$12> G-KAMMAE CONTAINING THE ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. FOR ADVANCED GRAMMAR GRADES, AND FOR HIGH SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, ETC. Br WILLIAM SWINTON, AUTHOR OF "HARPER'S LANGUAGE SERIES," "BIBLE \VORD-BOOK," ETC. NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 1878. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PREFACE. THIS text-book of English Grammar forms the advanced manual of Harper's " New Language Series," and is designed for study in con- nection with the author's New School Composition.* In a graded course on the English language it is intended to fill the place of the book known as the Progressive Grammar. That, in such a course, it will fill that place in a manner more satisfactory than the work just named may reasonably be hoped from the considerations ad- duced in the following paragraphs. At the time when the Progressive Grammar was first published /1 872), it had become a conviction in the minds of many thought- ful teachers and others that English grammar, as set forth in books and taught in schools, was failing to accomplish its avowed end, namely, " to teach the art of speaking and writing the English language with propriety." The Progressive Grammar was an at- tempt to break loose from the shackles of purely technical grammar to strip it of fruitless formalism, and to introduce the constructive element. It may be remarked that the author's views did not then extend beyond that one book. Soon after, however, the experience of the school-room led the author to believe as a like experience was leading many others to believe that a method of language- * Both treatises may be had bound in one volume, under the title "Swin- ton's English Grammar and Composition." IV PREFACE. training quite different from that mainly in vogue was necessary: there arose, in fact, the thought of language as one thing, and of grammar as another thing ; and in this view it seemed that a suitable apparatus of elementary instruction was yet to be sup- plied. This conviction took shape in the books known as Lain/ guagt Primer, Language Lessons, and School Composition. In the meantime, contemporaneously wjth the appearance of the successive books of the " Language Series," there came about a broadening and readjustment of the scheme of language-study in the public schools. The necessity of a progressive and graduated course of training in the mother-tongue, extending over some years, and beginning in practice and ending in theory, is now generally recognized and acted on ; so that, a considerable uniformity in the programme and method of English study being attained, it seems possible to adapt our book-apparatus to the work to be done in our schools. It is with the view of accomplishing this purpose that a thorough remodelling of Harper's "Language Series" has been made. It is thought that the books now form a closely connected series, embody, ing a progressive course of development, the outline of which may be thus set forth : 1 . LANGUAGE PRIMER mainly practice. 2. NEW LANGUAGE LESSONS theory and practice (i. e., grammar and composition) in about equal proportion. ( NEW ENGLISH GRAMMAR, ^ the two studies differentiated, * \ NEW SCHOOL COMPOSITION ) but simultaneously pursued. In the remodelled series, the present text-book forms the Gram- mar, pure and simple. It presupposes a certain amount of previ- ous training in the theory and practice of English presupposes, at least, the amount of knowledge obtainable from Swinton's Language Lessons, or from a similar book ; and its specific place in the cur- PREFACE. v riculum is to be found in the advanced grammar grades of our public schools, though the book is also suited to the wants of high schools and academies. It is earnestly recommended that the Grammar be taken in connection with the School Composition, the author's ideal of the distribution of study being: three gram- mar lessons and two composition lessons per week. The method and the matter of the book are both so obvious that teachers will discover its scope and character by simply turning over the leaves : hence no detailed exhibit of the plan seems to be called for here. The author would state in a single sentence that his aim has been to set forth, in the light of the latest linguistic scholarship, the etymology and the syntax of the English language to make a logical, systematic, and well-ordered presentation of this great subject, with a view both to intellectual development, or wit-sharp ening, and to the attainment of a fair mastery of the art of speaking and writing our tongue. Very great care has been taken to make it a working class-book ; and particular attention is called to the sum- maries, topical analyses, and written reviews. For the higher study of English, in its historical and comparative aspects, a good amount of material will be found in the Appendix, pages 237-252. In the preparation of this text-book the author has handled several hundred English grammars, all of which have been sug- gestive in one way or other. He must, however, acknowledge his Indebtedness throughout to the great German works of Maetzner and of Koch, and to the English grammars of Morris, Ernest Adams, Bain, Mulligan, and Mason. It will perhaps not be amiss to credit to these storehouses all that is best in the material of this text-book ; its architecture the author claims as his own. WILLIAM SWINTON. NEW YORK, August, 1877. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 SECTION I. ETYMOLOGY 3 CHAPTER I. CLASSIFICATION AND FORMS 3 II. THE NOUN 6 I. DEFINITION II. CLASSES OF NOUNS 7 III. GRAMMATICAL FORMS OF THE NOUN 11 I. NUMBER, 11 ; II. GENDER, 16; III. CASE, 21 ; IV. PKUSON, 23. III. THE PRONOUN 28 I. DEFINITION 28 II. CLASSIFICATION AND INFLECTION , 28 I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS, 28; II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 31 ; III. IN- TERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, 32. IV. THE ADJECTIVE * 35 I. DEFINITION 35 II. CLASSIFICATION 35 I. LIMITING ADJECTIVES, 36; II. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES, 40; III. GRAMMATICAL FOUMS OF TJLIE ADJECTIVE, 41. V. THE VERB 48 I. DEFINITION 48 II. CLASSIFICATION 48 III. VERBALS 52 IV. GRAMMATICAL FORMS OF THE VERB 53 I. VOTOK, 54; II. Mooi>, 55; III. TENSE, 57; IV. MOODS WITH TENSES, 5T; V. NUMBER AND PERSON, 64; VI. CONJUGATION, 66; CONJUGATION OF TUB AUXILIARY VERBS, 67; PARADIGM OF THE REGULAR VERBS, 71 ; PARADIGM OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS, 74 ; FORMS OF CONJUGATION, 75 ; IRREGULAR VERBS, 80. VI. THE ADVERB 85 DEFINITION, CLASSES, AND INFLECTION 85 VII. THE PREPOSITION 89 VIII. THE CONJUNCTION 93 THE INTERJECTION 95 IX. USES AND PARSING OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 98 I. THE NOUN 98 II. THE PRONOUN 108 III. THE ADJECTIVE 113 IV. THE VERB 118 V. THE ADVERB 123 VI. PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION, AND INTERJECTION 124 METHOD OF ABBREVIATED PARSING 127 NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH , 130 yiii CONTENTS, CHMl SECTION II. SYNTAX 137 DEFINITIONS 137 RULES OF SYNTAX 140 I. SUBJECTIVE RELATION 142 II. PREDICATIVE RELATION 145 III. ATTRIBUTIVE RELATION 153 IV. COMPLEMENTARY RELATION 16tf V. ADVERBIAL RELATION 175 VI. REPRESENTATIVE RELATION 179 VII. CONNECTIVE RELATION 18i' VIII. ABSOLUTE AND INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS 194 IX. SYNTAX OF VERBS AND VERBALS 197 SECTION III ANALYSIS 204 I. DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES 201 I. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 204 II. CLASSES OF SENTENCES 209 III. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 212 IV. ADJUNCTS OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 213 II. ANALYSIS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 216 I. THEORY OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 216 II. DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 216 MODELS FOR ORAL ANALYSIS 218 MODELS FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS 220 III. ANALYSIS OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 223 I. THEORY OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 223 II. DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 225 MODELS FOR ORAL ANALYSIS 226 MODELS FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS 228 IV. ANALYSIS OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE '. 231 I. THEORY OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 231 II. DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 23^ APPENDIX 237 A. THE NOUN 237 I. NOTES ON NUMBER 237 II. NOTES ON GENDER 238 III. NOTES ON CASE 239 B. THE PRONOUN 240 C. THE VERB 242 I. NOTES ON THE PARADIGM 242 II. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 244 III. NOTES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS 250 IV. ORIGIN OF THE INFINITIVE WITH " TO " :.52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR INTRODUCTION. 1, Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words. 2, Grammar is the science that treats of the principles of language. Some principles are common to all languages, and these princi- ples form the science of general grammar ; but as the several languages differ widely, it is necessary to have a special gram- mar for each. Hence French grammar, German grammar, Eng- lish grammar, etc. 3, English grammar is the science that treats of the principles of the English language. Its use, or end, is to teach the art of speaking and writing the English language correctly. ( Explains the structure ) As a science < . V r^THEORY. ( of the language $ . ( Lays down rules for its ) As an art < J v =PRACTICE. ( correct use f 4, Words and Sentences. Language consists of words arranged in sentences. I. A word is a significant sound or combination of sounds. It may be represented by a written character or combination of characters. A 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. II. A sentence is a combination of words expressing a complete thought, and conveying an assertion, a question, a command, or a wish : as, (1) He comes. (2) Does he come ? (3) Let him come. (4) O that he would come ! 5, Divisions of Grammar, Language is composed of sentences, and sentences are made up of words : hence arise the two principal divisions of English grammar: namely, etymology treating of words by themselves ; and syntax treating of words combined in sentences. NOTES. I. The common division of English grammar has been into four parts orthography ', etymology, syntax, and prosody, the offices of which are usually thus defined : Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling. Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, with their derivation and modifications. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement of words in sentences. Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification. II. A strict analysis of language - study considerably narrows the scope of grammar, by assigning to more appropriate places several of the kinds of knowledge vaguely included in grammatical science. Thus orthography (together with " utterance," i. e. orthoepy) forms the subject-matter of special manuals of spelling, and is to be learned from these and from the dictionary. Prosody is a branch of rhetoric, or English composition. The derivation of words (historical etymology) does not properly belong to grammar, but is to be studied in text- books of etymology, or word-analysis. III. It thus appears that grammar, in its strict sense, is limited to two departments of language-study ; namely, grammatical etymology, or accidence, and syntax the former treating of the classification and grammatical forms of words, the latter treating of the principles and usages relating to the combination of words in speech. SECTION I. ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTEE I. CLASSIFICATION AND FORMS. 6, Definition, Etymology is that division of grammar which treats of the classification and grammatical forms of words. (See 9.) 7, Parts of Speech, Words are arranged in classes ac- cording to their use in sentences ; and these classes, eight in number, are called the parts of speech. (" Speech "= language.) 8, The parts of speech are 1. Noun. r>. Adverb. 2. Pronoun. 6. Preposition. 3. Adjective. 7. Conjunction. 4. Verb. 8. Interjection. 9, A grammatical form is a mode of denoting some property belonging to a part of speech. Thus number, a mode of denoting one or more than one, is a grammatical form of the noun. (Book loofa.) Tense, a mode of denoting time, is a grammatical form of the verb. (Walk walkzft. ) Comparison, a mode of denoting degrees of a quality is a grammatical form of the adjective. (Long longer.) 4 ETYMOLOGY. 10. The grammatical forms of the parts of speech are as follows : 1. Number a property of nouns, pronouns, and verbs. 2. Gender a property of nouns and pronouns. 3. Case a property of nouns and pronouns. 4. Person a property of nouns, pronouns, and verbs. 5. Voice a property of verbs. 6. Mood a property of verbs. 7. Tense a property of verbs. 8. Comparison a property of adjectives and adverbs. 11, A grammatical form is variously denoted: namely 1. By inflection, or a change in the ending of a word. Thus, in boys, s is an inflection or suffix to denote the grammatical form number. So ed in walked is an inflection to denote the grammatical form tense; and er in longer is an inflection to denote the grammatical form comparison. An inflected word is one that has, or may have, a grammatical suffix.* 2. By radical change ; that is, by the change of a vowel in the root word :f as, man, men ; write, wrote. 3. By an auxiliary term ; that is, by the use of a separate help- ing word joined with the word to be modified in meaning : as shall in "I shall love," to denote the future tense ; more in " more fortunate," to denote the comparative degree. 4. By grammatical relation ; that is, by a special use of a word in a sentence. This frequently determines the grammatical form of a word when there is no visible indication of its form. Thus " boy " in " The loy flies his kite " is in what is called the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb "flies;" whereas in " The dog bit the ~boy " it is in the objective case, be- cause it is the object of the verb " bit." * A grammatical suffix is to be distinguished from an ordinary suffix ; that is, a letter or syllable added to the termination of a word to form a derivative word, as/wZ in helpful, er in teacher. The former merely changes the meaning of the word a little ; the latter makes an entirely new word. t The "root," or "root word," is the primitive word the word in its sim- plest form, before any change in it has been made : thus man, as contrasted With men, is a root word. GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 5 12. Five of the parts of speech have grammatical forms: namely, the noun, the pronoun, the verb, the adjective, and the adverb. The remaining three namely, the preposition, the con- junction, and the interjection have no grammatical forms. NOTE ON THE TERM "GRAMMATICAL FORM." The expression grammatical form has been adopted in this text-book as a defining term of the various properties or " accidents " of words. It has been adopted in order to free the study of English grammar from the inconsistencies and contradictions that arise from the em- ployment of the defining terms in common use. Nearly all grammari- ans have given definitions that confine number, gender, case, person, etc., to inflections, or variations in the forms of words. Thus "Numbers in grammar are modifications that distinguish unity and plu- rality." "Genders are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex." ** Cases are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns and pro- nouns to other words." Such a mode of defining is suitable in the grammar of a highly inflect- ed language Greek or Latin, for instance ; but it is foreign to the nature of the English tongue. English has but few inflections, and it resorts to other devices for denoting the grammatical peculiarities of words. Thus, it has but one inflection for case nominative and objective being distinguished only by grammatical relation; yet all grammarians reckon three cases. It has only one inflection for tense, yet many tenses, these being formed by the aid of auxiliaries. It denotes gender but slightly by modifications, and mainly by the use of different words or of prefixes. The expression grammatical form covers all the peculiarities in the English mode of denoting the grammatical properties of words whether indicated by inflection, by radical change, by auxiliaries, or by 'mere use. It also enables us to define number, gender, case, etc., in a manner really conformable to the genius of our language.* * An^us, Handbook of the English Tongue ; Fleming, English Language. ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER II. THE NOUN. I. DEFINITION. 13i A noun,* or name-word, is the name of anything,-} existing or conceived by the mind. Thus f James, Milton, Elizabeth names of persons. 8 < Rome. Boston. Washington... names of places. sense. j [ Tree, river, thunder names of things. Subjects of ( Whiteness, wisdom, purity,.. names of attributes thought of. thought, j Reading, study, thinking names of actions thought of. 14, The tests of a noun are as follows : 1. A noun may be the subject or the object of a verb. (See 46, 48.) 2. It is the name of an object or an idea, not, like the pronoun, the representative of a name. 3. It may (when the meaning permits) be inflected for number, gender, and case. I. Noun logically defined. These tests, or defining marks, furnish the means of arriving at the full definition of the noun, which, according to the rules of defining, should run thus : A noun is a word which may ~be the subject or the object of a verb, which names an object or an idea, and which may be inflected for number, gender, and case. II. Substantive. Any word or combination of words perform- ing the office of a noun is called a substantive. * From French worn, Latin nomen, a name that by which anything is known. t The word "thing," or "anything," used in its widest sense, as above, signifies whatever we can think about, and applies to persons as well as to in- animate objects. THE NOUN. CLASSES. 7 II. CLASSES OF NOUNS. 15, Divisions, Nouns are divided into three principal classes, namely : I. COMMON. II. PKOPEK. III. ABSTRACT. 16, A common noun is a general or class name: as ship, book, flower, gold. A collective noun is a common noun denoting a collection of in- dividuals considered as forming one whole or body : as army, congress, jury. 17, A proper noun* is a special or individual name: as Henry, Bismarck, Tlwmas Jefferson... names of individuals. Boston, Chicago, New Orleans special names o/ certain cities. DISTINCTION. The distinction ordinarily made between a common noun and a proper noun to wit, that the former is the name of many individuals or of a class of objects, the latter of a par- ticular person or object is not adequate : because, for instance, John Smith (a proper noun) is the name of more individuals than is Icing (a common noun). I. A common noun is the name an object receives by reason of its nature, as one of a class, each individual of which resembles every other in kind. Thus the common noun city is applicable to a large number of places, as Boston, Chicago, New Orleans, etc., for the reason that each resembles every other in those charac- teristics that constitute each a " city." A proper noun is a special name given to an object (person, place, or thing) without reference to its nature, in order to distinguish it, not only from things of a different class, but from individuals of the same class. Thus the common noun orator distinguishes all who do from all w r ho do not belong to that class; but the proper nouns Cicero and Daniel Webster distinguish the persons so named from all other orators. II. A common noun is significant, that is, it has a meaning, and * " Proper" (Latin proprius) means own, or "belonging to one's self. 8 ETYMOLOGY. its name tells us at once what its nature is ; a proper noun is non - significant. Thus, the noun " river " signifies all that is meant by the definition of river ; but Hudson, as applied to a river, does not mean anything : it is a mere name. And that a proper noun signifies nothing as to the nature of the object denoted is shown by the fact that the name "Hudson," for ex- ample, is applied not only to a river, but to persons and to cities, and might be applied to mountains, horses, etc., just as well. A common noun describes ; a proper noun merely designates. 18. An abstract noun is the name of some quality or action: as whiteness, honesty, length, bravery. EXPLANATION. Every object possesses certain qualities or attri- butes. Thus a star may be bright and distant ; a horse, swift and strong ; a man, good and wise, etc. If we think of these qual- ities or attributes by themselves, thus, as it were, drawing them off from the objects to which they belong, the names of the attributes thus separated are abstract nouns (Latin dbstractus, drawn off). Thus from the adjectives above given are formed the following abstract nouns : 'brightness, distance, swiftness, strength, goodness, wisdom. EXERCISE 1. Assign each noun to its class common, proper, or abstract : 1. The snow was deep on the hills last week. 2. The battle of Gettysburg was fought in Pennsylvania. 