 
 12. The traveler was weary. 
 
 13. The minister was fatigued. 
 
 14. I go where duty calls me. 
 
 15. The soldier was sleepy and tired. • 
 
 Name and define the property of the verb illustrated in 
 the preceding sentences. State the different kinds or classes. 
 Define and illustrate each class. State and illustrate the dif- 
 ferent ways in which the passive voice may be formed from 
 the active. When does the combination of the past partici- 
 ple with the different forms of the verb be form the passive 
 voice; when does it not form the passive voice? 
 
 Voice is that property of the attributive verb which shows 
 whether the attribute expressed by it is exerted by the thought
 
 150 A New English Grammar. 
 
 subject and directed away from it or is exerted by some other object 
 of thought and directed toward the thought subject. 
 
 The active voice is that voice which shows that the attribute 
 expressed by the verb is exerted or put forth by the thought sub- 
 ject and is directed away from it. 
 
 The passive voice is that voice which shows that the attribute 
 expressed by the verb is exerted by an object of thought other than 
 the thought subject and is directed toward or exerted upon the 
 thought subject. 
 
 The passive voice is formed by using some form of the verb be 
 
 with the past participle of the verb ; e. g., The tree was blown down. 
 
 Note.— The forms of the verb, be, unite with the past participle of the verb to 
 form the passive voice when the participle denotes actual endurance of the attri- 
 bute expressed by the participle, on the part of the thought subject; e. g., He was 
 fatigued by his exertions. When the past participle denotes condition as a result 
 of action its combination with the verb, be, docs not form the passive voice; e. g., 
 He was f aligned. (See Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, par. 302.) 
 
 The active voice may be changed to the passive in any one 
 
 of the following ways: 
 
 1. By making the direct objective modifier of the verb in the 
 active voice, the subject of the sentence in the passive voice; e. g., 
 
 She canned the fruit, The fruit was canned by her. 
 
 2. When we have a prepositional phrase modifying the verb, 
 we frequently separate the preposition and the principal word of 
 the phrase, making the principal word of the phrase, in the active 
 voice, the subject of the sentence in the passive, and attaching the 
 preposition to the verb ; e. g., We had lived in that house a long time, 
 That house had been lived in a long time by us. 
 
 3. When a verb is followed by a direct objective modifier and is 
 modified by a prepositional phrase, either the direct objective mod- 
 ifier or the principal word of the prepositional phrase may become 
 the subject of the sentence in the passive; e. g., We take no notice of 
 such fellows, No notice is taken of such fellows by us. Such fellows are 
 taken no notice of by us. 
 
 4. The indirect objective modifier in the active voice, may be- 
 come the subject of the sentence in the passive; e. g., I told him 
 to leave, He was told to leave by me.
 
 Voice. 151 
 
 The passive voice may be used in tlie following ways : 
 
 1. When the agent is unknown; e.g., The dress was made by a 
 person tvhose name I do not know. 
 
 2. When we wish to conceal the agent; e. g., The story tvas told 
 to me by a person whose name I ivill not mention. 
 
 3. When we wish to make prominent the direct or indirect ob- 
 ject in the active; e. g., The boy was abused by his conqjanion. 
 
 4. To preserve the unity of the sentence; e.g., The dress luas 
 bought and worn by the same lady. 
 
 5. To give a pleasing variety to discourse; e. g., They sang a 
 song; Emily gave a recitation; then the address icas delivered. 
 
 6. To avoid the frequent use of the pronoun, I; e. g., The phe- 
 nomenon was not observed again for some time. 
 
 Note.— Since the passive voice, as usually considered by grammarians, is that 
 form in which the direct objective modifier in the active becomes the subject of the 
 sentence in the passive, voice belongs only to transitive verbs, because only transi- 
 tive verbs take direct objective modifiers. But as shown above, voice means more 
 than this and hence is not strictly limited to transitive verbs. 
 
 (See Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, par. 304.) 
 
 Two classes of active verbs may be given: 
 
 1. Those active in form and meaning; e. g.. The mother loves her 
 child. 
 
 2. Those active in form and passive in meaning; e. g., The child 
 hurt itself. 
 
 Two classes of passive verbs may be given: 
 
 1. Those passive in form and meaning; e.g., The train ivas 
 wrecked on the bridge. 
 
 2. Those passive in form and not passive in meaning, sometimes 
 called the neuter voice by grammarians; e.g., The woman tvas de- 
 voted to her child. 
 
 (See Lee and Hadley, p. 194.) 
 
 State all the uses of the passive voice. Illustrate each by 
 two or more examples.
 
 152 A New English Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISE 82. 
 
 In the following sentences, state whether the verbs are 
 active or passive: 
 
 1. If she hate me, then believe, 
 She shall die ere I will grieve. 
 
 2. Where shall we dine to-day? 
 
 3. He that complies against his will •' 
 Is of the same opinion still. 
 
 4. Frequently the exordium is too long, and the peroration in- 
 terminable. 
 
 5. The mother loves her child. 
 
 6. The speaker corrected himself. 
 
 7. I held it truth, with him who sings 
 
 To one clear harpin divers tones. 
 That men may rise on stepping-stones, 
 Of their dead selves to higher things. 
 
 8. The train was wrecked at midnight. 
 
 9. The slave was devoted to his master. 
 
 10. The truth, conned from the book by many readers, was car- 
 ried away in their hearts. 
 
 EXERCISE 83. 
 
 Person and Number. 
 
 Notice the person and number of each subject in the 
 following sentences. Note the change in the verb to accom- 
 modate the change in the subject : 
 
 1. I know that my Redeemer liveth. 
 
 2. He knows where the wild flowers grow. 
 
 3. They know how the wild flowers grow. 
 
 4. The scissors are dull. 
 
 3. Evil news rides post, while good news baits. 
 6. The tongs are hot.
 
 Person and Number. 153 
 
 7. The sheep was fast in the fence. 
 
 8. The sheep were driven to the pond and washed. 
 
 9. The school was dismissed for the holidays. 
 
 10. The school were not all present. 
 
 11. Henry, William, and Charles were kings. 
 
 12. The boy or his father is at fault. 
 
 13. Each man, woman, and child was given a prize. 
 
 14. Every boy and every girl is expected to be ol)edient. 
 
 15. The officers and not the private weve at fault. 
 1(). The children, or the servant, or I am to blame. 
 
 17. Red, white, and blue makes a pretty flag. 
 
 18. Grace and beauty is a desirable combination. 
 
 19. " Paint me as I am," said Cromwell. 
 
 20. " You are excused," said the teacher, in a pleasant voice. 
 
 21. He is the freeman, whom the truth makes free. 
 
 22. Thou art a pretty fellow ! 
 
 23. The storm was dreadful along the Atlantic coast. 
 
 24. The islands were beautiful as we sailed in and out among 
 them. 
 
 25. 'Tis as easy as lying. 
 
 26. He prayeth best who loveth best 
 All things, both great and small. 
 
 27. Thou standst on the threshold of life. 
 
 28. Thou waitest for the coming of thy mate. 
 
 29. Thou pretty child, why weepest thou? 
 
 30. I dare do all that may become a man ; 
 Who dares do more is none. 
 
 What is meant by person and number in the verb? In 
 what sense may it be said to be a property of the verb?
 
 154 A New English Grammar. 
 
 What changes in form does the verb undergo to denote per- 
 son and number? By observing the preceding, sentences, 
 state the different kinds of subjects and how the verb accom- 
 modates itself in form, to the form of the subject. 
 
 The person and number of the verb are changes which its form 
 nndergoes to mark its agreement with its subject. 
 
 This change in fprm on the part of the verb does not indicate a 
 change in meaning, so that person and number can scarcely be said 
 to be a property of the verb. The subject is said to govern the verb 
 which means simply that the verb accommodates itself in form to 
 the form of the subject. 
 
 In making the changes in the verb to indicate person, we add t, 
 st, est, s, es, th, eth, to the present indicative. Number is indicated 
 by a change in the word, as, am, are ; luas, were ; or by s as an end- 
 ing for the singular, and leaving it off for the plural, as, knoios, 
 know. 
 
 Note.— Let the children work out the exceptions to the above statement. 
 
 By a careful study of the sentences, the following facts may be 
 seen: 
 
 1. A singular subject requires a singular verb. 
 
 2. A plural subject requires a plural verb. 
 
 / 3. If a subject is plural in form and singular in meaning, usage 
 determines the form of the verb ; sometimes it is singular and some- 
 times it is plural. 
 
 4. Some subjects are plural in form but either plural or singular 
 in meaning; the verb is plural. 
 
 5. Some subjects are singular in form but either singular or 
 plural in meaning; the verb is singular or plural according to the 
 meaning of the subject. 
 
 6. A subject which is a collective noun takes a singular verb if 
 the collection is considered as a whole; it takes a plural verb if 
 the mind dwells upon the individuals of the collection.
 
 Person and Number. 155 
 
 7. The compound subject or abridged compound sentence: 
 
 a. Parts each singular and taken collectively, i. e., con- 
 
 nected by and or some copulative conjunction, the 
 verb must be plural. 
 
 b. Parts singular and taken separately, i. e., connected 
 
 by or or nor, or if preceded by each, every, or nOj 
 though connected by and, the verb must be singular. 
 
 c. If the parts of the subject are emphatically distin- 
 
 guished, the principal subject determines the form 
 of the verb. 
 
 d. If the parts differ in person and number and are taken 
 
 separately, the one nearest the verb determines its 
 form. 
 
 e. A subject compound in form but singular in meaning 
 
 takes a singular verb. 
 
 EXERCISE 84. 
 
 Fill the following blanks with suitable words : 
 
 1. Either of you able to do it. 
 
 2. Each of the pupils studied the lesson. 
 
 3. Neither of the prisoners g"ilty of the charge. 
 
 4. No one of the animals dangerous. 
 
 5. Neither of them - ten years old. 
 
 6. No one of the men escaped. 
 
 7. Every man, woman, and child lost. 
 
 8. Neither of the boats injured. 
 
 9. The ashes light. 
 
 10. Oats a good price. 
 
 11. The molasses fine. 
 
 12. The news bad. 
 
 13. Politics his delight. 
 
 14. The deer pursued by the hunter. 
 
 15. Truth and Mercy met in the way. 
 
 /
 
 156 A New English Grammar. 
 
 16. Righteousness and Peace kissed each other. 
 
 17. The lion and the lamb lain down together. 
 
 18. Elegance and ease a combinatiou which pleases. 
 
 EXERCISE 85. 
 Conjugation of the Verb. 
 
 Give the literal meaning of the word, conjugation. What 
 is meant by the conjugation of the v6rb? Illustrate with 
 any verb. 
 
 Give the literal meaning of the word, synopsis. What is 
 meant by the synopsis of the verb? Illustrate with any verb. 
 
 The word, conjugation, comes from the Latin, con, meaning with, 
 together; jugare, meaning, to join, and the suffix, ion, meaning, the 
 act of. Literally the word means, the act of joining together. 
 
 The conjugation of the verb is the giving of all its inflected forms 
 which either express shades of its own meaning or adapt it to be 
 used along with the different forms of other words. When all the 
 forms for the different modes, tenses, voices, persons, and numbers 
 of a verb have been given, the verb is said to be conjugated. 
 
 By the synopsis of a verb is meant the giving of these forms of 
 the verb in a single person and number. 
 
 Note.— No advantage is to be gained by having children commit the conjuga- 
 tions or synopses of certain verbs. They shdold know all these forms, however. 
 The teacher might say to a pupil, " Make a sentence about Harry." Suppose the 
 pupil says, " Harry sits at his desk." The teacher might then say, " Express that 
 in the future tense." "Express it in the subjunctive mode, etc." Or a sentence 
 may be taken from the book, and, after the children have given the mode, tense, 
 voice, person, etc., of the verb, the teacher may ask them to change it to difTerent 
 modes, tenses, numbers, etc. By using many devices of this kind, the teacher can 
 fix in the mind of the child all the forms of the verb in connection with their 
 meanings, and not as so many dry, arbitrary forms to be committed to memory. 
 (See Appendix A. ) 
 
 EXERCISE 86. 
 
 Forms of Verb. 
 
 Observe the form of the verb in each of the following sen- 
 tences. State how the forms differ. What difference in
 
 FoKMS OF Verb. 157 
 
 meaning does this difference in form indicate ? Name, define, 
 and illustrate the different forms which the verb may have: 
 
 1. I study my lessons carefully before coming to recitation. 
 
 2. Men rise above their animal natures and become divine. 
 
 3. I was studying when you called. 
 
 4. The sun was rising as we started. 
 
 5. The boy does study diligently. 
 
 6. I do rise betimes. 
 
 7. Do you study astronomy? 
 
 8. Do men rise in the world by mere chance? 
 
 9. I do not study when I should be sleeping. 
 
 10. Men do not rise in the world, because they do not put forth 
 an effort to do so. 
 
 11. A bad man can have no possessions that are fire proof.   
 
 12. No man is right on any question unless the side he takes is 
 God's side. 
 
 13. The man gains nothing who loses his character and saves his 
 money. 
 
 14. For every fault we see in others, we have two of our own 
 which we overlook. 
 
 15. He who thinks loosely will write loosely. 
 
 The simple form of the verb is that form which we call the 
 root ; e. g., write, look. 
 
 The progressive form of the verb is that form which expresses 
 its attribute in a state of continuance; e. g., writing, looking. 
 
 The emphatic form of the verb is that form which emphasizes 
 the attribute expressed by it ; e. g., do vjrite, do look. 
 
 The interrogative form of the verb is that form which is used 
 in asking a question ; e. g., Do you study f Do we write ? 
 
 The negative form of the verb is that form which is used when 
 the relation between thought subject and thought predicate is one 
 of disagreement; e. g., I do not write. She does not look. 
 
 Make a complete outline of the verb, including definition, 
 classes, properties, etc.
 
 158 A New English Grammar. 
 
 EXERCISE 87. 
 
 From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthesis 
 in each of the following sentences, select the correct one: 
 
 1. The passenger (allows, admits, declares) that the time for 
 starting has come. 
 
 • 2. The child (did, done) it. 
 
 3. Tom (dove, dived) to the bottom several times. 
 
 4. Silver has (flowed, flown) into the treasury. 
 
 5. Have you (hanged, hung) the clothes out? 
 
 6. The prisoner was sentenced to be (hung, hanged). 
 
 7. I'll (learn, teach) a man to swim for five dollars. 
 
 8. He wouldn't (let, leave) me go. 
 
 9. I can (lend, loan) you some money. 
 
 10. He (lit, alighted) from his horse with great agility. 
 
 11. The child (plead, pleaded) sohardthatthe teacher let him off. 
 
 12. Trumbull had been used to having every attention (shown, 
 showed) him. 
 
 13. It is (talked, said) privately that the bank is ruined. 
 
 14. The plant has (took, taken) root there. 
 
 15. I could have (gone, went). 
 
 16. In the afternoon, I (lied, lay) down. 
 
 17. He (laid, lay) down and fell into a heavy sleep. 
 
 18. I recalled the times I had (laid, lain) awake. 
 
 19. Orlando (lay, laid) Adam down carefully, and told him that 
 lie would soon return with food. 
 
 20. Scott often gives us the picture of some old ruined abbey, 
 (lying, laying) cold and deserted in the moonlight. 
 
 21. There let him (lay, lie). 
 
 22. If you had a strong fire, and your steam (was, were) inclined 
 to (rise, raise) what (would, should) you do ? 
 
 23. More skilled to (rise, raise) the wretched than to (raise, rise). 
 
 24. Orville (seated, sat) her in the big chair.
 
 Forms of Verb. 169 
 
 25. She (sat, set) before the fire. 
 
 26. Did she (sit, set) still ? 
 
 27. You (are n't, ain't) so tall as your sister. 
 
 28. As it (don't, does n't) suit you, never mind. 
 
 29. He (does n't, don't) know me. 
 
 30. You (ought not to, should not, had n't ought to) whisper in 
 the class. 
 
 31. You (were, was) in Boston then, (was n't, were n't) you? 
 
 32. How infinitely good you (was, were) to poor Mrs. Golds- 
 worthy ! 
 
 33. " Sir," said the King, " was it not when you (were, was) op- 
 posing me?" 
 
