iKTAi: ... •' : oro, 
 
 
 /
 
 "FULL OP SERVICEABLE INFORMATION. 
 
 Handbook of Conversation: 
 
 Its Faults and Its Graces. 
 
 COMPEISING 
 
 l.— Dr. Peabody'8 Lecture. a.— Mr. Trench's L,ecture. 
 3.— Mr. Parry Gwiim's "A Word to tlie Wise; or. 
 Hints on the Current Improjirieties of Ex- 
 pression in Writing and Speaking." 
 4.— Mistakes and Improprie- 
 ties in Speaking and 
 Writing Cor- 
 rected. 
 
 COMPILED BY 
 
 ANDREW P. PEABODY, D.D., L.L.D., 
 
 Late of Harvard Uuiversity. 
 Cloth, 50 Oenti. 
 
 " A book which will be of Incalculable value to the young man or 
 woman who will carefully note and follow out its numerous and valu- 
 able sufo-estions It is worth owning, and ought to be studied by 
 many who heedlessly misuse their mother tongua."— Boston Beacon. 
 
 "This little manual contains a great variety of valuable matter for 
 the instruction of those who would improve their style in conversa- 
 tion It is In fact one of the very best and clearest handbooks of Its 
 kind that we have seen."— The Day, Baltimore. 
 
 " It Is a useful handbook on the proprieties and common errors of 
 
 English speech."— The Churchman. 
 
 " The book Is full of serviceable Information, and can be advanta- 
 geously read and kept for reference by every one who desires to con- 
 verse and to write properly and gracefully "— Paper World. 
 
 •Here Is a neat pocket-vomme, which every person should navo 
 I'or ready reference For the young It Is of especial value, and to in» 
 •Id it is of great Interest."— Vox Popult.
 
 THE ElffHT WOED IN THE EldHT PLAOB. 
 
 CAMPBELL'S 
 
 Handbook of English Synonyms 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX, 
 
 SHOWINQ 
 
 The Correct Uses of Prepositions. 
 
 160 pages. Neat cloth bindiag, 60 eta 
 
 This compact little volume contains about 40,000 synonymao* 
 words, printed in clear, distinct type. 
 
 It 18 a work which will substantially aid speakers, writers, 
 teachers and students — in fact all who would gain a more copious 
 vocabulary and increase their power of expression. 
 
 It include" the really important matter of the more bulky vol- 
 umes which are commonly sold for two dollars or more. 
 
 A great choice of words is here placed at the service of tho 
 writer and the speaker. 
 
 The Appendix, containing " Prepositions Compared and Dis- 
 criminated," and "A List showing what Prepositions to use after 
 certain Words," is a trustworthy guide in a great nimiber of cases 
 of doubtfnl usage. A writer's knowledge of English idiom and 
 his style Are best s^own by his ose of these little hinges of thg
 
 HandbooK of Punctuation. 
 
 Pnnctnatlon ani Otiier TypoirapMcal Matters. 
 
 for the use of Printers, Authors, Teachers, and Scholars, 
 By MARSHALL T. BIGELOW, Corrector at the Uni- 
 versity rrefs, Cambridge. Small 4to. CLOTH, S6 
 CENTS. 
 
 Lenox Library, New York, Aug. 19, 1881. 
 Dear Mb. Bigitlow, — I sent for your "Punctuation and other 
 Typographical Matters " (having long groaned over bad pointing in 
 authors and printers), and was glad to find an excellent manual 
 which will contribute to the comfort of many. I cordially recom. 
 mend it to all authors, printers, and men of letters. 
 
 Faithfully yours, 
 Allibone's Dictionary of Authors. ' I. Austin A-Llibonb. 
 
 " Mr. Bigelow's book is a practical treatment of the subject, and 
 enlarges the reading public's obl5 Rations to him." — Atlantic Monthly. 
 
 "It is intended for the use of authors and teachers, while business 
 men who have occasion to print circulars, advertisements, etc., can 
 hardly afford to be without a copy of it for reference." — Schenectady 
 Daily Union. 
 
 Mistakes in Writiii£ Englisli, aui How to AvoW Tlem. 
 
 For the Use of all who Teach, Write, or Speak the Lan- 
 guage. By MAMSHALL T. BIGELOW, a^Uhor of 
 *' Punctuation and other Typographical Matters.'* 
 CLOTH, 60 CENTS. 
 
 " This is an admirable little work ; the more admirable for the uao 
 of busy people, because it is little, since it is also clear and compre- 
 hensive. The errors pointed out are those to which nearly all writers 
 are liable. . . . We commend it as the most convenient little manual 
 of which we have knowledge." — Christian Herald. 
 
 " This is a valuable little volume. It is not a grammar, with rules 
 and definitions ; but it takes up words and parts of speech, and shows, 
 generally by example, their correct use. It is arranged syetematl" 
 «aMy, and is adapted to the use of the home and the school." — The 
 Cur'^ent. 
 
 " The matter is well arranged, and the points upon which 'nstruo 
 tion is desired can be readily found." — Christian Union. 
 
 "This is a useful book. A careful study of the several chaptere 
 trould be of great advantage to all who nave to <to mucli oriiUaf 
 •p«ak*nf( cr writing. "— Gospel Banner,
 
 PUNCTUATION, 
 
 ,.x ill .H Olliux:..i- SCliuu- 
 OTHER TYPOGRAPHICAL MATTERS, 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 PRINTERS, AUTHORS, TEACHERS, AND 
 SCHOLARS. 
 
 MARSHALL T. BIGELOW, 
 
 CORRECTOR AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
 FIFTEENTH EDITION. 
 
 r^n 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 LEE AND SHEPARD, PUBLISHERS, 
 10 Milk Street, 
 
 1894.
 
 Copyright, 1881, 
 By Makshalc T. Bigelow. 
 
 UNIVERSITY PRESS: 
 JOHN WILSON AND SoN, CAMBRIDGE
 
 PE 
 PEE FACE 
 
 THIS work was originally intended to lay down 
 plain and practical rules for compositors and 
 proof-readers, which should be brief enough to be 
 readily kept in mind, and simple enough to be at 
 once comprehended. But I hope that it may also 
 be of use to authors and teachers, as well as to pu- 
 pils in colleges and schools, in which the practice 
 of composition is now so general a requirement. 
 Business men, likewise, wiio have occasion to print 
 circulars and advertisements, may find a knowledge 
 of the subjects here treated to be very -useful. 
 
 The tendency of the present day is decidedly to 
 a less stiff and formal punctuation than that laid 
 down in either Murray's or Goold Brown's Gram- 
 mar, and no one now would punctuate so closely as 
 their rules require. It has become a recognized 
 principle, that Punctuation is as much a matter 
 of taste and judgment as of rigid rule ; and while 
 certain rules are positive, and to be followed ab- 
 solutely, much is to be left to the discretion of 
 the author. 
 
 The treatise of Wilson is by far the best work 
 treating fully on this subject ; but it is altogether 
 too large for the purpose for which this little vol- 
 ume is designed. I have used it freely for exam-
 
 iv PREFACE. 
 
 pies, and in fact have taken these wherever I could 
 hnd them, whether in Murray, Goold Brown, or the 
 works of other writers on the subject. 
 
 The subject of division of syllables as well as 
 that of compound words has been carefully con- 
 sidered, and an attempt has been made to give 
 definite practical rules, which shall avoid the many 
 inconsistencies and errors of our two principal Dic- 
 tionaries. Printers and school-book makers usu- 
 ally follow the Dictionary which they take as their 
 standard, without any regard to consistency or the 
 true principles of syllabication. 
 
 General rules are also given in relation to print- 
 ing and accenting the Classical and Modern lan- 
 guages. These, of course, are not for scholars, but 
 for compositors, to whom a knowledge of these 
 rules may be of great use, and save much useless 
 and vexatious labor in correcting. 
 
 An experience at the University Press, as a prac- 
 tical printer, of nearly fifty years, — more than 
 thirty of which have been spent in proof-reading, 
 — and the advantage of the instruction of Mr. 
 Charles Folsom and of Mr. George Nichols while 
 they were connected with the Press, as well as 
 that of reading the proofs of the original works of 
 nearly all our prominent New England authors, in- 
 duce me to hope that my book- may be of value, 
 especially to the class for whom it is primarily 
 designed. 
 
 M. T. BIGELOW, 
 
 Cambridge, May 21, 1881.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 A Corrected Proof-Sheet 6 
 
 Explanation of Proof Marks 7 
 
 Remarks for Authors 7 
 
 Chaptee 
 
 I. The Comma 9 
 
 II. The Semicolon, Colon, and Period . . . . 22 
 
 ni. The Interrogation and Exclamation Points . 28 
 
 IV. The Dash, Parentheses, and Brackets . . .32 
 
 V. The Apostrophe. — Possessive Case ... 36 
 
 _ VI. Of Paragraphs and Quotations . . . .38 
 
 VII. Capitals and Italics 43 
 
 VIII. Citations and Abbreviations 49 
 
 Abbreviations used in Printing .... 52 
 
 IX. The Hyphen. — Compound Words. — Syllabication 59 
 
 X. Rules of Orthogr^vphy 71 
 
 List of Words variously spelled ... 77 
 
 XI. Accents, Divisions, etc., in the Classical and 
 
 Modern Languages 87 
 
 Xn. Remarks on Composition. — Technical Terms. — 
 
 Sizes of Type 97 
 
 XIII. Dimensions of Books and Paper .... 109 
 INDEX Ill
 
 A CORRECTED PROOF-SHEET. 
 
 HAMLET S ADVICE TO THE PLATERS. 
 
 &^. caAa. Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, 
 
 / trippingly on the tongu^but, if you moutli/it, as many 
 
 of our players do, I had as lief the 7V)wn crier spoke my 
 
 it lines. Nor, donot saw the air too much with your band, 
 
 0) thus: but use all gentU ; for, in the very torent, tempest, 
 
 and, as I may say, whirlwind of your passion, you must 
 
 znc^ veae^ acquire a temperance that may give it smoothenss. i 
 
 qA^o Otean,, ' o/it offends me to the soul to hear a periwig-pated 
 robustiouH fellow tear 'to tatters ^ a passion^ , — to very 
 a. e. rags, — to •wni-the ears of the groundlings, wWo, for the 
 ' ^ most part, are capable of nothing|but inevitable dumb 
 show ani noisej/ I would have such a fellow w h i ppe d 
 for oerdoing/ermagant ; it out-Herods Herod. Pray you 
 avoid it. JBe not too tame, nietlier, but let your own 
 discretion be your tutor ; suit the action to the word, with 
 
 /.c./. 
 
 t 
 Ofia/. 
 
 X / o 
 
 V 
 
 # 
 
 this special observylice, that you o'erstep not thr^iodesty 
 of 5«ature ; for any thing so overdone is from the purpose 
 of playing, whose end, both at the fi«^ and now, was 
 rjiT'is, to hold, as 'twere, the mVor up to i(ature/to 
 — j'J^^'Yirtue her own feature, Si^rn her own pitt wo , and 
 --^ ag® ^n"* ^"'^y ^^ •s_/'''® s,^/ time, ^^ ^ his form 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 •/ 
 
 iu 
 a 
 
 ti7taae 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ..^
 
 ^ 
 
 REMARKS FOR AUTHORS. 7 
 
 EXPLANATION OF PROOF MARKS. 
 
 or o Dele, take away. 
 6) is a mark showing an inverted letter, 
 -^ over ae and oe indicates that they are to be printed cs, ce. 
 — directs less space between words. 
 3 directs that all space be taken out. 
 }f indicates that a space is needed where the a is put. 
 X indicates a broken letter. 
 _|_ indicates a space which stands up. 
 Dots placed under words or letters erased indicate 
 
 that they are to be restored. Stet is placed in the 
 
 mai'gin. 
 [ indicates that a word or line is to be moved towards 
 
 the face of the bracket, whichever way turned. 
 
 IT denotes that a new paragi'aph is to be made. 
 tr. Transpose words or letters. But it is better to rewrite 
 letters than to use the tr. 
 
 I. c. ( lower case) directs a capital word or letter to be made small. 
 
 Qy. or ? Query, as to spelling or use of language, and the 
 questioned change written in the margin. 
 
 One line drawn under letters or words indicates that they should 
 be in Italics ; two, small capitals ; three, CAPITALS. 
 
 REMARKS FOR AUTHORS. 
 
 Authors in correcting proofs, especially where they 
 are sent to a distance, by mail or otherwise, shoxild 
 not use a lead pencil, as the marks are very likely to 
 become illegible. Either ink or a crayon pencil ought 
 to be used.
 
 8 REMARKS FOR AUTHORS. 
 
 When a query is made on the proof-sheet, if the au- 
 thor desires the correction to be made, he should erase 
 the ? or Qy. If he does not wish the change made, 
 the correction and query should both be distinctly 
 marked through. Much trouble is occasioned proof- 
 readers by neglecting this, as they are at a loss what 
 to do, and as queries are often in relation to discrepan- 
 cies in the manuscript, or other matters, which they can- 
 not settle. Marks should never he ruhhed out with an 
 eraser, as the proof-reader may forget corrections that 
 he made in the author's proof, and again make the 
 same corrections, which the author may not desire. 
 When duplicate proofs are sent to an author, the one 
 marked by the proof-reader should always be returned ; 
 as otherwise typographical defects might appear, which 
 can be avoided. 
 
 By careful attention to the foregoing scheme of proof 
 marks in making corrections, the author may be assured 
 that they will be understood ; and there is no occasion 
 for taking up the time of the proprietor, proof-reader, 
 or compositor in going over the marks with him. If 
 there are many corrections, however, the author should 
 see a revise.
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 C H A P T E E I. 
 
 THE COMMA. 
 
 COMMAS are properly used, not for the purpose of 
 showing where pauses are to be made in read- 
 ing, but to present to the eye the proper grammatical 
 construction of the sentence, so that one reading a new 
 book or a newspaper cannot fail to perceive the mean- 
 ing at first sight. They are used for the separation of 
 clauses, to mark parentheses, and to separate words 
 where several are used in the same construction, — in 
 short, wherever they help to show the exact meaning 
 of the writer. 
 
 Almost the whole science of punctuation consists in 
 the proper use of the comma in subordinate clauses, so 
 as to show the precise meaning of the sentence. A full 
 comprehension of the meaning of the writer is neces- 
 sary to this, and without such a comprehension it is 
 impossible to punctuate correctly. 
 
 The following rules show where commas must be 
 used, and also where their use is a matter of taste and 
 judgment, rather than of absolute law. In many cases, 
 where they would be used according to rule, they may 
 be omitted in parenthetical or other clauses in long or 
 involved sentences, where tliey might confuse the reader
 
 10 THE COMMA. 
 
 instead of helping him. The responsibility for a bun- 
 gling or confused sentence, however, must rest with its 
 writer : it is impossible for a proof-reader to remedy it 
 by any use of punctuation marks. 
 
 Rule I. 
 
 1. A simple sentence does not usually admit of any 
 pause except at its close. 
 
 2. But where a sentence is so constructed that the 
 subject ends with a verb and the predicate also begins 
 with a verb, a comma may be used. 
 
 3. A sentence so long that the reader might find it 
 difficult to separate the subject from the predicate, also 
 admits of the insertion of a comma between them. 
 
 1. 
 
 I remember with gratitude his goodness to me. 
 His work is in many respects very imperfect. 
 
 2. 
 
 All things that are, are with more spirit chased than enjoyed. 
 
 Whatever is, is right. 
 
 What is foreordained to be, will be. 
 
 3. 
 
 To allow the slave-ships of a confederation formed for the ex- 
 tension of slavery to come and go free and unexamined between 
 America and the African coast, would be to renounce even the 
 pretence of attempting to protect Africa against the man-stealer. 
 
 Those Presbyterian members of the House of Commons who 
 had many years before been expelled by the army, returned to 
 their seats. 
 
 Rule II. 
 
 1. Two words of the same part of speech and in the 
 same construction, or two short phrases, when con- 
 nected by a conjunction, should not be separated by 
 a comma.
 
 THE COMMA. • 11 
 
 2. But where more than two words occur in such 
 construction, commas should be put between all the 
 words, whether connected by conjunctions or not.-^ 
 
 3. Where two or more such words are used without 
 a conjunction, or where the same word is repeated, a 
 comma should always be used between them. If the 
 two or more words unconnected by a conjunction or 
 conjunctions are nouns in the nominative case, or have 
 the same relation to what follows in the sentence, a 
 comma should also be used after the last word ; ex- 
 cept that where two or more adjectives qualify a noun, 
 or where the portion of the sentence governed consists 
 of a single word or a very short clause, the comma after 
 the last word of the series should be omitted. 
 
 4. If, however, either of two such words has a quali- 
 fying word or clause which does not also qualify the 
 other, they should usually be separated by a comma. 
 Also where the conjunction is decidedly disjunctive, or 
 the second word is explanatory of the first, or a defini- 
 tion of it ; or where words are contrasted, or antitheti- 
 cal, or emphatically distinguished. 
 
 1. 
 
 Reason and vu-tue answer one great aim. 
 
 Plain and honest truth wants no artificial covering. 
 
 Death had lost its terrors and pleasure its charms. 
 
 2. 
 
 The discourse was beautifully, elegantly, and forcibly de- 
 livered. 
 
 The spirit of the Almighty is within, around, above us. 
 
 1 Some writers omit the comma in cases where the conjunction 
 is used. But as the conjunction is generally employed in such cases 
 for emphasis, commas ought to be used; although where the words 
 are very closely connected, or where they constitute a clause in the 
 midst of a long sentence, they may be omitted.
 
 12 - • THE COMMA. 
 
 Little, Brown, & Co., or Little, Brown, and Company. 
 The man professed neither to eat, nor drink, nor sleep. 
 The husband, wife, and children suffered extremely. 
 And, feeling all along the garden wall, 
 Lest he should swoon, and tumble, and be found, 
 Crept to the gate, and opened it, and closed. 
 Who to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eye 
 Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody. 
 From generation to generation, man, and beast, and house, 
 and laud have gone ou in succession here, replacing, following, 
 rene\ving, repairing and being repaired, demanding and getting 
 more support, etc. 
 
 Saying with a loud voice. Worthy is the Lamb that was slain 
 to receive power, and riches, and wisdom, and strength, and 
 honor, and glory, and blessing. And every creature which is in 
 heaven, and on the earth, and under the earth, and such as are 
 in the sea, and all that are in them, heard I saying, Blessing, and 
 honor, and glory, and power, be unto him that sitteth upon the 
 throne, and unto the Lamb.for ever and ever. — Rev. v. 12, 13. 
 
 3. 
 
 Their search extends along, around the path. 
 
 We are fearfully, wonderfully made. 
 
 Punish, guide, instruct the boy. 
 
 Verily, verily, I say unto you. 
 
 The colleges, the clergy, the lawyers, were against me. 
 
 Your ends, objects, seem to me important. I see, I feel, the 
 great evils of our present social state. — JF. E. Channing. 
 
 The world that is outward, material, is the shadow of that 
 which is spiritual. — Ibid. 
 
 The more of common objects, of common tastes, of common 
 sources, they possess, the more tender and beneficent will be 
 their union. — Ibid. 
 
 4. 
 
 He could write, and cipher too. 
 
 Tn such case it is clear that he is entitled to take the annual 
 crops, and wood for fuel. 
 
 He, and he only, is worthy of our supreme affections. 
 The vain are easily obliged, and easily disobliged. 
 Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand.
 
 THE COMMA. 13 
 
 Strong proofs, not a loud voice, produce conviction. 
 Though black, yet comely ; and though rash, benign. 
 Learning is the ally, not the adversary, of genius. 
 We came to a large opening, or inlet. 
 
 Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 
 Strong, without rage ; without o'ertiowing, full. 
 Who builds a church to God, and not to fame. 
 Will never mark the marble with his name. 
 
 The following are examples of nouns in juxtaposition, 
 but in a different construction, which show clearly the 
 importance of putting a comma before the conjunction 
 when it is used before the last word of a series in the 
 same construction. 
 
 By simple trutli, staleness and tameness are not meant, for 
 there should always be richness of thought. — JF. E. Clumning. 
 
 To prove its location, reputation and tradition, recitals in 
 ancient deeds, and the evidence afforded by ancient maps and 
 plans, are admissible. — Mass. Reports. 
 
 Among them are the following mines, viz. the Central, Cop- 
 per Falls, and Calumet and Hecla. 
 
 Rule III. 
 
 Words joined in pairs by conjunctions, or other par- 
 ticles, should be separated into pairs by commas. 
 
 Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand 
 and my heart to this vote. 
 
 Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and en- 
 mity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public 
 transactions. 
 
 Let elevation without turgidness, parity without primness, 
 pathos without whining, characterize our style. 
 
 Nothing is more wise or more admirable in action than to be 
 resolute and yet calm, earnest and yet self-possessed, decided 
 and yet modest. 
 
 But whether ingenious or dull, learned or ignorant, clownish 
 or polite, every innocent man, without exception, has as good a 
 right to liberty as to life.
 
 14 THE COMMA. 
 
 EULE IV. 
 
 Where, of two or more adjectives in a series, one 
 is qualiiied by the one or more preceding, the comma 
 should be omitted before it. 
 
 She is a virtuous and excellent young woman. 
 He was a brave, honest, and good old man. 
 She had dark blue eyes and beautiful light bl-own hair. 
 He then proceeded to draw on a pair of old, shabby, and very 
 dirty white kid gloves. 
 
 EuLE V. 
 
 1. "Words used in apposition should be separated 
 from each other by a comma, and also from the part 
 of the sentence which follows. 
 
 2. But where one of the words is used merely as 
 
 a general title or appellation, the comma should be 
 
 omitted, as also where a pronoun is added tautologi- 
 
 cally for emphasis. 
 
 1. 
 
 Now I, Paul, myself beseech you by the meekness and gen- 
 tleness of Christ. 
 
 But in the first year of Cyrus, the king of Babylon, the same 
 King Cyrus made a decree to build this house of God. 
 
 And set up over his head his accusation written. This is Je- 
 sus, the King of the Jews. 
 
 Newton, the gi-eat mathematician, was very modest. 
 
 The Venetian Senate entered into an alliance with the Em- 
 peror, Charles V., and the Pope, Paul III. 
 
 William was slain, leaving one child, Alice. 
 
 And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers. 
 
 2. 
 
 The poet Milton wrote excellent prose and better poetry. 
 
 The Emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts. 
 
 On the death of the Empress Anne, her niece assumed the 
 government, as guardian of her son John. 
 
 The river Thames. — The brook Kidron. — I myself. — He 
 himself. — Ye men of Athens.
 
 THE COMMA. 15 
 
 EULE VI. 
 All vocative words or expressions shoiild be separated 
 by commas from the other parts of the sentence. 
 
 Mr. President, my object is peace. 
 Yes, sir, I will go there with you. 
 Your Grace of York, set forward ! 
 It touches you, my lord, as much as me. 
 It is to you, good people, that I speak. 
 
 Come, pensive nun, devout and pure, 
 
 Sober, steadfast, and demure. 
 
 EULE VII. 
 
 1. Adverbs and short phrases, when they break the 
 connection between closely related parts of a sentence, 
 should be separated by commas from the other portions 
 of the sentence. 
 
 2. When they readily coalesce with the whole sen- 
 tence, however, the commas should be omitted. 
 
 Among the more common words and phrases so used 
 are the following : — 
 
 too however perhaps first now 
 
 then therefore again finally moreover 
 
 also indeed further lastly namely 
 
 in short for instance in truth in like manner 
 you know as it were no doubt as it appears 
 
 But this list may be almost indefinitely extended. 
 
 1. 
 
 Eoland's death, too, is supernatural. 
 
 So, then, these are the two virtues of building : first, the 
 signs of man's own good work ; and, secondly, the expression 
 of man's delight in work better than his own. 
 
 As an orator, perhaps, he was not magnetic or inspiring. 
 
 There is, however, a hmit at which forbearance ceases to be a 
 virtue.
 
 16 THE COMMA. 
 
 I had grown to my desk, as it were, and the work had entered 
 Viy soul. 
 
 True eloquence, indeed, does not consist in mere speech. 
 Our civilization, therefore, is not an unmixed good. 
 Punctuality is, no doubt, a quality of high importance. 
 
 2. 
 
 True eloquence does not indeed consist in mere speech. 
 Our civilization is therefore not an unmixed good. 
 Patience, I say ; your mind perhaps may change. 
 Here also is the distinction between faith and mere assent. 
 Now I know in part, but then shall I know even as also I am 
 known. 
 
 Rule VIIL 
 
 All clauses, whether independent, parenthetical, abso- 
 lute, or whatever grammarians may choose to call them, 
 should generally be separated by a comma or commas 
 from the other parts of the sentence ; although where 
 any such clause is closely united with the sentence, or 
 is very short, it may be unnecessary. 
 
 United, we stand ; divided, we fall. 
 
 The prince, his father being dead, succeeded. 
 
 His father dying, he succeeded to the estate. 
 
 To confess the truth, I was much in fault. 
 
 Vices, like shadows, towards the evening of life grow great 
 and monstrous. 
 
 As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my 
 soul after thee. 
 
 Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
 
 Where the bee sucks, there suck 1. 
 
 The little that is known, and the circumstance that little is 
 known, must be considered as honorable to him. 
 
 Any departure fiom the route named in the policy to a port 
 or place not named, and any delay in prosecuting the voyage, 
 M'ithout necessity or just cause, or any delay at a port named in 
 the policy for the prosecution of business not connected with the 
 business of the voyage, or any unreasonable delay at such port in 
 y)rosecuting tlie business of the voyage, is a deviation. — Mass. 
 Reports.
 
 THE COMMA. 17 
 
 Rule IX. 
 
 1. A relative clause limiting or restricting its antece- 
 dent should not be separated from it by a comma. 
 
 2. But the comma must be used where the clause is 
 explauatory of the antecedent, or parenthetical, or where 
 it expresses another idea. 
 
 1. 
 Every one must love a boy who is attentive and docile. 
 For the things which are seen are temporal, but the things 
 which are not seen are eternal. 
 
 He preaches sublimely who lives a sober, just, and holy life. 
 There is no charm in the female sex which can supply the 
 place of vhtue. 
 
 2. 
 
 Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevolence. 
 
 His stories, which made everybody laugh, were often made to 
 order. 
 
 They passed the cup to the stranger, who drank heartily. 
 
 He did not come, which I greatly regret. 
 
 The younger, who was yet a boy, had nothing striking in his 
 appearance. 
 
 Rule X. 
 
 1. A direct quotation, maxim, or similar expression, 
 should be separated from the preceding part of the sen- 
 tence by a comma. Where a quotation consists of more 
 than one sentence, a colon is generally used. 
 
 2. Clauses like "It is said," "I answer," "He 
 contended," etc., introducing .several propositions or 
 quotations, each preceded by the word that^ should 
 have a comma before tlie first thai, especially if the 
 sentence is so constructed as to require a comma after 
 the that ; ^ but if a single proposition or quotation only 
 is given, no comma is necessary. 
 
 ^ See first example under Semicolon, 3, page 23.
 
 18 THE COMMA. 
 
 3. A single proposition of a like kind, introduced by 
 a noun like maxim, fact, rule, law, or like word, should 
 have a comma before the that. Also where the verb to 
 be is used after the noun, a c»mma is preferable before 
 the that ; as, "The reason is," "The facts are," "The 
 rule was," " Our opinion is," etc. 
 
 1. 
 
 God said, Let there be hglit ; and there was light. 
 It is a good maxim, Take care of the pennies, and the pounds 
 will take care of themselves. 
 
 They have forgotten, that in England not one shiUing of paper 
 money is received but of choice, that the whole has had its origin 
 in cash actually deposited, and that it is convertible at pleasure 
 into cash again. 
 
 Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her opera- 
 tions, that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve, that' knowl- 
 edge will alwa3's be progressive, and that all future generations 
 will continue to make discoveries of which, we have not the 
 slightest idea.^ 
 
 3. 
 
 Dante's knowledge of him is owing to the fact, that the pro- 
 fane Ijatin literature had been revived in the twelfth century. 
 
 It is the law of nature, that the mother shall protect and 
 cherish her offspring. 
 
 Our opinion is, that as to this part of the fund the trust should 
 be terminated, and the amount paid over to the claimant. 
 
 Rule XL 
 
 1. In the address and the conclusion of a letter or 
 any other document, as well as the date, commas should 
 be used between all the different items. 
 
 2. A comma should always be used between the 
 
 1 In both of the above examples, if only the first clause after that 
 were expressed, it will be seen that no comma would be admissible.
 
 THE COMMA. 19 
 
 month and year in writing dates, whether the day of 
 the month is given or not.-' 
 
 3. Where a date is inserted in a sentence without a 
 preposition or other word to connect it with the preced- 
 ing clause, a comma shoidd be used before it. But it is 
 better to insert a connecting word, -unless many dates 
 occur in close proximity. 
 
 1. 
 