3. Warren was noted for the sweetness of his disposition. 4. Thanks to the skill, energy, and perseverance of a few master-minds, the problem of girdling the earth is now practically solved. 6. A host of Indian warriors rushed across the plain. 6. The legislature meets in February. 7. Seeing is believing. 8. France has not seen such another king as Henry the Fourth.* 9. The Tempest was the last tragedy written by Shakspeare. 10. Milton is the Homer of English literature. 11. Many a frozen, many a fiery Alp appeared. 12. O Justice,! thou art fled to brutish beasts ! * Complex names like " Henry the Fourth" may be called complex proper nouns. t A common (or abstract) noun personified is called a proper noun. THE NOUN. NOTES ON CLASSIFICATION. NOTES ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. The following subdivisions of the three classes of nouns are given for convenience of reference : I. Common Nouns. (1) General and class names : as, book, hero. To this subdivision belong most common nouns. Every such noun is applicable to all the individuals of a given kind. And every such noun is significant. (2) General names singular: as, color, space, life, time. These are common nouns, because they are significant, but they are not class- names, and do not in their strict sense admit a plural. Thus spaces denotes different portions of space ; colors, different kinds of color. (3) Names of materials : as, earth, water, salt. These nouns denote an unbroken or continuous mass, and do not naturally admit a plural. When we speak of earths, waters, we mean different species of earth or water, and these words are class-names. Thus the same word may be both a class-name and a name of a material, taking a plural in the one case but not in the other. " The merchant sampled several teas " [class-name] ; "The old lady drank a cup of tea" [name of material]. (4) Collective nouns : as, army, fleet, senate. In these many indi- viduals are spoken of as in one mass or body, which is then taken as a single object ; and a noun thus used has in the singular form a singular verb: as, "The fleet was victorious;" "The senate is to meet." OBS. Certain collective nouns, as clergy, people, while depoting many individuals, imply that the individuals act separately, not as a body. Such nouns are sometimes called nouns of multitude, and they take a plural verb: thus, "The clergy were opposed to the measure ;" "The people deeply feel the disgrace." (5) Becoming pi*oper : as, Providence (applied to the Deity); the President; the Queen of England. Such names, though allied to com- mon nouns in being significant, resemble proper nouns in being ap- plicable only to a single individual in the same sense. They are substitutes for given names, and may be called proper nouns. A 2 10 ETYMOLOGY. II. Proper Nouns. (1) Strictly proper : as, Milton, Jerusalem, the Alps. These are spe- cial names of persons, places, or things. Though strictly applicable only to a single individual at a time, a proper noun may take a plural form : as, the Miss Thompsons, the Rothschilds. (2) Becoming common: as, a Milton; "some village Bampden" In this use of proper nouns the design is to denote a class (" Milton " = poet; "Hamp3en^=|?atrk?Q, and the names are significant. Hence nouns thus used may be called common nouns. III. Abstract Nouns. (1) Abstract nouns denoting attributes: as, goodness, wisdom. A noun of this kind presupposes the existence of an adjective from which it is derived. (2) Verbal nouns: as, " To read is profitable;" "Reading is profita- ble." In the English language there are two of these verbal nouns, or verbals, for every verb, with the exception of the auxiliaries may, can, shall, will, must, etc. ; namely : (a) The infinitive, that is, the verb in its simplest form, generally with to prefixed : as, to read; (b) The infinitive in irc# (called the gerund): as, "Reading is profitable." OBS. The peculiar nature of these verbal nouns will hereafter be fully ex- plained (see 100). The infinitive in ing must not be confounded with the pres- ent participle: as, "The boy is writing," or u The boy, writing home, said,'* etc. When the form in ing can be substituted for the common infinitive, it is a verbal noun: thus, "Writing [=to write] is more difficult than reading [=ta read]." SUMMARY. Class names "book, hero. Names singular color, space. Common.... Names of material gold, salt. Collective nouns senate, army. Becoming proper Providence, the Park. ( Strictly proper John Milton. " (Becoming common "a Milton." ( Abstract (from adjectives) whiteness, honesty. } TT , , (infinitive to write. (Verbals -< (verbal in ing writing. THE NOUN. NUMBER. H III. GRAMMATICAL FORMS OF THE NOUN. 19, Nlftnber of Forms. Nouns have four grammatical forms: I. NUMBER. II. GENDER. III. CASE. IY. PERSON. I. NUMBER IN NOUNS. 20, Definition. Number is a grammatical form express- ing one or more than one of the objects named by the noun. 21, The two numbers are, the singular number, which denotes one : as, star, child / and the plural number, which denotes more than one : as, stars, children. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 22, There are two modes of forming the plural of nouns : namely, by inflection and by radical change. Some nouns have no distinguishing mark of number; these may be called indeterminate forms. 1. By Inflection. 23, General Eule, The plural number of nouns is gen- erally formed by adding the inflection S or (where euphony requires) 6S to the singular.* 24, The following classes of nouns generally add es for the plural : 1. Nouns ending in ch (soft), s, sh, x, or z, and some nouns in o preceded by a consonant : as, church, churches ; kiss, kisses ; dish, dishes ; box, boxes ; topaz, topazes ; motto, mottoes. * I. When the noun ends in a sharp mute (p, /, , th [in thiri] y &), the s has its sharp sound (in sea) : as, cats, books. II. When the noun ends in &Jlat mute (5, v, d, th [in the],g), in a liquid (w, n t I, r), or in a vowel, the s has its flat sound z: as, dogs, hens, bells. 12 ETYMOLOGY. 2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant. Such nouns substitute i for y before adding 6S : as, story, stories* 3. A few Old-English nouns that end inforfe ajjd change the/" or/0 into v before adding es : as, thief, thieves ; wife, wives y wolf, wolves / life, lives. 2. By Radical Change. 25, A few Old-English nouns form their plural by radi- cal change ; that is, by a modification of the vowel sound of the singular. These are SINGULAR. PLURAL. man men woman women foot feet goose geese tooth teeth mouse mice louse lice 3. Indeterminate Forms. 26, A few nouns have the same form for the plural as for the singular. Among these are SINGULAR. PLURAL. sheep sheep deer deer grouse grouse salmon salmon heathen heathen In these indeterminate forms the number of the noun is to be inferred from the context : thus, " A sheep was feed- ing on the hill ;" " /Sheep were feeding on the hill." * In words of this class it is more accurate to state that ie has been changed in the singular into ?/, as the Old-English way of spelling the words in the sin- gular was ladie, glorie, etc. ; so that the modern plural is regularly formed from the old singular. THE NOUN. NUMBER. PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER. 27, Double Plurals, Some nouns have double plurals, each possessing a peculiar signification : brother brothers (by birth) brethren (of a community). cloth cloths (kinds of cloth) clothes (garments). die dies (stamps for coining) dice (for play). genius geniuses (men of talent) genii (spirits). index indexes (contents) indices (algebraic signs). pea peas (single ones) pease (collective). penny pennies (coins) pence (value or amount). staff. staves (common use) staffs (military term). shot shot (balls) shots (number of rounds). fish fish (collective) fishes (individuals). 28, Plurals as Singulars, Some plural forms aro usually treated as singular: as, amends, gallows r news, odds, pains, tidings, wages, thanks. So j represent Greek plurals, but are now treated I as singular. Thus, "Mathematics is an im- f proving study;" "Optics is the science of optics light." mathematics J 29, Plurals only, Some nouns, the names of things consisting of more than one part or forming a pair, have only the plural form : annals entrails scissors antipodes nuptials shears breeches pantaloons tongs drawers pincers victuals dregs Ecales vitals 30, Foreign Plurals, Many foreign nouns, especially those that are imperfectly naturalized, retain their foreign 14: ETYMOLOGY. plural.* (The plurals of such nouns are readily found by reference to a dictionary.) SINGULAR. PLURAL. [ formula formulae (1) Latin ........................ \ datum data ( radius radii /ox n 7 f ax i s axes (2) Greek ....................... < , ( phenomenon phenomena ( bandit banditti (3) Italian ...................... { \ virtuoso virtuosi (4) Sebrew.... .. j cherub cherubim ( seraph seraphim 31. Compounds, With regard fo compounds the follow- ing points are to be noted : I. The plural of compound nouns is generally formed by adding the suffix to the principal noun, that is, to the noun described : as, fruit-trees, Z>n?^rs-in-law, d^cZs-de-camp. II. When the last part of a compound is an adjective (according to the French idiom) the suffix is usually added to the noun : as, attorneys-general, onirfc-martial. Knights -Templars pluralizes both parts; as do also men-servants, women-servants. III. When the words are so closely allied that the meaning is in- complete till the whole is known, the plural sign is added at the end : as, forget-me-nots. * 1. Many Latin nouns adopted into our language retain their Latin end- ings: Nouns in us (masculine) form the plural in i; as, focus, foci. " " us (neuter) " " " ** era; as, genus, genera. " " urn " " " " a; as, datum, data. " "a " " " " ce; as, nebula, neb uloe. " " ex " " " " ices; as, vortex, vortices. 2. Some Greek nouns adopted into our language retain the Greek endings in the plural : thus Nouns in is form the plural in es; as, crisis, crises. " " on " " -" " a; as, phenomenon, phenomena. THE NOUN. 15 32, Proper Nouns, When proper nouns become plural they generally follow the analogy of common nouns. As to those ending in ?