 34. (Can, may) I help you to the fruit? 
 
 35. If an author's ideas are original, he (can, may; safely fail in 
 all other requirements. 
 
 36. I (shall, will) bring him over to the manor, if I (can, may). 
 I don't say, if I (can, may). 
 
 37. Here we encountered an opposition which (must, had to) be 
 overcome. 
 
 3S. They met a friend and one of them (had to, must) return 
 with him to show him the way. 
 
 39. Never (shall, will) T see her more— never (will, shall) I see 
 her more, till she is married. 
 
 40. We (shall, will) do our best to make you happy and hope 
 that we (will, shall) succeed. 
 
 41. We (shall, will) bo killed together. 
 
 42. We (shall, will) have to go. 
 
 43. 1 leave early, and, accordingly (shall, will) be there. 
 
 44. Is the time coming when we (will, shall) desert Thackeray? 
 
 45. I (will, shall) be happy to see you there. 
 
 46. If we proceed on this principle, we (will, shall) lose every- 
 thing. 
 
 47. "Not pay it! " says he, " but you (will, shall) pay it! ay, ay, 
 you (will, shall) pay it!"
 
 160 A New English Grammar. 
 
 48. You (shall, will) be elected, whoever may be your opponent. 
 
 49. Thou (shalt, wilt) not steal. 
 
 50. Sicinius. It is a mind 
 
 That (shalt, will) remain a poison where it is, 
 Not poison any further. 
 
 Coriolanus. Shall remain! — 
 
 Hear you thisTi-itou of the minnows? Mark you 
 
 His absolute ("shall," "will")? 
 
 51. I am afraid that I (shall, will) not be there, and that you and 
 he (shall, will) obtain the place. 
 
 52. He thinks that he (will, shall) come out with a profit. 
 
 53. If I (rise, raise) early enough, I (shall, will) see the sun 
 (raise, rise). 
 
 54. He is afraid that he (will, shall) not pass his examination. 
 
 55. While he is wondering how long he (shall, will) live in this 
 condition, a boat appears. 
 
 56. Surely goodness and mercy (will, shall) follow me all the 
 days of my life, and I (will, shall) dwell in the house of the Lord 
 forever. 
 
 57. The time is coming when the English language (shall, will) 
 be the language of the globe. 
 
 58. (Will, shall) you bear the message? Or (shall, will) I? 
 
 59. (Shall, will) I speak to him? Or (shall, will) you? 
 
 60. (Shall, will) you be there? 
 
 61. Where (shall, wdll) I see the man? 
 
 62. How long (shall, will) we need to stay ? 
 
 63. When our friends (would, should) \yalk out, they (would, 
 should) always go down by the lake. 
 
 64. The train (should, would) make better time than it does. 
 
 65. If it (should, would) be very cold, he (would, should) not 
 start. 
 
 66. I knew that we (should, would) either go to the bottom to- 
 gether or that she (would, should^ be the making of me.
 
 Forms of Verb. 161 
 
 67. If I had gone on the excursion, I (should, would) have 
 needed money. 
 
 68. I (should, would) be pleased to meet your friend. 
 
 69. Taking this for granted, we (would, should) expect to find 
 gold in every hill. 
 
 70. I (should, would) think that we (should, would) likely find 
 the man at his home. 
 
 71. Thackeray says that he (should, would) have been proud (to 
 be, to have been) Shakespeare's boot-black or Addison's errand-boy. 
 
 72. We thought that in taking this course we (would, should) 
 escape criticism. 
 
 73. We hoped that she (should, would) soon visit us again. 
 
 74. As a friend, I (would, should) like to warn you. 
 
 75. I (would, should) be willing to go, if it were not for my 
 friends. 
 
 76. If we (were, was) consulted, we (should, would) not want a 
 change. 
 
 J8. He had always thought he (would, should) like to go west. 
 
 79. He (bid, bade) them farewell. 
 
 80. The commander (bid, bade) the soldiers fire. 
 
 81. The man (bade, bid) one dollar for the book. 
 
 82. The water has not been (drank, drunk). 
 
 83. The weary traveler (drank, drunk) eagerly. 
 
 84. He (ate, eat) a hearty meal. 
 
 85. Before I had (got, gotten) my breath, men (came, come) run- 
 ning after me. 
 
 86. The lamp was (lit, lighted) early. 
 
 87. The statement has been (proven, proved). 
 
 88. I have (rode, ridden) only a short (way, ways). 
 
 89. I have (awaked, awoke) in time. 
 
 90. Mr. Conklin regrets that a previous engagement (prevents, 
 will prevent) him from accepting Mrs. Waller's invitation to dinner 
 Tuesday. 
 
 11
 
 162 A New English Grammar. 
 
 91. Mr. Curtis (accepts with pleasure, will be happy to accept) 
 Mrs. Long's kind invitation for Saturday evening. 
 
 92. It (is, was) the duty of history to record inventions as well 
 as wars. 
 
 93. It has always been a question with me whether scientific 
 tastes (denote, denoted) a higher type of mind than aesthetic tastes. 
 
 94. It was (the business of Harvard, Harvard's business) (to be, 
 to have been) on. the lookout, and (to secure, to have secured) all 
 the glory it could. 
 
 95. Every bill shall be presented to the governor ; if he (approve, 
 approves), he (shall, will) sign it. 
 
 96. Whether the encounter (alienate, alienates) friends or (raise, 
 raises) up enemies, whether it (be fraught, is fraught) with physical 
 risk or moral danger, whether it (lead, leads) to defeat or to total 
 ruin, the editor who is worthy of the name will not shrink from the 
 contest. 
 
 97. How terrible it would be if you (were, was) a saint! 
 
 98. If your home (were, was) not in Italy, you would feel as I do. 
 
 99. My wife is apt to look as if she {was, were) going to cry. 
 
 100. If I (was, were) you, I (should, would) let it pass. 
 
 101. The frigate now came tearing along as if she (were, was) 
 alive and (were, was) feeling the fever of the chase. 
 
 102. If it (is, be) discouraging to notice (your own, one's own) 
 faults in the second generation, it is still more so to encounter idi- 
 osyncracies with which you have no association. 
 
 103. Three centuries of New England climate (has, have) made 
 him quick-witted. 
 
 104. The persecutions of the chapel bell, sounding its unwel- 
 come summons to six o'clock prayers, (interrupt, interrupts) my 
 slumbers no more. 
 
 105. The gayety and the enthusiasm of the soul (recall, recalls) 
 the last loiterer in the supper -room. 
 
 106. With two of his companions, he entered and (was, were) 
 conducted through the place.
 
 Forms of Verb. 163 
 
 107. The mother, with two young children, (has, have) gone 
 abroad. 
 
 108. The rehgion of this period, as well as that of the early- 
 Christians, (was, were) entirely opposed to any such belief. 
 
 109. The Rev. Goldust, accompanied by his family, (has, have) 
 left the city. 
 
 110. The whole system of mind-reading, mesmerism, and spir- 
 itualism (seem, seetns) to be connected. 
 
 111. The formation of paragraphs (are, is) very important. 
 
 112. All that they could see of the mysterious person (was, were) 
 his boots. 
 
 113. What (are, is) wanted (is, are) not more teachers, but better 
 trained teachers. 
 
 114. Since this matter has been discussed, there (have, has) been 
 many inquiries. 
 
 115. In the evening, there (was, were) always some social games. 
 
 116. In literature (is, are) embalmed the short stories of the 
 day. 
 
 117. No one of these forty English words (were, was) in use 
 before the battle of Hastings. 
 
 118. While either of these (is, are) hungry, nothing will ever 
 give (them, him) sleep. 
 
 119. Neither of the girls (was, were) very much at (their, her) 
 ease. 
 
 120. Neither the Bishop nor a recent writer in the Spectator 
 (has, have) arrived at the truth. 
 
 121. She is one of the writers who (is, are) destined to be iiu- 
 niortal. 
 
 122. We lament the excessive delicacy of his ideas, which (.pre- 
 vents, prevent) one from grasping them. 
 
 12.3. The number of exercises (is, are) not great. 
 
 124. The majority of Indian marriages (is, arc) happy. 
 
 12.5. A multitude of heads, hats, fans, (were, was) waving. 
 
 126. One hundred dollars (has, have) been added.
 
 164 A New English Grammar. 
 
 127. The Chamber of Commerce of Columbus (request, requests) 
 your presence at its First Annual Dinner. 
 
 128. The committee (has called, have called) for more witnesses. 
 
 129. Thackeray gives Swift a much better character (than John- 
 son, than Johnson does). 
 
 130. The government (has not and will not enter, has not en- 
 tered and will not enter) into negotiations. 
 
 131. He (liked, loved) to wander through the woods. 
 
 132. The bill was (championed, supported) by senator Logan. 
 
 133. I did not (calculate, intend) to insult any one by the re- 
 marks. 
 
 134. They (carried, fetched, brought) water from a spring nearby. 
 
 135. Mrs. Masters (claims, declares) that she is satisfied. 
 
 136. The senator (claims, wants) the floor. 
 
 137. We (admit, confess) the truth of that statement. 
 
 138. My friend failed to (materialize, appear). 
 
 139. The man (was shocked by electricity, received an electric 
 shock). ^^ ^ 
 
 140. This (shows the measure of, sizes up) the man. 
 
 141. He (states, says) that he was hungry. 
 
 142. I am (stopping, staying, living) at the hotel. 
 
 143. The rumors of what (had taken place, occurred, transpired) 
 were spread abroad. 
 
 144. I gladly (except, accept) your oflTer. 
 
 145. 'He grants all (accept, except) the last point. 
 
 146. She (expects, suspects) her brother to-morrow. 
 
 147. I (expect, suspect, think) you will find bad roads. 
 
 148. He completely (vanquished, downed) his opponent. 
 
 149. A beautiful doll came out and (gestured, gesticulated) sol- 
 emnly. 
 
 150. The two men (were never neighborly, never neighbored), 
 much to the regret of the Quaker. 
 
 151. Why do you (resurrect, revive) that old question ?
 
 The Adverb. 165 
 
 152. She (went to work as a clerk, began clerking) in a store. 
 
 153. People (are not very enthusiastic, don't enthuse) on the 
 subject. 
 
 154. He (summoned, summonsed) me to his office. 
 
 155. Mr. Jackson was asked (to act as umpire, to umpire the 
 game). 
 
 156. A vote of thanks was extended to Mr. Temple for (referee- 
 ing the game, acting as referee of the game). 
 
 157. This ruling does not (efiect, affect) the case of the prisoner 
 at the bar. 
 
 158. They sailed away without (affecting, effecting) their pur- 
 pose. 
 
 159. The attribute expressed by a transitive verb directly 
 (effects, affects) an object. 
 
 160. Has it (cultured, cultivated) the popular sensibilities? 
 
 EXERCISE 88. 
 
 The Adverb. 
 
 State the use of each italicized word in the following : 
 
 1. The mountaia streams flow rapidly. 
 
 2. The sentence is undoubtedly a just one. 
 ."!. The girl is exceedingly lonesome. 
 
 4. The vessel was wrecked when it was almost over the ocean. 
 
 5. We shall all meet there. 
 
 (). The method is slow at first but will rapidly grow easier. 
 
 7. Occasionally written exercises should be substituted for the 
 oral, when the teacher wishes to test the progress of the class. 
 
 8. I shall be glad to see you whenever you may stop. 
 
 9. I saw the place where the World's Fair buildings are to stand. 
 10. The young man was greatly respected in the town where he 
 
 was born.
 
 166 A New English Grammar. 
 
 11. No spot on earth, do I love more sincerely, 
 Than old Virginia, the place where I was born. 
 
 12. He speaks mosi sincerely when in private conversation. 
 1 ;5. I sincerely hope for your success. 
 
 14. The prisoner begged hard for mercy. 
 
 15. The boy studies harder than his sister. 
 
 16. It rained hardest just after we started. 
 
 17. Now will we deal worse with thee than with them. 
 
 18. He is much taller than I. 
 
 19. He is more polite than his brother. 
 
 20. He is the most industrious boy in school. 
 
 21. The soul lives on forever. 
 
 22. We shall no doubt meet often hereafter. 
 28. I cannot believe otherunse. 
 
 24. The lady was greatly distressed by the news. 
 
 25. When shall we three meet again? 
 
 26. Where do the people congregate ? 
 
 27. I know why you have come. 
 
 28. I see how you made the mistake. 
 
 29. I can tell why the sun appears to rise and set. 
 
 30. There is the same reason for the study of language that there 
 is for the study of thought. The careful study of language cannot 
 fail to make the student acquainted with the laws of the human 
 mind. 
 
 EXERCISE 89. 
 
 Define adverb. State the different classes which you have 
 discovered in the preceding sentences. Define and illustrate 
 in each case. State the basis of classification. ' State all the 
 adverbial ideas which may be expressed by the adverb and 
 give one example of each. ^Discuss comparison in connec- 
 
 1. See pp. Gl-63. 
 
 2. See pp. 123-124.
 
 The Advekb. 167 
 
 £ion with the adverb. Compare the adverb with the adjective 
 with regard to comparison. State all the uses of the adverb 
 and illustrate each. Name the modifiers which may belong 
 to the adverb and give an example of each. Make out a list 
 of errors most frequently made in the use of the adverb. 
 
 An adverb is an attributive word which expresses an attribute of 
 an attribute or of a relation. 
 
 On basis of the part of the sentence modified, we have modal 
 adverbs and regular adverbs. A modal adverb is an adverb 
 which expresses an attribute of a relation; e. g., The iact is certainly 
 significant. 
 
 A reg"ular adverb is an adverb which expresses an attribute 
 of an attribute; e. g., The stream flows rapidly. 
 
 On basis of form or origin, we have simple, derivative, and 
 coiupouiid adverbs. 
 
 On basis of use in the sentence, we have conjunctive, inter- 
 rogative, and pure adverbs. 
 
 By studying the above sentences carefully, the student will see 
 
 that the adverb may modify a pure verb, an attributive verb, an 
 
 adjective, an adverb, or a preposition ; and that it may have an 
 
 adverbial or an adverbial objective modifier. 
 
 Note. — For other definitions, a discussion of comparison, the adverbial ideas 
 expressed by the adverb, etc., see the subject of modifiers, complex sentence, the 
 adjective, and other parts of this booli. 
 
 EXERCISE 90. 
 From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthe- 
 sis in the following sentences, select the correct one: 
 
 1. He will (probably, likely) be here this evening. 
 
 2. That poem I like (better than, most of) any otlier single 
 piece. 
 
 3. He was (nowhere, not nearly so) prolific a writer as Words- 
 worth. 
 
 4. The outside of the earth, after it had cooled (some, some- 
 what) was hard and solid.
 
 168 A New English Grammar. 
 
 5. There is, (first, firstly) the distinction mentioned before. 
 
 6. The child was treated (ill, illy). 
 
 7. The statement amused the court (much, muchly). 
 -s. He reasoned (thus, thusly). 
 
 9. Pope didn't translate the Iliad (accurate, accurately). 
 
 10. These poor people were not so (bad, badly) off. 
 
 11. Swift treated his child as (mean, meanly) as a child could be 
 treated'. 
 
 12. Byron could be (terrible, terribly) scathing. 
 
 13. Trilby was (uncommon, uncommonly) tall. 
 
 14. Even his friends looked (coldly, cold) upon him. 
 
 15. The coat goes on (easy, easily). 
 
 16. The girl danced (graceful, gracefully). 
 
 17. We learned to appreciate a (real, really) clear day. 
 
 18. (Relatively to her population, England has— England has, 
 relative to her population) nearly four times as many railway pas- 
 sengers as the United States. 
 