 Hon. Geo. F. Hoar, "Washington, D. C. 
 Rev. Joseph W. Smith, Auburn, Cayuga Co., New York. 
 I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant, George 
 Washington. 
 
 Ward Room, Franklin Schoolhouse, Waltham Street, Boston. 
 Lotos Club, 147 Fifth Avenue, New York, September 9, 1880. 
 
 2. 
 
 This event took place in June, 1880. 
 
 The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on June 17, 1775. 
 
 Independence was declared on the 4th of July, 1776. 
 
 3. 
 
 The death of President Wadsworth occurred, March 16th, 
 1737, and was lamented with more than ordinary demonstra- 
 tions of sorrow. 
 
 Washington was bom, Feb. 22, 1732, and died, Dec. 14, 1799. 
 He took command of the American army, July 3, 1775 ; forced 
 the British to evacuate Boston, March 17, 1776; was defeated at 
 Brandyvvine, Sept. 11, 1777, and at Germantown, Oct. 4, 1777 ; 
 defeated Cornwallis at Yorktown, Oct. 19, 1781. He was inau- 
 gurated President, April 30, 1789, and retired to private life, 
 March 4, 1797. 
 
 1 Dates are much better in figures tlian written out, in ordinary 
 printing, although in legal documents they are written out to pre- 
 vent mistake, or fraud by an alteration of a figure. It is better to 
 spell out the month, instead of abbreviating, either in narrative 
 matter or in the date of a letter; as, the 24th of December, 1880 ; 
 or, December 24, 1880 ; instead of Dec. 24, 1880. But where dates 
 are frequent, in statistical or other matter, they may be abbreviated 
 to save space. Write 2d, 3d, not 2nd, Srd.
 
 20 THE COMMA. 
 
 Rule XII. 
 
 A comma should be used to indicate an ellipsis of the 
 verb or noun where the meaning Avould not otherwise 
 be clear, though it may be dispensed with where the 
 sense is obvious. 
 
 A wise man seeks to shine in himself ; a fool, in others. 
 
 He rides on a flaming car, and grasps in his left hand a quiver 
 full of arrows ; in his right, a fiery bow. 
 
 Price of admission, 50 cents. 
 
 Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest, 
 Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood. 
 
 Omission of the Comma. 
 
 1. The comma may be omitted, after a period, in 
 many cases where the foregoing rules would require it, 
 as in giving authorities between volume and j^age, or 
 other subdivisions;^ also after i. e., e.g., viz., etc., and 
 similar abbreviations, where an example or explanatory 
 clause is introduced. Also, as before stated, commas 
 may be omitted, in some cases where they would be 
 used according to the foregoing rules, in long sentences, 
 when the sense can be made clearer by their omission. 
 
 2. If the comma is necessary after a period to distin- 
 guish a parenthesis, however, it should be inserted. 
 
 3. Where hut, and, or other connecting particle, oc- 
 curs after a period or semicolon immediately before a 
 parenthetical clause, it is better to omit the comma be- 
 fore the parenthesis. 
 
 1. 
 Shaw, C. J. delivered the opinion of the court. 
 John C. Church, Jr. was yesterday elected mayor of this city, 
 
 1 For further examples on this point, see Chapter VIII., on Cita- 
 tions and Abbreviations.
 
 THE COMMA. 21 
 
 The keystones, etc. of the choir, and t]ie compartments be- 
 tween the ribs in the eastern part of the choir, were re-decorated 
 in color. 
 
 The names of countries, kingdoms, states, cities, etc. are dif- 
 ferently written in different languages. — /. E. IVorcester. 
 
 Vol. I. p. 145, not Vol. I., p. Ii5. 
 
 2. 
 
 All other objects, such as furniture, vessels and utensils, tex- 
 tiles, etc., are to be eliminated. 
 
 3. 
 
 But though they had been victorious in the land engagements, 
 they were so little decisive as to lead to no important result. 
 
 Athens seemed now restored, if not to power, at least to inde- 
 pendence ; and if she reflected but the shadow of her former 
 greatness, she was at least raised up from the depths of her 
 degradation. 
 
 Other Uses of the Comma. 
 
 Commas are used to point oflf figures into periods of 
 three each, denoting thousands, millions, etc., for con- 
 venience in reading. 
 
 Commas inverted are used for the beginning of a 
 quotation of any kind. For their use for this pur- 
 pose, see the chapter on " Paragraphs and Quotations," 
 page 39. 
 
 Inverted commas are also iised, in pairs, in tabular 
 VFork, for do. or ditto, instead of repeating in a number 
 of instances the same words or figures. Where used in 
 place of several words or a sentence, it is not necessary 
 to put commas under every word, but they should be 
 in pairs a short distance apart, without regard to the 
 separate words.
 
 22 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 THE SEMICOLON, COLON, AND PERIOD. 
 
 I. The Semicolon. 
 
 1. The semicolon is used to separate clauses from 
 each other, where the clauses themselves are suhdi- 
 vided by commas aud might not otherwise be readily 
 distinguished. 
 
 2. The semicolon may also be used between short 
 complete sentences, where the period would indicate 
 more of a pause than the connection between the sen- 
 tences renders necessary. 
 
 3. The semicolon is used between expressions in a 
 series which have a common dependence on, or relation 
 with, other words or expressions at the beginning or 
 end of a sentence. Where the expressions all alike 
 directly govern a clause at the end of a sentence, a 
 dash should be put after the last clause of the series 
 before the governed clause. 
 
 4. The semicolon should be used before as, viz., 
 e. g., i. e., or the full words of these abbreviations, and 
 similar words, where examples, or a specification of 
 particulars or subjects, follow. But where such ex- 
 amples are introduced parenthetically in a sentence, a 
 comma only is needed. 
 
 1. 
 
 He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not 
 familiar, to equals ; and kind, but not condescending or super- 
 cilious, to inferiors.
 
 THE SEMICOLON. 23 
 
 "We do not want precepts so much as patterns ; an example is 
 the softest and least invidious way of commanding. 
 
 It is a beautiful thing to model a statue and give it life ; to 
 mould an intelligence and instil truth therein is still more beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 There are on every subject a few leading and fixed ideas ; 
 their tracks may be traced by one's own genius as well as by 
 reading. 
 
 3. 
 
 The intention of the testatrix was, that, after the payment of 
 the debts and the legacies, the residue of the estate should be 
 divided into three parts for the benefit of her three children 
 respectively ; that, out of the part designed for each child, five 
 hundred dollars should be paid to each of his or her children ; 
 and that the balance only of such thii-d part was devised to such 
 child. 
 
 He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
 foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; 
 giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : for quar- 
 tering large bodies of armed troops among us ; for protecting 
 them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which 
 they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; for cut- 
 ting off our trade with all parts of the world ; for imposing taxes 
 on us without our consent ; for depriving us, in many cases, of 
 the benefits of trial by jury ; for transporting us beyond seas to 
 be tried for pretended offences ; for abolishing the free system of 
 English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an 
 arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to ren- 
 der it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the 
 same absolute rule into these Colonies ; for taking away our char- 
 ters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamen- 
 tally the forms of our governments ; for suspending our own 
 legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to 
 legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. — Decl. of Independence. 
 
 The ground strewed with the dead and the dying ; the impet- 
 uous charge ; the steady and successful repulse ; the loud call to 
 repeated assault ; the summoning of all that is manly to repeated 
 resistance ; a thousand bosoms freely and fearlessly bared in ar
 
 24 THE COLON. 
 
 instant to whatever of terror there may be in war and death ; — 
 all these you have witnessed, but you witness them no more. 
 
 How we have fared since then ; what woful variety of schemes 
 have been adopted ; what enforcing, and what repealing ; what 
 doing and undoing ; what shiftings, and changings, and jum- 
 blings of all kinds of men at hcrtue, which left no possibility of 
 order, consistency, or vigor, — it is a tedious task to recount. 
 
 4. 
 
 A noun is the name of anything that exists, or of which we 
 have any notion ; as, London, man, virtue. 
 
 The rough breathing shows that the vowel is aspirated ; i. e. 
 that it is preceded by the sound of h. 
 
 The names of religious sects should always commence with 
 capitals ; e. g. Christian, Mohammedan, Catholic, Protestant, 
 Baptist, Unitarian. 
 
 The Ancient Greek language has been divided by grammarians 
 into four principal dialects ; viz. Attic, Ionic, Doric, and iEolic. 
 
 II. The Colon. 
 
 1. The colon is most generally used for the purpose 
 of introducing a speech or quotation consisting of more 
 than one sentence, or a series of propositions or state- 
 ments, when formally introduced by thus, as follows, 
 this, namely, etc. Where the quotation, or other mat- 
 ter subjoined, commences a new paragraph, a dash should 
 be used after the colon at the end of a paragraph. 
 
 2. But where a quotation is not directly introduced 
 by the preceding sentence, a full stop should be used. 
 
 3. Where the quotation is short, but is introduced 
 by expressions like these words, this maxim, etc., a colon 
 should be used. 
 
 4. The colon may be used to sepanxte two short sen- 
 tences, which have so close a connection that a period 
 would be too great a separation, while the sentences 
 require a more marked stop than the semicolon.
 
 THE COLON. 25 
 
 5. The colon is sometimes used to separate clauses 
 which are subdivided by semicolons. 
 
 6. The colon is used on title-pages, and in catalogues 
 
 of books, between the place of publication and the name 
 
 of the publisher. 
 
 1. 
 
 At a meeting held last evening, the First Parish passed the 
 following vote, viz . : — 
 
 The Hon. James A. Garfield was then introduced to the meet- 
 ing, and spoke as follows : — 
 
 Socrates recommended to one of his disciples this prayer: 
 " Jupiter, give us those things," etc. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are cre- 
 ated equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain 
 unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the 
 pursuit of happiness. 
 
 2. 
 
 We shall now proceed to give a few extracts from the work. 
 In order to prove this, I will now read precisely what the gen- 
 tleman did say. 
 
 3. 
 
 In his last moments he uttered these words : "I fall a sacri- 
 fice to sloth and luxury." 
 
 4. 
 
 Avoid evil-doers : in such society an honest man may become 
 ashamed of himself. 
 
 Some things we can, and others we cannot do : we can walk, 
 but we cannot fly. 
 
 5. 
 
 A clause is either independent or dependent : independent, if 
 it foi-ms an assertion by itself ; dependent, if it enters into some 
 other clause with the value of a part of speech. — /. D. IVJiitney. 
 
 See second example under Semicolon, 3, page 23. 
 
 6. 
 
 Boston : Lee and Shepard. 
 New York : Harper Brothers. 
 Cambridge : Charles W. Sever. 
 London : Sampson Low, Son, & Co.
 
 26 THE PERIOD. 
 
 III. The Period. 
 
 1. The period is used at the end of every complete 
 sentence which does not require either an interrogation 
 or exclamation point. 
 
 2. A period must be used after every heading or sub- 
 heading, whether in a separate line or at the com- 
 mencement of a paragraph, or over a column of figures 
 in tabular work ; also after the address of a letter or 
 printed document, as well as after the signature, and, if 
 there is more than one signature, after each and every 
 one. After the word Page, Chapter, Section, or other 
 similar division, in tables of contents or indexes, where 
 it stands over a column of figures or numerals, it is, 
 however, the general practice to omit the period. 
 
 3. The period should be used after every abbreviated 
 word, and where two letters are used for two" separate 
 words each letter should have a period after it ; as, i. e. 
 for id est ; e. g. for exempli gratia, etc. But if the 
 word is abbreviated by an apostrophe for letters omit- 
 ted, no period should be used ; as, cont^d for continued. 
 (See Abbreviations.) 
 
 4. A period is always put after Roman numerals, 
 except where they are used for numbering pages of in- 
 troductory or otlier matter, when the period should 
 not be used. 
 
 5. Where Arabic numerals are used for numbering 
 paragraphs, or lists of particulars or subjects in the same 
 paragraph, they should be followed by the period ; also 
 where they are used for references to different divisions 
 of a book, as is explained in the chapter on Citations 
 and Abbreviations, page 49. 
 
 6. References to foot-notes, whether figures, letters,
 
 THE PERIOD. 27 
 
 or the common reference marks, should have no period 
 or other mark after them. Sometimes parentheses are 
 used ; but this is unnecessary, and they look badly. 
 
 7. Periods denote an omission in a quotation, where 
 it is not desired to give the whole of it. When part of 
 a sentence is omitted, four periods are commonly used, 
 with spaces between them. When a paragraph is omit- 
 ted, a line of five or six periods is generally used. 
 
 8. Periods are used for leaders in tables of contents, 
 indexes, and tabular matter, to carry the eye of the 
 reader to the proper figure or figures. Where the space 
 between the words and figures is not great, the periods 
 may be one em apart ; but if the space is large, they are 
 much better two ems apart, arranged in diamond form. 
 
 9. The period is used to set off decimal numbers from 
 whole numbers ; also before figures to show that they 
 constitute a decimal, and not a whole number; as, 
 .0048 gr., .025 mile, .0075 inch ; and consequently, 
 in money of the United States, to divide dollars and 
 cents; as, $240.54, $2,588.46, etc.^ 
 
 1 A very common error in writing a decimal number is to use 
 the plural after it; as, .0048 grains, .025 miles, ..38 yards. This is 
 wrong, as any decimal number, no matter of how many or how few 
 figures it consists, is less than the whole number one, and therefore 
 cannot be plural. The above expressions mean 48 ten-thousandths 
 of a grain; 25 thousandths of a mile; 38 hundredths of a yard; and 
 therefore the singular number should be used, grain, viile, yard.
 
 28 THE INTERROGATION POINT. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE INTERROGATION AND EXCLAMATION 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 I. The Interrogation Point. 
 
 1. The interrogation point is used at the end of every 
 sentence which constitutes a direct question, in whatever 
 form it may be expressed ; and every direct question of 
 a series should have the interrogation mark after it. 
 
 2. 'No question should be divided by any other point 
 than a comma ; but if a question is so constructed that 
 a greater break is required, a dash should be used. 
 
 3. A series of questions may be asked omitting the 
 interrogatory clause after the first question, each of 
 which should have the interrogation mark. 
 
 4. An indirect question should not have the interro- 
 gation mark after it. 
 
 1. 
 
 The sun not set yet, Thomas ? 
 
 What is civilization ? where is it ? what does it consist in ? by 
 what is it excluded ? where does it commence ? where does it 
 end ? by what sign is it known ? how is it defined ? In short, 
 what does it mean ? 
 
 I pause for a reply. — None ? Then none have I offended. 
 
 What ceremony else ? — HumJd. 
 
 What mean'st thou by that ? Mend me, thou saucy fellow ? — 
 Julius Cccsar. 
 
 2. 
 
 Where doth the world thnist forth a vanity, — 
 So it be new, there 's no respect how vile, — 
 That is not quickly buzzed into his ears ?
 
 THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 29 
 
 Are you still — I fear you are — far from being comfortably 
 settled ? 
 
 Ah ! whither now are fled those dreams of greatness, — those 
 busy, bustling days, — those gay-spent, festive nights, — those 
 veering thoughts, lost between good and ill, that shared thy life ? 
 
 Canst thou, and honored with a Christian name, 
 Buy what is woman-born, and feel no shame, — 
 Trade in the blood of innocence, and plead 
 Expedience as a warrant for the deed ? 
 
 3. 
 
 Where be your gibes now ? your gambols ? j'our songs ? your 
 flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the table on a roar ? 
 No one now to mock your own grinning ? quite chap-fallen ? — 
 Hamlet. 
 
 4. 
 
 He then demanded whether I intended to comply with his 
 re(piest. 
 
 The judge asked the witness if he believed the man to be 
 guilty. 
 
 He asked what I would do in that case . 
 
 II. The Exclamation Point. 
 
 1. The exclamation point is used after interjections, 
 exclamatory words or phrases, and sentences expressing 
 a wish, wonder, strong emotion, or passion. 
 
 2. Where an interjection commences a sentence which 
 requires the exclamation point at the end, it is not usu- 
 ally necessary to put the point also after the interjection. 
 
 3. Interjections, when repeated to express laughter, 
 or any other sound, take the exclamation point only 
 after the last, 
 
 Difi'erence between Oh ! and O. 
 
 4. Oh/ is properly used only as an interjection ex- 
 pressive of pain, woe, or surprise. This is the only
 
 30 THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 
 
 signification given in the Dictionaries of Johnson, Wor- 
 cester, and Webster, although the editors of the last 
 edition of Webster give the additional signification of 
 the expression of a Avish. But this last use is gener- 
 ally considered erroneous, although examples of it are 
 frequent.^ 
 
 5. is used for the sign of address, or the vocative 
 case ; for the expression of a wish or an imprecation ; 
 to introduce an exclamatory phrase; and, colloquially, 
 as an unmeaning introduction to a sentence, where it 
 might be omitted without at all affecting the sense. 
 
 6. The exclamation point may be used after the voca- 
 tive when very strong feeling or passion is expressed, 
 or where the address follows an interjection or exclam- 
 atory expression. 
 
 7. Oh ! always requires the exclamation point imme- 
 diately after it, except in the case stated under Rule 2, 
 above. never shoidd have the mark immediately 
 after it. 
 
 1. 
 May the gods requite ! 
 Would that I had perished ! 
 
 Hark ! liaik ! tlie Dauphin's drum, a warning bell ! 
 Whew ! A plague upon you all ! 
 
 God ! tliat men should put an enemy in their mouths, to 
 steal away their brains ! — Othello. 
 
 2. 
 
 They shall not lament for him, saying, Ah my brother ! or, 
 Ah sister ! ... Ah lord ! or, Ah his glory ! 
 Oh, how I suffer ! 
 Alas both for the deed and for the cause ! 
 
 Ho, trumpets, sound a war note ! 
 
 Ho, lictors, clear the way ! 
 
 1 See Crosby's Greek Grammar, pp. 379, 380, 384; Goodwin's, 
 pp. 257, 289, 290 ; Goold Brown's Grammar, p. US.
 
 THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 31 
 
 3. 
 
 Ha, ha, ha ! — He, he, he ! — Ho, ho, ho ! 
 Click, click, click ! — Whack, whack, whack ! 
 Knock, knock, knock ! Who 'g there 1' the name of Beelze- 
 bub ? — Macbeth. 
 
 4. 
 
 Oh ! my offence is rank, it smells to heaven. — Hamlet. 
 But, oh ! what damned minutes tells he o'er, who dotes, yet 
 doubts ! — Otliello. 
 
 Oh ! how vain and transitory are all things here below ! 
 
 Oh ! you are wounded, my lord ! 
 
 But oh ! as to embrace me she inclined, I waked. — Milton. 
 
 But she is in her grave, and oh ! 
 
 The difference to me ! — Wordsworth. 
 
 5. 
 
 that I had wings like a dove ! 
 
 that this too, too solid flesh would melt, thaw, and resolve 
 itself into a dew ! — Hamlet. 
 
 that my words were now written ! that they were printed 
 in a book ! 
 
 1 hojie we have reformed that indifferently with i;s. — 0, 
 reform it altogether. — Ha mlet. 
 
 Remuneration ! 0, that 's the Latin word for three farthings. 
 Wliere are you going ? — 0, only to Boston. 
 
 Catch, then, 0, catch the transient hour, 
 Improve each moment as it flies. 
 
 6. 
 
 Woe unto thee, Chorazin ! Woe unto thee, Bethsaida ! 
 
 How amiable thou art, virtue ! 
 
 Rouse, ye Romans ! rouse, ye slaves ! 
 
 All hail, ye patriots brave ! 
 
 Ah, child ! you are as innocent as the flower that grows under 
 our feet. 
 
 Great Glamis ! worthy Cawdor ! Greater than both by tho 
 all-hail hereafter ! — Macbeth. 
 
 Romans, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause, and 
 be silent that you may hear. — Julius Cwsar. 
 
 Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. — Ibid.
 
 32 THE DASH. 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 THE DASH, PARENTHESES, AND BRACKETS. 
 
 I. The Dash. 
 
 1. The dash is a very useful and necessary point when 
 properly used ; but many books are so uselessly encum- 
 bered with it, that it loses all significance as a proper 
 mark of punctuation. 
 
 2. The dash is used before and after a parenthetical 
 clause which is too closely connected with and necessary 
 to the whole sentence to be enclosed in parentheses, and 
 yet requires for its ready comprehension to be distinctly 
 separated from the other parts of the sentence. Com- 
 mas should be used before the dashes only where a 
 comma would be necessary if the sentence included be- 
 tween the dashes were omitted. (This rule also applies 
 to the case of parentheses and brackets.) 
 
 To render the Constitution perpetual, — which God grant it 
 may be, — it is necessary that its benefits should be practically 
 felt by all parts of the country. — D. Webster. 
 
 3. The dash is used where the construction of a 
 sentence is changed or suspended, and the sentence 
 concluded in an unexpected manner, or with an epi- 
 grammatic turn of the sentiment ; also where, in 
 dialogue, one of the speakers is interrupted or breaks 
 off in the midst of a sentence. 
 
 Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band ? 
 Was there ever — But I scorn to boast.
 
 THE DASH. 33 
 
 Then the eye of a child, — who can look unmoved into that 
 well undefiled, in which heaven itself seems to be reflected ? 
 
 You have given the command to a person of illustrious 
 birth, of ancient family, of innumerable statues, but — of no 
 experience. 
 
 His proctorship in Sicily, — what did it produce ? 
 
 Greece, Carthage, Rome, — where are they ? 
 
 Heaven gives its favorites — early death. 
 
 The four greatest names in English poetry are almost the first 
 we come to, — Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, and Milton. 
 
 Gray and Collins aimed at the dazzling imagery and magnifi- 
 cence of lyrical poetry, — the direct antipodes of Pope. 
 
 Here lies the great — False marble ! where ? 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies here. 
 
 Cassius. Yet I fear him : 
 
 For in the ingrafted love he bears to Caesar — 
 Brutus. Alas ! good Cassius, do not think of him. 
 
 4. The dash is also used to separate a heading at the 
 commencement of a paragraph from the subject matter 
 following ; and before an authority when it is given at 
 the end of a quotation. 
 
 5. Sometimes it is used to show faltering or hesitation 
 in speaking. 
 
 He was extremely concerned it should happen so ; but — a — 
 it was necessary — a — Here Lord E stopped him short. 
 
 6. A dash is used to denote an omission of part of a 
 
 word when it is not desirable to print it in full, either 
 
 to avoid profanity or indelicacy ; — or of a name, when 
 
 it is not desirable to give it in full. 
 
 Mrs. C n gave a large party at her residence on B n 
 
 Street, last evening. 
 
 7. Where a conversation is carried on between two 
 parties, and the speech of each person is not put in a 
 separate paragraph, a dash should be used to separate 
 the different speeches. — A dash may also be used where
 
 34 THE DASH. 
 
 a decided change of subject occurs in a paragraph, and 
 want of space prevents the making of separate para- 
 graphs. This often occurs in Gazetteers, Encyclopae- 
 dias, etc., where saving of space is a primary con- 
 sideration. 
 
 8. A short dash is used between two numbers to 
 represent that they are a series, inchiding the numbers 
 given and all the intervening ones. Also to show that 
 a part of two or more consecutive years is included in 
 a certain term. Also, where dates are given between 
 the 1st of January and the 25th of March from the 
 time of the adoption of the New Style by the Catholic 
 Church in 1582 to the time of its adoption by the 
 English Parliament in 1752,^ to show that according 
 to Old Style it is in one year, and according to New 
 Style in the other. 
 
 See pages 228-240. — The years 1840-44. — Nos. 28-40. 
 The Congi-ess of 1879-81. — The session of 1833-34. 
 The winter of 1777-78. — Catalogue of Harvard University 
 for 1833-34. 
 
 January 10, 1641-2. —The 18th of March, 1724-5. 
 
 9. In quoting pages or numbers the full figures should 
 always be used; as, pp. 245-253, Nos. 124-129; not 
 245-53, 124-9. But in giving dates the figures repre- 
 senting the century may be dropped; as, 1634-35, not 
 1634-5 ; 1713-15, not 1713-5 ; 1875-79, not 1875-9 ; 
 as such a date might sometimes appear to represent Old 
 and New Style. 
 
 1 On the 16th of March, 27 Eliz. 1584-5, a bill was read the first 
 time, in the House of Lords, entitled "An Act giving her Majesty- 
 authority to alter and new make a Calendar, according to the Calen- 
 dar used in other countries." — Sir Harns Nicolas. But the change 
 was not made till the year 1752. The Old Style is still retained 
 in Russia and Greece, and is now twelve days beliind the regular 
 calendar.
 
 PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS. 35 
 
 II. Parentheses and Brackets. 
 
 1. Parentheses are used to enclose an explanation, 
 authority, definition, reference, translation, or other 
 matter not strictly belonging to the sentence. They 
 are now seldom used for any other purpose, 
 
 2. The use of brackets is the same as that of paren- 
 theses, but is restricted to interpolations, corrections, 
 notes, or explanations made by authors in quotations 
 from others, or by editors in editing works. 
 
 3. When a parenthesis is inserted at a place in the 
 sentence where no comma is required, no point should 
 be used before either parenthesis. When inserted at 
 a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter 
 relates to the whole sentence, a comma should be used 
 before each parenthesis ; if it relates to a single word, 
 or short clause, no stop should come before it, but a 
 comma should be put after the closing parenthesis. This 
 rule also applies to the semicolon and period. 
 
 Their eyeballs were seared (was it not so, sir?) who had 
 thought to shield themselves by concealing their own hand, 
 .and laying the imputation of the crime on a low and hireling 
 agency in wickedness. — D. Webster. 
 
 For I know that in me (that is, in my flesh) dwelleth no good 
 thing. — Ro7n. vii. 18. 
 
 Now for a recompense in the same, (I speak as unto ray chil- 
 dren,) be ye also enlarged. — 2 Cor. vi. 1.3. 
 
 Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
 Virtue alone is happiness below. — Pope. 
 Night visions may befriend (as sung above) : 
 Our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt 
 Of things impossible ! (could sleep do more ?) 
 Of joys perpetual in perpetual change I — Young, 
 A captious question, sir, (and yours is one,) 
 Deserves an answer similar, or none. — Cowpcr. 
 See, for other examples, page 48. 3, and page 51. 3 and 6.
 
 36 THE APOSTROPHE. 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 THE APOSTROPHE. — POSSESSIVE CASE. 
 
 1. The apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable, in 
 poetry or in familiar dialogue ; as, / 've, for / have ; 
 thou Wt, for thou art ; yoxi HI, for you will ; H was, for 
 it was ; 't is, for it is ; don't, for do not ; 'midst, for 
 amidst ; 'mongst, for amongst ; of H, for of it. Also, 
 the elision of letters in a word when it is necessary to 
 abbreviate it ; as, cont'd for contained. 
 
 In all cases where two words are thus made into one 
 syllable, a space should be left between the words, as 
 though they were not abbreviated. Don't, can't, won't, 
 and sha'n't, however, are printed as single words. 
 
 " Love's Labor 's Lost." — " All 's Well that ends Well." 
 'T is pleasant, sure, to see one's name in print ; 
 A book 's a book, although there 's nothing in 't. 
 
 2. The apostrophe also denotes the elision of the 
 century in dates, where the century is understood, or to 
 save the repetition of a series of figures. 
 
 The spirit of 76. 
 
 This was continued during the years 1823, '24, '25, and '26. 
 
 This happened in the year '95. 
 
 First of November, 'Fifty-five ! 
 
 This morning the parson takes a drive. 
 
 3. Apostrophes are used for the closing mark of a 
 quotation, as inverted commas are used for the begin- 
 ning, and are double or single according to the rules
 
 POSSESSIVE CASE. 87 
 
 given in the next chapter, under the head of " Quo- 
 tations." 
 
 4. The apostrophe is further used to denote the plu- 
 ral of figures and letters. 
 
 Mind your^'s and ^'s. 
 
 Cross your t's and dot your i's. 
 
 Cast out the 9's in the above example. 
 
 Make your 7's and 3's more distinct. 
 
 Possessive Case. 
 
 The apostrophe indicates the possessive case, accord- 
 ing to the following 
 
 KULES. 
 
 1. All nouns in the singular numher, whether proper 
 names or not, and all nouns in the plural ending with 
 any other letter than s, form the possessive by the ad- 
 dition of the apostrophe and the letter s ; as, man's, 
 merts, child's, children's, Charles's, Felix's, Hastings's, 
 vntness's, countess's} 
 
 The only exceptions to this rule are, that, by poetical 
 license, the additional s may be elided in poetry for the 
 sake of the meter; and that the Scriptural phrases, 
 "For righteousness' sake," "For conscience' sake," 
 "For goodness' sake," "For Jesus* sake," etc., have 
 become established idioms of the language. 
 
 2. All plural nouns ending in s form the possessive 
 by the addition of an apostrophe after the s ; as, boys' y 
 horses', Charleses', Jameses', countesses'. 
 