/, usage is unsettled ; some writers add s, others follow the rule for common nouns. EXERCISE 2. A. Give the plural of the following nouns : 1. Pen; desk; book; knife; fox; ox; foot; footman. 2. Candle; map; cage; calf; class; bat; sky; toy. 3. Cargo; church; monarch; muff; tyro; focus; basis. 4. Story; dictum; beau; potato; cherub; log; nebula. 5. Chimney; automaton; genus; proof; axis. 6. Criterion; child; woman; wife; kiss; staff. B. State the number ; and if singular spell the plural, and conversely. 1. Boy ; man ; pennies ; sugar ; strap ; hens ; shoes ; fox ; ewes ; geese. 2. Hens ; tigress ; ladies ; wren ; dose ; hose ; clothes ; feet ; tooth ; ox ; vixen ; cows ; mouse ; cruise ; crews. 3. Oxen; fish; children; a sheep; three deer; steer; tax; boxes; sorceress. 4. Deacons; deaconess; cheese; valleys; trees; lees; grease; rice; dice. C. Write the following sentences, changing the nouns in the plural to nouns in the singular number : 1. Monkeys are the animals which most resemble men. 2. Mice are running across the room. 3. Sheep have woolly fleece. 4. The appendices to these books are short. 5. The hypotheses will not hold good. 6. The data proved to be false. 7. The premises were true. 8. The radii of circles are half their diameters. 9. Nebulae appeared in the heavens. 10. Gipsies offered to tell us our fortunes. 11. The mountains are enveloped in mists. 12. There are beautiful roses in our gardens. 16 ETYMOLOGY. II. GENDER ITV NOUNS. 33, Definition, Gender is a grammatical form express- ing the sex or non-sex of the object named by a noun. That is to say, it is a distinction in t\\zform or in the meaning of nouns (and pronouns), by virtue of which they stand respec- tively for objects of the male sex, or of the female sex, or for objects without sex. 34, Gender is determined by sex or non-sex, and is of three kinds, I. THE MASCULINE GENDER. II. THE FEMININE GENDEK. III. THE NEUTEE GENDEE. The name of anything of the male sex is called a mascu- line noun, or a noun of the masculine gender: as, man, king, father. The name of anything of the female sex is called a fern- inine noun, or a noun of the feminine gender : as, woman, queen, mother. The name of anything without sex is called a neuter noun, or a noun of the neuter gender : as, stone, tree, house. 35, Various grammatical usages in regard to gender may here be noted : I. A plural noun that is known to denote individuals of both sexes is said to be of common gender. II. A singular noun which by its meaning is indeterminate in gender, but which is known to denote a male, is of the mascu- line gender. III. A singular noun which by its meaning is indeterminate in gender, but which is known to denote a female, is of the fem- inine gender. IV. A singular noun so used that the context does not denote the sex of the object is of the masculine gender. V. In the case of the smaller animals and of young children it frequently happens that their names are referred to by means of neuter pronouns : as, " The baby cried itself to sleep." THE NOUN. GENDER. 17 VI. Things without life are often personified (that is, spoken of as if they were living beings), and in such cases masculine and feminine pronouns are used in speaking of them : thus For Winter came: the wind was 7m whip, One choppy finger was on his lip : He had torn the cataracts from the hills, And they clanked at his girdle like manacles. 36, Its Use. The distinction of gender is of small im- portance in English grammar, and appears principally in the employment of the pronouns he, she, it, and a few words of the same class. HISTORICAL NOTE. In modern English, gender (based as it is solely on the sex or non-sex of the object denoted by the noun) differs widely from gender in Latin or Greek grammar, and also from gender in the Anglo-Saxon form of our speech. In Latin, Greek, and various other languages, the gender of a noun is generally determined, not by the sex or non-sex of the object denoted, but by the class to which the noun itself belongs accord- ing to its termination. Thus in Latin, nouns in a (1st declension) are feminine : hence, penna (a pen) is feminine. This may be called grammatical gender (applicable only to words), in contra- distinction to gender expressive of sex or non-sex, which may be styled natural gender. 37, How Marked, The distinction of gender in mascu- line and feminine nouns that stand for pairs of males and females is made in three ways: (1) by the use of distinct words for the name of the male and of the female ; (2) by an auxiliary word ; (3) by the use of suffixes. 38, First Mode, Quite different words are used: as MASCULINE. FEMININE. man woman boy girl husband wife son daughter stag hind 18 ETYMOLOGY. The gender of such nouns can be known only by their meaning ; and to give this does not belong to grammar 39, Second Mode. An auxiliary word denoting sex is joined with a noun of indeterminate gender, thus forming a compound word: as MASCULINE. FEMININE. man-servant maid-servant he-goat she-goat 40, Third Mode, The feminine is denoted by an inflec- tion of gender. The commonest of these, and the only one by which new feminines can still be formed, is the suffix ess : as, murder-er, murder-ess; host, host-ess. 41, Inflection ess, The suffix ess is an inflection of the feminine gender, corresponding to the suffix er for the masculine. The following cases are to be noted : I. When a masculine noun ends in er, and the correspond- ing feminine noun ends in ess, we have what is strictly termed grammatical gender : as MASCULINE. FEMININE. murder-er murder-ess sorcer-er sorcer-ess II. But such pairs of words are now very rare ; and usu- ally the masculine noun corresponding to a feminine noun in ess has no ending to mark gender : thus MASCULINE. FEMININE. giant giant-ess heir heir-ess poet poet-ess III. Frequently the root word undergoes some change of spelling on taking the suffix ess : thus THE NOUN. GENDER. 19 MABOTTLINE. FEMININE. actor actr-ess hunter huntr-ess negro negr-ess votary votar-ess I. The suffix er (Anglo-Saxon ere man) is an Old-English in- flection of the masculine gender. The corresponding feminine inflection was ster. The suffix ess is a Norman-French inflec- tion of the feminine gender, and in course of time took the place of the Anglo-Saxon ster. II. In earlier periods of our language, the number of feininines in ess was much greater than at present ; thus, doctress, waggoness, cousiness, and many other similar nouns were in use in the time of Shakspeare. In our own day a tendency to revive some of these feminines, and to form others (expressive especially of pro- fessions recently adopted by women, as doctress, waitress, editress, etc.), is noticeable ; but good taste in most cases discourages such innovations, and, indeed, obviates the need of them by treating terms like doctor, author, writer, engraver, as applicable equally to women and to men. 42, Foreign Inflections, In some borrowed words we have feminine endings of foreign origin : thus MASCULINE. FEMININE. Latin executor execu-trix Greek hero hero-ine But it will be observed that we cannot, as in the case of ess, em- ploy these endings in forming new feminines. EXERCISE 3. State the gender of the following words : 1. Cow; lass; mistress; poet; gander. 2. Widower; aunt; uncle; priestess; goddess. 3. Lamb; horse; cattle; hogs; pigs; chickens. 4. Pauline; bridegroom; ship; sun; moon. 5. Husband; wife; steer; heifer; gentleman; lady. 6. Moor-hen ; ink-bottle ; editor ; regiment ; witch. 20 ETYMOLOGY. III. CASE IN NOUNS. 43, Definition. Case is a grammatical form denoting the relation of a noun to some other word in the sentence. ILLUSTRATION. In the sentence, The general praised the soldier's bravery, "general" stands for the person who did the action denoted by the verb " praised ;" " bravery " stands for that towards which the action (of praising) went ; " soldier's " is used to indicate whose bravery was praised. " General " and " bravery " have each a certain relation to the verb "praised," and "soldier's" has a certain relation to the noun " bravery." 44, Case-forms. Nouns in English have only two case- forms, exemplified in the words boy, botfs; bird, bird's ; but as there are at least three distinct relations of the noun, and as in most pronouns each of these uses is denoted by a separate word, it is usual to reckon three cases of nouns. 45, The cases are: I. THE NOMINATIVE CASE. II. THE POSSESSIVE CASE. III. TlIE OBJECTIVE CASE. 46, The nominative case is that form which a noun has when it is the subject of a verb : as, " The boy grows." The subject of a verb represents that of which something is as- serted. 47, The possessive case is that form which a noun has in order to denote ownership or possession : as, " The boy's book is lost." 48, The objective case is that use which a noun has when it is the object of a verb (or of a preposition). Nouns have the same form in the nominative and objective cases, the case being determined by the relation which the noun bears to the verb : as, " The man struck the boy" THE NOUN.-CASE. 21 The object of a verb is the name of that on which the action spoken of by a verb terminates. It answers to wJwm or what after the verb. 49. Kule for Possessive, The possessive case in the sin- gular number, and in those plurals which do not end in S in the nominative, is formed by suffixing S with an apostro- phe before it ('s) to the nominative case ^ as, boy's, John's, men's. In those plurals that end in S, the possessive is formed by- placing the apostrophe alone after the S : as, " the boys' books," "the birds' feathers." I. It was formerly customary to mark the possessive case singular of nouns ending in 8, z, or ce by placing an apostrophe without the s after the word : as, "Socrates' wife," " the Times' editorial.' 7 But this practice is now nearly obsolete, except in a few special cases, as, " for conscience" 1 sake ;" and it would be well could we at- tain the uniform method of writing the possessive singular with the 's. It is better to write " Charles's book" than " Charles' book ;" " the goddess's wrath" than " the goddess* wrath." Wheth- er the suffix shall be pronounced is a matter of euphony or (in verse) of metrical necessity ; in writing, the suffix 's belongs to the possessive singular as a matter of grammatical justice. II. The inflection 's of the possessive singular represents the Anglo-Saxon suffix es, which was used to mark the possessive (or genitive) case singular of certain classes of nouns : as, nomi- native, smith; genitive, smithes= smith's, or of a smith. The apostrophe denotes the elision of the e in the old es. III. In compound or complex names the sign of the possessive is affixed to the last word only ; as, " my father-in-law's house," "John Stuart Mill's Political Economy." 