 19. The girl was (too much surprised, too sjUjrprised) to answer. 
 
 20. The statement is not (likely, liable) to convince any one. 
 
 21. (As soon as, directly) I came, the child knew me. 
 
 22. (As soon as she had said, immediately she said) this, she was 
 sorry for it. <■ 
 
 23. (After, once) the apology was made, he felt better. 
 
 24. He is not (as, so) old as you. 
 
 25. The house is not (so, as) dark as we thought it to be. 
 
 26. The boy was (rather, quite) tall for his age. 
 
 27. We had (quite a, a protracted) discussion in the meeting. 
 
 28. I remained until I heard (quite a numljer of, several) 
 speeches. 
 
 29. Their misery impressed the minister (strongly, quite a great 
 
 deal). 
 
 30. He dwelt on the point for (some time, quite a time). 
 
 31. The teacher's opinion was (much, very) respected.
 
 The Adverb. 169 
 
 32. I cannot walk (further, farther). 
 
 33. He wrote articles (which were even envied, which were en- 
 vTed even) by his teachers. 
 
 34. Lane told them (not to shoot, to not shoot). 
 
 35. You've no idea what a bother it is (to be always, to always 
 be) neat and in order. 
 
 36. He moved (that the subject be indefinitely postponed, to in- 
 definitely postpone the subject). 
 
 37. The birds sing (beautiful, beautifully). 
 
 38. He spoke (clear and distinct, clearly and distinctly). 
 
 39. The moon shines (bright, brightly). 
 
 40. The old man looks (sad, sadly). 
 
 Make an outline of the adverb similar to that made for 
 other parts of speech. 
 
 EXERCISE 91. 
 
 The Infinitive. 
 
 Explain the use of the following italicized expressions: 
 
 1. To be good is to he great. 
 
 2. To forgive is to he charitable. 
 
 3. The noblest revenge is to forgive. 
 
 4. My friend is about to depart. 
 
 5. All desire to live long but no one would be old. 
 
 6. It is easy to y?n(Z fault. 
 
 7. The lion, to speak figuratively, is the king of beasts. 
 
 8. My child is anxious to go to school.c^--^ 
 
 9. My friend failed to appear. 
 
 10. We believe in the life to come. 
 
 11. Time to come is called future time. 
 
 12. The children are to sing. 
 
 13. We are to have a jolly time. 
 
 14. We eat to live and do not live to eat.
 
 170 A New English Grammar. 
 
 15. I know him to he a man. 
 
 16. They made Victoria queen. 
 
 17. The boy grew to he useful. 
 
 1 8. To learn a lesson accurately is diflBcult. 
 
 19. I love to read good books. 
 
 20. He loves to_send presents to his friends. 
 
 21. To coast, sliding, is fine sport. 
 
 22. To die, sleeping always, is not much to be dreaded. 
 
 23. Man never is, but always to he, blest. 
 2-1. To err is human. 
 
 25. To obey is to enjoy. 
 
 26. He loves to play. 
 
 27. He is trying to learn. 
 
 28. To spend money recklessly is criminal. 
 
 29. To report a speech correctly is difticult. 
 
 30. I study to learn. 
 
 31. They bade him depart. 
 
 32. I saw him fall. 
 
 33. I hoped to see you. 
 
 34. I intended to call for you. 
 
 35. He expected to see you yesterday. 
 
 56. To do justice and judgment is more acceptable to the Lord 
 than sacrifice. 
 
 37. It is our duty to try and our determination to succeed. 
 
 38. They had dared to think for themselves. 
 
 39. Flee from the wrath to come. 
 
 40. I heard him declaim. » 
 
 41. He went to seg the World's Fair. 
 
 42. The gods are hard to reconcile. 
 
 43. The rain threatening to fall, we left early. 
 
 44. He told me w'hen to come. 
 
 45. They tried to cheat, rob, and murder him.
 
 The Infinitive. ' 171 
 
 46. I come not here to talk. 
 
 47. In sooth, deceit niaketh no mortal gay. 
 
 48. It is better to fight for the good than to rail at the ill. 
 
 49. Let the great world spin forever down the ringing grooves of 
 change. 
 
 50. I saw along the winter snow a spectral column pour. 
 
 EXERCISE 92. 
 
 Define infinitive. State all the uses and modifiers which 
 the infinitive may have. 
 
 The infinitive may be defined on two bases; viz., on basis of its 
 origin, or on basis of its use. 
 
 On basis of its origin the infinitive is the root form of the 
 verb without the asserting element. This definition would exclude 
 the form in " ing," sometimes included in the infinitive. 
 
 On basis of its use, the infinitive is a verbal noun, express- 
 ing in noun form the attribute which the verb asserts. This defini- 
 tion would include the form in " ing." 
 
 Taking the first definition, the pupil may be led to see that the 
 infinitive has the following uses: 
 
 1. Substantive; 
 
 a. Subject of the sentence. 
 
 b. Predicate of the sentence. 
 
 c. Principal word in a prepositional phrase. 
 
 d. Direct objective modifier. 
 
 e. Appositive modifier. 
 /. Independently. 
 
 g. Indirect objective modifier. 
 h. Adverbial objective modifier. 
 
 (See Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, par. 448). 
 
 2. Attributive; v 
 
 a. Adjective. ' \ 
 
 b. Adverb, N 
 
 3. Relational ; 
 
 a. As relational element in a clausal phrase. A clausal phrase 
 is a group of words which has a subject-like element, a predicate-
 
 172 A New English Grammar. 
 
 like element, and a copula-like element, but it makes no assertion ; 
 t'. g., I know him to be honest. It has the form of a clause but the 
 value of a phrase. In the above illustration, the infinitive to be, is 
 the relational or copula-like element. 
 
 b. The infinitive has something of the same use when there is 
 a double predicate in the sentence ; e. g., The boy grew to be useful. 
 It seems that to be is here the copula-like element for the second 
 part of the double predicate. 
 
 The infinitive may have the following modifiers: adverbial, direct 
 objective, indirect objective, adverbial objective, and appositive. 
 
 Make an outline of the infinitive, summing up all the 
 points you have learned. 
 
 EXERCISE 93. 
 
 The Participle. 
 
 State the use of the italicized expressions in the following: 
 
 1. Walking rapidly develops the muscles. 
 
 2. Boxing is not fighting. 
 
 3. I heard the rushing of the storm. 
 
 4. He is anxious for learning. 
 
 5. We learn to do by doing. 
 
 6. That sport, racing, is dangerous. 
 
 7. His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. 
 
 8. His master beirig away, the work was neglected, 
 t). The howling storm swept by us. 
 
 10. The plants are growing nicely. 
 
 11. I saw him coming to town. 
 
 12. The child grew interested in the story, 
 i;-). The rain came dashing^ down. 
 
 14. The horse came trotting down the road. 
 
 15. Your mother being sick, I came.
 
 The Participle. 173 
 
 16. I thought about his being tired. 
 
 17. I came, being sick. 
 
 18. He stood, being hedtating in his manner. 
 
 19. Spelling, naming the letters of the word, is diflBcult. 
 
 20. We did not like Ms singing. 
 
 21. The boy is bringing the carriage. 
 
 22. Speaking to the boy, he said, "Go quickly." 
 
 23. Good singing is very attractive. 
 
 24. Thinking rapidly requires presence of mind. 
 
 25. The regiment, moving the battery to the hill, renews the en- 
 gagement. 
 
 26. The class will soon be reading. 
 
 27. The soldier, deceived by the enemy, was slain. 
 
 28. The carriage being broken, we could not go farther. 
 
 29. Having lost our guide, we were unable to reach the village. 
 
 30. The money having been stolen, the bank closed its doors. 
 
 31. A penny given willingly is of greater value than a pound 
 given grudgingly. 
 
 32. The spider, spinning his web, was an inspiration to Bruce. 
 
 33. The messenger, waving the packet to the crowd, appeared in the 
 distance. 
 
 34. Christ, walking on the sea, came to his disciples. 
 
 35. John, the Baptist, came eating and drinking. 
 
 Define participle; state all its uses in the sentence; and 
 all the modifiers it may have. Make an outline of the in- 
 finitive and participle, showing definitions, uses, and modi- 
 fiers. Compare and contrast the infinitive and participle. 
 
 The participle is the derived form of the verb without the as- 
 serting element and may be used substantively or attributively.
 
 174 A New English Grammar. 
 
 By a careful study of the preceding sentences the pupils may see 
 that the participle has the following uses; 
 
 1. Substantive. 
 
 a. Subject of the sentence. 
 
 b. Predicate of the sentence." 
 
 c. Direct objective modifier. '"^ 
 </., Indirect objective modifier. " 
 
 c. Principal word in a prepositional phrase. ^ 
 /. Appositive modifier. 
 g. Independently 
 
 2. Attributive. 
 
 a. Modifying adjective. 
 
 b. Predicate adjective. 
 
 c. Adjective-adverb. 
 
 3. Relational. 
 
 a. Relational-like element of a clausal phrase. 
 
 b. Relational-like element with second part of double predi- 
 cate. 
 
 The participle may take the following modifiers: 
 
 a. Appositive. -' 
 
 b. Possessive. 
 
 c. Direct objective. 
 
 d. . Indirect objective. 
 €. Adverbial objective. 
 /. Adjective. 
 
 g. Adverbial. > 
 
 EXERCISE 94. 
 
 Point out the infinitives and participles in the following 
 sentences and give the use of each : 
 
 1. Thoughts shut up, want air, 
 
 And spoil like bales unopened to the sun. 
 
 2. Let us be content in work, 
 
 To do the thing we can, and not presume 
 To fret because it's little. 
 
 3. One day with life and heart, 
 
 Is more than time enough to find a world.
 
 The Preposition. 175 
 
 4. Needful auxiliars are our friends, to give 
 To social man true relish of himself. 
 
 5. Learn well to know how much need not be known, 
 And what that knowledge which impairs your sense. 
 
 6. Let him not violate kind nature's laws, 
 But own man born to live as well as die. 
 
 7. The blood more stirs 
 
 To rouse a lion than to start a hare. 
 
 8. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend. 
 Eternity mourns that. 
 
 9. It is the curse of kings to be attended 
 
 By slaves that take their humors for a >varrant 
 To break within the bloody house of life, 
 And on the winking of authority, 
 To understand a law. 
 
 10. Have you brave sons? Look in the next fierce brawl 
 To see them die. Have ye fair daughters ? Look 
 To see them live, torn from your arms, distained, 
 Dishonored, and if ye dare call for justice, 
 Be answered by the lash. 
 
 EXERCISE 95. 
 The Preposition. 
 
 State the use of each italicized expression in the following 
 sentences: 
 
 1. He was brave on the field of battle. 
 
 2. He triumphed in his death. 
 
 3. The boy is very popular with his playmates. 
 
 4. Samuel ofTered his seat to the lady. 
 
 5. The teacher gave the book to Sarah. 
 
 6. The slave was very grateful to his master. 
 
 7. The paths of glory lead but to the grave.
 
 176 . A New English Grammar. 
 
 8. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
 
 9. Good deeds return to bless him who does them. 
 10. To waste in youth is to want in old age. 
 
 Define the class of words with which you have been 
 dealing. State and illustrate the uses of the class. Name 
 the principal words belonging to this class. Make out a list 
 of the principal errors, made in the use 'of these words. 
 
 A preposition is a relation word which expresses the relation 
 between ideas of unequal rank. 
 
 The preposition has two uses. 
 
 1. It may be the relation word in a prepositional phrase; e. g., 
 The steamer will arrive in the evening. 
 
 2. It may express the relation between an indirect object and 
 the attribute which affects it; e. g., The boy gave the book <o his 
 sister. 
 
 Make a complete outline of this class of words. 
 
 EXERCISE 96. 
 From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthe- 
 sis in each of the following sentences, select the correct one: 
 
 1. The vessel will arrive (within, inside of) two weeks. 
 
 2. He did not remember (sayine, of saying) that the thief was 
 tall. 
 
 3. She replied, "Not that I (remember, remember of)." 
 
 4. Is your father (at, to) home? 
 
 5. The greatest masters of critical learning differ (among, from, 
 with) one another. 
 
 6. They danced (round, around) the pole. 
 
 7. He was not successful, as a rule, (with, at) narrative. 
 
 8. There was the old man in the forest (back of, behind) the 
 barn. 
 
 9. (Behind, back of) his falsehood, there is a truth.
 
 The Pkeposition. 177 
 
 10. I have no decided preference (between, among) these five 
 authors. 
 
 11. There is some trouble (among, between) the teacher and his 
 pupils. 
 
 12. She made a resolution (with, between) every mouthful, never 
 to say one word to that magpie again. 
 
 13. He interfered with her sister's attachment (to, for) Mr. 
 Bingley. ^ 
 
 14. The old clock on the- stairs frightened us (by, in) striking 
 two. 
 
 15. Judged (from, by) this (stand-point, point of view) he was 
 wanting. 
 
 16. He put the water (in, within) reach of the dog. 
 
 17. He went (in, into) the house. 
 
 18. He was thrown (into, in) the mud. 
 
 19. This merging of self (into, in) mankind is noble. 
 
 20. Put money (in, into) thy purse. 
 
 21. This discovery I made as soon as I was fairly (in, into) the 
 room. 
 
 22. " Paracelsus " shows Browning's clever insight (into, of) man. 
 
 23. You have an advantage (of, over) me in that you know my 
 name. 
 
 24. The difference (in, of) character (between, of) the two men 
 (affected, effected) their writings. 
 
 25. There is no use (in. of ) my trying to get ready. 
 
 26. The remainder of his wages (is, are) deposited (on, to) his 
 credit. 
 
 27. A lady who did not belong to some church, would be looked 
 (on, at) askance. 
 
 28. The vessel was blown (on, onto) the rocks. 
 
 29. This was brought about (by, through) the services of friends. 
 
 30. His longer poems are of very different stamp (than, from) 
 his shorter ones. 
 
 12
 
 178 A New English Grammar. 
 
 31. "Wordsworth's "Skylark" is altogether different (to, from) 
 Shelley's. 
 
 32. A difference arose (between, among) the two in their corres- 
 pondence (with, to) each other. 
 
 33. Your decision accords (to, with) mine. 
 
 34. Gladstone set out (for, to) London. 
 
 35. The vessel sank far out (at, to) sea. 
 
 36. I believe, (on, to) the contrary, that Washington was the 
 greatest of good men and the best of great men. 
 
 37. Byron's " Farewell " was written after his separation (from, 
 with) his wife. 
 
 38. He was accompanied (by, with) his wife. , 
 
 39. I differ (from, with) you. 
 
 40. We parted (from, with) him at the corner. 
 
 41. He was fully alive to the advantages of foreign methods (as 
 well as to the necessity of using them, as well as the necessity of 
 using them). 
 
 42. I wrote (to him, him) in May. 
 
 43. I went to Chicago and (from thence, thence) to St. Louis. 
 
 44. They (pondered, pondered over) the question. 
 
 45. One calamity (follows, follows after) another. 
 
 46. The teacher (examined, examined into) the subject carefully. 
 
 EXERCISE 97. 
 
 The Conjunction. 
 
 State the use of the italicized expressions in the following 
 sentences: 
 
 1. Truth makes man free but error binds him in endless chains. 
 
 2. Sincerity and modesty are essential to good character. 
 
 3. The blue and white flower is a pansy. 
 
 4. Goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life. 
 
 5. I shall not proceed /or danger lurks in my course.
 
 The Conjunction. 179 
 
 - 6. I will have the heart of him if he forfeit. 
 
 7. 1 know that you will be pleased with my friends. 
 