 3. The possessive pronoun never takes the apostro- 
 phe ; as, ours, yours, hers, theirs. 
 
 1 The above rule is oftener violated, perhaps, than any other rule 
 of English grammar. But the possessive case, like the plural num- 
 bei;, always makes an additional syllable where the nominative ends
 
 38 • PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 CHAPTEE VI. 
 OF PARAGRAPHS AND QUOTATIONS. 
 
 I. Paragraphs. 
 
 1. Every separate paragraph should be indented an 
 em, in printers' phrase. This rule should be followed in 
 all cases, except where, at the beginning of a chapter or 
 other subdivision, a large initial letter is used.^ 
 
 2. In mottoes, contents at the head of a chapter, and 
 other matter of the sort, however, what is called a 
 " hanging indentation " is used, in which the first line 
 is brought out full, and the succeeding lines are in- 
 dented at the beginning ; so that the first line is longer 
 than the others, instead of shorter, as in the regular 
 paragraph. 
 
 3. Paragraphs of over a page in length should be 
 avoided, as they give a solid and unattractive appear- 
 ance to the page, and resting-places for the reader's eye 
 are convenient. On the other hand, the French fash- 
 ion of making separate paragraphs of almost every sen- 
 
 witl', die sound of s, and the plural syllable might as well be elided 
 as that of tlie possessive. We should not think of saying, " In the 
 time of the Charles," and there is no more reason for saying, "The 
 Charles' times." The only proper way to avoid a harsh or hissing 
 sound is to reform the sentence. 
 
 1| Sometimes books and chapters are printed witliout indenting 
 the first line; this looks very well where nothing but the title stands 
 over the matter, but wheve a book is complicated by subdivisions, it 
 is rarely that uniformity is preserved, and the rule above given is 
 prefei-able This is a matter of taste, however.
 
 QUOTATIONS. 39 
 
 tence is yet more objectionable. The natural division 
 of the subject is the proper guide. 
 
 4. In printing conversations between different per- 
 sons, whatever each person says or does usually consti- 
 tutes a separate paragraph. But if the paragraph is 
 broken for the commencement of a speech, a new para- 
 graph must also be made at its close, unless the matter 
 following specially relates to the person speaking. 
 
 5. Dates at the end of letters, prefaces, etc. should 
 generally be indented as much as a paragraph of the 
 text. Signatures, also, should have the same space left 
 at the end of the line as the indentation of a paragraph. 
 The address of a letter is usually brought out full to 
 the left. But in all these cases the general appearance 
 is alone to be regarded, taking into consideration the 
 broken lines above or below. 
 
 II. Quotations. 
 
 1. Marks of quotation (" ") are used to indicate a 
 passage taken from another author, or anything said 
 by a speaker when it is given in his own words. But 
 the marks are not used when the substance only of a 
 passage is given, or when a speech is not given in the 
 first person. The mark for the commencement of a 
 quotation is the inverted comma, and that for the close 
 is the apostrophe. Double marks are generally used 
 for a quotation ; but where one quotation occurs within 
 another, single marks only should be used. 
 
 2. In quoting words or sentences the period and 
 comma always come before (or rather under) the closing 
 quotation mark ; but the interrogation or exclamation 
 point, the colon, or the semicolon should come before 
 or after the quotation mark according as it is a part of
 
 40 QUOTATIONS. 
 
 the quotation or not. Where a dash is used after a 
 speech or quoted sentence to show that it is^incomplete, 
 the quotation mark should come after the dash. 
 
 3. In quotations from books or letters, if the quo- 
 tation is long, it is usual to begin it with a paragraph. 
 If the quotation does not begin a paragraph, none should 
 be made before its close. 
 
 4. Every new paragraph should have the commencing 
 quotation marks, but no close should be used except at 
 the end of the last-quoted paragraph ; — unless there is 
 a break in the quotation, when a close may be intro- 
 duced, although periods are generally used,^ without clos- 
 ing the quotation, and without commencing after the 
 periods, unless the renewed quotation begins another 
 paragraph. The same rule applies to stanzas in poetry 
 as to paragraphs in prose. 
 
 5. Titles of books, pictures, or newspapers, etc., 
 when formally given, are also quoted ; but where the 
 title of a book is well known, — as the Iliad, the Odys- 
 sey, the iEneid, or Paradise Lost, — or is abbreviated, 
 or is frequently repeated, it is not necessary to use 
 quotation marks, especially in foot-notes, or where con- 
 stant reference is made to different works ; but marks 
 should always be used where any doubt would exist 
 as to the title of a book. 
 
 "As we have seen, the period that followed the publication of 
 '(Ferdinand and Isabella' was not fruitful in literary results. 
 Except a pleasant article on Lockhart's Life of Scott, which he 
 prepared for the North American Review, he wrote nothing dur- 
 ing that winter." — Ticknor's Life of Prcscott. 
 
 " Have been occupied with corrections and additions on my 
 'Mexico.' On my return to Boston shall resume my labors on 
 ♦Philip."'— /6ic^. 
 
 1 For the use of periods for this purpose, see page 27.
 
 QUOTATIONS. ' 41 
 
 6. In giving titles of works in foreign languages, a 
 very good practice is to put tliem in Italics. But in 
 this case quotation marks must not also be used. 
 
 7. Some authors invariably introduce an extract 
 from a book or letter by a colon. But this is improper 
 unless the connection is close. After such phrases as 
 the following, however, it is proper to use the colon. 
 
 " The writer describes this scene in these words : " 
 
 " He proceeded to read the letter, which was as follows : " 
 
 " We give this elegant specimen of our author's style : " 
 
 8. In quoting stanzas of poetry, the commencing 
 quotation mark should stand outside of the stanza, so 
 that the lines themselves will stand precisely as in the 
 original. Thus : — 
 
 " There sat Yousuf and the Alcayde 
 In the castle, playing chess. 
 ' Wliat is this ? ' tlie keeper muttered ; 
 ' Some bad tidings, as I guess.' " 
 
 The mistake should not be made of allowing the quo- 
 tation marks within the stanza itself to stand outside 
 of the other lines, as is done by some printers, in the 
 case of such lines as the third and fourth of the fore- 
 going quotation. (See also page 44. 4.) 
 
 9. The names of vessels are sometimes quoted. But 
 this seems to be quite as unnecessary generally as 
 quoting the names of streets, churches, or anything 
 else ; especially in any work where constant repetition 
 of the names of vessels occurs. 
 
 " A collision took place on the Sound on Friday night between 
 the steamers Stonington and Narragansett. The Narragansett 
 Boon began to sink, and immediately took fire. The steamer 
 City of New York sent boats to their assistance, and took a large 
 number of passengers off the vessel. During Saturday the 
 steamer Relief, of the Coast Wrecking Company, arrived at the
 
 42 QUOTATIONS. 
 
 scene of the disaster. The schooner Report still lies alongside. 
 A metallic life-boat was picked up about iive miles from the 
 wreck, containing a number of life-preservers marked ' Narra- 
 gansett.' " 
 
 10. Where a quotation is made within a second quo- 
 tation, which has the single mark, the double mark 
 must be again used. But this should be avoided if 
 possible, especially where the three would come together 
 at the close. 
 
 Note. — Some authors undertake to quote verbatim et literatim, 
 giving even typographical errors and misspellirigs. But this, unless 
 the quotation is made for the purpose of holding an author up to 
 ridicule, or unless the peculiarities are given with some other special 
 purpose, is worse than useless; as the incongruities of spelling and 
 the typographical errors will always be attributed to the printer 
 of the copied matter, who, if he has any pride in the accuracy 
 of his press, will naturally be averse to such literal copying with- 
 out an explicit statement of the fact. A person would not repeat 
 blunders of sjjelling or grammar in quoting a letter from a friend, 
 and there can be no sense in quoting blunders except to expose 
 them. 
 
 The attempt to reproduce in print all the little peculiarities of 
 small letters at the top of the line, slips of the pen, etc. , seems quite 
 as absurd, except where it might have a bearing on some impor- 
 tant fact. No two persons would ever copy an old document pre- 
 cisely alike, and the reader can get no accurate idea of the appear- 
 ance of the original unless by photographic reproduction. Extracts 
 from ancient documents made by different persons, and printed in 
 diiferent works, are frequently seen, which have numberless vaiia- 
 tions in the typography, but of no importance whatever. Of course 
 the general antique spelling and quauitness of expression should be 
 followed.
 
 CAPITALS. 43 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CAPITALS AND ITALICS. 
 
 I. Capitals. 
 
 1. Every independent sentence, every line of poetry, 
 and every direct quotation should begin with a capital 
 letter. 
 
 An exception is made in humorous poetry where a 
 word is divided at the end of a line, when tlie part of 
 the word beginning the second line is printed with a 
 small letter. 
 
 There first for thee my passion grew, 
 Sweet, sweet Matilda Pottingen ! 
 Thou wast the daughter of my tu- 
 tor, law professor at the U- 
 
 niversity of Gottingen. 
 
 2. The pronoun / and the interjection are always 
 written with a capital. 
 
 3. Names and titles of the Deity, of Jesus Christ, of 
 the Trinity, and of the Virgin Mary should begin with 
 a capital letter. 
 
 God, Lord, Creator, Father, the Almighty, the All-wise, In- 
 finite One, Supreme Being, Most High, Parent of Good ; also 
 Heaven, Providence, where they are used as synonymous with 
 the Deity, but not otherwise. 
 
 The Messiah, the Anointed, the Son, Saviour, Redeemer, 
 Son of Man, Holy One, Teacher, Master. 
 
 The Holy Trinity, the Holy Spirit, the Holy Ghost. 
 
 The Holy Virgin, Mother of God, Queen of Heaven. 
 
 4. Pronouns referring to the Deity or to the Saviour 
 are also capitalized when used in direct address without
 
 44 CAPITALS. 
 
 an antecedent ; or to prevent confusion where, with an 
 antecedent, other pronouns are used. 
 
 Thou that hear'st the mourner's prayer. 
 It entereth not his thoughts that God 
 
 Heareth the sufl'erer's groan ; 
 That in His righteous eye their life 
 Is precious as his own. 
 
 " My Lord has need of these flowerets gay," 
 
 The Reaper said, and smiled ; 
 "Dear tokens of the earth are they, 
 
 Where He was once a child." 
 
 5. The word Devil as appHed to a personal being, 
 supposed to be the incarnation of evil, should be writ- 
 ten with a capital ; but not when used as an expletive, 
 or as a general name for any demon. 
 
 When the Devil was sick, the Devil a monk would be ; 
 When the Devil was well, the devil a monk was he. 
 He will give the Devil his due. 
 
 6. All proper names, and all nouns or adjectives 
 formed from proper names,^ names of streets or squares, 
 the names of the month, the days of the week, and 
 holidays, — in short, every word which is used to des- 
 ignate a special thing, should begin with a capital. 
 
 The Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean 
 Sea, Lake Ontario, Broadway, Washington Street, Boston Com- 
 mon, New York City (but the city of New York), January, 
 Monday, Good Friday, Easter, Brahman, Israelite, Augustan, 
 Elizabethan, African, Caucasian, Indian, Antichrist. 
 
 7. Names from foreign languages, preceded by a 
 preposition without a title or Christian name, — as 
 Va7i in Dutch, Von in German, De or D' in French, or 
 Ba, Bella, or Bi in Italian, — when given in Englisli, 
 
 1 There are a few exceptions to this, iu the case of words which 
 have become common ; as, china, champagne, vandal, jyocrustean, 
 quixotic, etc. These may be learned from the Dictionary.
 
 CAPITALS. 45 
 
 should be written with a capital for the preposition ; 
 as, Van Tromp, Von Humboldt, Von Moltke, De Thou, 
 D'Alembert, Da Ponte, Delia Crusca, Di Cesnola, etc.^ 
 
 8. Words applied to certain races, or natives of cer- 
 tain regions, are also capitalized ; as, Creole, Hoosier, 
 Yankee, Caucasian, etc. ; but not gypsy, negro, quad- 
 roon, etc. Words distinguishing certain regions should 
 also be capitalized ; as, Transatlantic, Ultramontane, 
 Cisalpine, etc. Also, the North, the South, the East, 
 the West, and their corresponding adjectives, where 
 applied to divisions of a country. 
 
 The North of Europe, Southern France, Eastern Asia. 
 Orient, Occident, Oriental, Occidental, etc. 
 
 9. a. Titles of honor, respect, or affection, and offi- 
 cial titles, should begin with a capital, whenever they 
 are applied to a particular person, or precede a name, 
 or occur in a formal address. 
 
 Her Majesty, his Honor, your Royal Highness, your Grace, 
 your Lordship, etc.'^ 
 
 The President of the United States, the Governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, the Mayor of Boston, the Duke of Burgundy, the Earl 
 of Oxford, the Prince of Wales. 
 
 President Eliot, General Hancock, Lieutenant Maury. 
 
 Father Clement, Brother Jonathan, Friend William, Aunt 
 Mary, Cousin John. 
 
 1 The practice of writing the preposition in such names as these 
 with a small letter prevails to some extent. This is not only an in- 
 novation on established English custom, but an absurdity. If any 
 change is made, the name should be written as a single word, as Van- 
 tromp, Dethou. The old Norman names of this sort retained in 
 England are always written with a capital, when not run together; 
 as, De la Beche, De la Rue, De Clifford, De Courcy; Debrett, Dela- 
 mere. So of the Huguenot and Dutch names in America; as De 
 Lancey, De Peyster, Van Buren, Van Rensselaer, Van Schaick, etc. 
 Great numbers of these have also become consolidated. 
 
 * Tlie j)ronoun in these cases should not be capitalized, unless in 
 a formal afldress.
 
 46 CAPITALS. 
 
 h. Titles like sir, madam, my lord, your ladyship, 
 your honor, should not usually be capitalized. Where 
 titles like king, duhe, etc. occur frequently, small letters 
 may be used ; but peculiar titles belonging only to one 
 individual should be capitalized. 
 
 The Czar of Russia, the Pope, the Dauphin, the Sultan of 
 Turkey, the Khedive of Egypt, the Bey of Tunis. 
 
 c. Where a person has been mentioned by name and 
 
 title, and is afterwards mentioned only by his title, it 
 
 should be capitalized. 
 
 General Grant has reti;rned, after his long tour abroad. The 
 General appears to be iu excellent health. 
 
 d. Compounded titles, like Attorney-General, Vice- 
 President, Hear- Admiral, Major-General, should have 
 both words capitalized. 
 
 ' 10. The names of all religious sects, and of all politi- 
 cal parties, whether derived from proper names or not, 
 and adjectives or verbs derived from them, should also 
 begin with capitals. 
 
 Catholic, Protestant, Papist, Episcopalian, Unitarian, Trini- 
 tarian, Universalist, Baptist, Mahometan, Jew, Brahman, etc. 
 
 Papal and Episcopal (where referring directly to the Episcopal 
 Church, or the Church of Kome), Judaize, Christianize. 
 
 Whig, Tory, Federalist, Democrat, Kepublican, Free-Soiler. 
 — In France, the Left, the Right. — In England, the Ministry, 
 the Opposition, Conservative, Liberal. 
 
 11. State, Commonwealth, etc., where referring to 
 
 one of the United States, should be capitalized ; but 
 
 not when referring generally to a foreign state. Also 
 
 Province, Colony, etc. 
 
 The States of the Union, Commonwealth of Kentucky, Ply- 
 mouth Colony, the State of New York, the states of Europe. 
 
 1 2. Words used to indicate the Bible directly should 
 be capitalized ; as, the Scriptures, Scripture, the Gospel, 
 etc. Also, the Gospels, the Epistles, the Church, etc.
 
 CAPITALS. 47 
 
 13. lu printing titles of books, pictures, or newspa- 
 pers, subheadings, contents of chapters, tables of con- 
 tents, etc., the first word and every noun should be 
 capitalized, and also other important words. ^ 
 
 14. Names of things personified, and of special impor- 
 tant things, events, or bodies of men, may be capitalized. 
 
 Upon this, Fancy began again to bestir herself. 
 
 Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come ! 
 
 The Reformation, the Renaissance, the Middle Ages, the Dec- 
 laration of Independence, the Constitution, the Bill of Rights, 
 Magna Charta, the Fathers (of the Church), the Apostles, etc. 
 
 15. In Botany and Zoology the names of Classes, 
 Families, and Genera are always capitalized ; the names 
 of species are written with a small initial, unless formed 
 from a proper name, when they are capitalized. Where 
 specific names occur, they are usually preceded by the 
 generic name, and followed by the authority for the 
 name, when both names should be in Italic, and a 
 comma placed before the authority.^ 
 
 Botany. Magnolia grandifiora, Linn. (Magnolia.) 
 Viola Canadensis, Linn. (Violet.) 
 Abies alba, Michx. (White Spruce.) 
 
 ZoOlogy. Turdus migratorius, lAnn. (Robin.) 
 Salmo fontinalis, Mitch. (Trout,) 
 Pa-pilio asterias, Drury. (Butterfly,) 
 Homarus Americanus, De Kay. (Lobster.) 
 
 16. In works treating of special subjects, important 
 words may be capitalized for the sake of emphasis or 
 other purpose. But this is a matter of taste and judg- 
 
 1 A style has sprung \ip lately of printing catalogues without 
 capitals, — sometimes even words which would be printed with a 
 capital if occurring in any other place. No advantage wliatever is 
 gained by this, and the common practice is altogether the best. 
 
 2 Some writers in Zoology never capitalize the specific name 
 where it is derived from a proper name ; others capitalize it when 
 derived from a person, but not when it is a geographical name.
 
 48 ITALICS. 
 
 ment. Capitals should be employed sparingly, how- 
 ever, or the whole object of their use will be defeated. 
 
 17. In official publications by a city, town, club, or 
 other association, the word City, Club, etc., indicating 
 the body publishing the work, should be capitalized. 
 
 18. Three lines drawn under a letter or word, in 
 manuscript, show that it is to be printed in CAPI- 
 TALS ; two, in small capitals ; one, in Italics. 
 
 II. Italics. 
 
 1. All words from foreign languages written with 
 our alphabet should be italicized whenever they occur 
 in an English sentence. But the common Latin abbre- 
 viations e. g., i. e., etc., viz., are usually printed in 
 Roman. When quotations are made from a foreign 
 language, it is better to use quotation marks, and print 
 in Eoman. 
 
 2. The titles of books, pictures, etc. are sometimes 
 printed in Italics, but quotation marks are better. 
 Titles of books in foreign languages, however, may 
 very properly be put in Italics, if not quoted. 
 
 3. In Botany and Zoology, as stated above (page 47), 
 specific names should always be printed in Italics in a 
 Eoman sentence. 
 
 4. Words when spoken of by name should be in 
 Italics ; as, the adjective good ; the pronoun his ; the 
 verb to he. 
 
 5. In algebraic and mathematical works, letters used 
 as signs are better printed in Italics, whether capital or 
 small. In references to plates or figures, the letters 
 should be printed in the text to correspond with the 
 plate or figure referred to, although Italics should be 
 used where script letters occur in the plate.
 
 CITATIONS. 49 
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 CITATIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 I. Citations. 
 
 1. The manner of citing authorities in general works, 
 and of crediting quotations from Scripture or making 
 references to it, as well as the style of citing law books 
 and reports, varies very greatly. The most common 
 usage is here given. 
 
 2. In making references to general works, the first 
 division, whether volume, chapter, book, act, or part, 
 should be in Roman numerals, in capitals; the others, 
 in Arabic numerals, unless some exceptional division is 
 to be noted. 
 
 Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, Vol. I. p. 360. 
 Channing's Works, Vol. III. pp. 210-214. 
 Hamlet, Act IV. Sc. 2. 
 Paradise Lost, Book I. line 10. 
 Xenophon's Anabasis, VI. 8. 21. 
 
 Bulletin of the Zoological Museum, Vol. VIII. No. 10, pp. 
 220, 221, Plate III. fig. 4. 
 
 Wilson's Punctuation, Chap. I. Sect. 4, Rule II. p. 147. 
 
 3. But where many citations occur, they may be put 
 
 in small letters ; and if necessary to abbreviate still 
 
 further, the volume and page may be omitted entirely. 
 
 vol. iii. p. 360 ; vol. iv. pp. 105, 106 ; vol. vi. pp. 25-30. 
 iii. 360 ; iv. 105, 106 ; vi. 25-30. 
 
 4. In Scripture references put the chapter in Roman 
 numerals, in smaU letters, and the verse in figures. 
 
 Gen. xiv. 10 ; Psalm cix, 4 ; Acts viii. 13 ; 1 Chron. xxi, 28.
 
 50 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 5. Authorities in law reports are priuted very vari- 
 ously as respects abbreviation, as the following exam- 
 ples show. But tliere should always be a comma be- 
 tween the author's name and the title of the book, unless 
 the name is put in the possessive case, or a connecting 
 particle is used. 
 
 10 Mass. Rep. 420 ; 10 Mass. R. 420 ; or 10 Mass. 420. 
 1 Story on Const. § 40 ; 1 Story, Const. § 40 ; or 1 Story's 
 Const. § 40. 
 
 1 Howard's Rep. 46 ; 1 Howard, 46 ; or 1 How. 46. 
 
 6. Where the last word of a title is abbreviated, a 
 comma should be used before the volume, chapter, or 
 page cited, except in Scripture references and in law 
 books, where it is generally omitted. 
 
 II. Abbreviations. 
 
 1. Abbreviation can be carried to almost any extent, 
 and it is impossible to give any special rules for it. 
 Every technical work should always give a complete list 
 of the abbreviations it uses, unless generally recognized. 
 
 2. In narrative matter very few abbreviations are tol- 
 erated in English. The only ones universally allowed 
 are common titles like Mr., Messrs., Mrs., Dr., Hon., 
 Et. Hon., Eev., and Et. Eev., and honorary degrees and 
 titles after a name, or initial letters indicating member- 
 ship of a society ; as, LL. D., D. D., Esq., Kt., K. C. B., 
 M. P., S. J., A. A. S., etc. 
 
 3. Military titles, when frequently occurring, may 
 be properly abbreviated, and also the title Professor. 
 Nothing is gained, however, by abbreviating titles like 
 Captain or Colonel, although in lists of names they 
 may be abbreviated. A title like Professor or Major- 
 General should not be written in full when only initials
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 61 
 
 of the name are given, (as Professor J. S. Smith, Major- 
 General W. T. Sherman,) but should be abbreviated; 
 otherwise the title is more prominent than the name. 
 
 4. Where sovereigns of a country are alluded to inci- 
 dentally, the name is usually written out in full ; as, 
 Henry the Eighth, Louis the Sixteenth. But in works 
 where such names occur often, they may be written with 
 Eoman numerals ; as, Henry VIII. , Louis XVI. 
 
 5. In writing numbers round sums are usually spelled 
 out, and numbers smaller than one hundred ; but where 
 statistics are given, figures should be used, however 
 small the numbers may be. Sums of money, also, are 
 better given in figures where odd numbers occur, or 
 where dollars and cents are both to be expressed, as 
 they are much more easily apprehended. 
 
 6. In abbreviating two separate words by the first 
 letter of each word, each letter should have a period 
 after it, and a space between the two ; as, e. g. for ex- 
 empli gratia ; i. e. for id est; U. S. for United States; 
 A. M. [Artium Afagister), for Master of Arts. 
 
 7. In abbreviating measures of capacity, weight, dis- 
 tance, or time, it is unnecessary to add an s for the 
 plural ; as, gal. for gallon or gallons ; lb. for pound or 
 pounds ; m. for mile or miles ; yr. for year or years. 
 
 8. iN'amcs like Sam, Ben, Bob, etc. must not be taken 
 for abbreviations, as they are merely nicknames. 
 
 9. The following list contains only such abbreviations 
 as are in general use, or such as occur in standard Eng- 
 lish literature and may not be generally known, or such 
 as are sometimes incorrectly abbreviated. Where the 
 abbreviation usually occurs with a small letter only, it 
 is so given in the list. 
 
 10. For the proper manner of writing dates, see page 
 19, and note.
 
 52 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS USED IN PRINTING. 
 
 A. A. S., Fellow of the American 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
 
 A. A. S. S., Member of tlie Amer- 
 ican Antiquarian Society. 
 
 A. B. or B. A., Baclielor of Arts. 
 
 A. B. C. F. M., American Board 
 of Commissioners for Foreign 
 Missions. 
 
 Abp., Archbishop. 
 
 A. C, before (ante) Christ. 
 
 Acct., Account. 
 
 A. D., in the year of our Lord. 
 
 ad lib. {ad libitum), at pleasure. 
 
 Adjt., Adjutant. 
 
 Adjt.-Gen., Adjutant-General. 
 
 ^t. or set., of age, aged. 
 
 A. H., in the year of the Hegira. 
 
 Ala., Alabama. 
 
 Alex., Alexander. 
 
 A. M., in the year of the world. 
 
 A. M., Master of Arts. 
 
 A. M. or a. m. {ante meridiem), 
 before noon, morning. 
 
 And., Andrew. 
 
 Anon., Anonymous. 
 
 Ans., Answer. 
 
 Anth., Anthony. 
 
 Apoc, Apocalypse. 
 
 Arch., Archibald. 
 
 Ark., Arkansas. 
 
 Art., Article. 
 
 Ar. Ter., Arizona Territory. 
 
 Atty.-Gen., Attorney-General. 
 
 A. U. A., American Unitarian 
 Association. 
 
 A. U. C. {anno urbis conditai), in 
 the year of the building of the 
 city (Rome). 
 
 Aug., August; Augustus. 
 
 B. A. or A. B., Bachelor of Arts. 
 B. A., British America. 
 
 Bar., Baruch. 
 Bart., Baronet. 
 
 bbl., barrel, barrels. 
 B. C, Before Christ. 
 B. C. L., Bachelor of Civil Law. 
 B. D., Bachelor of Divinity. 
 Bds. or bds.. Boards (bound in). 
 Benj., Benjamin. 
 B. M., Bachelor of Medicine. 
 Bp., Bishop. 
 
 Br. Col., British Columbia. 
 Brig. -Gen., Brigadier-General. 
 Bro., Brother. Bros., Brothers. 
 B. S., Bachelor of Surgery. 
 B. S., Bachelor of Science. 
 B. U., Brown University, 
 bu., bushel, bushels. 
 B. V. {Beata Virgo), Blessed 
 Virgin. 
 
 B. V. (bene vale), Farewell. 
 Cal., California. 
 
 Can., Canada. 
 
 Cant., Canticles, or Song of Solo- 
 mon. 
 Cap. {caput), Chapter. 
 Caps., Capitals. 
 Capt., Captain. 
 Capt.-Gen., Captain-General. 
 Cath., Catherine. 
 
 C. B., Cape Breton. 
 
 C. B., Companion of the Bath. 
 
 C. E., Canada East (Quebec). 
 
 C. E., Civil Engineer. 
 
 C. or Cent., Centigrade (ther- 
 mometer). 
 
 Cf. {confer), Compare. 
 
 C. H., Court-House. 
 
 Ch. or Chap., Chapter, Chapters. 
 
 Chas., Charles. 
 
 Chron., Chronicles. 
 
 C. J., Chief Justice. 
 
 C. M. G., Companion of the Order 
 of St. Michael and St. George. 
 
 Co., Company ; County. 
 
 C. 0. D., Collect on delivery.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 53 
 
 Col., Colonel; Colossians. 
 Col., Colorado. 
 Coll., College. 
 
 Com., Commander, Commodore. 
 Comp., Compare. 
 Conn., Connecticut. 
 Cor., Corinthians. 
 C. P., Common Pleas. 
 Crim. Con., criminal conversa- 
 tion, adultery, 
 ct., cent, cents. 
 cub. ft., cubic feet, 
 cub. in., cubic inches. 
 
 C. W., Canada West (Ontario), 
 cwt., hundred-weight. 
 
 d., days; pence. 
 
 Dan., Daniel. 
 
 Dart., Dartmouth College. 
 
 D. C. {da capo), Repeat. 
 D. C, District of Columbia. 
 D. C. L., Doctor of Civil Law. 
 D. D., Doctor of Divinity. 
 Dea., Deacon. 
 
 Dec, December. 
 
 dec, declination. 
 
 deg., degree, degrees. 
 
 Del., Delaware. 
 
 Del. (Delineavil), He drew it. 
 
 Dele, S, Erase. Used in correct- 
 ing proofs. 
 
 D. F., Defender of the Faith. 
 
 D. G. {Dei gratia), by the grace 
 of God. 
 
 D. G. {Deo gratias), thanks to 
 God. 
 
 Dist.-Atty. , District- Attorney. 
 
 D. M., Doctor of Music. 
 
 do. (ditto), the same. 
 
 Dr., Debtor; Doctor. 
 
 D. Sc, Doctor of Science. 
 
 D. T. (Doctor Theologia), Doctor 
 of Divinity. 
 
 D. Ter., Dakota Territory. 
 
 D. V. (Deo volente), God willing. 
 
 dwt., pennyweights. 
 
 E., East; London Postal District.! 
 
 Eben., Ebenezer. 
 