50, Declension, A noun is said to be declined when we name its three cases in the two numbers; the process of doing so is called declension. 22 ETYMOLOGY. Declension of Nouns. BOY. MAN. SINGULAR. PLTTBAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Norn. boy boys Nom. man men Pass. boy's boys' Poss. man's men's Obj. boy boys Obj. man men LADY. SHEEP. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. lady ladies Nom. sheep sheep Poss. lady's ladies' Poss. sheep's sheep's Obj. lady ladies Obj. sheep sheep EXERCISE 4. A. In the following sentences select first the nouns in the nominative case, and then those in the objective case : 1. I love John. 2. John loves me. 3. The boy likes play. 4. Play tires the boy. 5. The hunters followed the hound. 6. The snow covered the ground. 7. John Milton wrote Paradise Lost. 8. Suspicion haunts the guilty mind. 9. Across his brow his hand he drew. 10. The children coming home from school Look in at the open door ; They love to see the flaming forge, And hear the bellows roar, And catch the burning sparks that fly Like chaff from a threshing-floor. 11. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, And all the air a solemn stillness holds. 12. Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere ; Heaven did a recompense as largely send. THE NOUN. PERSON. 23 B. Give the possessive, singular and plural (if any), of the fol- lowing nouns : 1. Child; prince; woman; king; cable; tutor. 2. Peril; mercy; father; Henry; aunt; cat. 3. Charles; gardener; brother; poetess; author; painter. 4. Sculptor; engraver; sister; Socrates; princess; bridge. 5. House; Peter; righteousness; ox; thief; sheep. C. Write the following changing the italicized phrases into possessive nouns : 1. A cap of the boy. 2. The mother of Moses. 3. The dresses of the ladies. 4. The son of the princess. 5. The pain-killer of Davis. 6. The wrath of Achilles. 7. The work of the men. 8. The wool of the sheep. 9. The hat of Mr. Jacob. 10. The house of Mr. Jacobs. 11. The store of the Messrs. Murray. 12. The banking-house of Brown Brothers. 13. The houses of my sons-in-law. IV. PERSON IN NOUNS. 51, Person in nouns is a grammatical form which shows whether the "speaker is meant, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of .* Grammatical person is best understood by reference to the per- sonal pronouns. (See 56.) There are three persons : the first, the second^ and the third the first denoting the speaker, the second the person spoken to, the third the person or thing spoken of. 52, How known, Person in nouns is not marked by any sign, being denoted wholly by grammatical relation. * The word "person' 7 has in grammar a technical meaning quite different from its ordinary signification (namely, a rational being or individual). The term was borrowed by the old grammarians from the language of the stage, in which the players, only three in number, were called the "persons" of the drama (dramatis personce). From this the word came to mean the character assumed, the part taken by each performer. Hence "person," as a grammat- ical term, means a mode of denoting (by the use of a noun and by the form of a pronoun) the parts sustained by the several participants in discourse as that of the speaker, the person addressed, etc. 24: ETYMOLOGY* I. A noun used in connection with a personal pronoun of the first person is in the first person : as, " I, Paul" II. A noun used in connection with a personal pronoun of the sec- ond person is in the second person : as, " Thou, God, seest me." III. A noun that is the name of anything spoken of is in the third person. Nouns are always in the third person except when they are in apposition (see page 102) with a pronoun of the first 01 second person. GENERAL EEVIEW OF NOUNS. A. TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. COMMON. Classes ^ PROPER. ABSTRACT. Singular. Plural. f Masculine. [ Neuter. ( Nominative . CASE ? Possessive. ( Objective. Inflections U or es = plural. 's ^possessive case singular., B. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. I. Definition of the Noun. 1. TESTS. 2. LOGICAL DEFINITION. II. Classes of Nouns. 1. COMMON DEFINED. Collective. 2. PROPER DEFINED. Distinction of proper and common. 3. ABSTRACT DEFINED. THE NOUN. REVIEW. 25 III. Grammatical Forms. 1. NUMBER DEFINED. a. Singular. 5. Plural. 2. FORMATION OP PLURAL. a. By inflection. I. By radical change examples. c. Indeterminate forms examples. 3. GENDER DEFINED. a. How determined. I. Masculine. c. Feminine. d. Common. e. Neuter. 4. MARKS OF GENDER. a. By different words examples. b. By prefixed words examples. c. By inflection examples. 5. CASE DEFINED. a. Case-forms. ~b. Cases number of. c. Nominative. d. Possessive formation of. e. Objective. f. Declension examples. C. WRITTEN REVIEWS.* I. 1. State the derivation of the word noun. 2. Write a sentence containing two nouns, the names of material objects, and a sentence containing two nouns, the names of objects perceived by the mind. * In these Written Reviews the questions have in some cases reference to matter in subordinate type or to matter in the Notes (see Appendix, page 237). B 26 ETYMOLOGY. 3. State to which of the following words the three tests of the noun apply (and hence which are nouns) : hero, heroic, we, man, truly, who. 4. Give the three principal divisions of nouns, and illustrate each class by an example in a sentence. 5. Write in your own language the chief distinction between a proper noun and a common noun, and apply the explanation to the nouns river and Amazon. 6. Give three examples of an abstract noun. Form three from any three adjectives. 7. To which class of nouns do the words " seeing " and " believing " in the sentence " Seeing is believing" belong ? 8. The plural of nouns is usually formed by adding s or es to the singular. Explain the following plurals which are otherwise formed : oxen* feet, mice, children* strata. 9. Write the plurals of the following words : cow,*knife, wife, dwarf, staff, ox, die, house, wealth, phenomenon, canto, lily, donkey, stomach, son- in-law, brigadier-general. 10. In the following stanzas classify the nouns : Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of Death ? Some village Hampden, that with dauntless breast The little tyrant of his fields withstood, Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood. II. 1. State the origin of the plural suffix *, and illustrate.! 2. Write a sentence containing a collective noun. 3. State the number of the following nouns : mathematics, scissors, deer, alms. 4. Write the plural of Englishman, Frenchman, Mussulman, Ottoman, German, talisman. 5. Give three nouns (a) that have no singular fonn ; (&) that have no plural form ; (c) that have singular and plural alike. * See " Notes on Number," Appendix, page 237. t Sec " Notes on Number," Appendix, page 237. THE NOUN. REVIEW. 27 6. Give the two plurals of the following words, and distinguish be- tween the meanings : die, brother, cloth, penny, 7. How does gender differ from sex ? 8. State the several modes of forming the feminine of nouns, and illustrate by examples. 9. From what language is the feminine suffix ess derived ? What was the corresponding Anglo-Saxon suffix ? 10. Is there anything etymologically peculiar in the following words : songstress, spinster ?* IIL 1. Write two masculine nouns formed from the feminine,! 2. Write three nouns of common gender. 3. Why is there no need of such feminine forms as waitress, editress, etc.? 4. Write the definition of case, name the three cases, and illustrate by the declension of a noun. 5. What is the only c&se-inflection in modern English ? 6. How do we distinguish between the nominative and the possess- ive case ? 7. Explain the origin of ''s in sucli a word as father's. Will the same explanation apply to the plural, fathers' ?\ 8. Write the possessive case plural of man, lady, memy, 9. Explain the term objective case, 10. State the grammatical forms (that is, the number, gender, case, and person) of "hero"" in the sentence " The hero perished in his prime," giving the reason for each form. * Appendix, page 238, t Appendix, page 238. J Appendix, page 240. 28 ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER III. THE PRONOUN. I. DEFINITION. 53, A pronoun* is a word used for a name or instead of a noun : as, " I say ;" " He remained ;" " Who is afraid ?" " That is good." I. A pronoun cannot be correctly defined merely as " a word used instead of a noun." This definition holds good with reference to some of them only : it does not apply, for instance, to the personal pronouns of the first and second persons (/, you), which can by no means be said to stand instead of a noun.f II.* A pronoun resembles a noun (1) in having the grammatical uses of the noun ; and (2) in having, when the meaning permits, grammatical forms to denote gender, number, and case. It differs from a noun in not being a name. The noun describes, the pro- noun designates without describing. II. CLASSIFICATION AND INFLECTION. 54, Pronouns are divided into three classes: I. PER- SONAL. II. RELATIVE. III. INTERROGATIVE. I. PERSONAL PROIVOUJVS. 55, A personal pronoun is one that marks grammatical person. The personal pronouns are : I, you (thou), he, she, it, with their plurals, we, you (ye), they. Person has been already defined under Nouns (see 51) as a gram- matical form which shows whether the speaker is meant, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. * Latin pro, for, and nomen, a name, or noun, t See u The Pronoun," Appendix, page 2L THE PRONOUN. 29 56, There are three persons: the first, the second, and the third. A personal pronoun is of tlie first person when it denotes the speaker, of the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, and of the third person when it denotes the per- son or thing spoken of. The ordinary definition above given lias brevity to recommend it ; but a more accurate description would be as follows : 1. The personal pronoun of the first person is that used when one speaks of himself singly (/), or of himself together with another person or other persons (we). 2. The personal pronoun of the second person is that used when one speaks of the person or persons whom he is addressing (you thou, ye). 3. The personal pronoun of the third person is that used when any person or persons, thing or things, are spoken of (he, she,it, they). 