 8. I see that you are disappointed in the book. 
 
 9. Bread and butter is palatable food. 
 
 10. I shall be sure to see you /or I live in the town. 
 
 11. Swearing is neither profitable nor pleasant. 
 
 12. You will have to study or you will get behind your class. 
 
 13. I have seen other people make the same mistake, therefore, I 
 warn you. 
 
 14. Cunning may succeed for a time, but in the end, murder will 
 out. 
 
 15. I oft delivered from his forfeitures 
 
 Many that have at times made moan to me; 
 Therefore he hates me. 
 
 Define the class of words illustrated in the preceding 
 sentences. What different kinds do you discover? Name 
 and define each. State and illustrate the use of each class. 
 
 The conjunction is a relation word which merely expresses an 
 unasserted relation between ideas of equal rank or between thoughts 
 of equal or unequal rank. 
 
 There are two kinds of conjunctions: 
 1. The coordinate conjunction is a conjunction which ex- 
 presses the relation between ideas or thoughts of equal rank. 
 
 2. The suboi'ilinatc conjunction is a conjunction which ex- 
 presses the relation between thoughts of unequal rank. 
 
 Make a complete outline of this class of words. 
 
 EXERCISE 98. 
 
 From the expressions enclosed in the marks of parenthe- 
 sis in each of the following sentences, select the correct one: 
 
 1. I am not sure (as, that) either my brother or my friend can 
 lielp you. 
 
 2. Then (as, like) all rich men do, he appealed to the public.
 
 180 A New English Gkammar. 
 
 3. They were tdld not to leave (unless, without) they were sent 
 for. 
 
 4. Then these same sisters of mercy are bathing the hot head 
 (or, and) binding up the broken limb. 
 
 5. At that time he was going (and, or) coming twice a day. 
 
 6. My father is a wise (but, and) cautious man. 
 
 7. (Since, as) you are going my way, I might as well ride. 
 
 8. I loved Lincoln (as, because) he was a true man. 
 
 9. I consider him a superior man in (both, all) intellect, feel- 
 ing, and courage. 
 
 10. They regret (how, that) they left school. 
 
 11. They told us (how, that) they had just visited Switzerland 
 and (how, that) they had thought of boarding the Elbe. 
 
 12. (Though, if) science has made much progress, there are 
 still many problems. 
 
 13. I am sure that it was neither my father (or, nor) my mother. 
 
 14. The book was neither so interesting (or, nor) so helpful as 
 we had hoped to find it. 
 
 15. I have no word from the vessel (or, nor) do I expect any to- 
 day. 
 
 16. (Though alone in the house, I was alone in the house but) I 
 was not frightened. 
 
 17. He looked at me curiously (as if, as though) he knew me. 
 
 18. Very soon, (though, however), the sun appeared. 
 
 19. I smiled and tried to make myself agreeable (when, though) 
 my head was almost bursting. 
 
 20. (While, when) walking out this morning, I found several 
 dainty anemones. 
 
 21. To learn the subjects is a difficult task, (while, but) to teach 
 them is much more difficult. 
 
 22. She was under the large tree in the yard, (while, and) be- 
 side her was her book.
 
 PART II.
 
 INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND PART. 
 
 The preceding pages deal largely with the scientific phase 
 of the subject of grammar. If the student has mastered the 
 work there presented, the subject of grammar appears to 
 him in its logical relations; he has seen and understands the 
 four circles of work, mentioned in the introduction; he sees 
 the relation of each circle of the work to every other circle, 
 and to the subject as a whole; and may be said to have 
 organized the subject of grammar. 
 
 This knowledge is necessary to any conscious mastery of 
 language as an instrument in expressing thought. It is 
 especially necessary for the teacher, who is to direct the child 
 in the formation of language habits; for, how can she hope 
 to guide the child aright in the formation of language habits, 
 unless she knows the principles which underlie correct lan- 
 guage forms? 
 
 But the great weakness in the language power of the 
 graduates of our public and high schools, lies not in their 
 knowledge of the science side, but in their use of the 
 language. It is not that they do not know principles, but 
 they do not use the language in accordance with the princi- 
 ples. They know that a pronoun which is used in the 
 nominative relation, should have the nominative form; and 
 they can "rattle off" the principal parts of irregular verbs 
 fast enough to make an ordinary mortal dizzy ; but at the 
 same time, they go right on saying, "It was not me who 
 done it." 
 
 What can we put into a text-book on grammar that will 
 help students use the language in accordance with the prin-
 
 184 A New English Grammar. 
 
 ciples which they have learned ? How can we help students 
 to become proficient in the art of grammar? 
 
 Some devices and suggestions looking to this end have 
 been given in the preceding pages. In addition to efforts 
 of this kind, the student's language should be carefully 
 watched and corrected by the teacher at all times. But the 
 teacher has the students in language only a small part of 
 the time. Can -she, in this brief period, counteract the in- 
 fluence of the incorrect language they use in the recitations 
 of all other subjects; of that which they hear and use upon 
 the street, the play -ground, and at home? Unless the teacher 
 can see to it that the students use good language in their 
 recitations in history, geography, arithmetic, etc., either by 
 carefully watching over their language herself, if she teaches 
 the other subjects, or by obtaining the cooperation of her 
 associates in the matter, if other teachers have charge of the 
 work in these other subjects, surely she must be content 
 with a low degree of proficiency, on the part of her pupils, 
 in the use of our language. As teachers of English, we do 
 not make enough of this point. 
 
 More can be accomplished in the way of giving a student 
 a mastery of the art side of language in one year's careful 
 supervision of his oral and written language, than can be 
 accomplished by five years' text-book work as it is usually 
 done in the public schools. We encourage and fix inaccura- 
 cies in language every time a student makes a mistake in 
 our hearing, and we do not call his attention to it. We 
 encourage and fix bad habits in language every time we 
 call for written work of any kind, and do not hold the pupil 
 responsible for the language he uses; especially is this true 
 with pupils of the grades in our public schools. 
 
 Another cause of the pupil's weakness in the use of the
 
 Introduction to the Second Part. 185 
 
 language is the fact that our recitations in school are scrappy 
 and disconnected. The pupil talks only in reply to the 
 teacher's questions, and then makes only one statement at a 
 time, and this, too often, consists of only a single word. He 
 hasn't much opportunity to show the teacher his bad habits 
 in the use of language. We rarely ask a pupil to stand and 
 talk continuously for even five minutes. We do not ask 
 pupils to talk and write enough. 
 
 But if students are to talk and write they must have 
 something about which to talk and write. They do not care 
 to thresh over old straw; they will not talk and write well, 
 if they are compelled to say something that every one 
 knows ; they want something new and fresh. The greatest 
 weakness in our composition work is that we do not furnish 
 pupils a motive for writing. We tell the boy to write a 
 composition of three pages on the horse. He has no interest 
 in the horse ; knows nothing new about it ; does not care to 
 say what everybody knows; has no other motive for writing 
 than to get the three pages full, and his composition will 
 always show it. But if the boy is really interested in some- 
 thing; if he can find out something new about it, or see 
 some new thought in connection with it, he will write much 
 better. 
 
 It is to supply the material, to some extent, for such work 
 as is indicated above, that the following pages are given. 
 Let the students analyze and discuss the selections ; let them 
 discover the idea which the author is setting forth; the pur- 
 pose in the selection ; and let them see how all parts of the 
 selection contribute to the accomplishment of this purpose. 
 Let them notice the beauty of the language and its appro- 
 priateness to express the thought. Let them discuss charac- 
 ters, scenes, and events ; and let them write frequently about
 
 186 A New English Grammar. 
 
 them. Let them pursue mythological and historical refer- 
 ences and write little stories in explanation of them. 
 
 It is hoped that the following selections may serve at least 
 four purposes : 
 
 1. They will furnish abundant sentences of sufficient 
 variety to illustrate amply the work given in the first part 
 of this book. 
 
 2. In dealing with the selections/ the students will be- 
 come familiar with the language of the author and will un- 
 consciously imitate it. 
 
 3. The consideration of the correspondence between the 
 thought of the selection and the language in which it is 
 expressed, will enable the student to see the beauty, appro- 
 priateness, and strength of the language, thus furnishing 
 him an ideal with which he can compare his own language. 
 
 4. They will furnish interesting topics which will help 
 the teacher to supply the student with a motive for talking 
 and writing. 
 
 (The selections entitled The Voyage and The Widow and Her Son are taken from 
 the latest edition of Irving's Sketch Book by kind permission of the authorized pub- 
 lishers, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York.)
 
 THE VOYAGE. 
 
 WASHINGTOX IRVING, 
 
 " Ships, ships, I will descrie you 
 
 Amidst the main, 
 I will come and try you, 
 What you are protecting, 
 And projecting, 
 
 What's your end and aim. 
 One goes abroad for mei'chandise and trading, 
 Another stays to keep his country from invading, 
 A third is coming home with rich and wealthy lading. 
 Halloo ! my fancie, whither wilt thou go? " 
 
 — Old Poem. 
 
 To an American visiting Europe, the long voyage he has 
 to make is an excellent preparative. The temporary absence 
 of worldly scenes and employments produces a state of mind 
 peculiarly fitted to receive new and vivid impressions. The 
 vast space of waters that separates the hemispheres is like a 
 blank page in existence. There is no gradual transition by 
 which, as in Europe, the features and population of one 
 country blend almost imperceptibly with those of another. 
 From the moment you lose sight of the land you have left, 
 all is vacancy until you step on the opposite shore, and are 
 launched at once into the bustle and novelties of another 
 world. 
 
 In travelling by land there is a continuity of scene, and a 
 connected succession of persons and incidents that carry on 
 the story of life, and lessen the effect of absence and separation. 
 We drag, it is true, " a lengthening chain " at each remove 
 of our pilgrimage ; but the chain is unbroken : we can trace 
 it back link by link ; and we feel that the last still grapples
 
 188 A New English Grammar. 
 
 us to home. But a wide sea voyage severs us at once. It 
 makes us conscious of being cast loose from the secure 
 anchorage of settled life, and sent adrift upon a doubtful 
 world. It interposes a gulf, not merely imaginary, but real, 
 between us and our homes, — a gulf subject to tempest and 
 fear and uncertainty, rendering distance palpable and return 
 precarious. 
 
 Such, at least, was the case with rnyself. As I saw the 
 last blue line of my native land fade away like a cloud in the 
 horizon, it seemed as if I had closed one volume of the world 
 and its concerns, and had time for meditation before I opened 
 another. That land, too, now vanishing from my view, 
 which contained all most dear to me in life, — what vicissi- 
 tudes might occur in it, what changes might take place in 
 me, before I should visit it again! Who can tell, when he sets 
 forth to wander, whither he may be driven by the uncertain 
 currents of existence, or when he may return, or whether it 
 may ever be his lot to revisit the scenes of his childhood ? 
 
 I said that at sea all is vacancy; I should correct the 
 expression. To one given to day-dreaming, and fond of 
 losing himself in reveries, a sea voyage is full of subjects 
 for meditation ; but then they are the wonders of the deep 
 and of the air, and rather tend to abstract the mind from 
 worldly themes. I delighted to loll over the quarter-rail- 
 ing, or climb to the main-top, of a calm day, and muse for 
 hours together on the tranquil bosom of a summer's sea; to 
 gaze upon the piles of golden clouds just peering above 
 the horizon, fancy them some fairy realms, and people them 
 with a creation of my own ; to watch the gentle undulating 
 billows, rolling their silver volumes as if to die away on 
 those happy shores. 
 
 There was a delicious sensation of mingled security and
 
 The Voyage. 189 
 
 awe while I looked down, from my giddy height, on the 
 monsters of the deep at their uncouth gambols, — shoals of 
 porpoises tumbling about the bow of the ship; the grampus 
 slowly heaving his huge form above the surface; or the 
 ravenous shark, darting, like a spectre, through the blue 
 waters. My imagination would conjure up all that I had 
 heard or rea,d of the watery world beneath me, — of the finny 
 herds that roam its fathomless valleys, of the shapeless 
 monsters that lurk among the very foundations of the earth, 
 and of those wild phantasms that swell the tales of fishermen 
 and sailors. 
 
 Sometimes a distant sail, gliding along the edge of the 
 ocean, would be another theme of idle speculation. How 
 interesting this fragment of a world, hastening to rejoin the 
 great mass of existence! What a glorious monument of 
 human invention, which has in a manner triumphed over 
 wind and wave ; has brought the ends of the world into 
 communion ; has established an interchange of blessings, 
 pouring into the sterile regions of the north all the luxuries 
 of the south ; has diffused the light of knowledge and the 
 charities of cultivated life; and has thus bound together 
 those scattered portions of the human race, between which 
 nature seemed to have thrown an insurmountable barrier. 
 
 We one day descried some shapeless object drifting at a 
 distance. At sea, everything that breaks the monotony of 
 the surrounding expanse attracts attention. It proved to be 
 the mast of a ship that must have been completely wrecked; 
 for there were the remains of handkerchiefs, by which some 
 of the crew had fastened themselves to this spar, to prevent 
 their being washed off" by the waves. There was no trace by 
 which the name of the ship could be ascertained. The wreck 
 had evidently drifted about for many months; clusters of
 
 190 A New English Grammar. 
 
 shellfish had fastened about it, and long sea-weeds flaunted 
 at its sides. But where, thought I, is the crew? Their 
 struggle has long been over, — they have gone down amidst 
 the roar of the tempest, — their bones lie whitening among 
 the caverns of the deep. Silence, oblivion, like the waves, 
 have closed over them, and no one can tell the story of their 
 end. What sighs have been wafted after that ship! What 
 prayers offered .up at the deserted fiVeside at home! How 
 often has the mistress, the wife, the mother, pored over the 
 daily news, to catch some casual intelligence of this rover of 
 the deep! How has expectation darkened into anxiety, — 
 anxiety into dread, — and dread into despair! Alas! not one 
 memento may ever return for love to cherish. All that may 
 ever be known is that she sailed from her port, "and was 
 never heard of more! " 
 
 The sight of this wreck, as usual, gave rise to many dismal 
 anecdotes. This was particularly the case in the evening, 
 when the weather, which had hitherto been fair, began to look 
 wild and threatening, and gave indications of one of those 
 sudden storms which will sometimes break in upon the 
 serenity of a summer voyage. As we sat around the dull 
 light of a lamp in the cabin, that made the gloom more 
 ghastly, every one had his tale of shipwreck and disaster. I 
 was particularly struck with a short one related by the captain. 
 
 " As I was once sailing," said he, " in a fine stout ship across 
 the banks of Newfoundland, one of those heavy fogs which 
 prevail in those parts rendered it impossible for us to see far 
 ahead, even in the daytime ; but at night the weather was so 
 thick that we could not distinguish any object at twice the 
 length of the ship. I kept lights at the mast-head, and a 
 constant watch forward to look out for fishing-smacks, which 
 are accustomed to lie at anchor on the banks. The wind
 
 The Voyage. 191 
 
 was blowing a smacking breeze, and we were going at a great 
 rate through the water. Suddenly the watch gave the alarm 
 of ' A sail ahead ! ' — it was scarcely uttered before we were 
 upon her. She was a small schooner, at anchor, with her 
 broadside toward us. The crew were all asleep, and had 
 neglected to hoist a light. We struck her just amidships. 
 The force, the size, and weight of our vessel bore her down 
 below the waves ; we passed over her and were hurried on our 
 course. As the crashing wreck was sinking beneath us, I 
 had a glimpse of two or three half-naked wretches rushing 
 from her cabin; they just started from their beds, to be swal- 
 lowed shrieking by the waves. I heard their drowning 
 cry mingling with the wind. The blast that bore it to our 
 ears swept us out of all further hearing. I shall never forget 
 that cry! It was some time before we could put the ship 
 about, she was under such headway. We returned, as nearly 
 as we could guess, to the place where the smack had anchored. 
 We cruised about for several hours in the dense fog. We 
 fired signal-guns, and listened if we might hear the halloo of 
 any survivors; but all was silent, — We never saw or heard 
 anything of them more." 
 