 E. C, East Central (London 
 
 Postal District).! 
 EccL, Ecclesiastes. 
 Ecclus., Ecclesiasticus. 
 Ed., Editor. Eds., Editors, 
 ed. or edit., edition. 
 Edm., Edmund. 
 Edw., Edward. 
 E. E., Errors excepted, 
 e. g. (exemjjti gratia), for example. 
 E. I., East Indies. 
 E. I. C, East India Company. 
 E. I. C. S., East India Company's 
 
 service. 
 Eliz., Elizabeth. 
 E. N. E., East-northeast. 
 Eph., Ephesians ; Ephraim. 
 Esd., Esdras. 
 
 E. S. E., JJast-southeast. 
 
 Esq., Esquire. Esqs., Esquires. 
 Esth., Esther. 
 
 et al. (et alibi), and elsewhere. 
 et al. (et alii), and others, 
 et seq. (et sequentia), and fol- 
 lowing, 
 etc. or &c.(et ccetera), and so forth. 
 Ex., Example. 
 Exc, Exception. 
 Exod. or Ex., Exodus. 
 Ez., Ezra. 
 Ezek., Ezekiel. 
 F., Fahr., Fahrenheit (thermom.). 
 
 F. A. S., Fellow of the Antiqua- 
 rian Society. 
 
 fatli., fatliom, fathoms. 
 F. B. S., Fellow of the Botanical 
 Society. 
 
 1 Loudon is divided into ten postal 
 districts; two central, called East 
 Central aud West Central, iu the 
 heart of the city, and the other eight 
 radiating from the centre, and named 
 from the points of the compass, N., 
 N. E., E., etc.
 
 54 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 Feb., February. 
 
 F. E. S., Fellow of the Entomo- 
 logical Societj'. 
 F. G. S., Fellow of the Geological 
 
 Society. 
 F. H. S., Fellow of the Horticul- 
 tural Society. 
 Fig., Figure, Figures. 
 Fla., Florida. 
 F. L. S., Fellow of the Linnaean 
 
 Society. 
 F. M., Field-Marshal, 
 fol., folio, folios. 
 Fran., Francis. 
 F. R. A. S., Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Astronomical Society'. 
 F. R. C. P., Fellow of the Royal 
 
 College of Physicians. 
 F. R. C. S., Feflow of the Royal 
 
 College of Surgery. 
 Fred., Frederic. 
 F. R. G. S., Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Geographical Society. 
 F. R. S., Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Society. 
 F. R. S.A., Fellow of the Ro3'al 
 
 Society of Arts. 
 F. R. S.'e., Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Society, Edinburgh. 
 F. R. S.'l., Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Society-, London. 
 F. S. A., Fellow of the Society of 
 
 Antiquaries. 
 F. S. A. E., Fellow of the Society 
 
 of Antiquaries, Edinburgh. 
 ft., foot, feet. 
 Ft., Fort, 
 fur., furlong, furlongs. 
 
 F. Z. S., Fellow of the Zoological 
 Society. 
 
 Ga., Georgia. 
 Gal., Galatians. 
 gal., gallon, gallons. 
 
 G. C. B., Knight of the Grand 
 Cross of the Bath. 
 
 G. C. H., Knight of the Grand 
 
 Cross of Hanover. 
 G. C. M. G., Knight of the Grand 
 
 Cross, Order of St. Michael and 
 
 St. George. 
 Gen., General ; Genesis. 
 Gent., Gentleman. 
 Geo., George. 
 Gov., Governor. 
 Gov.-Gen., Governor- General. 
 gr., grain, grains; gram, 
 h., hour, hours. 
 Hab., Habakkuk. 
 Hag., Haggai. 
 
 H. B. C, Hudson's Bay Company. 
 H. B. M., His or Her Britannic 
 
 Majesty. 
 Heb., Hebrews. 
 H. E. I. C, Honorable East India 
 
 Company. 
 H. E. I. C. S., Honorable East 
 
 India Company's service, 
 hhd., hogshead, hogsheads. 
 H. M., His or Her Majesty. 
 Hon., Honorable. 
 IIos., Hosea. 
 
 H. R. H., His Royal Highness. 
 H. U., Harvard University, 
 ib. or ibid, (ibidem), in the same 
 
 place, 
 id. (idem), the same. 
 Id. Ter., Idaho Territory, 
 i. e. (id est), that is. 
 I. H. S. (Jesus hominum Salva- 
 
 tor), Jesus, the Saviour of men. 
 111., Illinois. 
 
 incog. (inco(/nito), unknown. 
 Ind., Indiana. 
 Ind. Ter., Indian Territory. 
 in loc. (in loco), in the place. 
 Insp.-Gen., Inspector-General, 
 inst., instant, the present month, 
 lo., Iowa. 
 I. 0. 0. F., Independent Order ol 
 
 Odd Fellows.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 55 
 
 Isa., Isaiah. 
 
 Jac, Jacob. 
 
 Jam., Jamaica. 
 
 Jan., January. 
 
 Jas., James. 
 
 J. C. D. [Juris Ctvilts Doctor), 
 
 Doctor of Civil Law. 
 Jer., Jeremiali. 
 J. H. S. (Jesus hominum Salva- 
 
 tor), Jesus, the Saviour of men. 
 Jona., Jonathan. 
 Jos., Joseph. 
 Josh., Joshua. 
 J. P., Justice of the Peace. 
 J. Prob., Judge of Probate. 
 Jr. or Jun., Junior. 
 J. U. D. {Juris utriusque Doctor), 
 
 Doctor of both Laws (of the 
 
 Canon and the Civil Law). 
 Jud., Judith. 
 Judg., Judges. 
 Kan., Kansas. 
 K. B., King's Bench. 
 K. B., Knight of the Bath. 
 K. C. B., Knight Commander of 
 
 the Bath. 
 K. C H., Knight Commander of 
 
 Hanover. 
 K. C. M. G., Knight Commander 
 
 of Order of St. Michael and St. 
 
 George. 
 K. G., Knight of the Garter. 
 K. G. C, Knight of the Grand 
 
 Cross. 
 K. G. C. B., Knight of the Grand 
 
 Cross of the Bath. 
 K. J., Knight of St. Joachim. 
 K. L. H., Knight of the Legion of 
 
 Honor. 
 K. M., Knight of Malta. 
 K. P., Knight of St. Patrick. 
 K. S. M. & S. G., Knight of St. 
 
 Michael and St. George. 
 K. T.. Knight of the Thistle. 
 Kt., Knight. 
 
 Ky., Kentucky. 
 
 L., £, or I., pounds sterling. 
 
 La., Louisiana. 
 
 Lam., Lamentations. 
 
 Lat., latitude. 
 
 lb. or lb (libra or librcB), pound 
 
 or pounds in weight. 
 L. C, Lord Chancellor. 
 L. C, Lower Canada (Quebec). 
 Lev., Leviticus. 
 L. I., Long Island. 
 Lib. (Liber), Book. 
 Lieut., Lieutenant. 
 Lieut. -Col., Lieutenant-Colonel. 
 Lieut.-Gen., Lieutenant-General. 
 Lieut.-Gov., Lieutenant-Governor, 
 lit., literally. 
 
 LL. B., Bachelor of Laws. 
 LL. D., Doctor of Laws. 
 Lon. or Long., longitude. 
 L. S. (locus siyilli), place of the 
 
 seal. 
 L. or £. s. d., pounds, shillings, 
 
 pence. 
 LXX., the Septuagint (version of 
 
 the Old Testament). 
 M. or Mons., Monsieur. 
 m., miles; minutes. 
 j\L (meridies), noon. 
 M. A., Master of Arts. 
 Mace, or Mac, Maccabees. 
 Mad., Madam. 
 Mag., Magazine. 
 Maj.-Gen., Major-General. 
 Mai., Malachi. 
 Man., Manasses (book of). 
 Man., Manitoba (B. A.). 
 Mass., Massachusetts. 
 Matt, or Mat., Matthew. 
 M. B , Bachelor of Medicine. 
 M. C, Member of Congress. 
 M. C. Z., Museum of Comparative 
 
 Zoology (Cambridge). 
 M. D. (MediciiKB Doctor), Doctor 
 
 of Medicine.
 
 56 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 Md., Maryland. 
 
 iVie., Maine. 
 
 Mem., Memorandum, Memo- 
 randa. 
 
 Messrs., Messieurs, Gentlemen. 
 
 Mic, Micah. 
 
 Mgr., Monseigneur. 
 
 Mich., Michigan. 
 
 Minn., Minnesota. 
 
 Miss., Mississippi. 
 
 Mile., Mademoiselle. 
 
 MM., Messieurs, Gentlemen. 
 
 Mme., Madame. 
 
 M. M. S. S., Fellow of the Mas- 
 sachusetts Medical Society. 
 
 Mo., Missouri. 
 
 mo., month, months. 
 
 Mons., Monsieur. 
 
 M. P., Member of Parliament. 
 
 Mr., Mister. 
 
 M. R., Master of the Rolls. 
 
 M. R. A. S., Member of the Royal 
 Asiatic Society. 
 
 M. R. C. S., Member of the Royal 
 College of Surgeons. 
 
 M. R. I., Member of the Royal 
 Institution. 
 
 M. R. I. A., Member of the Royal 
 Irish Academj'. 
 
 Mrs., Mistress. 
 
 MS., Manuscript. 
 
 MSS., Manuscripts. 
 
 Mt., Mount or mountain. 
 
 Mts., mountains. 
 
 M. Ter., Montana Territory. 
 
 Mus. B., Bachelor of Music. 
 
 Mus. D., Doctor of Music. 
 
 N., North ; London Postal Dist. 
 
 N. A., North America. 
 
 N. A., National Academy of De- 
 sign (America). 
 
 Nah., Nahum. 
 
 Nath., Nathaniel. 
 
 N. B., New Brunswick. 
 
 N. B., North Britain (Scotland). 
 
 N. B. {Nota bene), Mark well. 
 
 N. C, North Carolina. 
 
 N. E., New England. 
 
 N. E., Northeast (London P. D.). 
 
 Neb., Nebraska. 
 
 Neh., Nehemiah. 
 
 nem. con. or nem. diss, {nemine 
 contradicente or nemine dissen- 
 tiente), no one opposing. 
 
 Nev., Nevada. 
 
 N. F., Newfoundland. 
 
 N. H., New Hampshire. 
 
 N. J., New Jersey. 
 
 N. lat.. North latitude. 
 
 N. M., New Mexico. 
 
 N. N. E., North-northeast. 
 
 N. N. W., North-northwest. 
 
 N. O., New Orleans. 
 
 No., Number. Nos., Numbers. 
 
 Not. pros, (nolle prosequi) indi- 
 cates in law that a complaint 
 will not be prosecuted. 
 
 Nov., November. 
 
 N. S., New Style. 
 
 N. S., Nova Scotia. 
 
 N. T., New Testament. 
 
 Num., Numbers. 
 
 N.W., Northwest; London P. D. 
 
 N. Y., New York. 
 
 O., Ohio. 
 
 Obad., Obadiah. 
 
 Obs., Observation. 
 
 Oct., October. 
 
 Out., Ontario (Upper Canada). 
 
 Or., Oregon. 
 
 O. S., Old Style. 
 
 O. T., Old Testament. 
 
 Oxon. (Oxonia, Oxonii), Oxford. 
 
 oz., ounce, ounces. 
 
 P. or p., page. 
 
 P. C, Privy Councillor. 
 
 P. D., Postal District (London). 
 
 P. E. I., Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Penn., Pennsylvania. 
 
 per ct., by the hundred.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 57 
 
 Pet., Peter. 
 
 P. D. or Ph. D. (Philosophias Doc- 
 tor), Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 Phil., Philip; Philippians. 
 
 Philem., Philemon. 
 
 Pinx. (Pinxit), He painted it. 
 
 pk., peck, pecks. 
 
 PI., Plate, Plates. 
 
 P. M., Postmaster. 
 
 P. M. or p. ra. (post mendiem), 
 afternoon, evening. 
 
 P. M. G., Postmaster-General. 
 
 P. O., Post-Office. 
 
 Pop., Population. 
 
 Pp. or pp.. Pages. 
 
 P. P. C. (Pour prendre conge), to 
 take leave. 
 
 Pref., Preface. 
 
 Pres., President. 
 
 Prof., Professor. 
 
 Pro tern, (pro tempore), for the 
 time being. 
 
 Prov., Proverbs. 
 
 prox. (proximo), the next month. 
 
 P. S. ( post scriptum). Postscript. 
 
 Ps., Psalm, Psalms. 
 
 pt., pint, pints. 
 
 pwt., pennyweight, pennyweights. 
 
 Q., Question. 
 
 Q. E. D. ( Quod erat demonstran- 
 dum), which was to be proved. 
 
 q. s. (quantum sufficit), a suffi- 
 cient quantity. 
 
 qt., quart, quarts. 
 
 q. V. {quod vide), which see. 
 
 Qu. or Qy., Query. 
 
 Que., Quebec (Lower Canada). 
 
 R., 5 (Recipe), take. 
 
 R. A., Royal Academician. 
 
 R. A., Russian America. 
 
 rd., rods; roods. 
 
 R. E., Royal Engineers. 
 
 R., Reaum., Reaumur (thermom.). 
 
 Regt., Regiment. 
 
 Rem., Remark, Remarks. 
 
 Rep., Reports. 
 
 Rev., Reverend; Revelation. 
 
 R. I., Rhode Island. 
 
 R. M., Royal Marines. 
 
 R. N., Royal Navy. 
 
 Rom., Romans. 
 
 R. R., Railroad. 
 
 R. S. A., Royal Scottish Acade- 
 mician. 
 
 R. S. S. (Regice Sodetatis Socius), 
 Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 Rt. Hon., Right Honorable. 
 
 Rt. Rev., Right Reverend. 
 
 S., South; London P. D. ; Saint. 
 
 s., seconds; shillings. 
 
 S. A., South America. 
 
 Sam., Samuel. 
 
 S. B., Bachelor in Science. 
 
 S. C. (in law), same case. 
 
 S. C, South Carolina. 
 
 sc. or scil. (scilicet), namely. 
 
 S. caps., Small capitals. 
 
 Sculp. (Scidpsit), He engraved. 
 
 S. E., Southeast; London P. D. 
 
 Schol. (Scholium), a note. 
 
 sec, second, seconds. 
 
 Sec. Leg., Secretary of Legation. 
 
 Sect., Section, Sections. 
 
 Sept., September; Septuagint. 
 
 seq. or sq. (sequente), and in 
 what follows. 
 
 seqq. or sqq. (sequentibus), and 
 in the following (places). 
 
 Ser., Series. 
 
 Serg., Sergeant. 
 
 Serg.-Maj., Sergeant-Ma jor. 
 
 S. H. S., Fellow of the Historical 
 Society. 
 
 S. J., Societ\' of Jesus. 
 
 S. J. C, Supreme Judicial Court- 
 
 S. lat.. South latitude. 
 
 S. of Sol., Song of Solomon. 
 
 Sol., Solomon. 
 
 Sol. -Gen., Solicitor-General. 
 
 sp. gr., specific gravity.
 
 58 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 S. P. Q. R- (Se?(«<MS Popnhisque 
 Romnnus), the Senate and Ro- 
 man people. 
 
 sq. ft., square foot or feet. 
 
 sq. in., square inch or inches. 
 
 sq. m., square mile or miles. 
 
 S. R. I- (Sucnim Romamim Impe- 
 rium), the holy Roman empire. 
 
 S. R. S. (Societalis Reyim Socius), 
 Fellow of the Roj'al Society. 
 
 SS. (scilicet, to wit), used in legal 
 processes after County or judi- 
 cial district to show jurisdiction. 
 
 S. S. E., South-southeast. 
 
 S. S. W., South-southwest. 
 
 St., Saint; Street; Strait. 
 
 St., Stat., statute, statutes. 
 
 S. T. D. (Scmctce Theologice Doc- 
 tor), Doctor of Divinity. 
 
 ster., sterling. 
 
 Slet, Let it stand, used in proof or 
 MS. to restore what is erased. 
 
 Supt., Superintendent. 
 
 Surg.-Gen., Surgeon-General. 
 
 Surv.-Gen., Surveyor-General. 
 
 Sus., Susannah. 
 
 S. W., Southwest; London P. D. 
 
 T., ton, tons; tun, tuns. 
 
 Tenn., Tennessee. 
 
 Ter., Territory. 
 
 Te.K., Texas. 
 
 Theo., Theodore. 
 
 Theoph., Theophilus. 
 
 Thess., Thessalonians. 
 
 Thos., Thomas. 
 
 Tim., Timothy. 
 
 Tit., Titus; (titulus) Title. 
 
 Tob., Tobit. 
 
 Tom., Tome, Tomes. 
 
 Tr., Translator; Transpose. 
 
 Tr., Trustee. Trs., Trustees. 
 
 Treas., Treasurer. 
 
 U. C, Upper Canada (Onfariol. 
 
 U. E. I. C, United East India 
 Company. 
 
 U. .J. C. (Uti-iitsque Juris Doctor), 
 Doctor of both Laws. 
 
 ult. {ultimo), the last month. 
 
 U. K., United Kingdom. 
 
 Univ., University. 
 
 U. S. or U. S. A., United States 
 of America. 
 
 U. S. A., United States .A.rm3'. 
 
 U. S. M., United States Mail. 
 
 U. S. N., United States Navy. 
 
 ut sup. {zit supra), as above. 
 
 U. Ter., Utah Territory. 
 
 v., vs. (versus), against. 
 
 Va., Virginia. 
 
 V. C, Vice-chancellor. 
 
 V. D. M., Preacher of the Word. 
 
 Ver., Verse, Verses. 
 
 Vice-Pres. or V.-Pres., Vice-Pres- 
 ident. 
 
 vid. (vide), see. 
 
 viz. (videlicet), to wit, namely. 
 
 Vol., Volume. Vols., Volumes. 
 
 Vt., Vermont. 
 
 W., West; London Postal Dist. 
 
 Wash., Washington. 
 
 W. C, West Central (Londoa 
 Postal District). 
 
 W. I., West Indies. 
 
 Wis., Wisconsin. 
 
 Wisd., Wisdom of Solomon. 
 
 wk., week, weeks. 
 
 W. Ion., West longitude. 
 
 Wm., William. 
 
 W. N. W., West-northwest. 
 
 W. S., Writer to the Signet. 
 
 W. S. W., West-southwest. 
 
 W. Ter., Washington Territory. 
 
 Wy. Ter., Wyoming Territory. 
 
 W. Va., West Virginia. 
 
 Xmas., Christmas. 
 
 Y. C, Yale College. 
 
 3'd., yard, yards. 
 
 y. or yr., j'ear, years. 
 
 Zech., Zechariab. 
 
 Zeph., Zephaniah.
 
 THE HYPHEN. 59 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE HYPHEN.— COMPOUND WORDS.— 
 SYLLABICATION. 
 
 I. The Hyphen. 
 
 1. The hyphen is used between compound words 
 which have not by usage become single words, and 
 where words are necessarily divided at the end of a 
 line. In dictionaries and spelling-books the hyphen 
 is used between the syllables of words to aid in show- 
 ing the proper pronunciation. 
 
 2. The hyphen is frequently used where a prefix 
 ending with a vowel is united with a word beginning 
 with the same vowel, to show that the two vowels are 
 to be pronounced separately, or where a prefix before a 
 consonant makes a word of similar form with another 
 of a different signification ; as, co-operate, co-ordinate, 
 pre-exist, re-examine,^ re-creation, re-collect, re-formation. 
 
 II. Compound Words. 
 
 1. Words should not be compounded where separate 
 words will convey the signification just as well ; and 
 separate simple words should always be united in one 
 
 1 The cliseresis mark is sometimes used over the second letter in 
 these cases, and the hyphen omitted. But the hyphen is preferable. 
 The diaeresis, however, is used where, in words not compound, the 
 vowel is doubled, and pronounced as two syllables; as, Laocodn, 
 epizootic, zoology, zoophyte.
 
 60 COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 when tlley are in common use, and when the words 
 themselves are accented as single simple words. 
 
 2. In conformity with this principle, the number of 
 words originally compounded, or written as two words, 
 which are now commonly written as one, is large and 
 constantly increasing ; as, 
 
 railroad, steamboat, slaveholder, byword, anything, anybody, 
 everything, everybody,- roughhew, heartache, raindrop, teardrop, 
 nowadays, forever, forevermore, 
 
 3. On the other hand, many words which are now 
 frequently seen compounded, or written as two words, 
 may be found written as one in Spenser, Shakespeare, 
 Milton, and other old authors ; as, 
 
 wellnigh, erelong, bygone, alehouse, schoolboy, spellbound, 
 awestruck, downtrodden, selfsame. 
 
 4. Where a noun is used as an adjective, a useless 
 compound word should not be made ; as, 
 
 mountain top, Sunday school, supper table, slave trade, coffee 
 trade, minute hand, multiplication table, journeyman printer, 
 peasant woman, cabbage leaf, sister city, brother minister. 
 
 5. The following adjectives and nouns, as well as 
 
 many others, are sometimes uselessly compounded : — 
 
 common law, law merchant, common sense, ill health, good 
 will, free will, grand jury, North American (Review), New York 
 (Directory), South Boston (Bridge), Washington Street (omnibus). 
 
 1 Some authorities write anybody and everybody as single words, 
 but make two of anything and everything. There seems to be no 
 reason for this, and the following sentences show its awkwardness. 
 
 " He was eminent for a supreme, well-bred contempt for every- 
 body and everything.'' — Bulwer, Kenelm Chillingly, Chap. 11. 
 
 " I remember that I am not here as a censor either of manners or 
 morals, and therefore cannot undertake to scourge anything or any- 
 body."— i2. O. White, Every-Day English, p. 109. 
 
 Many people even go so far now as to write any one and every one 
 as single words. But these are just as distinctly pronounced and 
 accented as two words as any man and every man.
 
 COMPOUND WORDS. 61 
 
 Also phrases like the following : — 
 
 good by, good morning, ever to be remembered (event), well 
 laid out (grounds), long looked for (return), inside out, uncalled 
 for (remarks), by and by, attorney at law, tlie pulling down, the 
 carrying away, the blotting out, etc. 
 
 " Proud setter icp and liuller down of kings." — 3 Hen. VI. 
 
 Using hyphens between these words adds nothing to 
 the clearness of the expression. 
 
 6. The following directions are given for certain 
 classes of words, which will assist the printer or teacher 
 in carrying out the above general principles. 
 
 a. Titles like the following are compounded : ex-president, 
 ex-governor, rear-admiral, vice-president, vice-chancellor ; but 
 viceroy, vicegerent, are written as single words. Titles like the 
 following are sometimes compounded, but it is better to write 
 them as separate woi'ds: chief justice, attorney general, major 
 general, lieutenant colonel, second lieutenant, etc. 
 
 b. The following words expressing kindred are compounded : 
 step-father, step-mother, etc., great-grandfather, great-grandson, 
 etc., great-aunt or grand-aunt, grand-nephew, etc. The follow- 
 ing are sometimes needlessly compounded : father in law, daughter 
 in law, foster brother, cousin german, second cousin, etc. 
 
 c. The following pomts of the compass should be written as 
 single words : northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest ; hut 
 north-northeast, west-southwest, etc, 
 
 d. Fractions like the following, when written out, should not 
 be compounded : one half, two thirds, five eighths, ten thou- 
 sandths. But another class of fractions are compounded as 
 follows: one twenty-fifth, forty-nine fiftieths, ninety-nine hun- 
 dredths, thirteen ten-thousandths, etc. Numbers like the follow- 
 ing are also compounded: twenty-five, forty-nine, twenty-fifth, 
 forty-second, etc. 
 
 e. Compounds of half or quarter like the following are always 
 printed with a hyphen : half-dollar, half-crown, half-bai-rel, half- 
 way, half-past, half-witted, half-yearly, half-price, quarter-barrel, 
 quarter-day, quarter-deck, quarter-face, etc. ; hut quartermaster. 
 
 /. The words fold, score, penny, and pence, united with num- 
 bers of one syllable, are written as single words ; but with num-
 
 62 COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 bers of more than one syllable they are compounded or written 
 separately : twofold, tenfold, twenty-fold, a hundred-fold, two 
 hundred-fold ; fourscore, twenty score, a hundred score ; half- 
 penny, twopenny, tenpenny, halfpence, fourpence, tenpence, 
 fifteen-penny, fifteen pence. 
 
 g. Ordinal numbers compounded with the words rate and 
 hand are usually written with a hyphen ; as, first-rate, fifth-rate ; 
 second-hand, fourth-hand, etc. 
 
 h. Numerals of one syllable are compounded with words 
 of various meaning, which explain themselves : one-eyed, one- 
 armed, two-handed, two-lieaded, three-legged, four-story, four- 
 footed, etc. Numerals are also combined with a noun to form 
 an adjective as follows: two-foot rule, ten-mile run, one-horse 
 chaise, twenty- foot pole, etc. 
 
 i. Compound nouns ending with man or ivoman are written 
 as one word ; as. Englishman, workman, oysterraan, goodman ; 
 needlewoman. Frenchwoman, marketwoman, etc. 
 
 j. Compounds ending with holder, monger, are usually written 
 as one word ; as, bondholder, stockholder, landholder, slavehold- 
 er; boroughmonger, cheesemonger, ironmonger. 
 
 k. Compounds ending with boat, book, drop, light, house, 
 rooin, side, or yard are made single words if the first part of the 
 compound is of only one syllable, but are joined by a hyphen 
 if it is of more than one; as, longboat, sailboat, canal-boat; 
 handbook, daybook, commonplace-book ; dewdrop, raindrop, 
 water-drop ; daylight, sunlight, candle-light ; alehouse, boathouse, 
 warehouse, greenhouse, meeting-house, dwelling-house;^ bed- 
 room, greenroom, {also anteroom,) dining-room, dressing-room; 
 bedside, fireside, hillside, river-side, mountain-side ; churchyard, 
 farmyard, courtyard, timber-yard, marble-yard. 
 
 I. Compounds ending with work are usually written as sin- 
 gle words, imless the combination is unusual ; as, groundwork, 
 network, framework, needlework, brickwork, ironwork, stonework ; 
 but mason-work, carpenter-work. 
 
 m. The word tree is often compounded with the name of the 
 species ; as, apple-tree ; but the words are as well separated. 
 
 n. Compounds beginning with eije are written as one word ; 
 as, eyelash, eyebrow, eyeglass, eyewitness. 
 
 1 Town-house and Court-house are usually compounded, and 
 State House written as two words.
 
 COMPOUND WORDS. 63 
 
 0. Compounds beginning with school are written as one word, 
 except when made with a participle (school-bred, school-teaching) ; 
 as, schoolboy, schoolmate, schoolfellow, schoolmaster, schoolmis- 
 tress, schooldame, schoolhouse ; but school days, school district, 
 school committee, school teacher, school children, etc. should be 
 made separate words. 
 
 p. The word fellow is used in the formation of compound 
 nouns, which explain themselves, and frequently have the 
 hyphen; as, fellow-studeut, fellow-man, etc. But they are 
 now more commonly printed as separate words. 
 
 q. Compounds of a noun in the possessive case with another 
 noun, and having a peculiar signification, are not unfrequeut ; 
 as, bird's-eye, king's-e\al, crow's-nest, bear's-foot, jew's-harp, 
 etc. But many like words have become consolidated; as, bees- 
 wax, ratsbane, townspeople, etc. 
 
 r. Compounds of a present participle with a noun or adjec- 
 tive are generally connected by the hyphen ; as, printing-office, 
 dining-table, composing-room ; good-looking, cloud-compelling, 
 etc. In a few pages of Shakespeare's " Comedy of Errors " occur 
 the following compounds of this class: "always wind-obeying 
 deep," "well-dealing countrymen," "dark-working sorceress," 
 "soul-killing witches," "fool-begged patience," "sap-consuming 
 winter." 
 
 s. Compounds of colors. Expressions like brownish yellow 
 or yellowish white are not compounded. But where a noun is 
 used with an adjective expressing color, the words should be 
 written with a hyphen ; as, lemon-yellow, iron-gray, iron-red, 
 silver-gray, emerald-green ; also, red-hot. 
 
 t. The word self is united with innumerable words of various 
 parts of speech, forming compounds which are self-explaining. 
 The hyphen is used in all words beginning with self, excepting 
 selfhood, selfsame, and selfish with its derivatives. Self is also 
 compounded with pronouns as a termination, and the compound 
 written as one word ; as, himself, myself, itself, etc. Some writ- 
 ers use oneself for one's self, but its use is not well established. 
 
 u. Compounds ending with like are written as one word, un- 
 less derived from a proper name, or unusual combinations, when 
 they are written with a hyphen ; as, childlike, lifelike, womanlike, 
 workmanlike, fislilike; Argus-like, Bedouiu-like, business-like, 
 miniature-like,
 
 64 COMPOUND WORDS. 
 
 V. Numberless compound personal epithets are in constant 
 use, which are usually written with a hyphen and explain them- 
 selves; as, light-haired, blue-eyed, sharp-nosed, broad-shoul- 
 dered, l^long-legged, etc. 
 
 w. Compound words made from the prefixes over, under, after, 
 out, cross, or coimter, with a noun or adjective of one syllable, or 
 with an adverb, or a verb, or word formed directly from a verb 
 thus made, should be written as single words ; as, overabound, 
 overabundant, overestimate, underclothes, underbrush, under- 
 taker, afterpiece, outlook, outpoiir, crossexamine, crossquestion, 
 countercharm, countermarch. Nouns and adjectives of more 
 than one syllable when thus compounded are usually written 
 with a hyphen, unless formed directly from a verb thus made ; 
 as, under-current, under-master, counter-current, counter-motion, 
 over-issue, over-jealous, over-frequent. But this does not always 
 follow, as we have undergraduate and some other words. Many 
 of these compounds given in the dictionaries would be much 
 better written as separate words; as, under lip, over anxious, 
 over cunning, over burdensome, after age, after part, cross sec- 
 tion, cross reference, counter revolution, counter influence. 
 