57, Grammatical Forms, In addition to person, the per^ sonal pronouns all express number and case, and the third personal pronoun in the singular number expresses gender. 58, Declension, The following is a tabular view of the personal pronouns, showing their various inflections and other changes. Declension of the Personal Pronouns. Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj. First person, I, my or mine, me. We, our or ours, us. Second, You, your or yours, you. You, your or yours, you. fMas. He, his, him.") Third, -J Fern. She, her or hers, her. > They, their or theirs, them. \Neut. It, its, it. J Second pers., solemn style. Thou, thy or thine, thee. Nom.pl. Ye. The pronouns of the first and second persons have two forms of the possessive case : my, mine; thy, thine; our, ours; your, yours; the third person feminine has her, hers ; the third person 30 ETYMOLOGY. plural has tlieir, theirs. The former of each pair is used attribu- tively, i. e., with a noun expressed ; the latter is used indepen- dently, after a verb. Thus This is my her ) / your ( their house. But, This house is mine. hers. ours. yours. theirs. The former set are generally called possessive adjectives or pos- sessive adjective pronouns ; the latter are by some grammarians called personal pronouns in the possessive case, and by others are considered independent possessive pronouns, in the nomi- native or objective case, according to their construction in a sentence. 59, Compounds, A compound form is obtained for the personal pronouns, in the nominative and objective cases, by adding self or selves to the possessive of the first and second persons, and to the objective of the third person. SINGULAR. PLT7RAL. 1. Myself, Ourselves. 2. \ Th y self > I Yourselves. } Yourself, ) (Himself, j 3. < Herself, V Themselves. (itself, j I. Sometimes these compounds are put in apposition to another word merely to give it force; in this instance they may be termed emphatic personal pronouns: as, "John himself went ;" " They went themselves" II. When used after a transitive* verb, such words are termed reflexive pronouns, as implying the bending back of an action upon the person or thing spoken of: as, "John hurt himself" III. The pronouns of the first and second persons do not mark distinctions of gender, because when a person speaks of himself or to another, the sex, being evident, does not require to be formally expressed. The plurals are necessarily indeterminate * See 91. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 31 in gender, as ice, you, and they may include persons of different sexes. IV. You is now employed both as the singular and plural of the second person, but is used only with verbs in the plural num- ber: as, "You are" (not art). Thou, the old form, is now ob- solete except in religious or poetical use, and in the idiom of the Society of Friends. II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 60, A relative pronoun is a pronoun that both repre- sents a preceding noun or pronoun and connects with it a dependent proposition :* as 1. No PEOPLE can be great who [have ceased to be virtuous], 2. How blest is HE who crowns in shades like these A youth of labor with an age of ease. 8. I have found the SHEEP which was lost. 4. 1 dare do ALL that may become a man. 5. One man admires what displeases another. All pronouns have a representative use ; but what is peculiar in the relatives is their connective office. (On this account the relatives are often called conjunctive pronouns.) They go back (relate) in meaning to some foregoing (antecedent) word or words with which they serve to join some descriptive state- ment. A relative pronoun cannot form the subject of an in- dependent proposition. 61, The antecedent of a relative is the noun or pronoun represented by the relative. 62, The relative pronouns are who^ which, that, and what. Who is used to represent persons, and which to represent in- ferior animals and lifeless things ; that refers both to persons and things, and is used instead of who or which in certain circumstances. NOTE. The rules for the use of that belong to Syntax (see page 181). For the idiomatic use of as and but as relatives, see Idiomatic Forms, page 186. * For the definition of dependent proposition (or clause), see 220. 32 ETYMOLOGY. Who and which are inflected as follows, alike in the singular and the plural : BING. & PI,. , BING. & PL. Nom who which Pass whose whose Obj whom which That and what are indeclinable. 63, What is a relative used without an antecedent, and is equivalent in meaning to that which. (See page 109.) 64, Compound relatives are formed by adding ever and soever to who, which, and what. These compounds may be called indefinite relative pronouns. Whosoever is declined Nom whosoever Pass whosesoever Obj whomsoever III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 65, An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in ask- ing a question. They. are who? which? and what? Who and what are declined in the same manner as the corre- sponding relatives. 66, Who is applied to persons : thus Who told you so ? Whose is this book ? To ichom shall I apply ? 67, Which is applied both to persons and things when it is used to ask which individual of a known class or number is the object inquired about : thus Which of you did this ? Which (thing) shall I take ? 68, What is used with reference to things in an indefinite manner : thus What shall I say ? What do you want ? THE PRONOUN. REVIEW. 33 EXERCISE 5. Select the pronouns, and state to which class each belongs : 1. I hope you will give me the book I lent you. 2. Whenever Antonio met Shylock on the Rialto, he used to reproach him with his usuries and hard deal- ings; which the Jew would hear with seeming patience, while he secretly meditated revenge. 3. What did the prisoner say? 4. Tell me what the pris- oner said. 5. Ours are as good as yours. 6. You must blame yourselves for your loss. 7. Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. 8. Who would fardels bear, to groan and sweat under a weary life, when he himself might his quietus make with a bare bodkin ? 9. She deserves great praise for her work. 10. Behold the moon ; she cometh forth in her beauty. 11. This is not the book that I sent you for. 12. And I have loved thee, Ocean ! and my joy Of youthful sports was on thy breast to be Borne, like thy bubbles, onward : from a boy I wantoned with thy breakers they to me Were a delight; and, if the freshening sea Made them a terror 'twas a pleasing fear; For I was as it were a child of thee, And trusted to thy billows far and near, And laid my hand upon thy mane as I do here. GENERAL REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. A. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. I. Definition of the Pronoun. 1. REAL NATURE OF THE PRONOUN. 2. COMPARED WITH THE NOUN. a^ Resemblances. ~b. Differences. II. Classification of the Pronoun. 1. PERSONAL DEFINED. 2. NUMBER OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. a. Use of the first personal. &. Use of the second personal, c. Use of the third personal. B2 34: ETYMOLOGY. 3. GRAMMATICAL FORMS OP PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 4. DECLENSION. a. First personal. Z>. Second personal. c. Third personal. d. Double possessive forms. 5. COMPOUND PERSONALS. Their functions. 6. RELATIVE DEFINED. 7. ANTECEDENT DEFINED. 8. PRINCIPAL RELATIVES. a. Who its use. 1). Who declined. c. Which its use. d. That its use. e. Compound relatives. 9. INTERROGATIVE DEFINED. a. Who? I. Which? c.What? B. WRITTEN REVIEW. 1. Define pronoun. 2. State in what respect the ordinary definition is inadequate. 3. Write the full definitions of the personal pronouns of the first, second, and third persons respectively. 4. Explain mine, thine, ours, yours, theirs. What is the difference be- tween my and mine ? their and theirs ? 5. When was the word its first introduced ? What form did it sup- plant ?* 6. What is peculiar in the use of the relative pronouns ? 7. Write a sentence containing who as a relative ; a sentence contain- ing which as a relative ; a sentence containing whom as a relative. 8. Write a sentence containing who as an interrogative ; a sentence containing whom as an interrogative. * See Appendix, page 241. THE ADJECTIVE. CLASSIFICATION. 35 CHAPTER IY. THE ADJECTIVE. I. DEFINITION. 69, An adjective* is a word joined to a noun (or pronoun) to limit or qualify its meaning : thus 1. This book ; five apples; a white horse ; red roses ; wise men. 2, The fields are green. We call the proud happy. I. All adjectives limit the application of the nouns to which they are joined, and in the case of one class of adjectives (namely, the limiting) the sole office is that of restricting the extent of application of the noun. Thus : " this book " that is, not a~ book in general, or your book; "Jive apples" (no more or less). But qualifying adjectives have a double office: while they narrow the application of the nouns with which they are joined, they also increase their meaning. Thus, in the expression " a white horse," the adjective "white" adds to the notion " horse" the notion of a certain attribute, namely, that of whiteness ; so that " white horse" forms one complex description. But the adjec- tive " white " serves also to confine the meaning of the term "horse" to one of a special kind of horses, namely, "white horses;" and these form a smaller class than "horses" in general. II. An adjective is not always joined directly (attributively) to a noun; the attribute named by the adjective may be asserted (predicatively) by means of a verb : as, " The fields are green ;" " We call the proud hajipy." II. CLASSIFICATION. 70, Adjectives may be divided into two general classes: * From Latin adjectivus, that may be added or annexed to something (that is, to a noun or a pronoun). 36 ETYMOLOGY. I. LIMITING (or definitive) ADJECTIVES. II. QUALIFYING (or descriptive} ADJECTIVES. I. LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 71 A limiting (or definitive) adjective is one that merely defines or restricts the meaning of a noun : as a book ; this school ; some peaches ; three black crows. 72 Limiting adjectives are subdivided into three classes : I. ARTICLES. II. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. III. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. I. Articles. 73 1 The limiting adjectives the and an or a are called articles.