 I confess these stories, for a time, put an end to all my fine 
 fancies. The storm increased with the night. The sea was 
 lashed into tremendous confusion. There was a fearful, sul- 
 len sound of rushing waves and broken surges. Deep called 
 unto deep. At times the black volume of clouds overhead 
 seemed rent asunder by flashes of lightning, which quivered 
 along the foaming Ijillows, and made the succeeding darkness 
 doubly terrible. The thunders bellowed over the wild waste 
 of waters, and were echoed and prolonged by the mountain 
 waves. As I saw the ship staggering and plunging among 
 these roaring caverns, it seemed miraculous that she regained
 
 192 A New English Grammar. 
 
 her balance, or preserved her buoyancy. Her yards would 
 dip into the water: her bow was almost buried beneath the 
 waves. Sometimes an impending surge appeared ready to 
 overwhelm her, and nothing but a dexterous movement of 
 the helm preserved her from the shock. 
 
 When I retired to my cabin, the awful scene still followed 
 me. The whistling of the wind through the rigging sounded 
 like funereal wailings. The creaking of the masts, the strain- 
 ing and groanings of bulkheads, as the ship labored in the 
 weltering sea, were frightful. As I heard the waves rushing 
 along the sides of the ship, and roaring in my very ear, it 
 seemed as if Death were raging round this floating prison, 
 seeking for his prey; the mere starting of a nail, the yawning 
 of a seam, might give him entrance. / 
 
 A fine day, however, with a tranquil sea and lavoring 
 breeze, soon put all these dismal reflections to flight. It is 
 impossible to resist the gladdening influence of fine weather 
 and fair wind at sea. When the ship is decked out in all 
 her canvas, every sail swelled and careering gayly over the 
 curling waves, how lofty, how gallant, she appears, — how she 
 seems to lord it over the deep! 
 
 I might fill a volume with the reveries of a sea voyage, for 
 with me it is almost a continual reverie, — but it is time to 
 get to shore. 
 
 It was a fine sunny morning when the thrilling cry of 
 "Land!" was given from the mast-head. None but those 
 who have experienced it can form an idea of the delicious 
 throng of sensations which rush into an American's bosom 
 when he first comes in sight of Europe. There is a volume 
 of associations with the very name. It is the land of promise, 
 teeming with everything of which his childhood has -heard 
 or on which his studious years have pondered.
 
 The Voyage. 193 
 
 From that time until the moment of arrival, it was all 
 feverish excitement. The ships of war, that prowled like 
 guardian giants along the coast; the headlands of Ireland, 
 stretching out into the channel ; the Welsh mountains, tower- 
 ing into the clouds,— all were objects of intense interest. As 
 we sailed up the Mersey, I reconnoitered the shores with a 
 telescope. My eye dwelt with delight on neat cottages, with 
 their trim shrubberies and green grass-plots. I saw the 
 mouldering tuin of an abbey overrun with ivy, and the taper 
 spire of a village church rising from the brow of a neighboring 
 hill, — all were characteristic of England. 
 
 The tide and wind were so favorable that the ship was 
 enabled to come at once to the pier. It was thronged with 
 people; some idle lookers-on, others eager expectants of 
 friends or relatives. I could distinguish the merchant to 
 whom the ship was consigned. I knew him by his calculat- 
 ing brow and restless air. His hands were thrust into his 
 pockets; he was whistling thoughtfully, and walking to and 
 fro, a small space having been accorded him by the crowd in 
 deference to his temporary importance. There were repeated 
 chcerings and salutations interchanged between the shore 
 and the ship, as friends happened to recognize each other. 
 
 I particularly noticed one young woman of humble dress, 
 but interesting demeanor. She was leaning forward from 
 among the crowd ; her eye hurried over the ship as it neared 
 the shore, to catch some wished-for countenance. She seemed 
 disappointed and agitated, when I heard a faint voice call 
 her name. It was from a poor sailor who had been ill all the 
 voyage, and had excited the sympathy of every one on board. 
 When the weather was fine, his messmates had spread a mat- 
 tress for him on deck in the shade, but of late his illness had 
 60 increased that he had taken to his hammock, and only 
 13
 
 194 A New English Grammar. 
 
 breathed a wish that he might see his wife before he died. 
 He had been helped on deck as we came up the river, and 
 was now leaning against the shrouds, with a countenance so 
 wasted, so pale, so ghastly, that it was no wonder even the 
 eye of affection did not recognize him. But at the sound of 
 his voice, her eye darted on his features; it read, at once, a 
 whole volume of sorrow; she clasped her hands, uttered a 
 faint shriek, and stood wringing them in silent agony. 
 
 All now was hurry and bustle, — the meetings of acquaint- 
 ances, the greetings of friends, the consultations of men of 
 business. I alone was solitary and idle. I had no friend to 
 meet, no cheering to receive. I stepped upon the land of my 
 forefathers, but felt that I was a stranger in the land. 
 
 SCHEME FOR THE STUDY OP A SELECTION. 
 
 I. The Idea Treated. 
 
 What is the idea about which the author is writing in this 
 selection ? What is the idea treated by the author? What 
 is the subject of the selection? What idea is the author 
 trying to put before us? 
 
 II. The Purpose Embodied in the Selection. 
 
 What is the purpose embodied in the selection? What 
 effect is produced on our minds by this selection? Think 
 how you felt before you read this selection, then how you 
 feel since you have read it; what change has it made in 
 you? Is there a lesson taught by the selection; if so, what 
 is the lesson? What do you think the author hoped to ac- 
 complish by writing this selection? 
 
 III. The Means Employed in the Accomplishment of the Purpose. 
 Mention one point that the author has presented about 
 the idea treated. Why did he tell us this? How does it 
 help to accomplish the purpose ? Read the first paragraph. 
 Why does the author tell us that which is expressed in it? 
 How does this help to accomplish the purpose? Show how
 
 9 
 
 Scheme for the Study of a Selection. 195 
 
 the thought of each paragraph helps to accompUsh the pur- 
 pose. Has the author told all that could be \A-ritten about 
 the idea treated? Mention some things which he has not 
 told us. Why does he not tell us these things? Would 
 they help to accomplish the purpose? Suppose he had left 
 out the fourth paragraph, would the selection be complete ? 
 Why? Suppose he had written the sixth paragraph before 
 the third, would the purpose be just as well accomplished? 
 Why? Is it necessary that the thought of the first para- 
 graph be presented first; the second, next; the third, next, 
 etc., to the end : or could the purpose be accomplished just 
 as well, if the points were presented in a different order? 
 Why? Show what you think the author must have done 
 in writing this selection. If you were writing a composi- 
 tion, what would you need to do first, second, third? 
 Note. — It will be seen that the preceding outline may be used in 
 dealing with any selection. The teacher should first work out all 
 the points carefully with the children in recitation. The questions 
 in the outline -have been repeated and stated in many diflerent ways 
 in order to make them clear to the children. Perhaps, with some 
 clas.ses, the teacher will need to make them still more simple. It 
 will take several lessons to work out the thought of the selection 
 well in this way. After this has been carefully done, the teacher 
 may ask the pupils to write a paper embodying the following points : 
 (1). The idea treated in the selection. (2). The purpose embodied 
 in the selection. (.3). The means employed in the accomplishment 
 of the purpose. Perhaps it will be more simple to tell them to 
 write a paper, stating the idea treated in the selection ; the purpose 
 embodied in the selection ; and showing how the author has ac- 
 complished this purpose. 
 
 Teach children a neat form for their compositions, the proper 
 margins, the idea of the paragraph, and require neat work of them 
 at all times. (See the author's elementary book, " Language Work 
 for the Grades.") 
 
 Notice the punctuation, spelling, use of capitals, sentence con- 
 struction, etc. Read and correct the compositions in class, rewrite 
 them, etc., always holding the children strictly responsible for all 
 the work you require of them.
 
 196 A New English Grammar. 
 
 THE WIDOW AND HER SON 
 
 WASHINGTON IRVING. 
 
 Pittie olde age, within whose silver haires 
 Honour and reverence evermore have rained. 
 
 — Marlowe's Tamburlaine. 
 
 Those who are in the habit of remarking such matters 
 must have noticed the passive quiet of an English landscape 
 on Sunday. The clacking of the mill, the regularly recurring 
 stroke of the flail, the din of the blacksmith's hammer, the 
 whistling of the ploughman, the jattling of the cart, and all 
 other sounds of rural labor, are suspended. The very farm- 
 dogs bark less frequently, being less disturbed by passing 
 travellers. At such times I have almost fancied the wind 
 sunk into quiet, and that the sunny landscape, with its fresh 
 green tints melting into blue haze, enjoyed the hallowed 
 
 calm. 
 
 "Sweet day, so pure, so calm, so bright, 
 The bridal of the earth and sky." 
 
 Well was it ordained that the day of devotion should be a 
 day of rest. The holy repose which reigns over the face of 
 nature has its moral influence; every restless passion is 
 charmed down, and we feel the natural religion of the soul 
 gently springing up within us. For my part, there are feel- 
 ings that visit me in a country church, amid the beautiful 
 serenity of nature, which I experience nowhere else ; and if 
 not a more religious, I think I am a better man on Sunday 
 than on any other day of the seven. 
 
 During my recent residence in the country I used fre- 
 quently to attend at the old village church. Its shadowy 
 aisles, its mouldering monuments, its dark oaken panelling, 
 all reverend with the gloom of departed years, seemed to fit 
 it for the haunt of solemn meditation ; but being in a wealthy,
 
 The "Widow and Her ISon. 197 
 
 aristocratic neighborhood, the glitter of fashion penetrated 
 even into the sanctuary, and I felt myself continually thrown 
 back upon the world by the frigidity and pomp of the poor 
 worms around me. The only being in the whole congrega- 
 tion who appeared thoroughly to feel the humble and pros- 
 trate piety of a true Christian was a poor, decrepit old woman, 
 bending under the weight of years and infirmities. She bore 
 the trace of something better than abject poverty. The lin- 
 gerings of decent pride were visible in her appearance. Her 
 dress, though humble in the extreme, was scrupulously 
 clean. Some trivial respect, too, had been awarded her, for 
 she did not take her seat among the village poor, but sat 
 alone on the steps of the altar. She seemed to have survived 
 all love, all friendship, all society; and to have nothing left 
 her but the hopes of heaven. When I saw her feebly rising 
 and bending her aged form in prayer; habitually conning 
 her prayer-book, which her palsied hand and failing eyes 
 would not permit her to read, but which she evidently knew 
 by heart; I felt persuaded that the faltering voice of that poor 
 woman rose to heaven far before the responses of the clerk, 
 the swell of the organ, or the chanting of the choir ! 
 
 I am fond of loitering about country churches, and this 
 was so delightfully situated that it frequently attracted me. 
 It stood on a knoll, round which a small stream made a 
 beautiful bend, and then wound its way through a long reach 
 of soft meadow scenery. The church was surrounded by 
 yew-trees which seemed almost coeval with itself. Its tall 
 Gothic spire shot up lightly from among them, with rooks 
 and crows generally wheeling about it. I was seated there 
 one still sunny morning, watching two laborers who were 
 digging a grave. They had chosen one of the most remote 
 and neglected corners of the churchyard, where, from the
 
 198 A New English Grammar. 
 
 number of nameless graves around, it would appear that the 
 indigent and friendless were huddled into the earth. I was 
 told that the new-made grave was for the only son of a poor 
 widow. While I was meditating on the distinctions of 
 worldly rank which extend thus down into the very dust, 
 the toll of the bell announced the approach of the funeral. 
 They were the obsequies of poverty, with which pride had 
 nothing to do: A coffin of the plainest material, without 
 pall or other covering, was borne by some of the villagers. 
 The sexton walked before with an air of cold indifference. 
 There were no mock mourners in the trappings of affected 
 Avoe; but there was one real mourner who feebly tottered 
 after the corpse. It was the aged mother of the deceased, — 
 the poor old woman whom I had seen seated on the steps of 
 the altar. She was supported by a humble friend, who was 
 endeavoring to comfort her. A few of the neighboring poor 
 had joined the train, and some children of the village were 
 running hand in hand, now shouting with unthinking mirth, 
 and now pausing to gaze with childish curiosity on the grief 
 of the mourner. 
 
 As the funeral train approached the grave, the parson issued 
 from the church porch, arrayed in the surplice, with prayer 
 book in hand, and attended by the clerk. The service, how- 
 ever, was a mere act of charit3^ The deceased had been desti- 
 tute, and the survivor was penniless. It was shuffled through, 
 therefore, in form, but coldly and unfeelingly. The well-fed 
 priest moved but a few steps from the church door; his voice 
 could scarcely be heard at the grave, and never did I hear 
 the funeral service, — that sublime and touching ceremony, — 
 turned into such a frigid mummery of words. 
 
 I approached the grave. The coffin was placed on the 
 ground. On it were inscribed the name and age of the de-
 
 The Widow and Her Son. 199 
 
 ceased, — "George Somers, aged twenty-six years." The poor 
 mother had been assisted to kneel down at the head of it. 
 Her withered hands were clasped, as if in prayer, but I could 
 perceive by a feeble rocking of the body, and a convulsive 
 motion of the lips, that she was gazing on the last relics of 
 her son with the yearnings of a mother's heart. 
 
 Preparations were made to deposit the coffin in the earth. 
 There was that bustling stir which breaks so harshly on the 
 feelings of grief and affection ; directions given in the cold 
 tones of business; the striking of spades into sand and gravel; 
 which, at the grave of those we love, is, of all sounds, the 
 most withering. The bustle around seemed to waken the 
 mother from a wretched reverie. She raised her glazed eyes 
 and looked about with a faint wildness. As the men ap- 
 proached with cords to lower the coffin into the grave, she 
 wrung her hands and broke into an agony of grief. The poor 
 woman who attended her took her by the arm endeavoring 
 to raise her from the earth and to whisper something like 
 consolation. "Nay, now, nay, now — don't take it so sorely 
 to heart." She could only shake her head and wring her 
 hands, as one not to be comforted. 
 
 As they lowered the body into the earth, the creaking of 
 the cords seemed to agonize her; but when, on some acci- 
 dental obstruction, there was a jostling of the coffin, all the 
 tenderness of the mother burst forth ; as if any harm could 
 come to him who was far beyond the reach of worldly suf- 
 fering. 
 
 I could see no more — my heart swelled into my throat — 
 my eyes filled with tears — I felt as if T were acting a barbar- 
 ous part in standing by and gazing idly on this scene of ma- 
 ternal anguish. I wandered to another part of the church- 
 yard, where I remained until the funeral train had dispersed.
 
 200 A New English Grammar. 
 
 When I saw the mother slowly and painfully quitting the 
 grave, leaving behind her the remains of all that was dear to 
 her on earth, and returning to silence and destitution, my 
 heart ached for her. What, thought I, are the distresses of 
 the rich? They have friends to soothe — pleasures to beguile — 
 a world to divert and dissipate their griefs. What are the 
 sorrows of . the young? Their growing minds soon close 
 above the wound — their elastic spirits soon rise beneath the 
 pressure — their green and ductile affections soon twine round 
 new objects. But the sorrows of the poor, who have no out- 
 ward appliances to soothe — the sorrows of the aged, with 
 whom life at best is but a wintry day, and who can look for 
 no after-growth of joy — the sorrows of a widow, aged, soli- 
 tary, destitute, mourning over an only son, the last solace of 
 her years, — these are indeed sorrows which make us feel the 
 impotency of consolation. 
 
 It was some time before I left the churchyard. On my 
 way homeward I met with the woman who had acted as 
 comforter; she was just returning from accompanying the 
 mother to her lonely habitation, and I drew from her some 
 particulars connected with the affecting scene I had wit- 
 nessed. 
 