 X. Compounds made from prefixes like demi, semi, non, stib, 
 inter, intro, intra, extra, etc., are written as one word in most 
 cases ; but where the compound is unusual, a hyphen is used. 
 For the prefixes co, pre, and re, see page 59. 2. 
 
 y. Compounds beginning with deutero, electro, pseudo, sulpho, 
 thermo, and similar terminations, are often made, and when they 
 come into general use are written as single words, although usage 
 is unsettled ; as, electromagnetism, electromotive, pseudonym. 
 If the compound is uncommon, the hyphen may be used. 
 
 z. Compounds of adverbs, like above, ill, well, so, with a parti- 
 ciple or participial adjective, to form an epithet, are often written 
 with a hyplien when they precede the noun they qualify, but not 
 otherwise; as, "the well-known author," " the so-called spell- 
 ing reform," "this ill-advised proceeding," " the above-named 
 parties." But it is quite as well to write them separately. 
 — Compound adverbs are always written as single words ; as, 
 moreover, meanwhile, awhile, meantime, everywhere, anywhere, 
 forever, forevermore. 
 
 7. From the. foregoing directions and examples the 
 general principles of the proper compounding of words
 
 COMPOUND WORDS. 65 
 
 may be seen. Hyphens should never be used between 
 words when the same words separately will just as well 
 express the meaning. 
 
 8. On the other hand, many compound words gener- 
 ally written as one, or with a hyphen, may be used in 
 such a way as to require their being written separately. 
 Thus the whole class of compound adverbs and parti- 
 ciples, as stated above (under 2), even if written with 
 a hyphen before a noun which they qualify, require to 
 be separated when written after it. Meantime, mean- 
 while, awhile, as adverbs, are made single words ; but in 
 the phrases " in the mean time," " in the mean while," 
 " after a while," they should be separated. 
 
 9. So, many other words generally written as one 
 require to be separated when used in an unusual sense. 
 A few examples of some of these are given, as illus- 
 trations. 
 
 "In every thing and event to perceive the present loving en- 
 ergy of the Heavenly Father." — IF. E. Channing. 
 
 " And to ascend for ever and ever in immortal love." — Ibid, 
 
 " With his mouth full of news." — As You Like It. 
 
 "These were the palmy days of light houses and heavy gas- 
 bills." — John Brougham. 
 
 A glasshouse is a place where glass is made ; a glass house is a 
 house made of glass. 
 
 A blackbird is a species of oriole ; but a crow is a black bird. 
 
 A sharp-edged instrument is not a sharp edged instrument. 
 
 10. So, many words of various endings are written as 
 one word if the compound makes but two syllables, but 
 with a hyphen if of more than two. (See above, 1% w.) 
 
 11. Where any awkward collocation of letters in a 
 compound occurs, or the doubling of a letter, or where 
 the compound is made with an uncommon word or 
 with a proper name, the hyphen may be used, even 
 "where it conflicts with the foregoing rules.
 
 66 SYLLABICATION. 
 
 12. Many authors may prefer to use the hyphen in 
 some of the cases where the rules would dispense with 
 it ; and of course its use is a matter of taste, as much as 
 of custom. Wherever any doubt would arise as to the 
 meaning of a compound phrase, the hyphen should be 
 used. 
 
 III. Syllabication. 
 
 Syllabication is important to the comj30sitor and 
 proof-reader, as showing the proper manner of dividing 
 words at the end of a line, and also to teachers and 
 their pupils, as an indispensable auxiliary to the proper 
 pronunciation of words. In dictionaries, the division 
 into syllables is made mainly for the purpose of show- 
 ing the pronunciation. 
 
 It is the practice in printing the classical and the 
 modern European languages always to divide between 
 a vowel and tlie following consonant, or any combina- 
 tion of consonants which can begin a word and conse- 
 quently be pronounced in combination, whether the 
 vowel is short or long. But the prevailing practice 
 in English is to divide words into syllables according 
 to their correct pronunciation, as near as may be ; 
 regard being also had to the formation of the word, 
 and to prefixes and terminations. 
 
 Neither of our American Dictionaries is consistent 
 with itself, and both are, I believe, wrong in many of 
 their divisions. For example, both divide woman and 
 all its derivatives, in giving the words in the vocabu- 
 lary, after the m, whereas according either to forma- 
 tion or pronunciation, it should be divided wo-man, as 
 the VI belongs as much to the second syllable as the 
 first. So of the word trouble, although both divide be- 
 tween the 6 and I, while no one would ever think of
 
 SYLLABICATION. 67 
 
 doing so unless he took the Dictionary as authority, as 
 the b is sounded as rauch on one syllable as the other, 
 and Worcester gives as the correct pronunciation truh-hl. 
 It is evident, following the analogy of all kindred lan- 
 guages, that the proper syllables of these words are 
 where they would naturally be made ; i. e. troti-ble and 
 wo-man. Indeed, on the page in \Vorcester where 
 woman and its compounds occur, the word is actually 
 divided at the end of the line four times after the o, 
 and only once after the m ; and on the page in Web- 
 ster where the words are given, the only time it is di- 
 vided at the end of the line it is divided wo-man. 
 
 Again, the word fortune is divided by both Diction- 
 aries fort-une, while the same word is given in Latin, 
 French, Spanish, and Italian, in neither one of which 
 languages would it ever be divided as they divide it ; 
 and in Webster it is divided four times (the only cases 
 in which it occurs at the end of a line) for-tune, as it 
 undoubtedly should be. Nature also is divided by both 
 Dictionaries nat-ure, although the great majority of au- 
 thorities divide it na-iure, as it certainly should be. It 
 may be said that these divisions of the Dictionaries bet- 
 ter show the correct pronunciation. But this is not 
 so, 'as the t/ sound after t is the sound properly belong- 
 ing to the u, as laid down in all the dictionaries and 
 grammars. 
 
 There are many discrepancies between our Diction- 
 aries, and many inconsistencies in botli, which would 
 seem to indicate that proper syllabication was not much 
 attended to, and perhaps was not considered of impor- 
 tance. But it is a very serious matter to compositors, 
 if to no one else, as they have to re-space two lines in 
 order to change a letter from one line to another.
 
 68 SYLLABICATION. 
 
 The following rules, which are based on the old 
 English system, with the examples given under them,' 
 will show the proper way of dividing words in all 
 cases where any doubt is likely to exist. 
 
 KULBS. 
 
 1. Every vowel or diphthong which is sounded con- 
 stitutes a sejDarate syllable ; as, 
 
 li-on, cru-el, com-pres-si-bil-i-ty, nia-tu-ri-ty, me-di-ate,i re- 
 af-firm, re-en-ter, lead-er, gen-er-os-i-ty, pei-ceive, a-me-U-o-rate,i 
 a-nem-o-ne, An-ax-ag-o-ras. 
 
 2. Where a single consonant, or consonant digraph,'' 
 
 comes between two vowels, or between a diphthong 
 
 and a vowel, the consonant or consonant combination 
 
 should be joined with the first vowel if short; but with 
 
 the last, if the first one is long, or unaccented,^ except 
 
 as qualified by the rules hereafter given, 
 
 ri-val, riv-er, hab-it, de-cis-ion, o-pin-ion, de-stro)', crea-ture, 
 na-ture, Goth-ic, hatch-et, or-a-to-ri-al, or-a-tor-i-cal, o-ra-tion, 
 ne-glect, re-press, vis-ion, sai-lor, tai-lor, meas-ure, pleas-ure. 
 
 3. Where two consonants not forming a digraph 
 
 come together between two vowels, or a diphthong and 
 
 a vowel, the consonants must be divided ; as, 
 
 af-ter, car-pet, o-ri-eu-tal, mil-lion, bril-liant, con-ver-sion, 
 for-tune, scrip-ture, pic-ture, for-mer, fac-tor, mus-ter, pas-ture, 
 blan-ket, ad-jec-tive, per-cep-ti-ble, moun-tain, Chiis-tian, as-ses- 
 sor, sta-tis-tics, pro-tec-tor, chan-ces, chan-ges, re-hear-sal, prot- 
 es-tant, is-land ; hut fa-ther, pro-phet-ic, fish-er-man. 
 
 4. Where three or more consonants come between 
 
 1 The final italic e's in these words are silent. 
 
 2 A digraph consists of two letters having a single sound; as ch in 
 church; th in thin; sh in shot. The rule includes cases of three or 
 more letters pronounced as one; as, tch in hatchet; str in destroy, etc. 
 
 8 By unaccented vowels are meant those unmarked in Web8t«r, 
 and those marked as obscure in Worcester.
 
 SYLLABICATION. 69 
 
 two vowels, or a diphthong aud a vowel, the first of 
 "which is short, all of them which can be pronounced 
 together, except the first, go with the latter syllable ; as, 
 chil-dren, tech-ni-cal, part-ner, twin-kle, twin-kling, chuc- 
 kle, chuc-kling, trem-ble, trem-bling, con-juiic-ture, an-thra-cite, 
 e-lec-tri-ci-ty, ful-cmm, frus-trate, in-struc-tress, ac-tress, pam- 
 phlet-eer, in-kling, at-mos-phere, pic-kle, tic-kler, pe-des-tri-an, 
 match-less, tians-gres-sor. 
 
 5. In all cases of doubtful pronunciation, or where 
 the exact pronunciation cannot be given, divide upon 
 
 the vowel ; as, 
 
 pre-de-ces-sor, not pred-e-ces-sor, pro-duct, not prod-uct, me- 
 moir, not mem-oir, dou-ble, trou-ble, colo-nel, busi-ness, wo-man, 
 wo-men, pro-gvess, fic-ti-tious. 
 
 6. The c ov g should never be separated from the fol- 
 lowing e, i, or y on which its soft sound depends ; as, 
 
 ne-ces-sa-ry, ca-pa-ci-ty, re-joi-cing, pre-ju-di-ces, sui'-ging, 
 sur-ges, chan-ging, chan-ges, re-li-gious, re-li-gion. 
 
 7. As the letter x never begins a word in English, it 
 cannot begin a syllable ; and as J never ends a word, 
 it should not end a syllable. Likewise, as q never oc- 
 curs in English without u following, it must never be 
 divided from the 7i ; as, 
 
 ma-jes-ty, pre-ju-dice ; an-ti-qui-ty, li-quid, li-que-fy, li-qui- 
 date, re-qui-si-tion, 
 
 8. The participial terminations en and ing, and ed- 
 when it makes an additional syllable, as well as the 
 comparative er, the superlative est, and the plural es, 
 should always be made separate syllables, except where, 
 according to the rules of orthography (see p. 71, Rule 
 II.), the preceding consonant is doubled, or where they 
 are preceded by c ox g soft ; as, 
 
 rat-ing, rat-ed ; a-bat-ing, a-bat-ed ; a-bound-ing, a-bound-ed ; 
 bvok-en, break-ing ; tak-en, tak-iug ; stroug, strong-er, strong- 
 est ; gross, gross-er, gross-est ; brave, brav-er, brav-est ; box-es,
 
 70 . SYLLABICATION. 
 
 hors-es, vers-es ; hut for-cing, em-bra-cing, char-ging, char-ges, 
 voi-ces ; hot-ter, hot-test, ad-rait-ting, ad-mit-ted. 
 
 9. The termination e?', when added to a verb ending 
 
 with a consonant or a silent e to form a noun, is always 
 
 made a separate syllable ; but the termination or is not 
 
 so separated ; as, 
 
 bak-er, mak-er, be-liev-er, com-mand-er, form-er, tres-pass-er, 
 work-er ; ac-tor, gov-er-nor, con-fes-sor, pro-tec-tor, op-er-a-tor. 
 
 10. All terminations beginning with a vowel added 
 
 to a word ending with a consonant or silent e should 
 
 be separated from the word in dividing, if the position 
 
 of the accent and pronunciation of the primitive word 
 
 remain unchanged ; as, 
 
 de-pend-ence, as-sist-ant, com-mend-able, re-tro-spect-ive, pro- 
 gress-ive, in-struct-ive, con-sist-eiit, as-sur-ance, ob-serv-ance, 
 art-ist, re-vers-i-ble, con-form-i-ty, ab-surd-i-ty, pa-tri-arch-al. 
 
 11. This principle must not be carried so far, how- 
 ever, as to include nouns or other words in common 
 use, which perhaps are as near primitives as the words 
 from which they appear to be derived. Such words 
 should follow the general rules, as in the following 
 examples : — 
 
 ser-vant, ser-vice, rehear-sal, nniver-sal, for-mal, for-mer, ob- 
 ser-vatory, consis-tory, iudepen-dence, rec-tangle, acciden-tal, 
 ac-tive, adjec-tive, matu-rity, stan-dard, guar-dian. 
 
 12. Whenever a primitive word ending with a con- 
 sonant takes a termination, beginning with a vowel, 
 which is also an accented syllable, or where the place 
 of the accent is changed, the consonant must go with 
 the termination ; as, 
 
 syste-matic, hut system-atize ; enien-dation, emen-dator, lut 
 emend-able, emend-atory ; labyrin-thiue, ar-tis-tic.
 
 RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 71 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Although the spelling of English words seems to be 
 very irregular and arbitrary, a knowledge of the follow- 
 ing general principles will enable one in most cases 
 to decide at once upon the proper spelling of a word. 
 The exceptional words will be found fewer than is gen- 
 erally supposed. The omission of useless silent let- 
 ters has been very marked within the past fifty years, 
 and will undoubtedly be as noticeable during the next 
 half-century. 
 
 I. Monosyllables. 
 
 1. Monosyllables ending with /, I, or 5, preceded by a single 
 vowel, double the final letter; as, staff, mill, pass. The only 
 important exceptions are clef, if, of; bid, nul, sal, sol; as, gas, 
 has, toas, yes, gris, his, is, this, pus, thus, us. 
 
 2. Monosyllables ending in any other consonant than /, I, 
 or s do not double the final letter. The only common excep- 
 tions are abb, ebb, add, odd, bigg, egg, mumm (to mask), inn, 
 bunn, err, burr, purr, mitt, butt, fizz, fuzz, buzz. 
 
 3. A consonant at the end of a word immediately after a 
 diphthong or double vowel is not doubled ; except in the word 
 gv^ss. 
 
 II. Doubling Final Consonants. 
 1. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable 
 ending with a single consonant (except h or x) preceded by a 
 single vowel, or by qu and a vowel, double the final consonant 
 before an additional termination beginning with a vowel, whether 
 a syllable is added or not; as, rob, robbed, robber, robbing; re- 
 gret, regretting, regretted; foi^, foppish, foppery : commit, commit' 
 tal, committing, committed, committer; thin, thinner, thinnest.
 
 72 
 
 RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 squat, squatter, squatting; quit, quitted, quitting. Except that, 
 when the place of the accent is changed, the final consonant 
 is not doubled ; as, refer', reference, referable; prefer', prefer- 
 ence, preferable. 
 
 2. A final consonant when it is preceded by a diphthong or 
 by two vowels, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, is 
 not doubled on assuming an additional termination ; as, oil, oil- 
 ing, oily; brief, briefer, briefest; real, realize, realist; benefit, 
 benefiting, benefited; equal, equalize, equality. 
 
 3. An important exception to this rule exists, by general 
 usage, in regard to words ending in el, in which I is usually 
 doubled on taking an additional termination beginning with a 
 vowel, excepting only in the word novelist and the derivatives 
 of parallel, as paralleled, paralleling, U7iparalleled. Also the 
 preterites, participles, and verbal nouns ending in al, il, or ol. 
 The following list comprises all the verbs which double the final 
 I on taking an additional syllable : — 
 
 apparel 
 
 drivel 
 
 imperil 
 
 parcel 
 
 shovel 
 
 bevel 
 
 duel 
 
 jewel 
 
 pencil 
 
 shrivel 
 
 bowel 
 
 embowel 
 
 kennel 
 
 peril 
 
 snivel 
 
 cancel 
 
 enamel 
 
 label 
 
 pistol 
 
 tassel 
 
 carol 
 
 empanel 
 
 level 
 
 pommel 
 
 trammel 
 
 cavil 
 
 equal 
 
 libel 
 
 quarrel 
 
 travel 
 
 channel 
 
 gambol 
 
 marshal 
 
 ravel 
 
 tunnel 
 
 chisel 
 
 gravel 
 
 marvel 
 
 revel 
 
 unravel 
 
 counsel 
 
 grovel 
 
 model 
 
 rival 
 
 vial 
 
 cudgel 
 
 handsel 
 
 panel 
 
 rowel 
 
 victual 
 
 dishevel 
 
 hatchel 
 
 
 
 
 4. Other common exceptions to the rule are nmiplus, humbug, 
 periwig, zigzag, comproynit, carburet and similar chemical terms 
 ending in uret, kidnap, and worship, which double the last letter 
 before an addition, and also the word woollen from wool. 
 
 5. The reason given for doubling in all these cases is to pre- 
 vent mispronunciation, which seems to be a valid one. Webster, 
 however, allows none of these exceptions to the rule, except in 
 the derivatives of humbug, periwig, zigzag, and compromit. 
 
 III. "Words ending with a Double Letter. 
 1. Words ending with any double letter preserve it double 
 before any added termination not beginning with the same letter.
 
 RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 73 
 
 and in all derivatives formed by means of prefixes ; as, wooer, 
 seeing, agreeable, stillness, blissful ; recall, depress, foresee. 
 
 2. Except instalment, inthralment, thraldom, enrolment, dul- 
 ness, fulness, skilful, skilfully, wilful, wilfully, and words derived 
 ixom. pontiff', aspontifc. Also, withal, therewithal, wherewithal, 
 until, twibil, as well as distil, fulfil, and instil, with their deriv- 
 atives. Webster, however, doubles the I in all these words but 
 withal, therewithal, wherewithal, until, and twibil. 
 
 IV. Final c or ck. 
 
 1. Monosyllables and verbs of more than one syllable ending 
 with the sound of k take always ck at the end ; as, black, stick, 
 knock, attack. The only exceptions are the monosyllables lac, sac, 
 talc, zinc, ploc, roc, soc, arc, marc, ore, and fisc; and the verbs 
 frolic, roUic, mimic, physic, traffic, havoc, and bivouac, in the 
 present tense. But when these verbs assume the terminations 
 er, ed, or ing, the k is inserted to show the hard sound; as, 
 frolic, frolicking ; traffic, trafficked, trafficker. 
 
 2. Words of more than one syllable ending in ic ot iac are 
 written without the k ; as, music, critic, maniac. {Derrick is an 
 exception.) Words of more than one syllable, in which c is pre- 
 ceded by any other vowel than i or ia, end in ck. But almanac, 
 sandarac, limbec, xebec, manioc, and havoc are exceptions. 
 
 V. Final or or our. 
 
 All words formerly ending in our with the u unsounded are 
 now spelled invariably in America or; as, honor, labor, governor. 
 The only exception is the word Saviour, referring to Jesus Christ. 
 But in England the u is retained in many words of this ending. 
 
 VI. Final ise or ize. 
 
 The only verbs ending with the sound of izc which are now 
 spelled ise (in America) are the following, viz. : — 
 
 advertise 
 
 advise 
 
 affranchise 
 
 apprise 
 
 arise 
 
 catechise 
 
 chastise 
 
 circumcise 
 
 comprise 
 
 compiomise 
 
 criticise 
 
 demise 
 
 despise 
 
 devise 
 
 disfranchise 
 
 disguise 
 
 divertise 
 
 enfranchise 
 
 enterprise 
 
 exercise 
 
 exorcise 
 
 improvise 
 
 manumise 
 
 merchandise 
 
 misprise 
 
 premise 
 
 reprise 
 
 revise 
 
 rise 
 
 supervise 
 
 surmise 
 
 surprise
 
 74 RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 VII. Final e. 
 
 1. Derivatives from words ending with silent e after a conso- 
 nant retain the e when the termination added begins with a con- 
 sonant ; &s, pale, paleness ; edge, edgcless; hate, hateful; chaste, 
 chastely ; move, inovement. The words wholly, nursling, abridg- 
 ment, acTcnowledgment, judgment, lodgment, and wisdom are the 
 only common exceptions. 
 
 2. When the final e is immediately preceded by another vowel 
 (except e or i), it is generally dropped before a consonant; as, 
 true, truly; argue, argument; awe, awful; woe, woful. But 
 the e is retained in some words of this class ; as, bluely, blueness, 
 trueness, rueful, shoeless, eyeless. 
 
 3. Derivatives from words ending with silent e omit the e 
 when the termination added begins with a vowel (with the ex- 
 ceptions given below) ; as, bride, bridal; guide, guidance ; use, 
 usage ; force, forcible ; true, truism ; sale, salable ; eye, eying ; 
 centre, centring ; rule, ruling. Mileage is an exception. 
 
 4. Words ending with ce or ge retain the e before words be- 
 ginning with a or to preserve the soft sound of the c ov g ; as, 
 trace, traceable ; change, changeable ; courage, courageous ; out- 
 rage, outrageous. According to this rule mortgagcor is the cor- 
 rect spelling, but legal usage is in favor of mortgagor. 
 
 5. The e is retained in hoeing, shoeing, and toeing ; and also 
 in the words dyeing, singeing, springeing, swingeing, and tinge- 
 ing, to distinguish them from dying, singing, springing, swing- 
 ing, and tinging. 
 
 6. Words ending with ie change the ie to y on taking the 
 additional syllable ing ; as, die, dying ; hie, hying ; vie, vying. 
 
 VIII. Final y. 
 
 1. Words ending with y preceded by a consonant change the 
 y into i before any termination not beginning with i ; as, con- 
 trary, contrarily, contrariness ; icy, iciest, icily ; merry, merrier, 
 merriest, m.errily, merriment ; pity, pitiful, pitiless, pitiable, 
 pitied, pitiest ; spy, spied, spies. 
 
 2. Adjectives of one syllables ending in y are exceptions, and 
 retain the y ; as, sly, slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness ; spry, spryer, 
 spryest, spryly, spryness ; dry, dryly, dryness. But drier and 
 driest are usually written with the i. 
 
 3. Derivatives of words ending in y which are formed by
 
 RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 75 
 
 adding ship are also exceptions ; as, ladyship, suretyship. Also 
 the words babyhood and ladykin. 
 
 4. Words ending witii y, preceded by a vowel, do not change 
 the y before an added termination ; as, gay, gaijety, gayly, gay- 
 ness; play, player, plmjfal, playing. The word daily is an ex- 
 ception, as are a few irregular verbs, like said, saith, paid, laid, 
 
 IX. TuE Plural. 
 
 1. The regular plural of nouns is formed by the addition of 
 s to the singular; as, book, books; shoe, shoes; eye, eyes; straw, 
 straws; pen, 2}ens; grape, graiics: horse, horses; voice, voices. 
 
 2. If the singular ends with s, sh, ch soft, or x, the plural is 
 formed by the addition of es; as, omnibus, omnibuses; mass, 
 masses; lash, lashes; church, churches ; fox, foxes. 
 
 3. If the singular ends in o preceded by another vowel, the 
 plural is formed regularly by adding s ; as, folio, folios ; cameo, 
 cameos; bamboo, bamboos; embryo, embryos; two, twos. 
 
 4. If the singular ends with o preceded by a consonant, the 
 plural is generally formed by adding es; as, echo, echoes; hero, 
 heroes; motto, mottoes; potato, potatoes. 
 
 5. Proper names ending in o, and the following common 
 nouns, together with a few others from the Italian or Spanish 
 hardly Anglicized, form the plural regularly ; as, Neros, albinos. 
 albino duodecimo junto octavo quarto solo 
 canto fresco lasso piano rotundo stiletto 
 cento grotto limbo proviso salvo torso 
 domino halo memento portico sirocco tyro 
 
 6. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant or by qu form 
 the plural by changing y into ies; as, lady, ladies; mercy, mer- 
 cies; body, bodies; colloquy, colloquies. But if the y is preceded 
 by a vowel, s only is added for the plural; as, boy, boys; day, 
 days ; valley, valleys ; but ay, ayes. Some proper names ending in 
 y simply add s for the plural ; as, Henry, Henrys; Tully, Tullys. 
 
 7. The third person singular of verbs is formed in accordance 
 with the foregoing rules ; as, rides, boxes, marches, woos, goes, buys. 
 
 8. The following nouns ending in/ or. /e form the plural by 
 changing the/ or /c into vcs, viz. beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, 
 life, loaf, self sheaf shelf wife, wolf, and sometimes wharf; 
 as, beeves, knives, wolves, etc. Staff usually is written staves in 
 the plural. All other nouns ending in /, fe, orff form the plural 
 regularly; as, proof , proof s ; strife, strifes; muff, muffs, etc.
 
 76 RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 9. The plural of the following words is made by changing the 
 vowel sound of the singular; as, man, men; woman, women; 
 brother, brethren; goose, geese; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; loitse, lice; 
 mouse, mice. Compounds of these words form the plural in the 
 same way ; as, dormouse, doi-mice; foeman,foemen ; countryman, 
 countrymen. But the syllable man at the end of a word must 
 not be mistaken for a compound of the word man; as, German, 
 Germans; Mussulman, Mussulmans ; talisman, talismans. The 
 plural of ox is oxen ; of child, children. 
 
 10. Many words derived from the classical or from foreign lan- 
 guages retain the plural form of the language from which they are 
 taken, although many of them have also the regular English plu- 
 ral ; as, crisis, crises; hypothesis, hypotheses; criterion, criteria; 
 mcmoranduni, memoranda or m.emorandums ; matrix, matrices; 
 focus, foci; formula, formulae, or formulas; larva, larvce; ap- 
 pendix, ap)pendices or appendixes; stigma, stigmata or stigmas; 
 genus, genera ; beau, beaux or beaus ; bandit, banditti or bandits ; 
 cherub, cliericbim or cherubs; seraph, seraphim or seraplis. 
 
 X. Possessive Case. 
 
 For the formation of the Possessive Case, see the chapter on 
 the Apostrophe, page 37. 
 
 The following list contains the words in common use 
 spelled differently by "Webster and Worcester, excej^ting 
 those which are given above, words variously spelled by 
 other authorities, and words often misspelled without 
 any authority whatever. The orthography of the left- 
 hand column is that considered best established, except 
 where an or is used, when both are considered to be 
 well authorized. When the word in the first column 
 is unmarked, both Webster and Worcester agree in the 
 spelling ; when marked with an asterisk (*), it indicates 
 that Worcester's spelling is preferred to that of Web- 
 ster ; with a dagger (t), the reverse is indicated, and 
 Webster's spelling preferred ; the double dagger {%) in- 
 dicates that the preferred spelling is neither Worcester's 
 nor Webster's, but is most in accordance with usage.
 