* The is called the definite article / an, or a, the indefinite article. I. The is used to point out (1) one or more particular objects or (2) a class of objects: as, " The dog bit the boys;" that is, the particular "dog" and "boys" previously referred to. " The dog is a faithful animal ;" that is, the class or Tcind of animals named dogs. II. An, or a, is used to indicate any one of a class of objects named by a noun : as, "J. dog bit me." " I saw an old man." 74, An and af (which are merely different forms of the same word) are both called the indefinite article. A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound : * There is no good reason for erecting the articles into a part of speech. They are simply limiting adjectives, and, strictly speaking, do not deserve to be made even a separate subdivision of this class of adjectives ; for the is merely a contracted form of the demonstrative that, and an, or a, a contracted form of the numeral one (Anglo-Saxon ane or an). The term " article " is, however, in such common use that it has been retained in this book. t The n in an is a part of the root (Anglo-Saxon ane or an = one). Hence it is not a that becomes an before a vowel or a silent h, according to the com- mon rule, but an that loses its final letter before a consonant. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 37 as, " a man," " a house," " a wonder," " a year," " a use," " a unit," " a European."* An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound : as, "an art," "an end," "an heir," "an hour," "an urn."f II. Pronominal Adjectives. 75, Some limiting adjectives may by themselves repre- sent a noun. When thus used they are called pronominal adjectives, A pronominal adjective (pro, for, and nomen, a name or noun) some- times performs the office both of an adjective and of a noun. Thus: "Is this his book?" "No, it is mine" (my bopk). We heard the minister's speech, but not that (= the speech) of the doctor." 76, The principal pronominal adjectives are included in the following list : all each much some another either neither such any few own that both many several this The following sentences illustrate the use of these words as limit- ing adjectives and as pronominal adjectives : LIMITING ADJECTIVES. All the world's a stage. There is another and a better world. Is there any\ danger ? PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. All assented to the plan. Never either found another to free the hollow heart from paining. If any, speak. * 7 long (that is, sounded like the combination you\ as also its representa- tive eu, has an initial consonant sound ; hence, a use, a eulogy. t In regard to the employment of a or of an before words beginning with 7i aspirate there is a difference of usage, especially in the case of certain words commencing with h faintly sounded, and when the accent is on the second syllable. Thus, while we say "a history," "a hero," many prefer to write "an historical work," "an heroic deed." This is perhaps the more scholarly, but it does not promise to become t\\e popular usage. I Any contains the original form of the numeral one (Anglo-Saxon an), with the suffix ig or y. 38: ETYMOLOGY. LIMITING ADJECTIVES. Both courses are dangerous. Each* ivied arch is in decay. Either^ plan promises well. Few men can bear prosperity. We have passed many happy days. I have much pleasure in serving you. Neither plan promises well. This is my own, my native land. Several boys ran away. Some pious drops the closing eye requires. Such\ harmony is in immortal souls. Look on this picture. Look on that picture. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. Both are dangerous. Each seemed the centre of his own fair world. I will take eitlier. Few, few shall part where many meet. Few, few shall part where many meet. Though much is taken, much re- mains. I will take either, but you shall have neither. It is a trifle, but my men. Several were missing. Some fell by the wayside. If you are a man, show yourself such. Look on this. Look on that. NOTES ON LIMITING AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. I. Demonstratives. The following pronominal adjectives are often named demonstratives, or demonstrative adjectives (or pronouns) : this, these ; that, those ; former, latter ; same, such. II. Indefinites. The following are often named indefinite adjectives (or pronouns) : all, any, another, few, many, none, other, some. III. Distributives. The following are often named distributive ad- jectives (or pronouns) : each, either, neither. IV. Interrogative and Relative. The interrogative and relative pronouns which and what, with their compounds whichever and isliatever, when used with nouns, are classed as limiting adjectives. * Each is derived from Old-English a=ever, and Zic=like. t " Neither" is either with the negative prefix ne=not. I Such is derived from so (Old-English swa) and like (Old-English ftc), that is, so like or this like. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 39 ( Which book will you have ? InterrogatiTCS. . . < . , .... ( What noise is this ? { I see which book you wish. BelatiTes < . J ( I know wriat pains you take. V. Limiting 1 Only. The indefinite adjective no* the demonstrative adjective yonder, and the distributive adjective enery\ are used solely as limiting adjectives. The indefinite none% is pronominal only: as, "None knew thee but to love thee." VI. Inflected Forms. Some of the pronominal adjectives have so completely assumed the office of nouns that they undergo inflections. Thus, either and another have a possessive form, either* 8, another 's : as 1. Then cither's love was either* s life. 2. Learn to feel another's woe. Other has a plural, others, which is regularly declined : nom. others ; poss. others' 1 ; obj. others. III. Numeral Adjectives. 77. A numeral adjective is one that expresses a definite number: as, one, two, three ; first, second, etc. 78, Numeral adjectives are divided into two classes: 1. Cardinal, which denote how many: as, "two bats;" three balls." The cardinal numerals from one to ninety-nine are adjectives ; but the words hundred, thousand, million (like pair and dozen) are nouns, and may be preceded by the indefinite article : as, " a hundred sheep ;" or may take the plural form: as, "hundreds of sheep." * " No " is formed from none by dropping ne, just as my is formed from mine. t "Every" is a contraction of ever each="e&ch and all" (of two or more objects). % u None" is formed from Old-English ne aw^not one. In Anglo-Saxon these words were followed by a noun in the possessive (genitive) case: thus, "a hundred sheep "=a hundred of sheep. 40 ETYMOLOGY. 2. Ordinal, which denote in what order things are ar- ranged in a series : as, " the first prize ;" " the third day ;" " the hundredth night." I. The ordinal numerals, with the exception of the first two, are formed from the cardinal numerals : thus, fourth, fifth, sixth, thousandth, etc. "But first and second are not etymologically con- nected with one, two. First (foremost) is the superlative of fore. Second is from Latin secundus. II. The term multiplicative* is sometimes applied to numerals denoting repetition: as, "twice," or "twofold;" "thrice" or "threefold;" "fifty-fold," "double." etc. II. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. 79, A qualifying (or descriptive) adjective is one that denotes some quality or attribute of the object named by the noun : thus A lofty mountain. A running stream. I. To this class belongs the great body of adjectives ; for it in^ eludes the thousands of words expressive of the various qual- ities, attributes, and properties which we ascertain either through the senses or by a process of thought. II. It is needless for grammatical purposes to make any subdi- vision of qualifying adjectives; but it may be useful to give an explanation of the following terms, which are sometimes applied to certain adjectives of this class : 1. Proper Adjectives* These are derived from proper nouns: as, " an American idea; 1 ' "Platonic love." They are in their nature qualifying adjectives, and have nothing peculiar except that they are written with an initial capital. 2. Participial Adjectives. By a participial adjective* is meant a participle used strictly as an adjective : as, " a loving friend ;" " an educated man." It seems unnecessary to designate such words by a special name ("participial adjectives"). They have ceased to be participles, and may be parsed simply as qualifying adjectives. . * See page 64. THE ADJECTIVE. GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 41 3. A compound adjective is formed from two simple words, with an intervening hyphen : as, " a white-robed maiden ;" "the straw- built shed ;" " a heart-rending scream." It is unnecessary in parsing to specify that an adjective is compound, any more than that it is primitive or derivative. III. GRAMMATICAL FOKM OF THE ADJECTIVE. 80, Adjectives have but one grammatical form, namely, comparison. In many languages adjectives are inflected to mark gender, num- ber, and case, and in these respects they are made to agree with their nouns. A Latin adjective, like bonus (good), followed through all its inflections, assumes twelve different forms. In the earliest English there were several such inflections. Thus the adjective good, preceded by the definite article, was, when used with a masculine noun in the nominative case, god#, with a feminine noun gocte, and with a neuter noun gode; the nom- inative plural was godan. But these variations had all disap- peared from our speech several centuries ago.* 81, Comparison is a modification of adjectives (and ad- verbs) to express degrees of quantity or quality. 82, There are three degrees of comparison tlie positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 83, The positive degree of an adjective is the adjective without modification, used to denote simple quantity or quality : as, long, righteous. 84, The comparative degree of an adjective is that modi- fication of it by means of which we -show that one thing f or * "The irreconcilability of the Norman and Saxon modes of inflecting ad- jectives compelled the English to discard them both ; but the Saxon endings of number were not given up till the fifteenth century." Marsh : Lectures on the English Language. 42 ETYMOLOGY. set of tilings, possesses a certain quality or attribute in a greater degree than another thing, or set of things : thus 1. My knife is sharper than yours. One thing compared with another. 2. This soldier is taller than those. One thing compared with a number of things. 3. Your parents are richer than mine. A set of things compared with a set of things. 