 The parents of the deceased had resided in the village from 
 childhood. They had inhabited one of the neatest cottages, 
 and by various rural occupations, and the assistance of a 
 small garden, had supported themselves creditably and com- 
 fortably, and led a happy and blameless life. They had one 
 son, who had grown up to be the staff and pride of their 
 age. "Oh, sir! " said the good woman, " he was such a comely 
 lad, so sweet-tempered, so kind to every one around him, so 
 dutiful to his parents! It did one's heart good to see him of 
 a Sunday, drest out in his best, so tall, so straight, so cheery,
 
 The Widow and Her Son. 201 
 
 supporting his old mother to church, — for she was always 
 fonder of leaning on George's arm than on her good-man's; 
 and, poor soul, she might well be proud of him, for a finer 
 lad there was not in the country round." 
 
 Unfortunately, the son was tempted, during a year of 
 scarcity and agricultural hardships, to enter into the service 
 of one of the small craft that plied on a neighboring river. 
 He had not been long in this employ when he was entrapped 
 by a press-gang and carried off to sea. His parents received 
 tidings of his seizure, but beyond that they could learn noth- 
 ing. It was the loss of their main prop. The father, who 
 was already infirm, grew heartless and melancholy, and sunk 
 into his grave. The widow, left lonely in her age and feeble- 
 ness, could no longer support herself, and came upon the 
 parish. Still there was a kind feeling towards her throughout 
 the village, and a certain respect as being one of the oldest 
 inhabitants. As no one applied for the cottage in which she 
 had passed so many happy days, she was permitted to remain 
 in it, where she lived solitary and almost helpless. The few 
 wants of nature were chiefly supplied from the scanty pro- 
 ductions of her little garden, which the neighbors would now 
 and then cultivate for her. It was but a few days before the 
 time at which these circumstances were told me, that she was 
 gathering some vegetables for her repast, when she heard the 
 cottage door which faced the garden suddenly oi)ened. A 
 stranger* came out and seemed to be looking eagerly and 
 wildly around. He was dressed in seamen's clothes, was 
 emaciated and ghastly pale, and bore the air of one broken 
 by sickness and hard.ships. He saw her, and hastened to- 
 wards her, but liis steps were faint and faltering; he sank on 
 his knees before her, and sobbed Hke a child. The poor wo- 
 man gazed upon him with a vacant and wandering eye.
 
 202 A New English Grammar. 
 
 "Oh, my dear, dear mother! don't you know your son? your 
 poor boy George?'' It was indeed the wreck of her once 
 noble lad, who, shattered by wounds, by sickness and foreign 
 imprisonment, had at length dragged his wasted limbs home- 
 ward to repose among the scenes of his childhood. 
 
 I will not attempt to detail the particulars of such a meet- 
 ing, where sorrow and joy were so conipletely blended: still 
 he was alive! he-was come home! he might yet live to com- 
 fort and cherish her old age! Nature, however, was exhaust- 
 ed in him; and if anything had been wanting to finish the 
 work of fate, the desolation of his native cottage would have 
 been sufficient. He stretched himself on the pallet on which 
 his widowed mother had passed many a sleepless night, 
 and he never rose from it again. 
 
 The villagers, when they heard that George Somers had 
 returned, crowded to see him, offering every comfort and 
 assistance that their humble means afforded. He was too 
 weak, however, to talk, — he could onl}^ look his thanks. His 
 mother was his constant attendant, and he seemed unwill- 
 ing to be helped by any other hand. 
 
 There is something in sickness that breaks down the pride 
 of manhood; that softens the heart, and brings it back to the 
 feelings of infancy. Who that has languished, even in ad- 
 vanced life, in sickness and despondency; who that has pined 
 on a weary bed in the neglect and loneliness of a foreign land; 
 but has thought on the mother "that looked on his child- 
 hood," that smoothed his pillow, and administered to his 
 helplessness? Oh! there is an enduring tenderness in the 
 love of a mother to her son that transcends all other affections 
 of the heart. It is neither to be chilled by selfishness, nor 
 daunted by danger, nor weakened by worthlessness, nor stifled 
 by ingratitude. She will sacrifice every comfort to his con-
 
 The Widow and Her Sox. 203 
 
 venience; she will surrender every pleasure to his enjoyment; 
 she will glory in his fame, and exult in his prosperity; and, if 
 misfortune overtake him, he will be the dearer to her from 
 misfortune; and if disgrace settle upon his name, she will 
 still love and cherish him in spite of his disgrace; and if all 
 the world beside cast him off, she will be all the world to 
 him. 
 
 Poor George Somers had known what it was to be in sick- 
 ness, and none to soothe; lonely and in prison, and none to 
 visit him. He could not endure his mother from his sight; 
 if she moved away, his eye would follow her. She would sit 
 for hours by his bed, watching him as he slept. Sometimes 
 he would start from a feverish dream, and look anxiously up 
 until he saw her bending over him ; when he would take her 
 hand, lay it on his bosom, and fall asleep with the tranquil- 
 ity of a child. In this way he died. 
 
 My first impulse on hearing this humble tale of affliction 
 was to visit the cottage of the mourner, and administer pe- 
 cuniary assistance, and, if possible, comfort. I found, how- 
 ever, on inquiry, that the good feelings of the villagers had 
 prompted them to do everything that the case admitted; and 
 as the poor knoAV best how to console each other's sorrows, I 
 did not venture to intrude. 
 
 The next Sunday I was at the village church; when, to my 
 surprise, I saw the poor old woman tottering down the aisle 
 to her accustomed seat on the steps of the altar. 
 
 She had made an effort to put on something like mourning 
 for her son; and nothing could be more touching than this 
 struggle between pious affection and utter poverty: a black 
 ribbon or so, a faded black handkerchief, and one or two 
 more such humble attempts to express by outward signs that 
 grief which passes show. When I looked round upon the
 
 204 A New English Grammar. 
 
 storied monuments, the stately hatchments, the cold marble 
 pomp with which grandeur mourned magnificently over de- 
 parted pride, and turned to this poor widow, bowed down by 
 age and sorrow at the altar of her God, and offering up the 
 prayers and praises of a pious, though a broken heart, I felt 
 that this living monument of real grief was worth them all! 
 I related her story to some of the wealthy members of the 
 congregation, and they were moved by it. They exerted 
 themselves to render her situation more comfortable, and to 
 lighten her afflictions. It was, however, but smoothing a 
 few steps to the grave. In the course of a Sunday or two 
 after, she was missed from her usual seat at church, and be- 
 fore I left the neighborhood I heard, with a feeling of satis- 
 faction, that she had quietly breathed her last, and had gone 
 to rejoin those she loved, in that world where sorrow is never 
 known, and friends are never parted. 
 
 THE BUND PREACHER.* 
 
 ( From The Letters of the British Spy.) 
 WILLIAM WIRT. 
 
 It was one Sunday, as I travelled through the county of 
 Orange, that my eye was caught by a cluster of horses tied 
 near a ruinous old wooden house in the forest, not far from - 
 the roadside. Having frequently seen such objects before in 
 travelling through these States, I had no difficulty in under- 
 standing that this was a place of religious worship. 
 
 Devotion alone should have stopped me to join in the 
 duties of the congregation; but I must confess that curiosity 
 to hear the preacher of such a wilderness was not the least of 
 
 * James Waddel, " the blind preacher," was born in Ireland in 1739, and died in 
 Louisa county, Va., 17th Sept., 1805. lie was the teacher of James Madison. Wirt's 
 account of him was written in 1803.
 
 The Blind Preacher. 205 
 
 my motives. On entering I was struck with his preternatural 
 appearance. He was a tall and very spare old man ; his head, 
 which was covered with a white linen cap, his shrivelled 
 hands, and his voice, were all shaking under the influence 
 of a palsy, and a few moments ascertained to me that he was 
 perfectly l)lind. 
 
 The first emotions which touched my breast were those of 
 mingled pity and veneration. But, ah! . . . how soon were 
 all my feelings changed! The lips of Plato were never more 
 worthy of a prognostic swarm of bees than were the lips of 
 this holy man. It was a day of the administration of the 
 sacrament, and his subject, of course, was the passion of our 
 Saviour. I had heard the subject handled a thousand times: 
 I had thought it exhausted long ago. Little did I suppose 
 that in the wild woods of America I was to meet with a man 
 whose eloquence would give to this topic a new and more 
 sublime pathos than I had ever before witnessed. 
 
 As he descended from the pulpit to distribute the mystic 
 symbols, there was a peculiar, a more than human, solemnity 
 in his air and manner which made my blood run cold and 
 my whole frame shiver. 
 
 He then drew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour — 
 his trial before Pilate, his ascent up Calvary, his crucifixion, 
 and his death. I knew the whole history, but never until 
 then had I heard the circumstances so selected, so arranged, 
 so colored. It was all new, and I seemed to have heard it for 
 the first time in my life. His enunciation was so deliberate 
 that his voice trembled on every syllable, and every heart in 
 the assembly trembled in unison. 
 
 His peculiar phrases had that force of description that the 
 original scene appeared to be, at that moment, acting l)cfore 
 our eyes. We saw the very faces of the Jews — the staring,
 
 206 A New English Grammar. 
 
 frightful distortions of malice and rage. We saw the buffet; 
 my soul kindled with a flame of indignation and my hands 
 were involuntarily and convulsively clenched. 
 
 But when he came to touch on the patience, the forgiving 
 meekness, of our Saviour; when he drew, to the life, his blessed 
 eyes streaming in tears to heaven, his voice breathing to God 
 a soft and gentle prayer of his pardon on his enemies, " Father, 
 forgive them, for" they know not what they do," the voice of 
 the preacher, which had all along faltered, grew fainter and 
 fainter, until, his utterance being entirely obstructed by the 
 force of his feelings, he raised his handkerchief to his eyes and 
 burst into a loud and irrepressible flood of grief. The effect is 
 inconceivable. The whole house resounded with the mingled 
 groans and sobs and shrieks of the congregation. 
 
 It was some time before the tumult had subsided so far as 
 to permit him to proceed. Indeed, judging by the usual, but 
 fallacious, standard of my own weakness, I began to be very 
 uneasy for the situation of the preacher. For I could not 
 conceive how he would be able to let his audience down from 
 the height to which he had wound them, without impairing 
 the solemnity and dignity of his subject or perhaps shocking 
 them by the abruptness of the fall. But no; the descent was 
 as beautiful and sublime as the elevation had been rapid and 
 enthusiastic. 
 
 The first sentence with which he broke the awful silence 
 was a quotation from Rousseau : " Socrates died like a phi- 
 losopher, but Jesus Christ like a God." 
 
 I despair of giving you any idea of the effect produced by 
 this short sentence, unless you could perfectly conceive the 
 whole manner of the man as well as the peculiar crisis in the 
 discourse. Never before did I completely understand what 
 Demosthenes meant by laying such stress on delivery. You
 
 The Blind Preacher. 207 
 
 are to bring before you the venerable figure of the preacher; 
 his bhndness, constantly recalling to your recollection old 
 Homer, Ossian, and Milton, and associating with his per- 
 formance the melancholy grandeur of their geniuses; you 
 are to imagine that you hear his slow, solemn, well-accented 
 enunciation, and his voice of affecting, trembling melody; 
 you are to remember the pitch of passion and enthusiasm to 
 which the congregation were raised; and then the few min- 
 utes of portentious, death-like silence which reigned through- 
 out the house; the preacher, removing his white handker- 
 chief from his aged face, even yet wet from the recent tor- 
 rent of his tears, and slowly stretching forth the palsied hand 
 which holds it, begins the sentence, "Socrates died like -a 
 philosopher" — then pausing, raising his other hand, pressing 
 them both, clasped together, with warmth and energy to his 
 breast, lifting his "sightless balls" to heaven, and pouring his 
 whole soul into his tremulous voice, "but Jesus Christ — like 
 a God!" If he had been indeed and in truth an an^el of 
 light, the effect could scarcely have been more divine. 
 
 Whatever I had been able to conceive of the sublimity of 
 Massillon or the force of Bourdaloue had fallen far short of the 
 power which I felt from the delivery of this simple sentence. 
 The blood which just before had rushed in a hurricane upon 
 my brain, and, in the violence and agony of my feelings, had 
 held my whole system in suspense, now ran back into my 
 heart with a sensation which I cannot describe — a kind of 
 shuddering, delicious horror. The paroxysms of blended 
 pity and indignation to which I had been transported sub- 
 sided into the deepest self-abasement, humility, and adora- 
 tion. I had just been lacerated and dissolved by sympathy 
 for our Saviour as a fellow-creature, but now, with fear and 
 trembling, I adored him as — "a God."
 
 208 A New English Grammar. 
 
 THE FOUR CRAFTS-MEN. 
 
 " Dear children," said a poor man to his four sons, " I 
 have nothing to give you ; you must go out into the wide 
 world and try your luck. Begin by learning some craft or 
 another, and see how you can get on." So the four brothers 
 took their walking-sticks in their hands, and their little 
 bundles on their shoulders, and after bidding their father 
 good-bye, went all out at the gate together. When they had 
 got on some way they came to four cross-ways, each leading 
 to a different country. Then the eldest said, " Here we must 
 part; but this day four years we will come back to this spot; 
 and in the meantime each must try what he can do for him- 
 self." 
 
 So each brother went his way; and as the eldest was has- 
 tening on a man met him, and asked him where he was 
 going, and what he wanted. " I am going to try my luck in 
 the world, and should like to begin by learning some art or 
 trade," answered he. "Then," said the man, "go with me, 
 and I will teach you how to become the cunningest thief 
 that ever was." "No," said the other, "that is not an honest 
 calling, and what can one look to earn by it in the end but 
 the gallows? " 
 
 "Oh!" said the man, "you need not fear the gallows; for 
 I will only teach you to steal what will be fair game: I 
 meddle with nothing but what no one else can get or care 
 anything about, and where no one can find you out." So 
 the young man agreed to follow his trade, and he soon 
 showed himself so clever, that nothing could escape him 
 that he had once set his mind upon. 
 
 The second brother also met a man, who, when he found 
 out what he was setting out upon, asked him what craft he
 
 The Four Crafts-Men. 209 
 
 meant to follow. " I do not know yet," said he. " Then come 
 with me, and be a star-gazer. It is a noble art, for nothing 
 can be hidden from you, when once you understand the 
 stars." The plan pleased him much, and he soon became 
 such a skillful star-gazer, that when he had served out his 
 time, and wanted to leave his master, he gave him a glass, 
 and said, " With this you can see all that is passing in the 
 sky and on the earth, and nothing can be hidden from you." 
 
 The third brother met a huntsman, who took him with 
 him, and taught him so well all that belonged to hunting, 
 that he became very clever in the craft of the woods; and 
 when he left his master he gave him a bow, and said, " What- 
 ever you shoot at with this bow you will be sure to hit." 
 
 The youngest brother likewise met a man who asked him 
 what he wished to do. "Would not you like," said he, " to 
 be a tailor?" "Oh, no!" said the young man; "sitting 
 cross-legged from morning to night, working backwards and 
 forwards with a needle and goose, will never suit me." "Oh!" 
 answered the man, "that is not my sort of tailoring; come 
 with me, and you will learn quite another kind of craft from 
 that." Not knowing what better to do, he came into the 
 plan, and learned tailoring from the beginning ; and when 
 he left his master, he gave him a needle, and said, you can 
 sew anything with this, be it as soft as an egg or as hard as 
 steel ; and the joint will be so fine that no seam will be seen. 
 
 After the space of four years, at the time agreed upon, the 
 four brothers met at the four cross-roads ; and having wel- 
 comed each other, set off towards their father's home, where 
 they told him all that had happened to them, and how each 
 had learned some craft. 
 