 LIST OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 
 
 77 
 
 LIST OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 
 
 Abbatis 
 
 Abridgement 
 
 Accessary 
 
 Accompt, -ant 
 
 Accouter 
 
 Acknowledgement 
 
 Addable 
 
 Adipocire 
 
 Admittable 
 
 Admittible 
 
 Adz,t Addice 
 
 Edile 
 
 Eolian 
 
 Esthetics 
 
 Agriculturalist 
 
 Abatis 
 _^bridgment 
 Accessoryt 
 Account, -ant 
 "Accoutre* 
 Acknowledgment 
 Addible 
 Adipocere 
 
 AdraissibleJ 
 
 Adze* 
 
 ^dile 
 
 Eolian 
 
 ^Esthetics 
 
 Agriculturist 
 
 Aide-de-camp* Aid-de-camp 
 
 Alchemy Alchymy 
 
 Alcoran or Koran Alkoran 
 
 Alloy Allay 
 
 Almanac Almanack 
 
 Alum Allum 
 
 Ambassador Embassador 
 
 Ambergris Ambergrise 
 
 Amortizef Amortise 
 
 Anapest 
 
 Anemone 
 
 Ankle 
 
 Antechamber 
 
 Antiemetic 
 
 Apostasy 
 
 Apothegm 
 
 Appall 
 
 Appalment* 
 
 Appraise 
 
 Arbitrament 
 
 Archa!ology 
 
 Arquebuse 
 
 Arseniuretted* 
 
 Artisan 
 
 Asafoetidat 
 
 Asbestos* 
 
 ( Anapaest 
 
 Anapaest 
 
 Anemony 
 
 Ancle 
 
 Antichamber 
 
 Antemetic 
 
 Apostacy 
 
 Apophthegm 
 
 Appal 
 
 Appallment 
 
 Apprize 
 
 Arbitrement 
 
 Archeology 
 
 Arquebus 
 
 Arseniureted 
 
 Artizan 
 
 Assafoetida 
 
 Asbestus 
 
 Ascendent 
 
 Ascendancy 
 
 Assise 
 
 Atheneum f 
 
 Athenaeum 
 
 Otto, Ottar 
 
 Ought 
 
 Autocrasy 
 
 Averdupois 
 
 Ax 
 
 Ascendant! 
 Ascendency 
 Assize 
 
 Athenaeum* 
 
 Attar 
 Aught 
 Autocracy 
 Avoirdupois 
 Axe* 
 
 Ay (yes), pi. Ayes Aye 
 
 Bachelor Batchelor 
 Bade {from Bid) Bad 
 
 Baldrict Baldrick 
 
 Balk Baulk 
 
 Baluster Banister 
 
 Bandanna* Bandana 
 
 Banian* Banyan 
 
 Banst Banns 
 
 Barberry Berberrj' 
 Bark, a small boat. 
 Barque, a ship of a certain rig. 
 
 Barouche Barouch 
 
 Baryta Baryte 
 
 Barytone Baritone 
 
 Basin Bason 
 
 Bass Base 
 
 Bateau Batteau 
 
 Battledoor Battledore 
 
 Bawble, or Bauble 
 
 Bazaar Bazar 
 
 Befall Befal 
 
 Behoove Behove 
 
 Beldam Beldame 
 
 BenzolJ: Benzole 
 
 Bequeath Bequeathe 
 
 Berth (Nav.) Birth 
 
 Bestrew Bestrow 
 
 Betel Betle 
 
 Bevel Bevil 
 
 Bezant Byzant 
 
 Biased, -ingt Biassed, -ing
 
 78 
 
 LIST OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 
 
 Blende (Min.) 
 
 Blithesome, -ly 
 
 Blonde 
 
 Bodice 
 
 Boil 
 
 Bombazette* 
 
 Bombazine 
 
 Bonapartist 
 
 Bourgeois 
 
 Bourn 
 
 Bourse 
 
 Bowlder, or 
 
 Brand-new 
 
 Brazen 
 
 Brazier 
 
 Brier 
 
 Brooch 
 
 Bryony 
 
 Buccaneer 
 
 Buhrstone 
 
 Bunn* 
 
 Burden 
 
 Burin 
 
 Burnoust 
 
 Burr* 
 
 But-end 
 
 By, ra. 
 
 CiEsura 
 
 Calcareous 
 
 Caldron 
 
 Calendar 
 
 Calends 
 
 Caliber 
 
 Calipasht 
 
 Calipeet 
 
 Calipers 
 
 Caliph 
 
 Calk 
 
 Calligraphy 
 
 Calyx 
 
 Camlet 
 
 Camomile 
 
 Camphene 
 
 Camphor 
 
 Cannoneer 
 
 Blend 
 
 Blithsome, -Ij' 
 
 Blond 
 
 Boddice 
 
 Bile 
 
 Bombazet 
 
 Bombasine 
 
 Buonapartist 
 
 Burgeois 
 
 Borne, Bourne 
 
 Burse 
 
 Boulder 
 
 Bran-new 
 
 Brasen 
 
 Brasier 
 
 Briar 
 
 Broach, Broche 
 
 Briony 
 
 Buccanier 
 
 Burrstoue 
 
 Bun 
 
 Burthen 
 
 Burine 
 
 Burnoose 
 
 Bur 
 
 Butt-end 
 
 Bye 
 
 Cesura, Caesura 
 
 Calcarious 
 
 Cauldron 
 
 Kalendar 
 
 Kalends 
 
 Calibre 
 
 Callipash 
 
 Callipee 
 
 Callipers 
 
 Calif, Kaliph 
 
 Caulk 
 
 Caligraphy 
 
 Calix 
 
 Camblet 
 
 Chamomile 
 
 Camphine 
 
 Camphire 
 
 Cannonier 
 
 Canon 
 
 Canyon 
 
 Canvas (cloth) 
 
 Canvass 
 
 Canvass, v. 
 
 Canvas. 
 
 Carbinet 
 
 Carabine 
 
 Carat 
 
 Caract, Carrat 
 
 Caravansary 
 
 ( Caravansera 
 ( Caravanserai 
 
 Carburetted* 
 
 Carbureted 
 
 Carcass 
 
 Carcase 
 
 Carnelian 
 
 Cornelian 
 
 Cassava 
 
 Casava, Cassavi 
 
 Cassimere 
 
 Kerseymere 
 
 Caste (a class) 
 
 Cast 
 
 Catchpoll 
 
 Catchpole 
 
 Catchup ) 
 Ketchup ) 
 
 Catsup 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 Colliflower 
 
 Ceiling 
 
 Cieling 
 
 Centiped 
 
 Centipede 
 
 Centre* 
 
 Center 
 
 Cesspool 
 
 Sesspool 
 
 Chalcedony 
 
 Calcedony 
 
 Chameleon 
 
 Cameleon 
 
 Chamois 
 
 Shamois 
 
 Champagne, a 
 
 wine. 
 
 Champaign, Jlat, open country. 
 
 Chant 
 
 Chaunt 
 
 Chap ijaw) 
 
 Chop 
 
 Chase 
 
 Chace 
 
 Check 
 
 Cheque 
 
 Checker 
 
 Chequer 
 
 Chemical 
 
 Chymical 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Chymistry 
 
 Chestnut 
 
 Chesnut 
 
 Chintz 
 
 Chints 
 
 Choir 
 
 Quire 
 
 Choke 
 
 Choak 
 
 Choose 
 
 Chuse 
 
 Choret 
 
 Char, Chare 
 
 Chorister 
 
 Quirister 
 
 Cigar 
 
 Segar 
 
 
 Cimitar 
 
 Cimeter 
 
 Cymetar 
 
 Scyraitar* 
 
 Scimetar 
 
 
 Scimitar
 
 LIST OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 
 
 79 
 
 Cipher 
 
 Clarinet* 
 
 Clew, or 
 
 CUnch 
 
 Cloak 
 
 ClodpoU 
 
 Clothe 
 
 Clyster 
 
 Cobbler 
 
 Coif 
 
 Coke 
 
 Colander 
 
 Colic 
 
 Collie {dog) 
 
 Colliery 
 
 Complete 
 
 Complexion 
 
 Confectionery 
 
 Confidant, m. 
 
 Confidante, f. 
 
 Conjurer 
 
 Connection 
 
 Connoisseur 
 
 Consecrator 
 
 Contemporary 
 
 Contradance 
 
 Control 
 
 Controller 
 
 Conversable 
 
 Cony 
 
 Cooliet 
 
 Copier 
 
 Copse 
 
 Coquette, n. 
 
 Corbel 
 
 Correlative 
 
 Cosey* 
 
 Cot ' 
 
 Cotillon 
 
 Coultei-J 
 
 Cypher 
 
 Clarionet 
 
 Clue 
 
 Clench 
 
 Cloke 
 
 Clodpole 
 
 Cloathe 
 
 Glyster 
 
 Cobler 
 
 Qnoif 
 
 Coak 
 
 Cullender 
 
 Cholic 
 
 Colly 
 
 Coalery 
 
 Compleat 
 
 Complection 
 
 Confectionary 
 
 Confident 
 
 Conjuror 
 
 Connexion 
 
 Connaisseur 
 
 Consecrater 
 
 Cotemporary 
 
 Country-dance 
 
 Comptrol 
 
 Comptroller 
 
 Conversible 
 
 Coney 
 
 Cooly 
 
 Copyer 
 
 Coppice 
 
 Coquet 
 
 Corbtil 
 
 Corelative 
 
 Cosy, Cozej' 
 
 Cott, Cote 
 
 Cotilion 
 
 Colter 
 
 Councillor,* member of a council. 
 
 Counsellor,* one who counsels. 
 
 Courtesan Courtezan 
 
 Courtesy Curtsy, Curtesy 
 
 Cozen Cosen 
 
 Craunch 
 
 Crayfish,! or 
 
 Crier 
 
 Crosslett 
 
 Cruse (cruet) 
 
 Crumb 
 
 Crystal 
 
 Cue 
 
 Cuneiform 
 
 Cutlass 
 
 Cyclopaedia* 
 
 Cymar { 
 
 Cyst 
 
 Czar, -ina 
 
 Dactyl 
 
 Daily 
 
 DandrufE 
 
 Danegelt 
 
 Debarkation 
 
 Debonair 
 
 Decrepit 
 
 Defence* 
 
 Defier 
 
 Deflection 
 
 Deflowerf 
 
 Delft* 
 
 Demarkationt 
 
 Dependant,* n. 
 
 Dependence 
 
 Dependent, a. 
 
 Deposit 
 
 Desert, n. 
 
 Despatch* 
 
 Dessert 
 
 Detecter 
 
 Detortiont 
 
 Detractor 
 
 Develop 
 
 Development 
 
 Dexterous 
 
 Diairesis 
 
 Diarrhoea 
 
 Dike 
 
 Diocese 
 
 Cranch 
 
 Crawfish 
 
 Cryer 
 
 Croslet 
 
 Cruise 
 
 Crum 
 
 Chrystal 
 
 Queue 
 
 Cuniform 
 
 Cutlas 
 
 Cyclopedia 
 
 Simar 
 
 Cist 
 
 Tzar, Tsar, -ina 
 
 Dactyle 
 
 Dayly 
 
 Dandriff 
 ( Dangelt 
 ( Danegeld 
 
 Debarcation 
 
 Debounaire 
 
 Decrepid 
 
 Defense 
 
 Def3'er 
 
 Defllexion 
 
 Deflour 
 
 Delf, Delph 
 
 Demarcation 
 
 Dependent 
 
 Dependance 
 
 Dependant 
 
 Deposite 
 
 Desart 
 
 Dispatch 
 
 Desert 
 
 Detector 
 
 Detorsion 
 
 Detracter 
 
 Develope 
 
 Developement 
 
 Dextrous 
 
 Dieresis 
 
 Diarrliea 
 
 Dyke 
 
 Diocess
 
 80 
 
 LIST OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 
 
 Disburden 
 
 Disburthen 
 
 Empale 
 
 Dishabille* 
 Disk 
 
 Deshabille 
 Disc 
 
 Empanel 
 
 Disseisef 
 
 Disseize 
 
 
 DisseisinI 
 
 Disseizin 
 
 EmployeeJ 
 
 DisseisorJ 
 
 Disseizor 
 
 Empoison 
 
 Distention 
 
 Distension 
 
 Empower 
 
 Distil* 
 
 Distill 
 
 Encage 
 
 Distrainor 
 
 Distrainer 
 
 Enchant 
 
 Diversely 
 
 Diversly 
 
 Enchase 
 
 Domicil 
 
 Domicile 
 
 Encircle 
 
 Doomsday-book Domesday-book 
 
 Enclose* 
 
 Dote 
 
 Doat 
 
 Enclosure* 
 
 Dovecot* 
 
 Dovecote 
 
 Encroach 
 
 Downfall 
 
 Downfal 
 
 Encumber 
 
 Dowry 
 
 Dowery 
 
 Encumbrance 
 
 Dram 
 
 Drachm 
 
 Encyclopaedia* 
 
 Draught, and 
 
 Draft 
 
 Endamage 
 
 Draughtsman 
 
 Draftsman 
 
 Endear 
 
 Driblet* 
 
 Dribblet 
 
 Endow 
 
 Drier 
 
 Dryer 
 
 Endue 
 
 Drought 
 
 Drouth 
 
 Enfeeble 
 
 Dryly 
 
 Drily 
 
 Enfeoff 
 
 Duchess 
 
 Dutchess 
 
 Enfranchise 
 
 Duchy 
 
 Dutchy 
 
 Engender 
 
 Dulness* 
 
 Dullness 
 
 Engorge 
 
 Eccentric 
 
 Excentric 
 
 Enhance 
 
 Economics 
 
 CEconomics 
 
 Enigma 
 
 Ecstasy 
 
 Ecstacy, Extasy 
 
 Enjoin 
 
 Ecstatic 
 
 Extatic 
 
 Enlard 
 
 Embalm 
 
 Imbalm 
 
 Enroll 
 
 Embankment 
 
 Imbankment 
 
 Enrolment* 
 
 Embargo 
 
 Imbargo 
 
 Enshrine 
 
 Embark 
 
 Imbark 
 
 Ensnare 
 
 Embarkation 
 
 Embarcation 
 
 Entail 
 
 Embed 
 
 Imbed 
 
 Entangle 
 
 Embezzle 
 
 Imbezzle 
 
 Enterprise 
 
 Emblazon 
 
 Imblazon 
 
 Enthrone 
 
 Embody 
 
 Imbody 
 
 Enthymeme 
 
 Embolden 
 
 Imbolden 
 
 Entitle 
 
 Emborder 
 
 Imborder 
 
 Entomb 
 
 Embosom 
 
 Imbosom 
 
 Entrance 
 
 Emboss 
 
 Imboss 
 
 Entrap 
 
 Embowel 
 
 Imbowel 
 
 Entreat 
 
 Embower 
 
 Imbower 
 
 Entwine 
 
 Impale 
 ( Empannel 
 ( Impanel 
 I Employ^, ?». 
 / Emplo3'^e,y*. 
 
 Impoison 
 
 Impower 
 
 Incage 
 
 Inchant 
 
 Inchase 
 
 Incircle 
 
 Inclose 
 
 Inclosure 
 
 I nc roach 
 
 Incumber 
 
 Incumbrance 
 
 Encyclopedia 
 
 Indamage 
 
 Indear 
 
 Indow 
 
 Indue 
 
 Infeeble 
 
 Infeoff 
 
 Infranchise 
 
 Ingender 
 
 In gorge 
 
 Inhance 
 
 Enigma 
 
 Injoin 
 
 Inlard 
 
 Enrol, Inrol 
 
 Enrollment 
 
 Inshrine 
 
 Insnare 
 
 Intail 
 
 Intangle 
 
 Enterprize 
 
 Inthrone 
 Enthymem 
 
 Intitle 
 
 In tomb 
 
 Intrance 
 
 Intrap 
 
 In treat 
 
 Intwine
 
 LIST OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 
 
 81 
 
 Envelop, v. 
 
 Envelope 
 
 Frustum 
 
 Frnstrum 
 
 Envelope, n. 
 
 Envelop 
 
 Fugleman 
 
 Fugelman 
 
 Envelopment 
 
 Envelopement 
 
 Fulfil* 
 
 FultiU 
 
 Epaulettet 
 
 Epaulet 
 
 Fulfilment* 
 
 Fulfillment 
 
 Escritoire 
 
 ( Escritoir 
 
 Fulness* 
 
 Fullness 
 
 1 Scrutoire 
 
 Further {addit 
 
 ional) Farther 
 
 Escutcheon 
 
 Scutcheon 
 
 Fusee* 
 
 Fusil 
 
 Exactor 
 
 Exacter 
 
 Gabardine 
 
 Gaberdine 
 
 Expense 
 
 Expence 
 
 Galiot 
 
 Galliot 
 
 Exsiccate, etc. 
 
 Exiccate 
 
 Gantlet 
 
 ( Gantelope 
 \ Gauntlet 
 
 Exude, etc. 
 
 Exsude 
 
 VJlHiLlLl^ \t 
 
 Eyrie t 
 
 Aerie, Ayry 
 
 Garish 
 
 Gairish 
 
 Fseces 
 
 Feces 
 
 Gauge 
 
 Gage 
 
 Fagot 
 
 Faggot 
 
 Gauntlet [glove) Gantlet 
 
 Fairy 
 
 Faery, Faerie 
 
 Gavety 
 
 Gaiety 
 
 Fakir 
 
 Faquir 
 
 Gayly 
 
 Gaily 
 
 Falchion 
 
 Faulchion 
 
 Gazelle 
 
 Gazel 
 
 Falcon, etc. 
 
 Faulcon 
 
 Gear 
 
 Geer 
 
 Fantasy 
 
 Phantasy 
 
 Gelatine 
 
 Gelatin 
 
 Tarther (distance) Further 
 
 Gerfalcon 
 
 Gyrfalcon 
 
 Farthest " 
 
 Furthest 
 
 Germane 
 
 { German 
 1 Germain 
 
 Farthingale 
 
 Fardingale 
 
 Fecal 
 
 FjEcal 
 
 Ghibelline 
 
 Gibelline 
 
 Felly 
 
 Felloe 
 
 Gibe 
 
 Gybe, Jibe 
 
 Felon 
 
 Fellon 
 
 Gimlet 
 
 Gimblet 
 
 Feldspart 
 
 Felspar 
 
 Girasole 
 
 Girasol 
 
 Feud 
 
 Feod 
 
 Girth* 
 
 Girt 
 
 Fibre* 
 
 Fiber 
 
 Glave 
 
 Glaive 
 
 Fie 
 
 Fy 
 
 Glazier 
 
 Glasier 
 
 Filigree 
 
 ( Filigrane 
 ) Filagree 
 
 Gloze 
 Gluey 
 
 Giose 
 Gluy 
 
 Finery {a forge) Finary 
 
 Gnarled 
 
 Knarled 
 
 Flageolet 
 
 Flagelet 
 
 Good by 
 
 Good-bye 
 
 Fledgelingt 
 
 Fledgling 
 
 Gore 
 
 Goar 
 
 Flier 
 
 Flayer 
 
 Gormand 
 
 Gourmand 
 
 Flour {meal) 
 
 Flower 
 
 Graft 
 
 Graff 
 
 Foetus* 
 
 Fetus 
 
 Gram 
 
 Gramme 
 
 Forayt 
 
 Forray 
 
 Gran dam 
 
 Gran dame 
 
 Fosse 
 
 Foss 
 
 Granite 
 
 Granit 
 
 Foundryt 
 
 Foundery 
 
 Gray 
 
 Grey 
 
 Frenzy 
 
 Phrensy 
 
 Grenade 
 
 Granade 
 
 Frieze 
 
 Prize 
 
 Grenadier 
 
 Granadier 
 
 Frumentaceous Frumentacious 
 
 Greyhound 
 
 Graj'hound 
 
 Fnunenty 
 
 ( Furmenty 
 1 Furmety 
 
 Griffin 
 Grisly 
 
 Gryphon,Griffon 
 Grizzly
 
 82 
 
 LIST OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 
 
 Grizzled 
 
 Grisled 
 
 Hurrat 
 
 Hurrah, Huzza 
 
 Groundselt 
 
 Groundsill 
 
 Hydrangea 
 
 Hydrangia 
 
 Group 
 
 Groupe 
 
 Hypaethral 
 
 Hj'pethral 
 
 Guarantee, v. 
 
 Guaranty 
 
 Hypotenusef 
 
 Hypotheniise 
 
 Guaranty, n. 
 
 Guarantee 
 
 Idyl 
 
 Idyll 
 
 Guild (society) 
 
 Gild 
 
 Imbrue 
 
 Embrue 
 
 Guilder (coin) 
 
 Gilder 
 
 Impair 
 
 Empair 
 
 Gulf 
 
 Gulph 
 
 Imparlance 
 
 Emparlance 
 
 Gunwale 
 
 Gunnel 
 
 Impassion 
 
 Em passion 
 
 Gypsy* 
 
 Gypsey, Gipsy 
 
 Implead 
 
 Emplead 
 
 Gyves 
 
 Gives 
 
 Imposthume 
 
 Impostume 
 
 Halberd 
 
 Halbert 
 
 Impoverish 
 
 Empoverish 
 
 Halibut 
 
 Holibut 
 
 Imprint 
 
 Emprint 
 
 Halvards 
 
 Halliards 
 
 Incase 
 
 Encase 
 
 Halloo, Hollo 
 
 Holloa, Hollow 
 
 Inclasp 
 
 Enclasp 
 
 Handicraft 
 
 Handcraft 
 
 Increase 
 
 Encrease 
 
 Handiwork 
 
 Handwork 
 
 Incrust 
 
 Encrust 
 
 Harebell 
 
 Hairbell 
 
 Indelible 
 
 Indeleble 
 
 Harebrained 
 
 Hairbrained 
 
 Indict 
 
 Endict 
 
 Harem 
 
 Haram 
 
 Indite 
 
 Endite 
 
 Harrier 
 
 Harier 
 
 Inditer 
 
 Enditer 
 
 Harslet* 
 
 Haslet 
 
 Indorse 
 
 Endorse 
 
 Haul {to drag) 
 
 Hale 
 
 Inferablet 
 
 Inferrible 
 
 Haunch 
 
 Hanch 
 
 Inflection 
 
 Inflexion 
 
 Hawser 
 
 Halser 
 
 Infold 
 
 Enfold 
 
 Hazel 
 
 Hazle 
 
 Infoliate 
 
 Enfoliate 
 
 Headache 
 
 Headach 
 
 Ingraft 
 
 Ingraff, Engraft 
 
 Hearse 
 
 Herse 
 
 Ingrain 
 
 Engrain 
 
 Heartache 
 
 Heartach 
 
 Ingulf 
 
 Engulf 
 
 Height 
 
 Hight 
 
 Innuendo 
 
 Inuendo 
 
 Hemistich 
 
 Hemistick 
 
 Inquire 
 
 Enquire 
 
 Hibernate 
 
 Hybernate 
 
 Inquirer 
 
 Enquirer 
 
 Hiccough 
 
 Hickup 
 
 Inquiry 
 
 Enquiry 
 
 Hindoo 
 
 Hindu , 
 
 Instalment* 
 
 Installment 
 
 Hindrance}: 
 
 Hinderance 
 
 Instil* 
 
 Instill 
 
 Hoarhound 
 
 Horehound 
 
 Instructor 
 
 Instructer 
 
 Hodge-podge 
 
 Hotch-potch 
 
 Insurance 
 
 Ensurance 
 
 Hoiden 
 
 Hoyden 
 
 Insure 
 
 Ensure 
 
 Holiday 
 
 Holyday 
 
 Inthrall 
 
 1 Inthral 
 
 Hollo, Halloo 
 
 Holloa, Hollow 
 
 
 1 Enthrall 
 
 Honeyed 
 
 Honied 
 
 Inthralment 
 
 Inthrallment 
 
 Hoot 
 
 Whoot 
 
 Intrust 
 
 Entrust 
 
 Hornblende 
 
 Hornblend 
 
 Inure, or 
 
 Enure 
 
 Hostler 
 
 Ostler 
 
 Inventor 
 
 Inventer 
 
 Housewife 
 
 Huswife 
 
 In wrap 
 
 Enwrap
 
 LIST OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 
 
 83 
 
 Inwreathe 
 
 Inwreath 
 
 Manoeuvre* 
 
 Maneuver 
 
 Jail 
 
 Gaol 
 
 Mantelpiece 
 
 Mantlepiece 
 
 Jailer 
 
 Gaoler 
 
 Marquis* 
 
 Marquess 
 
 Janizary- 
 
 Janissary- 
 
 Marshal 
 
 Mareschal 
 
 Jasmine 
 
 Jessamine 
 
 Martin (bird) 
 
 Marten 
 
 Jaunt, -ily 
 
 Jant, -ily 
 
 Marten {beast] 
 
 Martin 
 
 Jaunty 
 
 Janty 
 
 Mask 
 
 Masque 
 
 Jewelry 
 
 Jewellcry 
 
 Mastic 
 
 Mastich 
 
 Jonquille* 
 
 Jonquil 
 
 Mattress 
 
 ( Matress 
 
 Jostlet 
 
 Justle 
 
 
 1 Mattrass 
 
 Jowlf 
 
 Jole 
 
 Maugre* 
 
 Mauger 
 
 Judgment 
 
 Judgement 
 
 Meagre* 
 
 Meager 
 
 Kale 
 
 Kail, Gail 
 
 Mediaeval 
 
 Medieval 
 
 Keelhaul 
 
 Keelhale 
 
 Merchandise 
 
 Merchandize 
 
 Keelson 
 
 Kelson 
 
 Mere (a jjool) 
 
 Meer 
 
 Keg 
 
 Cag 
 
 Meter J 
 
 Metre 
 
 Koran, Alcoran 
 
 Alkoran 
 
 Mileage 
 
 Milage 
 
 Lackey 
 
 Lacquey 
 
 Milleped 
 
 Millepede 
 
 Lacquer 
 
 Lacker 
 
 Millionaire 
 
 Millionnaire 
 
 Lantern 
 
 Lanthorn 
 
 Misspell 
 
 Mispell 
 
 Lanyard 
 
 Laniard 
 
 Misspend 
 
 Mispend 
 
 Launch 
 
 Lanch 
 
 Mistletop 
 
 ( Misletoe 
 1 Misseltoe 
 
 Lea* (a plain) 
 
 Lee, Ley, Lay 
 
 I'Xlo Lll^ LLfC 
 
 Leach, v. 
 
 Leech, Letch 
 
 Mitre* 
 
 Miter 
 
 Ledger 
 
 Leger 
 
 Mizzen 
 
 Mizen 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 Lettice 
 
 Moccason* 
 
 ( Moccasin 
 ( Moggason 
 
 License 
 
 Licence 
 
 
 Licorice 
 
 Liquorice 
 
 Mohammedan 
 
 ( Mahometan 
 ( Muhammedan 
 
 Lief 
 
 Lieve, Leef 
 
 
 Lilac 
 
 Lilach 
 
 Moneyed 
 
 Monied 
 
 Llama (animal) 
 
 Lama 
 
 Mood, or 
 
 Mode 
 
 Loadstar 
 
 Lodestar 
 
 Mortgagor,! or Mortgageor 
 
 Loadstone 
 
 Lodestone 
 
 Mosque 
 
 Mosk 
 
 Loath, a. 
 
 Loth 
 
 
 ( Moscheto 
 
 Lode (a vein) 
 
 Load 
 
 Mosquito 
 
 < Musketoe 
 
 Lodgment! 
 
 Lodgement 
 
 
 ( Musquito 
 
 Lower 
 
 Lour 
 
 Mould* 
 
 Mold 
 
 Lye {from ashes) Lie, Ley 
 
 Moult* 
 
 Molt 
 
 Machiavellian 
 
 Macchiavellian 
 
 Mullein 
 
 Mullin, Mullen 
 
 MaladniinistrationtMaleadministrat'n 
 
 Multiped 
 
 Multipede 
 
 Malcontent! 
 
 Malecontent 
 
 Murder 
 
 Murther 
 
 Malfeasancef 
 
 Malefeasance 
 
 Murky 
 
 Mirky 
 
 Malpracticef 
 
 Malepractice 
 
 Muscle, and 
 
 Jlussel 
 
 Maltreat 
 
 Maletreat 
 
 Mustache 
 
 ISIoustache 
 
 Manikin 
 
 Mannikin 
 
 Nankeen 
 
 Nankin
 
 84 
 
 LIST OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 
 
 Naught 
 
 Nought 
 
 Polyhedron 
 
 Polyedron 
 
 Negotiate 
 
 Negociate 
 
 Pommel 
 
 Punnnel 
 
 Net, o. {clear) 
 
 Neat, Nelt 
 
 Pontoon* 
 
 Pouton 
 
 Nitre 
 
 Niter 
 
 Pony 
 
 Poney 
 
 Northeast 
 
 North-east 
 
 Porpoise 
 
 Porpus, Porpess 
 
 Novitiate 
 
 Noviciate 
 
 Portress* 
 
 Porteress 
 
 Octahedron 
 
 f Octaedron 
 ( Octohedron 
 
 Postilion 
 Potato 
 
 Postillion 
 Potatoe 
 
 (Ecumenical* 
 
 Ecumenical 
 
 Potsherd 
 
 1 Potshard 
 1 Potshare 
 
 Offence* 
 
 Offense 
 
 
 Opaque 
 
 Opake 
 
 Practise,* v. 
 
 Practice 
 
 Osier 
 
 Ozier 
 
 Premise 
 
 Premiss 
 
 Oxide 
 
 Oxyde, Oxj'd 
 
 Pretence* 
 
 Pretense 
 
 Oyes 
 
 Oyez 
 
 Preterite* 
 
 Preterit 
 
 Pacha 
 
 Pasha, Bashaw 
 
 Protector 
 
 Protecter 
 
 Palette 
 
 Palet, Pallet 
 
 Pumpkm 
 
 ( Pompion 
 
 Palmiped 
 
 Palmipede 
 
 ( Pumpion 
 
 Panel 
 
 Pannel 
 
 Purr 
 
 Pur 
 
 Pappoose* 
 
 Papoose 
 
 Purslane! 
 