 Then, one day, as they were sitting before the house under 
 a very high tree, the father said, " I should like to try what 
 14
 
 210 A New English Grammar. 
 
 each of you can do in this way." So he looked up, and 
 said to the second son, " At the top of this tree there is a 
 chaffinch's nest ; tell me how many eggs there are in it." 
 The star-gazer took his glass, looked up, and said, "Five." 
 " Now," said the father to the eldest son, " take away the 
 eggs without letting the bird that is sitting upon them and 
 hatching them know anything of what you are doing." So 
 the cunning thief climbed up the tree, and brought away to 
 his father the five eggs from under the bird ; and it never 
 saw or felt what he was doing, but kept sitting on at its ease. 
 Then the father took the eggs, and put one on each corner of 
 the table, and the fifth in the middle ; and said to the hunts- 
 man, " Cut all the eggs in two pieces at one shot." The 
 huntsman took up his bow, and at one shot struck all the 
 five eggs as his father wished. "Now comes your turn," said 
 he to the young tailor; " sew the eggs and the young birds 
 in them together again, so neatly that the shot shall have 
 done them no harm." Then the tailor took his needle, and 
 sewed the eggs as he was told ; and when he had done, the 
 thief was sent to take them back to the nest, and put them 
 under the bird without its knowing it. Then she went on 
 sitting, and hatched them ; and in a few days they crawled 
 out, and had only a little red streak across their necks, where 
 the tailor had sewn them together. 
 
 " Well done, sons ! " said the old man: " you have made 
 good use of your time, and learnt something worth the 
 knowing; but I am sure I do not know which ought to have 
 the prize. Oh ! that a time might soon come for you to 
 turn your skill to some account! " 
 
 Not long after this there was a great bustle in the country; 
 for the king's daughter had been carried off by a mighty 
 dragon, and the king mourned over his loss day and night,
 
 The Four Crafts-Men. 211 
 
 and made it known that whoever brought her back to him 
 should have her for a wife. Then the four brothers said to 
 each other, " Here is a chance for us; let us try what we can 
 do." And they agreed to see whether they could not set the 
 princess free. "I will soon find out where she is, however," 
 said the star-gazer, as he looked through his glass: and he 
 soon cried out, "I see her afar off, sitting upon a rock in the 
 sea; and I can spy the dragon close by, guarding her." 
 Then he Avent to the king, and asked for a ship for himself 
 and his brothers ; and they sailed together over the sea, till 
 they came to the right place. There they found the princess 
 sitting, as the star-gazer had said, on the rock ; and the 
 dragon was lying asleep, with his head upon her lap. " I 
 dare not shoot at him," said the huntsman, " for I should 
 kill the beautiful young lady also." " Then I will try my 
 skill," said the thief; and went and stole her away from un- 
 der the dragon, so quietly and gently that the beast did not 
 know it, but went on snoring. 
 
 Then away they hastened with her full of joy in their 
 boat towards the ship; but soon came the dragon roaring 
 behind them through the air; for he awoke and missed the 
 princess. But when he got over the boat, and wanted to 
 pounce upon them and carry off the princess, the huntsman 
 took up his bow and shot him straight through the heart, so 
 that he fell down dead. They were still not safe; for he 
 was such a great beast that in his fall he overset the boat, and 
 they had to swim in the open sea upon a few planks. So the 
 tailor took his needle, and with a few large stitches put some 
 of the planks together; and he sat down upon these, and 
 sailed about and gathered up all the pieces of the boat; and 
 then tacked them together so quickly that the boat was soon 
 ready, and they then reached the ship and got home safe.
 
 212 A New English Grammar. 
 
 When they had brought home the princess to her father, 
 there was great rejoicing ; and he said to the four brothers, 
 " One of you shall marry her, but you must settle amongst 
 yourselves which it is to be." Then there arose a quarrel 
 between them; and the star-gazer said, "If I had not found 
 the princess out, all your skill would have been of no use ; 
 therefore she ought to be mine." " Your seeing her would 
 have been of no use," said the thief, " if I had not taken her 
 away from the dragon ; therefore she ought to be mine." 
 "No, she is mine," said the huntsman; "for if I had not 
 killed the dragon, he would, after all, have torn you and the 
 princess into pieces." " And if I had not sewn the boat to- 
 gether again," said the tailor, " you would all have been 
 drowned ; therefore she is mine. " Then the king put in a 
 word, and said, " Each of you is right ; and as all can not 
 have the young lady, the best way is for neither of you to 
 have her : for the truth is, there is somebody she likes a great 
 deal better. But to make up for your loss, I will give each 
 of you, as a reward for his skill, half a kingdom." So the 
 brothers agreed that this plan would be much better than 
 either quarreling or marrying a lady who had no mind to 
 have them. And the king then gave to each half a king- 
 dom, as he had said ; and they lived very happily the rest 
 of their days, and took good care of their father; and some- 
 body took better care of the young lady, than to let either 
 the dragon or one of the Craftsmen have her again.
 
 A Tale of Two Brothers. 213 
 
 A TALE OF TWO BROTHERS. 
 
 Abram and Zimri owned a field together — 
 
 A level field hid in a happy vale. 
 
 They plowed it with one plow, and in the spring 
 
 Sowed, walking side by side, the fruitful seed. 
 
 In harvest, when the glad earth smiles with grain, 
 
 Each carried to his home one half the sheaves, 
 
 And stored them with much labor in his barns. 
 
 Now, Abram had a wife and seven sons ; 
 
 But Zimri dw'elt alone w'ithin his house. 
 
 One night, before the sheaves were gathered in, 
 
 As Zimri lay upon his lonely bed. 
 
 And counted in his mind his little gains, 
 
 He thought upon his brother Abram's lot, 
 
 And said, " I dwell alone within my house, 
 
 But Abram hath a wife and seven sons; 
 
 And yet we share the harvest sheaves alike. 
 
 He surely needeth more for life than I: 
 
 I will arise, and gird myself, and go 
 
 Down to the field, and add to his from mine." 
 
 So he arose, and girded up his loins. 
 
 And went out softly to the level field. 
 
 The moon shone out from dusky bars of clouds, 
 
 The trees stood black against the cold blue sky, 
 
 The branches waved and whispered in the wind. 
 
 So Zimri, guided by the shifting light, 
 
 Went down the mountain-path, and found the field. 
 
 Took from his store of sheaves a generous third, 
 
 And bore them gladly to his brother's heap; 
 
 And then went back to sleep, and happy dreams. 
 
 Now, that same night, as Abram lay in bed, 
 Thinking upon his blissful state in life, 
 He thought upon his brother Zimri's lot, 
 And said, "He dwells within his house alone; 
 Hegoeth forth to toil with few to lielp;
 
 214 A New English Grammar. 
 
 He goeth home at night to a cold house, 
 
 And hath few other friends but me and mine " 
 
 (For these two tilled the happy vale alone): 
 
 " While I, whom Heaven hath very greatly blessed, 
 
 Dwell happy with my wife and seven sons, 
 
 Who aid me in my toil, and make it light. 
 
 And yet we share the harvest sheaves alike. 
 
 This surely is not pleasing unto God: 
 
 I will arise, and gird myself, and go 
 
 Out to the field, and borrow from my store, 
 
 And add unto my brother Zimri's pile." 
 
 So he arose, and girded up his loins, 
 
 And went down softly to the level field. 
 
 The moon shone out from silver bars of clouds, 
 
 The trees stood black against the starry sky. 
 
 The dark leaves waved and whispered in the breeze. 
 
 So Abram, guided by the doubtful light, 
 
 Passed down the mountain-path, and found the field, 
 
 Took from his store of sheaves .a generous third 
 
 And added them unto his brother's heap; 
 
 Then he went back to sleep, and happy dreams 
 
 So the next morning with the early sun 
 The brothers rose, and went out to their toil. 
 And when they came to see the heavy sheaves, 
 Each wondered in his heart to find his heap. 
 Though he had given a third, was still the same. 
 
 Now, the next night went Zimri to the field, 
 Took from his store of sheaves a generous share, 
 And placed them on his brother Abram's heap. 
 And then lay down behind his pile to watch. 
 The moon looked out from bars of silvery cloud, 
 The cedars stood up black against the sky. 
 The olive-branches whispered in the wind. 
 
 Then Abram came down softly from his home. 
 And, looking to the right and left, went on, 
 Took from his ample store a generous third.
 
 The Chameleon. 215 
 
 And laid it on his brother Zimri's pile. 
 
 Then Zimri rose, and caught him in his arms, 
 
 And wept upon his neck, and kissed his cheek: 
 
 And Abram saw the whole, and could not speak ; 
 
 Neither could Zimri. So they walked along 
 
 Back to their homes, and thanked their God in prayer 
 
 That he had bound them in such loving bands. 
 
 THE CHAMELEON. 
 
 JAMES MERRICK 
 
 Oft has it been my lot to mark 
 A proud, conceited, talking spark. 
 Returning from his finish'd tour, 
 Grown ten times perter than before. 
 Whatever word you chance to drop, 
 The travell'd fool your mouth will stop — 
 " Sir, if my judgment you'll allow — 
 I've seen — and sure 1 ought to know." 
 So begs you'd pay a due submission. 
 And acquiesce in his decision. 
 
 Two travellers of such a cast. 
 As o'er Arabia's wilds they pass'd. 
 And on their way, in friendly ctiat. 
 Now talk'd of this, and then of that ; 
 Discours'd a while 'raongst other matter. 
 Of the Chameleon's form and nature. 
 "A stranger animal," cries one, 
 " Sure never liv'd beneath the sun ! 
 A lizzard's body, lean and long, 
 A fish's head, a serpent's tongue. 
 Its foot with triple claws disjoin'd. 
 And what a length of tail behind! 
 How slow its pace! and tlien it's hue — 
 Who ever saw so fine a bluel "' 
 
 " Hold there," the other quick replies, 
 " 'Tis green : I saw it with these eyes,
 
 216 A New English Grammar. 
 
 As late with open mouth it lay, 
 And warm'd it in the sunny ray: 
 Stretch'd at its ease the beast I view'd, 
 And saw it eat the air for food." 
 
 "I've seen it, sir, as well as you, 
 And must again affirm it blue. 
 At leisure I the beast survey'd. 
 Extended in the cooling shade." 
 
 " ' Tis green ! ' tis green, sir, I assure ye " — 
 "Green!" cries the other, in a fury — 
 "Why, sir, d'ye think I've lost my eyes?" 
 " 'Twere no great loss," the friend replies; 
 " For if they always serve you thus, 
 You'll find them but of little use." 
 
 So high at last the contest rose. 
 From words they almost came to blows: 
 When luckily came by a third ; 
 To him the question they referr'd. 
 And begg'd he'd tell them, if he knew. 
 Whether the thing was green or blue. 
 
 " Sirs,"' cries the umpire, "cease your pother, 
 The creature's — neither one nor t'other. 
 I caught the animal last night. 
 And view'd it o'er by candle light : 
 I mark'd it well — 'twas black as jet — 
 You stare — but, sirs, I've got it yet, 
 Andean produce it." — "Pray, sir, do; 
 I'll lay my life the thing is blue." — 
 "And I'll be sworn, that when you've seen 
 The reptile, you'll pronounce it green." — 
 
 " Well then, at once to end the doubt;" 
 Replies the man, " I'll turn him out; 
 And when before your eyes I've set him. 
 If >ou don't find him black, I'll eat him." 
 He said — then full before their sight 
 Produc'd the beast— and lo! — 'twas white.
 
 Await the Issue. 217 
 
 AWAIT THE ISSUE. 
 
 THOMAS CARLYLE. 
 
 In this, God's world, with its wild whirling eddies and 
 mad foam oceans, where men and nations perish as if 
 without law, and judgment for an unjust thing is sternly 
 delayed, dost thou think that there is, therefore, no justice? 
 It is what the fool hath said in his heart. It is what the 
 wise, in all times were wise because they denied, and knew 
 forever not to be. I tell thee again there is nothing else but 
 justice. One strong thing I find here below: the just thing, 
 the true thing. My friend, if thou hadst all the artillery of 
 Woolwich trundling at thy back in support of an unjust 
 thing, and infinite bonfires, visibly waiting ahead of thee, to 
 blaze centuries long for thy victory on behalf of it, I would 
 advise thee to call halt, to fling down thy baton and say, "In 
 God's name No!*' Thy "success?" Poor devil, what will 
 thy success amount to? If the thing is unjust, thou hast not 
 succeeded, no, not though bonfires blazed from north to 
 south, and bells rang, and editors wrote leading articles, and 
 the just thing lay trampled out of sight, to all mortal eyes 
 an abolished and annihilated thing. Success? In a few years 
 thou wilt be dead and dark — all cold, eyeless, deaf; no blaze 
 of bonfires, ding-dong of bells, or leading articles visible or 
 audible to thee again at all forever. What kind of success is 
 that? It is true all goes by approximation in this world; 
 with any not insupportable approximation we must be pa- 
 tient. There is a noble conservatism as well as an ignoble. 
 Would to Heaven, for the sake of conservatism itself, the 
 noble alone were left, and the ignoble, by some kind severe 
 hand, were ruthlessly lopped away, forbidden any more to 
 show itself! For it is the right and noble alone that will
 
 218 A New E^nglish Grammar. 
 
 have victory in this struggle; the rest is wholly an obstruc- 
 tion, a postponement and fearful imperilment of the victory. 
 Toward an eternal centre of right and nobleness, and of that 
 only^ is all this confusion tending. We already know whither 
 it is tending; what will have victory, what will have none! 
 The Heaviest will reach the centre. The Heaviest, sinking 
 through complex fluctuating media and vortices, has its de- 
 flections, its obstructions, nay, at times its resiliences, its re- 
 boundings; whereupon some blockhead shall be heard jubi- 
 lating: "See, your Heaviest ascends!" but at all moments 
 it is moving centreward, fast as is convenient for it; sinking, 
 sinking; and by laws older than the world, old as the Maker's 
 first plan of the world, it has to arrive there. 
 
 Await the issue. In all battles, if you await the issue, each 
 fighter has prospered according to his right. His right and 
 his might, at the close of the account, were one and the 
 same. He has fought with all his might, and in exact pro- 
 portion to all his right, he has prevailed. His very death is 
 no victory over him. He dies indeed; but his work lives, 
 very truly lives. A heroic Wallace, quartered on the scaffold, 
 cannot hinder that his Scotland become, one day, a part of 
 England; but he does hinder that it become, on tyrannous, 
 unfair terms, a part of it; commands still, as with a god's 
 voice, from his Valhalla and Temple of the Brave, that there 
 be a just, real union, as of brother and brother, not a false 
 and merely semblant one, as of slave and master. If the 
 union with England be in fact one of Scotland's chief bless- 
 ings, we thank Wallace withal that it was not the chief 
 curse. Scotland is not Ireland; no, because brave men rose 
 there and said, "Behold, ye must not tread us down like 
 slaves; and ye shall not, and cannot !" Fight on, thou brave 
 true heart and falter not, through dark fortune and through
 
 Await the Issue. 219 
 
 bright. The cause thou fightest for, so far as it is true, no 
 farther, yet precisely so far, is very sure of victory. The false- 
 hood alone of it will be conquered, will be abolished, as it 
 ought to be; but the truth of it is part of Nature's own laws, 
 cooperates with the world's eternal tendencies, and cannot 
 be conquered.
 
 Appendix A. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB, 
 
 "BE." 
 
 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 
 be, or am 
 
 was 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 
 been 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 am 
 
 
 
 are 
 
 art 
 
 
 
 are 
 
 is 
 Singular. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 
 are 
 Plural, 
 
 was 
 
 
 
 were 
 
 wast (wert) 
 
 
 
 were 
 
 was 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 
 were 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 Plural, 
 
 be 
 
 
 
 be 
 
 be 
 
 
 
 be 
 
 be 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 
 be 
 Plural, 
 
 were 
 
 
 
 were 
 
 wert, were 
 
 
 
 were 
 
 were 
 
 
 
 were 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 be 
 
 Infinitives. 
 
 be, or to be 
 
 Note. — For the future tenses, use shall with 
 vdll with the second and third to denote simple 
 For the perfect tenses, use proper form of has 
 feet participle of the verb. 
 
 Participles. 
 being, been 
 
 the first person and 
 futurity. (Seep. 141) 
 or have with the per-
 
 Appendix. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB, "SEE." 
 
 Active Voice. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 221 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Perfect Participle. 
 
 See 
 
 saw 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 seen 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. I see 
 
 
 1. We see 
 
 2. Thou seest 
 
 
 2. You see 
 
 3. He sees 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 3. They see 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. I saw 
 
 
 1. We saw 
 
 2. Thou sawest 
 
 
 2. You saw 
 
 3. He saw 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 3. They saw 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If I see 
 
 
 1. If we see 
 
 2. If thou see 
 
 
 2. If you see 
 
 3. If he see 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 3. If they see 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If I saw 
 
 
 1. If we saw 
 
 2. If thou saw 
 
 
 2. If you saw 
 
 3. If he saw 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 See 
 
 3. If they saw 
 
 Infinitives. 
 
 
 Participle. 
 
 see, to see 
 
 
 seeing
 
 222 
 
 A New English Grammar. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I am seen 
 
 2. Thou art seen 
 
 3. He is seen 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I was seen 
 
 2. Thou wast seen 
 
 3. He was seen 
 
 Passive Voice. 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I be seen. 
 
 2. If thou be seen 
 
 3. If he be seen 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I were seen 
 
 2. If thou wert seen 
 
 3. If he were seen 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 t 
 
 Singular. 
 Be (thou) seen 
 
 Infinitive. 
 To be seen 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We are seen 
 
 2. You are seen 
 
 3. They are seen 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We were seen 
 
 2. You were seen 
 
 3. They were seen 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we be seen 
 
 2. If you be seen 
 
 3. If they be seen 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we were seen 
 
 2. If you were seen 
 
 3. If they were seen 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Be (ye or you) seen 
 
 Participles. 
 Being seen, Seen 
 
 Note. — For future and perfect tenses, see note at close of the con- 
 jugation of the verb, be.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Thi' ri'^rences are to pages. 
 
 Abridged compound sentence, 
 7n, 82. 
 
 Absolute construction of noun, 
 68. 
 
 Abstract nouns, 108. 
 
 A criticism, 23. 
 
 Active voice, 150. 
 
 Active verbs, classes, 151. 
 
 Active voice, changed to passive, 
 150. 
 
 Addition, 78. 
 
 Adjective, 125 ; descriptive and 
 limTtTng, 126; simple, deriva- 
 tive, and compound, 126; divi- 
 sion into classes, 126; inflection 
 of adjectives, 127; comparison, 
 128; predicate, qualified by ad- 
 verbs, 128; use of adjective as 
 noun, 54. 
 
 Adjective clause, 76, 90. 
 
 Adjective phrase, 72. 
 
 Adjective modifier, 65. 
 
 Adverb, 165; division into classes, 
 1()7; simple, derivative, and 
 compound, 167; comparison, 
 166. 
 
 Adverbial clause, 76, 96. 
 
 Adverbial modifier, 65. 
 
 Adverbial phrase, 72. 
 
 Adverbial objective modifier, 65. 
 
 Adversative conjunctions, 78. 
 
 Agreement, 43. 
 
 Alternation, 78. 
 
 Alternative conjunctions, 78. 
 
 Analysis of compound sentence, 
 82. 
 
 An inductive subject, 36. 
 
 Antecedent, 94, 120. 
 
 Appendix A, 220. 
 
 Appositive modifier, 65. 
 
 Arrangement, 47. dj^ 
 
 Articles, 127. ^ 
 
 Art side of grammar, 9. 
 
 A Tale of Two Brothers, 213. 
 
 Attributes, 59; quality, 59; action, 
 59; condition, 59; relation, 59. 
 
 Attributive predicate, 67. 
 
 Attributive words in simple sen- 
 tence, 69. 
 
 Attributive words, 61. 
 
 Auxiliary verbs, 140. 
 
 Await the Issue, 217.
 
 224 
 
 A New English Grammar. 
 
 Cardinal numerals, 127. 
 
 Careful work, 32. 
 
 Case, in noun and pronoun, 113. 
 
 Causal conjunctions, 78. 
 
 Causative verbs, 140. 
 
 Central idea, 16, 20, 22. 
 
 Characteristics of the subject, 
 12. 
 
 Choose, 135. 
 
 Classes of words, 35, 64. 
 
 Clause, 75 ; individual, 75 ; co- 
 ordinate, 75 ; principal or inde- 
 pendent, 75 ; subordinate or 
 dependent, 76 ; substantive, 76 ; 
 attributive, 76 ; adjective, 76 ; 
 adverbial, 76. 
 
 Close of first circle, 31. 
 
 Close of fourth circle, 35. 
 
 Close of second circle, 33. 
 
 Close of third circle, 34. 
 
 Cognate verb, 140. 
 
 Collective nouns, 108. 
 
 Combined predicate, 66. 
 
 Common nouns, 108. 
 
 Comparative degree, 128. 
 
 Comparison of adjectives, 127. 
 
 Complex sentences, 54, 85. 
 
 Compound-complex sentence, 82. 
 
 Compound relative pronouns, 94. 
 
 Compound sentence, 53, 75. 
 
 Conclusion, 78. 
 
 Conditions of mastering the sub- 
 ject, 35. 
 
 Conditional clause, 99. 
 
 Conjunctive adverb, 95 ; simple, 
 95 ; compound, 97. 
 
 Conjugation of verb, 156, 220. 
 
 Conjunction, 178 ; classes, 179. 
 
 Coordinate members of a sen- 
 tence, 78, 79. 
 
 Copula, 44. 
 
 Copulative conjunctions, 78. 
 
 Constructive study of grammar, 
 13. 
 
 Content and extent, 7, 34. 
 
 Contribution of subject to char- 
 acter, 10. 
 
 Declarative sentence, 46. 
 
 Declension, of noun and pronoun, 
 120. 
 
 Definite article, 127. 
 
 Definition of grammar, 41. 
 
 Definitions and principles, 2, 27. 
 
 Dependent clause, 76. 
 
 Descriptive adjective clause, 91. 
 
 Descriptive adjective modifier, 
 68. 
 
 Direct and indirect objective 
 modifiers, 65. 
 
 Direct and indirect objects, 70. 
 
 Distinguishing mark of subject, 
 40. 
 
 Double predicates, 172. 
 
 Do, 134. 
 
 Elements of judgment, 42. 
 
 Emphatic verb phrases, 157. 
 
 Exclamatory sentence, 46. 
 
 Extent, 7, 34. 
 
 Explanatory clause, 91. 
 
 Expletive, 62. 
 
 Facts of grammar, 13. 
 
 Factitive verb, 140. 
 
 Feminine gender, 109. 
 
 First person, 111. 
 
 First circle, 30, 41. 
 
 Formal work, 31.
 
 Index. 
 
 225 
 
 Form and feeling words in sim- 
 ple sentence, 70. 
 
 Future -tense, 147. 
 
 Gender in nouns, 108 ; in pro- 
 nouns, 120. 
 
 Grammar a logical subject, 26. 
 
 (Grammar a subject in itself, 12. 
 
 How know central idea ? 21 . 
 
 Introduction, 9. 
 
 Introduction to second part, 183. 
 
 Imperative mode, 146. 
 
 Imperative sentence, 46. 
 
 Impersonal verbs, 140. 
 
 Indefinite article, 127. 
 
 Indicative mode, 145. 
 
 Indirect objective modifier, 65. 
 
 Infinitive, 169. 
 
 Inflection, 15(H, 220. 
 
 Interjection, 62. 
 
 Interrogative pronouns, 120. 
 
 Interrogative sentence, 4(>. 
 
 Intransitive verb, K!S. 
 
 Inverted order of sentence, 40. 
 
 Irregtilar verbs, i:52, 1.33, 1:54. 
 
 Irregularities in gender, 110. 
 
 It deal8 with mind, 10. 
 
 Judgment, 41. 
 
 .ludgment, nature of, 17, 41. 
 
 Laboratory method, 6, 3(). 
 
 Life of the subject, 38. 
 
 Limiting adjective clause, 01. 
 
 Limiting adjective modifier, 68. 
 
 Logical order of topics, 22. 
 
 Logic and psychology in gram- 
 mar, 29. 
 
 Main idea, 32. 
 
 Ma.sculine gender, 109. 
 
 Mastery of art, 9. 
 
 15 
 
 Members of compound sentence, 
 J8, 79. 
 
 Method of study, 4. 
 
 Model adverbs, 167. 
 
 Modifiers, 34 ; substantive, 64 ; 
 attributive, 64 ; appositive, 64 ; 
 possessive, 64 ; direct objective, 
 ()5 ; indirect objective, 65 ; ad- 
 verbial objective, 65 ; adjective, 
 65 ; adverbial, 65 ; outline, 65. 
 
 ^lore immediate purpose, 11. 
 
 ^Multiplicative adjectives, 127. 
 
 Natural order, 40. 
 
 Mode, 143. 
 
 Nature of an instrument, 28 ; 
 How studied, 28. 
 
 Nature of the work, 6. 
 
 Neuter gender, 109. 
 
 New conjugation, 220. 
 
 Nominative case, 114. 
 
 Noun, 106; classes, 108; inflec- 
 tion, 109; construction, 68; 
 properties, 108. 
 
 Number, 112, 152. 
 
 Numerals, 129. 
 
 O and o-h, 51. 
 
 (objective modifiers, 65. 
 
 Objective case, 114. 
 
 Object of thought, 58; concrete, 
 58 ; abstract, 59. 
 
 Old conjugation, 220. 
 
 Opposition. 78. 
 
 Ordinate numerals, 127. 
 
 Organic parts of sentence, 33. 
 
 Organ izatitin of subject, 9. 
 
 C)rganized knowledge, 23. 
 
 Outline of noun, 117, 118. 
 
 Outline of sentence, 52.
 
 226 
 
 A New English Gammar. 
 
 Outline of thought material, 60. 
 
 Parts of sentence, 17, 43, 34 ; 
 
 Adapted to elements of thought, 
 
 o4. 
 
 Participles, 172. 
 
 Parts of speech, 35, 106. 
 
 Passive voice, 150, 151. 
 
 Passive verbs, classes, 151. 
 
 Past paiticiple, 222.. 
 
 Past perfect tense, 148. 
 
 Past tense, 147. 
 
 Perfect tense, 147. 
 
 Person, 111, 152. 
 
 Personal pronouns, lUl, 120. 
 
 Personified objects, 110. 
 
 Phrase, 71 ; prepositional, 72 ; in- 
 finitive, 72; participial, 72; ver- 
 bal, 72 ; simple, 72 ; complex, 
 72 ; compound, 72 ; substan- 
 tive, 72 ; attributive, 72 ; ad- 
 jective, 72 ; adverbial, 72 ; 
 clausal, 171. 
 
 Place of grammar in language 
 group, 40. 
 
 Plural number, 112. 
 
 Positive degree in adjective and 
 adverb, 128, 106. 
 
 Possessive case, 114. 
 
 Possessive modifier, ()4. 
 
 Predicate of sentence, (iO. 
 
 Predicate adjective, (iU. 
 
 Preface, 3. 
 
 Preposition, 175; uses, 176. 
 
 Present participle, 221. 
 
 Present tense, 147. 
 
 Principal clause, 75. 
 
 Principal parts of verbs, 132. 
 
 Pronominal adjectives, 126. 
 
 Pronoun, 119; classes, 119; uses, 
 68 ; properties, 120. '"' 
 
 Proper nouns, 108. 
 
 Psychologists and logicians, 19. 
 
 Punctuation, 102 ; of adverbial 
 clause, 100 ; of adjective clause, 
 96. 
 
 Punctuation of compound sen- 
 tence, 80. 
 
 Punctuation of exclamatory sen- 
 tence, 51. 
 
 Pure subordinate conjunction, 
 100. 
 
 Pure verb, 132. 
 
 Purpose, 4, 10. 
 
 Quantitative adjectives, 126. 
 
 Quotation, 87 ; uses, 87 ; direct, 
 88 ; indirect, 88 ; punctuation 
 of 88, 89. 
 
 Raise, 135. ' 
 
 Reflexive verbs, 140. 
 
 Regular compound sentence, 82. 
 
 Related to other subjects, 12. 
 
 Relation, 59 ; coordinate, tK) ; 
 subordinate, 00. 
 
 Relation words in the simple sen- 
 tence, 69, 70. _ 
 
 Relative pronouns, 94, 120. 
 
 Relation words, 61, 62. 
 
 Resemblance between grammar 
 and the sciences, 5, 36. 
 
 Rise, 135. 
 
 Rule for person and number of 
 verbs, 154, 155. 
 
 Second person. 111. 
 
 Second circle, 32. 
 
 Sentence an instrument, 27, 43 ; 
 adapted to thought, 29.
 
 Index. 
 
 227 
 
 Scheme for the study of a selec- 
 tion, 194. 
 Science side of grammar, '». 
 Sentence, 41 ; classes, 3:;, 45. 
 Shall and tirill,Ul. 
 Simple sentence. 53 . 07. 
 
 Simple sentence with compound 
 element, 73, 82. 
 
 Singular number, Hi, 152. 
 
 Speak, 134. 
 
 Spirit of investigation, 4. 
 
 Students must deal with sen- 
 tences, 26. 
 
 Study of classes of sentences, 32. 
 
 Study of the class whole, 30, 41. 
 
 Subject-matter, IB. 
 
 Subject not arbitrary, 5. 
 
 Subject of sentence, 44. 
 
 Subjunctive mode, 145. 
 
 Subordinate clause, 76. 85. 87, 90, 
 96. 
 
 Subordinate conjunction, 100. 
 
 Substantive predicate, 67. 
 
 Substantive words in simple sen- 
 tence, 68. 
 
 Substantive words, 61 . 
 
 Substantive clause, 76, 85. 
 
 Superlative degree, 1 28. 
 
 Tense, 146. 
 
 Teacher and text to aid pupil, 37- 
 
 Test for definitions, 2:}, 39. 
 
 The Blind Preacher, 204. 
 
 The Chameleon, 215. 
 
 The Four Crafts-Men, 208. 
 
 The Voyage, 187. 
 
 The Widow and Her Son, 196. 
 
 Third person. 111. 
 
 Third circle, 33. 
 
 Thought material, 34, 55. 
 
 Transitive verb, 138. 
 
 True view, 24. 
 
 Two elements, 24 ; form and con- 
 tent, 25. 
 
 Two points of view, 15. 
 
 Two problems, 3. 
 
 Two views of a subject, 14. 
 
 Uncombined predicate, 66. 
 
 Unit of subject, 40. 
 
 Unity, 31. 
 
 Use of word "circle," 36. 
 
 Uses and modifiers of adjective, 
 128. 
 
 Uses of infinitive, 171, 172. 
 
 Uses of participle, 174. 
 
 Uses of passive voice, 151. 
 
 Uses of tense forms, 148. 
 
 Value of organized view to 
 teacher, 21. 
 
 Value of purpose, 10. 
 
 Verb, 131 ; classes, 128 ; proper- 
 ties, 143, 146, 149, 152. 
 
 Verbal phrase, 72. 
 
 Vocative, 62. 
 
 Voice, 149. 
 
 What is it to know a subject 
 scientifically? 15. 
 
 Whitney, 18. 
 
 Why do grammarians say two 
 parts? 18. 
 
 Words, (jl ; substantive, 6J ; noun, 
 61 ; pronoun, 61 ; attributive, 
 61 ; adjective, 61 ; adverb, 61 ; 
 attributive verb, 61 ; relation 
 word. Hi ; conjunction, 62; pre- 
 position, 62 ; pure verb, 62 ; in- 
 terjection or feeling word, 62 ; 
 form word or expletive, 62 ; 
 outline, 62. 
 
 Writing, 134.
 
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