 Purslain 
 
 Paralyze 
 
 Paralyse 
 
 Putrefy 
 
 Putrify 
 
 Parol, a. 
 
 Parole 
 
 Pygmy 
 
 Pigmy 
 
 Partisan 
 
 Partizan 
 
 Pyx 
 
 Pix 
 
 Patrol,- re. 
 
 Patrole 
 
 Quadrat ( 7j(/j.) Quadrate 
 
 Paver 
 
 Pavier, Pavior 
 
 QuartetteJ 
 
 Quartet 
 
 PaynimJ 
 
 Painim 
 
 Quay (a mole) 
 
 Key 
 
 Pedler* 
 Penniless 
 
 Peddler, Pedlar 
 Pennj'less 
 
 Quinsy 
 
 J Quinsey 
 / Qiiinzy 
 
 Peony 
 
 Piony 
 
 QuintetteJ 
 
 Quintet 
 
 Persimmon 
 
 Persimon 
 
 Raccoon 
 
 Racoon, Rackoon 
 
 Persistence 
 
 Persistance 
 
 Rarefy 
 
 Rarify 
 
 Phantasm 
 
 Fantasm 
 
 Raspberry 
 
 Rasberry 
 
 Phantom 
 
 Fantom 
 
 Rattan 
 
 Ratan 
 
 Philter 
 
 Philtre 
 
 Raven (prey) 
 
 Ravin 
 
 Phoenix* 
 
 Phenix 
 
 Raze 
 
 Rase 
 
 Phthisic 
 
 Tisic 
 
 Real (coin) 
 
 Rial, Ryal 
 
 Piaster 
 
 Piastre 
 
 Rearward 
 
 Rereward 
 
 Picket 
 
 Piquet 
 
 Recall 
 
 Recal 
 
 Pie 
 
 Pye 
 
 Recognize, etc. 
 
 Recognise, efc. 
 
 Piebald 
 
 Pyebald 
 
 Recognizance 
 
 Recognisance 
 
 Pimento 
 
 Pinienta 
 
 Reconnoitre* 
 
 Reconnoiter 
 
 Pincers* 
 
 Pinchers 
 
 Redoubt 
 
 Redout 
 
 Plat, or 
 
 Plot 
 
 Referable 
 
 Referrible 
 
 Pliers 
 
 Plyers 
 
 Reflection 
 
 Reflexion 
 
 Plough* , 
 
 Plow 
 
 Reindeer 
 
 J Raindeer 
 
 Pluniiped 
 
 Pluniipede 
 
 J Ranedeer
 
 LIST 
 
 OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 8 
 
 Relic 
 
 Eelique 
 
 Sheathe, v. 
 
 Sheath 
 
 Rennet 
 
 Kunnet 
 
 Sheik 
 
 Sheikh, Scheik 
 
 Replier 
 
 Eeplyer 
 
 Show 
 
 Shew 
 
 Reposit 
 
 Reposite 
 
 Showbread 
 
 Shewbread 
 
 Resistance 
 
 Resistence 
 
 Sliylv, -ness 
 
 Shilv, -ness 
 
 Restiff, or 
 
 Restive 
 
 Sibyl 
 
 Sybil 
 
 Reverie 
 
 Revery 
 
 Sidewise 
 
 Sideways 
 
 Reversible 
 
 Reversable 
 
 Silicious, or 
 
 Siliceous 
 
 Ribbon 
 
 Riband 
 
 Siphon 
 
 S3'phon 
 
 Rodomontade 
 
 Rhodomontade 
 
 Sirloin 
 
 Surloin 
 
 Roister, -er 
 
 Royster, -er 
 
 Skilful* 
 
 Skillful 
 
 Sac [Nat. Hist.) Sack 
 
 Skulk 
 
 Sculk 
 
 Sainfoin 
 
 Saintfoin 
 
 Skull 
 
 Scull 
 
 Salic 
 
 Salique 
 
 Sleight, n. 
 
 Slight 
 
 Saltpetre* 
 
 Saltpeter 
 
 Slyh-, -ness 
 
 Slily, -ness 
 
 Sandaract 
 
 Sandarach 
 
 Smoulder* 
 
 Smolder 
 
 Sanskrit! 
 
 Sanscrit 
 
 Smooth, V. 
 
 Smoothe 
 
 Sarcenet 
 
 Sarsenet 
 
 Socage 
 
 Soccage 
 
 Sat 
 
 Sate 
 
 Solan-goose 
 
 Soland-goose 
 
 Satchel 
 
 Sachel 
 
 Solder 
 
 Soder 
 
 Satinet 
 
 Satinelt 
 
 Sombre* 
 
 Somber 
 
 Saviour 
 
 Savior 
 
 Somersault 
 
 Summersault 
 
 Scallop 
 
 Scollop 
 
 Somerset 
 
 Summerset 
 
 Scath, or 
 
 Scathe 
 
 Soothe 
 
 Sooth 
 
 Sceptic* 
 
 Skeptic 
 
 Sorrel 
 
 Sorel 
 
 Schist 
 
 Shist 
 
 Southwest 
 
 South-west 
 
 Scion 
 
 Cion 
 
 Spinach 
 
 Spinage 
 
 Scirrhus 
 
 Skirrhus 
 
 Sponge 
 
 Spunge 
 
 Sconce 
 
 Skonce 
 
 Sprite 
 
 Spright 
 
 Scot-free 
 
 Shot-free 
 
 Spurt, or 
 
 Spirt 
 
 Seym i tar ; see 
 
 Cimeter 
 
 Stanch 
 
 Staunch 
 
 Scythe 
 
 Sithe, Sythe 
 
 Stationery, n. 
 
 Stationary 
 
 Seamstress 
 
 Sempstress 
 
 Steadfast 
 
 Stedfast 
 
 Sear 
 
 Sere 
 
 Steelyard 
 
 Stillyard 
 
 Secretarj'ship 
 
 Secretariship 
 
 Sterile 
 
 Steril 
 
 Seethe 
 
 Seeth 
 
 Stillness 
 
 Stilness 
 
 Seignior 
 
 Signior, Signor 
 
 Stockade 
 
 Stoccade 
 
 Seised j: (possessed of ) Seized 
 
 Strait, n. 
 
 Straight, n. 
 
 SeisinJ (law) 
 
 Seizin 
 
 Strew 
 
 Straw, Strew 
 
 Sentinel 
 
 Centinel 
 
 Stupefy 
 
 Stupify 
 
 Sergeant 
 
 Serjeant 
 
 Stv 
 
 Stve 
 
 Shakespeare 
 
 J Shakspeare 
 ( Shakspere 
 
 Style 
 Subtile (thin) 
 
 Stile 
 Subtle 
 
 Shakespearian 
 
 Shakspearan 
 
 Subtle (sly) 
 
 Subtile 
 
 Shard 
 
 Sherd 
 
 Subtract 
 
 Substract
 
 86 
 
 LIST OF WORDS VARIOUSLY SPELLED. 
 
 Suitor 
 
 Suiter 
 
 Vender, or 
 
 Vendor (Law) 
 
 Sulphuretted* 
 
 Sulphureted 
 
 Verdigris 
 
 Verdegris 
 
 Sumact 
 
 Sumach, Shumac 
 
 Vermilion 
 
 Vermillion 
 
 Suretyship 
 
 Suretiship 
 
 ■y ertebra 
 
 Verteber 
 
 Surname 
 
 Sirname 
 
 Vervain 
 
 Vervaine 
 
 Surprise 
 
 Surprize 
 
 Vial 
 
 Phial 
 
 Swath 
 
 Swarth 
 
 Vicious 
 
 Vitious 
 
 Swathe, v. 
 
 Swath 
 
 VidetteJ 
 
 Vedette 
 
 Swapt 
 
 Swop 
 
 Villanous* 
 
 Villainous 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 Sycamine 
 
 Villany* 
 
 Villainy 
 
 Sylvan 
 
 Silvan 
 
 Viset (a screw) 
 
 Vice 
 
 Synonymf 
 
 Synonyme 
 
 Visitor 
 
 Visiter 
 
 Syrupt 
 
 Sirup, Sirop 
 
 Visor 
 
 Vizor 
 
 Systematize 
 
 Sj'stemize 
 
 Vitiate 
 
 Viciate 
 
 Taffety* 
 
 Taffeta 
 
 Vizier 
 
 Vizir, Visier 
 
 Talc (a sto7ie) 
 
 Talk, Talck 
 
 Wagon 
 
 Waggon 
 
 Tambourine 
 
 ( Tambourin 
 ( Tamborine 
 
 Waive (to defei 
 
 ) Wave 
 
 
 Walrus 
 
 Walruss 
 
 Tarpaulint 
 
 { Tarpawling 
 1 Tarpauling 
 
 Wear (Naut.) 
 
 Ware 
 
 Weirt 
 
 Wear, Wier 
 
 Tawny 
 
 Tawney 
 
 Weasand 
 
 Wezand 
 
 Tease 
 
 Teaze 
 
 Welsh 
 
 Welch 
 
 Theatre* 
 
 Theater 
 
 Whippletree 
 
 Whiffletree 
 
 Thraldom* 
 
 Thralldora 
 
 Whippoorwill 
 
 Whippowill 
 
 Thrash 
 
 Thresh 
 
 Whiskey* 
 
 Whisky 
 
 Threshold 
 
 Throshhold 
 
 Whoop 
 
 Hoop 
 
 Tidbit 
 
 Titbit 
 
 Whooping-cough 
 
 Hooping-cough 
 
 Tithe 
 
 Tythe 
 
 Widgeon 
 
 Wigeon 
 
 Toilet 
 
 Toilette 
 
 Wilful* 
 
 Willful 
 
 Toll (to allure] 
 
 Tole 
 
 Windlass 
 
 f Windlace 
 / Windlas 
 
 Tormentor 
 
 Tormenter 
 
 
 Tourmaline 
 
 Tourmalin 
 
 Wintry* 
 
 Wintery 
 
 Tranquillit}'* 
 
 Tranquility 
 
 Withe, t n. 
 
 With 
 
 Tranquillize* 
 
 Tranquilize 
 
 Withal 
 
 Withall 
 
 Transferable 
 
 Transferrible 
 
 Woe 
 
 Wo 
 
 Trousers 
 
 Trowsers 
 
 Woful 
 
 Woeful 
 
 
 ( Turkois 
 
 Wondrous 
 
 Wonderous 
 
 Turquoisf 
 
 I Turquoise 
 
 Woollen* 
 
 Woolen 
 
 Unaneled 
 
 Unanelled 
 
 Worshipper 
 
 Worshiper 
 
 Unbiasedt 
 
 Unbiassed 
 
 Wreathe, v. 
 
 Wreath 
 
 Unhouselled 
 
 Unhouseled 
 
 Wreck 
 
 Wrack 
 
 Unroll 
 
 Unrol 
 
 Yeast 
 
 Yest 
 
 Until* 
 
 Untill 
 
 Yelk 
 
 Yolk 
 
 Valise 
 
 Vallise 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Zink 
 
 Veil 
 
 Vail 
 
 Zinciferous 
 
 Zinkiferous
 
 ACCENTS, DIVISIONS, ETC. 87 
 
 CHAPTEE XI. 
 
 ACCENTS, DIVISIONS, ETC., IN THE CLASSICAL 
 AND MODERN LANGUAGES. 
 
 I. English. 
 
 1. The English language has no universally recog- 
 nized accentual or diacritical marks, except the long (-) 
 and short (— ), which are never used in general works, 
 and the diaeresis (•• ). Even this last mark is used 
 in our spelling-books and dictionaries for a purpose 
 totally different from its proper use, which (as its name 
 signifies) is to show that two vowels which might consti- 
 tute a diphthong are to be pronounced separately. It is 
 also correctly used in proper names from the German. 
 
 2. All other accents on vowels in English have no 
 fixed meaning. It is therefore totally useless for writers 
 to undertake to show by the use of such letters as d or e, 
 and e or e, the pronunciation of a foreign word to a 
 mere English reader. 
 
 3. The only other marks nsed are the French f in 
 words adopted from the French, as fagade, and n in 
 words from the Spanish, as canon. Words like chdteau 
 and fete are sometimes written with the French accent, 
 but this is useless, as the pronunciation can be as easily 
 learned without the accent as with it. 
 
 4. In all foreign languages, however, accentual marks 
 have a meaning and purpose, and the following direc- 
 tions are intended to show how they are used, even to 
 those who do not know their fuU meaning or purposa
 
 88 GREEK. 
 
 5. The same punctuation marks, as well as the dash, 
 parenthesis, and quotation marks, are used in all these 
 languages except the Greek, and for the same purpose 
 as in English. 
 
 II. Greek. 
 
 1. The Greek language is written with twenty-four 
 letters, two breathings, three accents, five marks of 
 punctuation, and the apostrophe. 
 
 2. The marks of punctuation are the comma, the 
 colon ( • ), the period, the note of interrogation ( ; ), and 
 the exclamation point, — all like ours but the colon 
 and the note of interrogation. 
 
 3. A single vowel beginning a word has a breathing 
 placed over it, or before it if it is a capital ; either the 
 smooth ( ' ), which has no sound, or the rough ( ' ), 
 which has the efiect of an h before the vowel. If a 
 diphthong begins a word, the breathing, as well as the 
 accent, is put over the second letter. E. g. 6 airqp, 
 
 4. The rough breathing is also used over the letter p 
 when it begins a word, as pioi ; and where the p is dou- 
 bled a breathing is put over each letter, as apprjv, JJvppos. 
 
 5. The smooth breathing sometimes occurs in the 
 middle of a word in poetry, when it shows that the 
 elision of a vowel has taken place, and two words have 
 been united ; as, Tovvavriov for to Ivavriov, kov for kol 
 av, rjTapa for ^roi apa. 
 
 6. The accents are the acute ('), the grave (^), and 
 the circumflex (" or " ) ; one of these belongs on every 
 word, and only one, except in the case of enclitics. 
 
 1 The 6, T), and ri here are respectively the masculine, feminiuei 
 and neuter article.
 
 GREEK. 89 
 
 7. No accent can come upon any syllable before the 
 antepenult/ and none but the acute on this. The acute 
 cannot be used upon the last syllable of a word in the 
 midst of a sentence, but is used instead of the grave 
 whenever it occurs before any punctuation mark, or on 
 a word in an English sentence. The interrogative rt or 
 Tts is an exception to this rule, and is always written 
 with the acute accent. 
 
 8. The circumflex can be used only on one of the 
 last two syllables, and never over either of the short 
 vowels € and o.^ 
 
 9. The grave can be used only on the final syllable. 
 It is not used immediately before any mark of punctu- 
 ation except occasionally the comma, nor on a single 
 word standing in an English sentence. 
 
 10. If an accent comes upon a diphthong, it is placed 
 over the second letter ; and if upon a capital at the be- 
 ginning of a word, it is put before it with the breath- 
 ing ; as, Aia?, "Ofjirjpo<;, 'O <^tAos. 
 
 11. An enclitic is a word attached in accentuation to 
 the preceding word, and has its accent thrown back 
 upon the last syllable of the preceding word, and some- 
 times successively on two or three words ; as, avOpum-o^ 
 
 i(TTL ' Setfov /u,oi • ct Tt'? TLvd (prjcTL fJ-OL irapCLvai. 
 
 12. The three vowels a, -q, w, take sometimes, the 
 iota subscript, a, y, w. When one of these letters re- 
 
 1 The penult is the last syllable but one of a word ; the ante- 
 penult is the one preceding the penult. 
 
 2 Notwithstanding the circumflex accent can never be used on 
 these short vowels, English tj^ie-founders send out with all their 
 Greek fonts a great quantity of these useless accents ; and in a print- 
 er's manual recently printed in Philadelphia, notwithstanding the 
 use of the accents purports to be explained, in the Greek case which 
 is given boxes axe shown for various combinations of these letters.
 
 90 LATIN. 
 
 quires to be capitalized, the t is put after the capital, 
 and any accent or breathing required is put before it ; 
 as, "AiSt^s for glSt;?, "HiSt; for 778-7, 'f2tS'7 for ioStj. 
 
 13. The diajresis is used for the same purpose as in 
 English (p. 87), and the apostrophe also, to show the 
 elision of a vowel at the beginning or end of a word. 
 
 14. In dividing words at the end of a line, all the 
 consonants which can be pronounced together are car- 
 ried over ; but compounds are separated into their ele^ 
 raents ; as, crui'-etV-ct/Ai. 
 
 III. Latin. 
 
 1. The Latin alphabet is the same as the English, 
 with the exception of w. 
 
 2. Latin is now commonly printed with no marks of 
 accent whatever except the diaeresis, which is used for 
 the same purpose as in Greek and English. 
 
 3. The diphthongs ce and oe are now often printed 
 separately, ae and oe ; in this case, where they are not 
 diphthongs the diaeresis is put over the e ; as, aer, poeta. 
 But if the oe or a? is used wherever it is a diphthong, 
 the separate letters without the diaeresis sufficiently de- 
 note that they are not a diphthong ; as, aer, poeta. 
 
 4. In writing Latin names or other words as English, 
 the diphthong should always be used ; as, Caesar, Meli- 
 boeus, anapcBst, Athenceum, ccesura. 
 
 5. The grave accent was formerly used to distinguish 
 certain particles from other words spelled in the same 
 manner ; as, quod, because ; quod, which. 
 
 6. The circumflex was used over final d in the Ab- 
 lative case of the first declension to distinguish it from 
 the Nominative ; as, bond fide, sub rosd. Also over u 
 in lis and ilm, to mark the Genitive in the fourth de-
 
 FRENCH. 91 
 
 clension. It was also used to mark various contrac- 
 tions ; as, D% for Dii: and also over a vowel in certain 
 verbs to denote the omission of vi in conjugation ; as, 
 amdsti for amavisti. 
 
 7. In printing Latin, copy should be followed as to 
 diphthongs and accents, if it is uniform ; as many still 
 prefer to retain the old style, which in fact is followed 
 in all English works except those of a very recent date, 
 
 8. Words are generally divided in Latin by the same 
 rules as in English, although some authors follow the 
 rule of the Greek, in separating all the consonants which 
 can be pronounced together from the preceding vowel. 
 
 IV. French. 
 
 1. The French alphabet is the same with the Eng- 
 lish, excepting w and k. It has three orthographic 
 marks, the acute ( ' ), the grave ( ' ), and the circum- 
 flex (^). 
 
 2. The acute is used only over e, and shows that it 
 has the sound of a in English, or a in date. Ex. ete, 
 donne, reunir, annee. Wherever two e's come together 
 in French, the first is always acute ; as, nee, passee, 
 meuhUes, rencontrees. 
 
 3. The grave accent is used over e, which then has 
 the sound of e in ebb, or in there ; as, pere, mere, pres, 
 deuxieme, trouverent. It occurs very frequently over 
 certain syllables ending with two e's separated by one 
 or two consonants, as ere, erne, etre, ecle, which have 
 the first e grave ; but this does not necessarily follow, 
 as the e may here be either acute or circumflex. The 
 grave is used over a and u only to distinguish a word 
 from another of the same spelling, but of different 
 meaning ; as, la, the ; Id,, there ; on, or ; oil, where.
 
 92 FRENCH. 
 
 4. The circumflex is used over all the vowels, and de- 
 notes that a letter has been omitted in spelling which 
 was formerly used ; as, dge, fork, tie, maitre, cote, siir. 
 
 5. The diseresis, or trema, is also used in French for 
 the same purpose as in English. 
 
 6. The cedilla is placed under c before a, u, and o, 
 when it has the sound of s ; as, fa(;ade, gar<}on, rec^u. 
 
 7. Adjectives denoting nationality are written with- 
 out a capital ; as, anglais, americain, franr^ais, romain. 
 
 8. The vowels a, e, and i, when final, are sometimes 
 elided before a word beginning with a vowel or silent 
 h. The a is elided only in the article la ; as, tamitie, 
 Vkistoire. The e is elided in the article le, the preposi- 
 tion de, the pronouns jiV, me, te, ce, se, and que, and the 
 negative adverb ne, as well as several other words ; as, 
 faime ; c'est I'ho^nme quil n^estime pas. Also in words 
 like grand'mere, attjourd' kui, entr'acte. The ^ is elided 
 only in the conjunction si before il and ils ; as, sHl, sHls. 
 In all these cases the words are run together, without a 
 space, contrary to the practice in other languages. 
 
 9. In dividing French, a single consonant between 
 two vowels always goes with the last syllable, and all 
 consonants which can be pronounced together go with 
 the following vowel. 
 
 10. In i;sing French titles before names in English, 
 the barbarism of using an English noun with a French 
 preposition should be avoided ; either make both French 
 or both English. Write Due d'Orleans, or Duke of 
 Orleans ; Due de la Rochefoucauld, or Duke of La 
 Rochefoucauld ; Comte d'Artois, or Count of Artois ; 
 Duchesse de Perpignan, or Duchess of Perpignan. I^ot 
 Duke d'Orleans, Duke de la Rochefoucauld, Count 
 d'Artois, Duchess de Perpignan.
 
 ITALIAN. 93 
 
 V. Italian, 
 
 1. The Italian alphabet consists of twenty-two let- 
 ters, similar to the English with the omission of k, w, 
 X, and y. The letter j is a vowel, and frequently oc- 
 curs at the end of a word after a consonant ; as, temjyj, 
 studj, sounded like the English y. 
 
 2. The Italian has only two accents, the grave ( ' ) 
 and the acute ( ' ). 
 
 3. The grave is used on a vowel at the end of a 
 word, to distinguish it from another word alike in 
 orthography but different in signification, as well as 
 for some other purposes. It can occur only on the 
 last letter of a word, and on this the acute never 
 comes. 
 
 4. The acute is used on the i of words ending in lo 
 and ia whenever these letters make two distinct sylla- 
 bles, thus answering the purpose of the diaeresis in 
 other languages ; as, galleria, addlo. It is sometimes 
 used, on diflTerent syllables, in words spelled alike, which 
 have two significations ; but only in cases where the 
 meaning would otherwise be ambiguous. 
 
 5. The apostrophe is used in articles in place of the 
 final vowel when they come before a word beginning 
 with another vowel, or when they are abbreviated ; as, 
 V animo, V onore, de' libri, Lorenzo c?e' Medici. The i in 
 il is also cut off after a word ending with a vowel ; as, 
 tutto 'I paese. Several other words are likewise con- 
 tracted in the same manner, at the end or the begin- 
 ning. In all cases, however, the words remain separate, 
 and are not run together as in French. 
 
 6. The rules for the division of words are the same 
 as in French.
 
 94 GERMAN. 
 
 VI. German. 
 
 1. The German alphabet contains the same letters as 
 the English, and. the following letters also occur : g, 
 If, §, a, 0, and ii. But the German has no accentual 
 marks. 
 
 2. The € is always used at the end of words, and in a 
 compound made of a word ending in g with another 
 word ; the ff is used only in the middle of words ; as, 
 te^ 2Ba[fcriJ, fceg ^aufc^, auiSfel)en, 33ii?(^en. The char- 
 acter p is represented when the Eoman alphabet is used 
 by ss ; it is thus possible in a compound word to bring 
 three s's together. 
 
 3. The d, 6, and it are represented in the Eoman 
 alphabet by a, o, and ii, and these are also used when 
 German names are written in English, although ae, oe, 
 and ue are sometimes used instead. The diphthong oe 
 and ce should never be put for a and 6. E. g. 33a()r, 
 Bahr or Baehr ; jlorner, Korner or Koerner; 5)?iiUer, 
 Miiller or Mueller. @ott)e is written Goethe in Eng- 
 lish, but other German names are usually written with 
 the a, d, or ii. In capitals the mark is not put over 
 the letter, but an e is put after it ; as, UcBer for iihtv ; 
 Defter for ofter.^ 
 
 4. In German every noun is commenced with a 
 capital letter. 
 
 5. In dividing words, the German follows the rule 
 of carrying over all the consonants which can be pro- 
 nounced together, like the other Continental languages. 
 But compound words must always be separated. 
 
 1 The compositor must not think, because a word is sometimes 
 written with the a, O, or U simple, and sometimes with d, 6, or u, it is 
 a misprint, as the plural of many words is made by this change ; 
 as, S3ater, SBdter ; 2)?utter, 2)?uttcr ; ®orten, ®drten ; Sogel, SSijgel.
 
 SPANISH, ETC. 95 
 
 VII, Spanish. 
 
 1. The Spanish alphabet is the same as the English, 
 with the exception of w and the addition of n. The 
 character II is used as a consonant ; as in llama. 
 
 2. The acute accent is used in Spanish to mark the 
 accented syllable when not determined by fixed rules. 
 It is used in monosyllables on the conjunctions e, 6, 
 and w, and the preposition a ; and also on the pronouns 
 el, mi, si, and the verbs de, se, ve, which it distin- 
 guishes from other words written without the accent. 
 
 3. The only other marks are occasionally the ii, and 
 in older Spanish the circumflex is found over the 
 vowels, but it is not now used; also the cedilla (f), 
 as in French, for which z is now used. 
 
 4. The note of interrogation in Spanish is always put 
 before a question, inverted, as well as at the end. 
 
 5. It is divided into syllables like the other principal 
 modern languages. 
 
 VIII. Other Modern Languages. 
 
 1. The Portuguese has a waving mark over vowels 
 to denote that a consonant sound is omitted ; as, Joao, 
 Gar(^ao} The acute accent is sometimes used, and the 
 f is also used as in French. 
 
 2. The Dutch use the same alphabet with the Engv 
 lish, and have no accented or marked letters. A po. 
 culiarity of the Dutch is the vowel ij, which is equiva- 
 lent to our y ; as, Bilderdijk, Hmjgens. 
 
 3. The Danish marked letters are the a, b, and -O; 
 which last is a peculiarity of the language. Danish is 
 
 1 This mark is frequently found in old English books and manu- 
 scripts, where it is used for the same purpose.
 
 96 HEBREW. 
 
 sometimes printed in the German and sometimes in the 
 Roman character, as is also the case with the Swedish. 
 
 4. The Swedish has the German a and o, and also a 
 letter peculiar to the language, °i, which is frequently 
 seen in proper names ; as, Smaland, Abo. The acute 
 is sometimes used in Swedish to mark an accented syl- 
 lable ; as, Tegner, Franzen. 
 
 5. The Modern Greek, or Romaic, is printed precisely 
 like the classical Greek, and is subject to the same typo- 
 graphical rules in all respects. 
 
 6. The Slavic languages of Europe — Russian, Pol- 
 ish, Hungarian, etc. — and the Turkish are not often 
 seen in anything but proper names ; and so of the 
 Arabic, Persian, and other Oriental languages. These 
 are all so variously spelled that any directions are use- 
 less. Every writer or traveller — if he gives us noth- 
 ing else new — invariably has a new mode of marking 
 names, which has no significance whatever to the Eng- 
 lish reader. 
 
 IX. Hebrew. 
 
 The use of Hebrew in this country does not warrant 
 the large space given to it in printer's manuals, which 
 is totally useless. ISTo compositor can set Hebrew with- 
 out studying the letters and points in the grammar. 
 The only use generally made of it is in commentaries on 
 the Bible. One thing, however, must be remembered, 
 — that, as Hebrew, like all Oriental languages, is read 
 from right to left, if a passage is quoted which has to 
 be divided, the right-hand words must go in the first 
 line, and the left-hand words be carried over.
 
 REMARKS ON COMPOSITION. 97 
 
 • CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 REMARKS ON COMPOSITION. — TECHNICAL 
 TERMS. — SIZES OF TYPE. 
 
 1. Composition is the most important branch of the 
 printing business. Unless that is done tastefully and 
 accurately, fine press work and expensive paper will be 
 thrown away. The shape of the page, the proper sink- 
 age of headings, the relative sizes of the types for text, 
 notes, etc., all require careful attention. We shall first 
 explain so much of the process as to give a new author 
 an idea of the terms which he ought to understand. 
 
 2. The compositor's stand is a wooden frame made 
 to hold two pairs of cases, usually for Eoman and Italic. 
 The lower case is the nearest to the compositor, and 
 contains all the small letters of the alphabet (hence 
 called lower-case letters), the punctuation marks, figures, 
 spaces, and quadrats, or quads. The upper case is raised 
 above the lower case, and contains the capitals, small 
 capitals, reference marks, braces, accents, etc. 
 
 3. The spaces are merely blank types used between 
 the words, and the quadrats are larger blanks, of the 
 size of an en, an em, and of two or three ems. The 
 spaces are the 3-em or thick space, the 4-em or middle 
 space, the 5-em or thin space, and the hair-space. The 
 thick space is used between words in solid matter, or 
 matter which has no lead between the lines. The em 
 quad is a square of the size of the body of the type, 
 and is the proper indentation of a paragraph, and also
 
 98 REMARKS ON COMPOSITION. 
 
 the proper space after a period or other full stop before 
 the next sentence. The en quad is half the thickness 
 of the em, and is the proper space between words in 
 leaded or open matter, and the proper space to put 
 after a semicolon or colon when hues are spaced with 
 3-em spaces, the 5-em space being used before these 
 marks when they are properly made (see No. 16). The 
 larger quadrats are used merely for blanks at the end 
 of a paragraph. 
 
 4. The lead is a thin strip of metal, put between the 
 lines when desired, of the same height with the quad- 
 rats and spaces. Leads are cast of any thickness, and 
 are reckoned as to thickness by the number required to 
 equal a Pica em. Thus i's are four to a Pica, 6's six to 
 a Pica, and lO's (the thinnest used) ten to a Pica. Any 
 space desired between lines may be made by doubling 
 or trebling a lead of proper thickness. 
 
 5. When type is new, in papers from the foundry 
 the compositor first lays his case, which is merely de- 
 positing the types in their proper boxes. If the type 
 has before been used, he takes in his left hand as much 
 of the dead matter as it is convenient to hold, with the 
 face turned towards him, so that he can readily see the 
 words, and proceeds to distribute it to the proper boxes. 
 The speed and accuracy with which a good compositor 
 does this is a wonder to the beholder. Indeed, a com- 
 positor could do it with equal facility in the dark, if he 
 could but read the words he has to distribute ; as an 
 accomplished player •will touch any key of his instru- 
 ment, while his eyes are fastened on the music which 
 he is playing. Distributing is a very important matter, 
 for, if letters are put into the wrong boxes, the com- 
 positor will find it to his cost when he gets his proof.
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS. 99 
 
 He should avoid filling his case so full that the let- 
 ters may be knocked from one box to another ; and it 
 is better to distribute two or three times a day, as he 
 thereby gets a change from setting, which is a great 
 relaxation. 
 
 6. The compositor now receives his take of copy from 
 the foreman, usually about a day's work, and proceeds 
 to set his composing-stick. This, by means of a slide, 
 can be adjusted to any width desired. If his work is 
 to be leaded, he sets his stick by the leads, taking great 
 care to adjust it so that the lead will move readily 
 in the stick, and yet so that no letter, or even hair- 
 space, can slip by it. If the matter is to be solid, he 
 adjusts it to the given number of ems. 
 
 7. So much has been said about the proper prepara- 
 tion of copy, that it seems hardly necessary to say any- 
 thing further upon the subject. But it is of so much 
 consequence to the compositor, as a matter of money, 
 that we must insist on the duty of an author's having 
 his copy carefully and legibly written ; and, where dif- 
 ferent types are used, of marking the sizes distinctly, 
 and distinguishing foot-notes carefully from what is to 
 be inserted in the text. If the copy is illegible or faulty 
 in these respects, the compositor ought, in common hon- 
 esty, to be paid for it. 
 
 8. The compositor now, first getting or making a 
 composing-rule (whicli is a plate of brass or steel of the 
 height of type, with a little projection at the end, that 
 it may readily be transferred after his line is complete) 
 to fit his stick, sets as many words as will go in the 
 line with good spacing, or part of one where a long 
 word which can be properly divided comes at the end 
 of the line, and then spaces out as evenly as possible
 
 100 REMARKS ON COMPOSITION. 
 
 between every word, in no place making more than the 
 difference of a 5-em space, and not even this by the 
 side of a word of two or three letters only. In doing 
 this, he must justify his line exactly, — not allowing it 
 to be loose, but just tight enough to stand alone in the 
 stick, nor crowding it so hard that it requires an effort 
 to get it out of the stick. Having adjusted his line 
 properly, he transfers his composing-rule above the line, 
 and proceeds in the same manner till his stick is full, 
 when he empties the stick upon a galley of wood or 
 brass, made to hold the type. In picking up his type 
 the compositor looks only at the nich, and picks it up 
 so as to put it into his stick without turning. The ex- 
 perienced compositor can tell at once whether he has 
 got an i, r, s, or t, by the sense of touch ; although all 
 these letters are so nearly alike in thickness that an in- 
 experienced person can hardly perceive the difference. 
 
 9. In this manner he proceeds till his take is fin- 
 ished, and he receives the' 7nake-up from the compositor 
 who had the take before him.-^ The page should al- 
 ways be made up to an exact number of leaded lines, if 
 the matter is leaded, with a blank line and lead at bot- 
 tom. This is very important, where more than one 
 kind of type is used, as, if it is not done at the begin- 
 ning, pages of matter may occur which wiU either be 
 half a line short or long, — enough to spoil what is in- 
 tended for a handsome book. 
 
 10. When a sufficient number of pages for a sheet 
 are made up, they are taken to an imposing-stone, and 
 laid in place, so that when the sheet is printed the pages 
 will fold properly. The chase and furniture are then 
 
 1 It is the usual practice now for one person to make up a whol* 
 book, both for convenience and speed.
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS. 101 
 
 put around the pages, and the form is locked up so that 
 it can be lifted and carried to the press. The chase is 
 an iron frame, with two cross-bars, and the furniture 
 consists of the gutters, which are strips of wood or metal 
 put between the pages which come side by side ; the 
 head-sticks, between the head of the page and the cross- 
 bar; the sticks between the side of the page and the 
 cross-bar, called reglets ; and the side-sticks and foot- 
 sticks, which are bevelled pieces at the side and foot of 
 the pages respectively, between which and the chase are 
 inserted wedges called quoins, which are driven so as to 
 lock up the form by means of a mallet and shooting- 
 stick. If the matter is to be stereotyped or electro- 
 typed, two or three pages are locked up side by side 
 in a small chase ; but instead of gutters, side-leads are 
 used between the pages and on each side. 
 
 11. An impression is then taken of the form, called 
 a proof, which is given to the proof-reader to be read, 
 together with the copy. After reading it, the reader 
 returns it to the compositor, whose duty it is to correct 
 all the marks made and the imperfections noted by the 
 proof-reader, and in doing this to preserve proper spacing 
 throughout, no matter how much overrunning his blun- 
 ders may cost him. The reader has no right to make 
 alterations from the copy, except to spell in accordance 
 with the system of the office, and such slight changes 
 in punctuation and capitals as the regular stjde of the 
 work requires, and which every compositor ought to 
 know. But he should not undertake to reform the 
 punctuation of an author entirely, even if it is errone- 
 ous ; or even to correct grammatical blunders or awk- 
 ward expressions, — much less, errors of statement or 
 fact. These should be left to the second proof, and b©
 
 102 REMARKS ON COMPOSITION. 
 
 referred to the author for his sanction before they are 
 changed. Besides, it is not the compositor's business 
 to correct them without being paid for it. Bad copy is 
 no excuse for typographical errors, however ; these are 
 all the result of carelessness. 
 
 12. If the proof taken after correction shows that 
 marks have not been properly corrected ; that bad 
 spacing has been made, either by crowding in letters 
 and spacing too thin, or by overspacing to make up for 
 a doublet ; or that broken letters have been left uncor- 
 rected, or others broken in making the corrections ; or 
 that spaces are left sticking up so as to disfigure the 
 proof; or that letters are slipped by the leads at the 
 end of the lines ; — the compositor must again con-ect 
 the proof without charge ; as the author ought not to 
 pay for it with his own corrections, and if the propri- 
 etor pays for it, he virtually offers a premium on slov- 
 enly workmanship, or if he allows it to pass without 
 being corrected, he spoils the symmetry of the book. 
 
 13. The subject of spacing is so important that we 
 quote the following from " The American Printer," by 
 Thomas MacKellar, recently published at Philadelphia. 
 
 "Close spacing is as unworkmanlike as ■wide spacing, and 
 neither ought to be permitted except in very narrow measures ; 
 and, frequently, even then witli care it might partly be pre- 
 vented. What is commonly called the thick space is the proper 
 separator between each word ; though this rule cannot always be 
 adhered to in narrow measures when large type is used. It is 
 not sufficient merely to have a line here and there uniformly 
 spaced : a careful compositor will give every page that uniform- 
 ity of appearance which is a chief excellency 
 
 "Where a line is evenly spaced, and yet requires justifica- 
 tion,' the additional space should be put between those words in 
 the line where it will be least observable ; viz. a d and an h, be- 
 ing tall, perpendicular letters, will admit an increase of space
 
 SPACING. 103 
 
 between them, but not more than a middle and thin space to a 
 
 thick-spaced line 
 
 "Accurate justification is absolutely essential, as the letters 
 will be warped sidewise in a loose line, making it impossible to 
 get a fair impression from the type. Besides, the letters are 
 liable to be drawn out by the suction of the rollers, to the detri- 
 ment of the foiTii and the press." 
 
 14. The foregoing remarks should be carefuUy heeded 
 by the compositor. But though the proper space in 
 solid or thin-leaded matter is the thick space, yet when 
 matter is thick-leaded the space should be increased to 
 an en quad between the words, making only the same 
 relative difference in spacing out as in matter which is 
 thick-spaced ; and when, as is sometimes done, three or 
 four leads are put between the lines, two thick spaces is 
 none too much for the standard spacing. Short lines 
 of poetry are sometimes seen thus leaded, with thick 
 spaces only between the words, which spoils the whole 
 appearance of the page. Where poetry is thick-leaded, 
 a proportionate space must be preserved between the 
 stanzas. 
 
 15. In tabular work, or where figures occur in col- 
 umns, useless ciphers before figures should be discarded, 
 as well as in plain matter; e. g. Lat. 27° 8' 42", not 
 27° 08' 42". On the contrary, in columns of figures 
 with decimal numbers, the decimal places should always 
 be filled out ; as, if some decimals consist of two places, 
 all should be filled to two places, by using ciphers ; as, 
 28.44, 30.00, 30.10; not 30. or 30.1, but the places 
 filled out even. 
 
 16. In this connection we remark that the comma 
 and period should always be cast to the exact thickness 
 of one fourth of an em, as figures are cast to just one 
 half an em. In this way only can matter in tables be
 
 104 REMARKS ON COMPOSITION. 
 
 kept perfectly straight, and besides, even if the period 
 be made three to an em, it is unnecessarily thick and 
 usually has a shoulder, and looks as if a hair-space were 
 put upon one side of it. The same remark applies to 
 the semicolon and colon, which are frequently cast with 
 a space before them, which is not enough ordinarily, 
 and yet even if a hair-space is added it is more than 
 enough, especially in a thin-spaced line. 
 
 17. In setting up mathematical or chemical formulae, 
 if the signs, as usual, are made of the size of an em 
 quad, a thick space should be used each side of them ; 
 but if they are made smaller than the body, allowance 
 should be made, and a thinner space used, as should be 
 done likewise for the shoulder of an Italic capital ; and 
 where a letter projects over the body an additional 
 space should be put after it. Where capitals are used 
 for mathematical symbols, Italics are preferable, and are 
 always used for small letters : the small letters should 
 have a thin space between them, but the shoulder on 
 an Italic capital is usually sufficient. If Eoman capi- 
 tals are used, a thin space should be put between them. 
 Italics are generally used for mathematical symbols ; 
 but chemical symbols are usually printed in Eoman, 
 although sometimes put in Italics. 
 
 18. In formuliB where fractions occur, the fractions 
 should usually be put in type two sizes smaller than the 
 main type, and all fractions should be of the same size ; 
 i. e. a fraction in Arabic figures should not be put in 
 with a small face, because the compositor has that type 
 ready made, but should be made of the same size as the 
 fractions in which letters occur. The formula should 
 not be divided when it is possible to avoid it ; but if 
 a division is necessary, it must be made where a sign
 
 FORM OF THE PAGE. 105 
 
 comes between its subdivisions, and between the two 
 main members if possible. 
 
 19. A stereotype plate is made by taking a mould 
 from the type when made into pages, either in plas- 
 ter of Paris, papier-mache, or clay, which is allowed to 
 harden sufficiently to obtain a cast in type-metal. The 
 plates can be finished up and printed off, and then 
 packed away in boxes in a small compass, to be printed 
 from again without resetting the type whenever another 
 edition is called for. 
 
 20. An electrotype is made from a mould taken in 
 wax properly softened, which is then covered over with 
 a coating of fine plumbago, which can be done in the 
 mould without injury to the finest lines of the finest 
 cut, thus producing a metal surface upon which a thin 
 coating or shell of copper is deposited by means of a 
 galvanic battery. This shell is then backed up to the 
 requisite thickness for printing from, as in a stereotype 
 plate. This process is more expensive than stereo- 
 typing, but it is much superior in fineness, and is also 
 much more durable, inasmuch as copper is harder than 
 type-metal, and, where thousands of impressions are to 
 be taken, is altogether the cheapest. 
 
 21. In determining the form of a page of an oblong 
 shape, whatever its size, a certain proportion should al- 
 ways be maintained. The diagonal measure of a page 
 from the folio in the upper corner to the opposite lower 
 corner should be just twice the width of the page. 
 This is no arbitrary technical rule, but is in conform- 
 ity to the law of proportion establishing the line of 
 beauty ; it applies equally to all objects of similar 
 shape, and satisfies the eye completely. A long brick- 
 shaped page or book will not look well, luiwever nicely
 
 106 REMARKS ON COMPOSITION. 
 
 it may be printed. Wlien we come to a quarto or 
 square page, the true proportion of the diagonal to the 
 width will be found to be as lOJ : 6|, — the size of a 
 good-shaped quarto, — instead of 2 : 1, as in the oblong, 
 or octavo. And this shape also proves as satisfactory 
 to the eye as the former one. However large or small 
 the page may be, these proportions should be main- 
 tained for a handsome book. 
 
 22. The first page of the text of a book should have 
 about two thirds of the matter of a full page. Where 
 chapters or other divisions occur, a uniform sinkage of 
 the same division should be kept up through the book. 
 In poetry this should also be done as nearly as pos- 
 sible ; but allowance may be made for the different 
 stanzas which occur, so that they may be divided prop- 
 erly. A useless repetition of a half-title over the first 
 page following should be avoided. 
 
 23. In measuring a book, the square of the page is 
 taken by finding the number of ems in a line, and also 
 the number in the length of the page, including blank 
 line and leads, and multiplying them together. One 
 page of the text of this book measures 22| ems in 
 width, and 41 ems in length, and consequently con- 
 tains 923 ems. A page of the smaller type, like the 
 List of Abbreviations, measures 31 ems in width, and 
 56 in length, consequently containing 1,736 ems. All 
 types larger than Pica are by printers' rules measured 
 as Pica. 
 
 24. Extracts from a book, in prose, should always be 
 at least one size smaller than the regular text, and in 
 poetry, two sizes smaller. Where a line of poetry is 
 quoted incidentally, three sizes smaller than the text 
 should be used, at least in the larger types. Notes at
 
 SIZES OF TYPE. 107 
 
 the foot of the page are usually three sizes smaller than 
 the text ; i. e. Bourgeois for Pica, Brevier for SmaU 
 Pica, Minion for Long Primer, and Xonparoil for Bour- 
 geois. A foot-note should never be put at the end of 
 the last line of another note, but two short notes may 
 be put in the same line. 
 
 SIZES OF TXTE. 
 
 1. The types in common use are given below, in the 
 order of their size. The faces of types of the same 
 body are so varying, that it is useless to give speci- 
 mens, as the best printer, especially in a small type, 
 cannot always determine its size. 
 
 2. The largest book type used is Great Primer, and 
 this mainly in Primers and books for children. But 
 many editions of the Bible have been printed in this 
 type, and also the text of many large books of engrav- 
 ings and plates. 
 
 3. English is not very much used ; but Prayer Books 
 and Primers are often printed in it. 
 
 4. Pica is a type very much used, and the text of 
 the standard Histories in both England and America, 
 as well as many important scientific and illustrated 
 works, and Sermons and Addresses, are printed in this 
 type. Bancroft's, Prescott's, and Ticknor's works were 
 all first printed in Pica, and the Memoirs of the Ameri- 
 can Academy are in the same type. 
 
 5. Small Pica is the type of the principal Quarterlies 
 of England and America, and the North American Re- 
 view has always been printed upon it, as are also the 
 International, and others. It is also the type in which 
 the text of almost all laAV books and law reports is 
 printed, as well as most city and town documents.
 
 108 SIZES OF TYPE. 
 
 6. Long Primer is probably used more than any oth- 
 er type for book-work. Most of the noted editions of 
 works of fiction are printed upon this type, and it is 
 much used for poetry, and also for aU sorts of miscella- 
 neous work. 
 
 7. Bourgeois is the type used on most of the monthly 
 magazines published in this country, as the Atlantic, 
 Harper's, and Scribner's. It is also used extensively 
 for notes to Pica books. 
 
 8. Brevier is used for notes on law books, and for 
 the smaller type on the montlily Magazines ; and also in 
 printing much of the literature in a cheap form which 
 is now so common. 
 
 9. Minion is very much used on newspapers, and also 
 for head-notes in law reports, and for foot-notes to Long 
 Primer. 
 
 10. Nonpareil is very generally used for tabular work, 
 for side-notes, and also upon newspapers. 
 
 11. Agate, next in size, is not very much employed 
 in book-work, but answers a good purpose for advertise- 
 ments in newspapers. 
 
 12. Pearl is the smallest type of any practical use in 
 printing, and many Bibles are printed upon it. Two 
 smaller sizes have been made, called Diamond and Bril- 
 liant ; but they are worse than useless, as no one can 
 read them except at the risk of total blindness. They 
 only serve to show the nicety of the human eye and 
 hand, which can cut and cast types so small, and yet 
 so perfect, that, When seen through a magnifying-glass, 
 they appear like distinct and beautiful types of a larger 
 size.
 
 DIMENSIONS OF BOOKS AND PAPER. 109 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF BOOKS AND PAPER. 
 
 1. The dimensions of books when they- were all 
 printed upon the hand press were very well defined 
 by the terms folio, quarto, etc. They were generally 
 printed upon what is termed medium paper, 20 X 24 
 inches in dimensions. A sheet of this size, folded 
 once, makes a folio ; again, a quarto ; still again, an 
 octavo; then, a square 16mo; again, a 32mo ; and so 
 on to 64mo, and even 128mo. Besides these sizes there 
 are two others intermediate, the 12mo and 18mo. The 
 oblong 16mo was printed on a different sheet of paper, 
 18 X 28 inches in dimensions. The different sizes of 
 books, therefore, measure about as follows ; it being un- 
 derstood that the sheet is printed on both sides, so that 
 a folio has four pages to a sheet ; a quarto, eight ; etc. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Folio 20 X 12 
 
 Quarto 12 X 10 
 
 Octavo 10 X 6 
 
 12nio 8X5 
 
 Inches. 
 16mo (square) . . . . 6X5 
 16mo (oblong) . . . . 7 X 4J 
 
 18mo C§ X 4 
 
 32mo 5X3 
 
 2. For quarto and octavo a sheet 19X2-1 inches has 
 been found to give the best shape, but one 20 X 24 
 inches is the best for duodecimo. The 18mo is dis- 
 carded totally nowadays, as it requires, after the first 
 side is printed, the transposition of four pages to make 
 it fold properly, and then leaves two insets to be in- 
 serted in binding.
 
 110 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF BOOKS AND PAPER. 
 
 3. Siuce power presses have been invented a much 
 larger number of pages cau be printed at one time, and 
 although on a platen press the size of a sheet is still 
 limited by the surface which will take a good impres- 
 sion, yet by means of a cylinder press any size which is 
 profitable can be printed, as the cylinder only touches 
 the form at a single point, and consequently with less 
 strain than a much smaller form on a platen press. 
 Octavos are generally printed double, or sixteen pages 
 at one impression, and duodecimos as twenty-fours. 
 
 4. Paper is now made to order of every possible size 
 and shape, to satisfy the taste or whim of any author 
 or publisher. It is put up in quires of 24 sheets each, 
 20 quires, or 480 sheets, thus making a ream. Some 
 paper is put up 25 sheets to a quire, and this seems to 
 be a simpler arrangement, as one ream is then just 
 500 sheets ; but the old practice is the common one, 
 
 5. Printers reckon a ream as 19 quires, one quire 
 in a ream being allowed them by usage in getting the 
 forms ready. For 500 copies of a sheet, 11 quires of 
 paper are used ; for 1000 copies, 21 quires are used, and 
 the same quantity for every additional 1000. 
 
 6. The common standard sizes of paper now made in 
 
 America are the following : 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Double Medium, 12mo 23 X 41 
 
 " " 8vo 24 X 38 
 
 lOmo printed as 24nio 22 X 37i 
 
 12iiin printed as 16mo 20 X 31i 
 
 Oblong 16mo . . . 18 X 28 
 
 Medium, 12mo . . . 20 X 24 
 
 8vo ... 19 X 24 
 
 Demy, Printing 
 " Writing 
 Folio, 
 
 Crown, " 
 Foolscap, " 
 Letter Paper 
 Commercial Note 
 
 Inches. 
 17 X 22 
 15 X 20 
 ]7 X 22 
 15 X 19 
 13 X 16 
 10 X 16 
 5X 8
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abbreviations, remarks on, 50, 51. 
 List of, 52-58. 
 
 Accents, etc., 87-96. English, 87. 
 Greek, 88-90. Latin, 90, 91. 
 French, 91, 92. Italian, 93. 
 Grerman, 94. Spanish, 95. 
 Other Modern Languages, 95, 
 96. 
 
 Adverbs, compounds of, 64. 
 
 Antepenult, 8[», n. 
 
 Anybody, Anything, 60. 
 
 Apostrophe, uses of, 36, 37. 
 
 Books, measurement of, in ems, 
 106. Dimensions, 109. 
 
 Botanical Names, 47, 48. 
 
 Brackets, use of, 35. 
 
 Capitals, rules for, 43-48. 
 
 Chemical Work, symbols in, 104. 
 
 Citations, 49, 50. 
 
 Colon, use of, 24, 25. 
 
 Colors, compounds of, 63. 
 
 Comma, rules for the use of, 9-21. 
 Inverted, 21. Used for quota- 
 tions, 39-42. In citations, 50. 
 Thickness of, 103. 
 
 Composition, remai'ks on, 97-107. 
 Technical Terms, ib. 
 
 Compound Words, 59-66. Use- 
 less Compounds, 00, 61. 
 
 Danish, 95. 
 
 Dash, uses of, 32-34. 
 
 Dates, mode of printing, 19, 34. 
 
 Decimals, how printed, 27, 103. 
 
 Diseresis, use of, 59, 87. 
 
 Dimensions of Books, 109. Of 
 Paper, 110. 
 
 Dutch, 95. 
 
 Electrotype, how made, 105. 
 
 Em, meaning of, 97, 106 
 
 English, accents in, 87. 
 
 Everybody, Everything, 60. 
 
 Exclamation Point, 29-31. 
 
 Extracts, size of type for, 106. 
 
 Fellow, compounds of, 63. 
 
 Final Consonants, doubling of, 71. 
 
 Final c or ck, 73. 
 
 Final ise, or ize, 73. 
 
 Final or or o?<r, 73. 
 
 Final e and ?/, 74. 
 
 Foot-notes, size of type for, 107.- 
 
 Fractions, 61. 
 
 French, 91, 92. 
 
 Geographical Kegions, capital- 
 ized, 45. 
 
 German, 94. 
 
 Greek, Accents, etc., 88-90. 
 Modern, 96. 
 
 Hebrew, 96. 
 
 Hyphen, uses of, 59-70. 
 
 Interrogation Point, 28, 29. 
 
 Italian, 93. 
 
 Italics, use of, 48. 
 
 Justification, 100, 103. 
 
 Latin, 90, 91. 
 
 Law Reports, references in, 50. 
 
 Leaders, periods used for, 27. 
 
 London Postal Districts, 53, n. 
 
 Lower-case letters, 97.
 
 112 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mathematical Work, composition 
 of, 48, 104. 
 
 Monosyllables, how spelled, 71. 
 
 Names from Foreign Languages, 
 manner of writing, 44, 45, 89- 
 96. Latin, 90. French, 92. 
 German, 94. 
 
 Nouns, compounds of, 62, 63. 
 
 Numbers, how printed, 51. Deci- 
 mals, 27. Fractions, 01. Com- 
 pounded, 02. 
 
 Numerals, Roman and Arabic, 
 26. Compounded, 62. 
 
 Oh! and 0, difference between, 
 29, 30. 
 
 Old and New Style, 34. 
 
 Oneself, 63. 
 
 Orthography, Rules of, 71-76. 
 
 Paper, Dimensions of, 109, 110. 
 Remarks on, ib. 
 
 Paragraphs, 38, 39. 
 
 Parentheses, use of, 35. 
 
 Participles, compounds of, 63. 
 
 Penult, 89, n. 
 
 Period, use of, 26, 27. Thick- 
 ness of, 103. 
 
 Personal Epithets, compound, 64. 
 
 Plural, in decimals, 27 n. Of 
 Figures and Letters, 37. Pos- 
 sessive, 37. In Abbreviations, 
 51. Formation of, 75, 76. 
 
 37. 
 
 Ex- 
 Re- 
 
 Points of the Compass, 61. 
 
 Political Parties, capitalized, 46. 
 
 Portuguese, 95. 
 
 Possessive Case, rule for. 
 Compounds in, 63. 
 
 Prefixes, compounded, 64. 
 
 Proof-Sheet, specimen of, 6. 
 planation of marks, 7. 
 marks for authors, 8. 
 
 Proportions of page, 105, 106. 
 
 Quotations, use of marks, 39-42. 
 Quoting literally, 42. 
 
 Religious Sects, capitalized, 46. 
 
 School, compounds of, 63. 
 
 Scripture References, 49. 
 
 Self, compounds of, 63. 
 
 Semicolon, use of, 22-24. 
 
 Sovereigns, names of, how print- 
 ed, 51. 
 
 Spacing, remarks on, 102, 103. 
 
 Spanish, 95. 
 
 Stereotype, how made, 105. 
 
 Swedish, 96. 
 
 Syllabication, 66-70. 
 
 Titles, how capitalized, 45, 46. 
 Abbreviation of, 50, 51. Com- 
 pounded, 61. 
 
 Type, sizes of, 107, 108. 
 
 Words variously spelled, List of, 
 77-86. 
 
 Zoological Names, 47, 48. 
 
 University Press : John Wilson & Son, Cambridge.
 
 NGLISH AS IT SHOULD 
 
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 HINTS AND HELPS New edition revised $1.25. 
 
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 ENGLISH SYNONYMES DISCRIMINATED 
 
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 SOULE & CAMPBELLS PRONOUNCING HANDBOOK 
 
 Of Words often mispronounced, and of words as to which a Choice of Pro- 
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 CAMPBELLS HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH SYNONYMES 
 
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 FORGOTTEN MEANINGS 
 
 Or, An Hour with the Dictionary. By Alfred Waites author o( 
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 SHORT STUDIES OF AMERICAN AUTHORS 
 
 By Thomas Wentworth Higginson, author of " Young Folks' History 
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 HINTS ON WRITING AND SPEECH-MAKING 
 
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 Or, Shorthand by the " Allen Method." A Self:instructor, whereby more 
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 ••Just as the twig is bent, the tree 's inclined.' 
 
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 This liltle work is one which cannot fail to make an Impression on 
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 Prolific in suggestion as to proper conduct in connection with the 
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 their course aright. 
 
 It will be found especially valuable for use as a supplementary 
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 State Normal School, 
 
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 SHORTHAND WITHOUT A MASTER. 
 
 Universal Phonography; 
 
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 A. Self -Instructor, whereby more Speed than Liong:-Haud 
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 additional Speed at each sub- 
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 Price 50 Cents. 
 
 There Is scarcely any acquirement so helpful to the student, scientist, 
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 From Rkv. Dr. THOMAS HILL, Late President of Harvard College. 
 
 ToRTLAND. June 2. 1883. 
 
 I most coidially indorse the main principles of Jlr. Allen's method of 
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 From R. M. Pflsifkb, of K. M. Pulsifkr & Co., Proprietors of the 
 
 "Boston Jdorald." 
 
 HB "Her*.ld." Boston, Aug. 17.1881. 
 Dea Sir:—i have for x.ia past eight months employed as my private 
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 37 Matthews. Harvard College. 
 I had taken but two lessons of you, and at my third lesson 1 wrote 
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 "MOST KIDICULOUS MISTAKES" AVOIDED. 
 
 SYNONYIS DISGRIMINATED' 
 
 BY 
 
 RICHARD WHATELY, D. D., 
 
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 A new edition. 50 cents. 
 
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 " Words apparently synonymous — and really so in the 
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 THE FIRST TEACHER FOR LITTLE FOLKS. 
 
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 ARITHMETIC FOR YOUN& CHILDREN 
 
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 BA3SOBOOK OF THB TBLBFHOHBI. 
 
 JtS" BVEBTBODT WAKT9 
 
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 AN ACCOUNT OP THB 
 
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 KVa UUMTHM 'B HAHIIBOOK.** 
 
 INSECTS : 
 
 How to Catch, and How to Prepare Them for the Cabinbti 
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 ••THE BOOK IS ADMIRABLBL* 
 
 HANDBOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 LIGHT GYMNASTICS. 
 
 By LUCY B. HUNT, 
 
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