4. These books are larger than that one. A set of things compared with one thing. 85, The superlative degree of an adjective is that modifi- cation of it by means of which we show that a certain thing, or set of things, possesses some quality or attribute in a greater degree than any other of the class to which it belongs : as, " the tallest soldier ;" " the minutest grain." 86. Formation, I. Adjectives of one syllable generally form their comparative by suffixing er, and their superlative by suffixing est, to the positive :~* thus POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPEHLATIVK. bold bolder boldest wise wiser wisest II. Adjectives of more than one syllable generally form their comparative by joining the adverb more, and their superlative by joining the adverb most, with the positive : thus POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. faithful more faithful most faithful dangerous more dangerous most dangerous I. This is the general rule ; but from it there are frequent de- partures. Thus many two-syllabled adjectives ending in y, ?^, * In adding these suffixes the usual "rules for spelling derivative words are to be observed. THE ADJECTIVE. NOTES. 43 ow, and er form their comparative and superlative by suffixing er and est : as happy able shallow tender happier abler shallower tenderer happiest ablest shallowest tenderest But it would sound harsh to say prudenter, earnestc&t. In this matter euphony is the guide. II. On the other hand, even short adjectives may be compared by means of more and most, if the ear is satisfied : thus, " Alfred is the most apt of all the pupils." " Give us more ample ground." 87, Irregular comparison is a mode of marking the de- grees of comparison different from the regular mode. The following are irregular comparisons : COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. better best better best worse worst less least more most farther farthest further furthest nearer nearest or next nigher later or latter nighest or next latest or last older or elder oldest or eldest hinder hindmost upper upmost utter or outer utmost, uttermost, or outmost NOTES ON IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. Good : Better and lest [bet-est] are the comparative and the superla- tive of the obsolete Anglo-Saxon let, a synonym of good. 44 ETYMOLOGY. Bad : Worse and worst are the comparative and superlative of the obsolete Anglo-Saxon weor, a synonym of bad. 06s. A regular comparative, badder, is found iu early English. Old: The regular comparative and superlative are used when old is contrasted with new ; the irregular forms when it is contrasted with young; as, " The older house belongs to the elder brother." But older and oldest are often applied to animate beings; elder and eldest never to inanimate. Obs. Elder does not now denote greater age so much as the relation of precedence; it cannot be followed by than. Late : The regular forms later and latest are opposed to earlier and earliest; the irregular forms latter and last are opposed to former and first. Last is a compression of late-est. Farther, further: Farther, from far, means more distant, and is opposed to nearer; as, "I prefer the farther house." Farther, from forth, means more advanced or additional ; as, " I shall mention a further reason." Inner, inmost, have no positive : down, downmost, and top, topmost, have no comparative ; nether, nethermost, are the comparative and su- perlative of neath. Obs. The suffix most, in these superlatives, is not the adverb most. It is realty a double superlative ending, compounded of the two Anglo- Saxon endings ma and ost, each of which is equivalent to est. Hence 88, Incomparables, Adjectives that are of absolute or superlative signification cannot, if taken in their strict sense, be compared : as Dead, perpendicular, empty, round (adjectives having no shades of meaning). Perfect, infinite, supreme, universal (adjectives expressing the highest possible degree). I. Many of these adjectives are compared in colloquial use, and even by good writers, and such comparison may be deemed allowable on the theory that these adjectives are nofr used in THE ADJECTIVE. REVIEW. their strict sense. However, we can generally avoid such com- parisons. In place of saying " more perfect," " more perpen- dicular," etc., we may say " more nearly perfect," " more nearly perpendicular," etc. II. Some adjectives, as anterior, superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, posterior, etc., suggest the idea of comparison (and they are real Latin comparatives), but they do not admit its forms ; and when a comparison is implied these adjectives are followed by to, and not by than, as comparatives usually are : as, " This event was anterior to the Revolution." " Your ability is superior to mine." GENERAL REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES. A. TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. c Limiting Classes . ( ARTICLE PRONOMINAL . j Definite. \ Indefinite. f Demonstrative. Indefinite. < Distributive. Interrogative and Relative. Gram. Forms Inflections f Cardinal. NUMERAL I Ordinal. [ Multiplicative. I Qualifying. ...Comparison only. Comparative, -er. Superlative, -est. B. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. I. Definition. 1. OFFICE OF ALL ADJECTIVES. 2. OFFICE OF QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. II. Classification. 1. NUMBER OF CLASSES. 2. NAMES OF CLASSES. 46 ETYMOLOGY. III. Limiting Adjectives. 1. DEFINITION. 2. SUBDIVISION. a. Articles. &. Pronominal adjectives. c. Numeral adjectives. 3. ARTICLES. a. Definition. 1. The name and use. c. An, or a name and use. d. Rules for their use. 4. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. a. Definition. (1) Demonstratives example. (2) Indefinites example. (3) Distributives example. (4) Interrogatives and relatives example. 5. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. a. Definition. 5. Subdivision. (1) Cardinals definition. (2) Ordinals definition. (3) Multiplicatives definition. EV. Qualifying Adjectives. 1. DEFINITION. V. Grammatical Forms. 1. COMPARISON DEFINITION. 2. NUMBER OF DEGREES. a. Positive definition. Z>. Comparative definition. c. Superlative definition. 3. RULES OF FORMATION. a. Monosyllabic words. b. Polysyllabic words. 4. ADJECTIVES INCOMPARABLE. THE ADJECTIVE. REVIEW. 47 c. WRITTEN REVIEW. 1. Give the derivation of the word " adjective." 2. Explain how an adjective both limits and enlarges the sense of a noun. 3. Write a sentence containing two limiting adjectives ; a sentence containing three qualifying adjectives. 4. Which is preferable, " a historical work " or " an historical work ?" State the reason for your preference. 5. Write a sentence containing two or more proper adjectives. 6. Explain the meaning of the terms positive, comparative, and super- lative. 7. Write a sentence containing an adjective in each of the degrees of comparison. 8. Copy the following, drawing one line under each adjective, and two lines under the word it limits or qualifies. The house-dog, on his paws outspread, Laid to the fire his drowsy head; The cat's dark silhouette on the wall A couchant tiger's seemed to fall; And, for the winter fireside meet, Between the andiron's straddling feet, The mug of cider simmered slow, The apples sputtered in a row; And close at hand the basket stood, With nuts from brown October's wood. TTViittier. 48 ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER V. THE VERB. I. DEFINITION. 89, A verb is a word that predicates* action or leing : as 1. Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee At all his jokes, for many a joke had he. 2. All are but parts of one harmonious whole. I. The predication, i. e., the assertion or statement, is made about some person or thing, and the word naming that person or thing is called the subject of the verb. II. The distinguishing mark of the verb is its possession of gram- matical forms to denote varieties of yerson, number, time, and mode of predication. II. CLASSES OF VERBS. 90. Verbs are divided into two classes : I. TRANSITIVE. II. INTRANSITIVE. 91, A transitive! verb is one that denotes an action terminating on some object : thus 1. Richard struck the ball [action terminating on the object named, "ball"]. 2. Milton wrote Paradise Lost [action terminating on the object named, " Paradise Lost "]. * "To predicate," from Latin prccdicare, to tell, assert, declare, or make known. t " Transitive" is from Latin trans, over, and ire, to go=going or passing over, the idea being that the action, instead of being merely asserted of the subject, passes over and affects or terminates on some object. THE VERB. CLASSES. 49 92, Complement. A transitive verb does not by itself make a complete statement ; it requires a completing term, or complement. Some intransitive verbs, also, require a completing term, though of a kind different from that re- quired by the transitive verb. (See 94.) The complement of any verb is the word or words re- quired to complete the statement. The complement of a transitive verb is called its object: as, "ball," "Paradise Lost," in 91. I. The object of a transitive verb is always a noun (or its equiv- alent) in the objective case. II. Every transitive verb is an incomplete verb, or a verb of incom- plete predication. Thus " Solomon built " is not a complete statement. We ask, "Built what?" The statement may be completed in this way : " Solomon built the Temple.' 1 '' Here the complement of the transitive verb " built " is the object " Temple," a noun in the objective case. 93, An intransitive verb is one that denotes (1) a state or condition, or (2) an action not terminating on an object : as 1. Children sleep [state or condition]. 2. The sea-bird rises as the billows rise [action not terminating on an object, but affecting the agent only], 94, Complement, Most intransitive verbs make com- plete statements ; but there are a few intransitive verbs of incomplete predication (as ~be, become, seem, look, appear, smell, feel, and the like) ; these require as complement either a predicate noun or a predicate adjective : thus 1. Mary is "beautiful [adjective-complement of the verb "is"]. 2. Elizabeth was queen [noun-complement of " was "]. 3. A boy becomes a man [noun-complement of "becomes"]. 4. Cheerful he seemed, and gentleness he loved [adjective-com- plement of " seemed "]. 5. Macbeth looked pale [adjective-complement of "looked"]. c 50 ETYMOLOGY. 6. Henry VIII. appeared every inch a Icing [noun-complement of "appeared"]. 7. The rose smells sweet [adjective-complement of " smells "= the rose is sweet to the smell]. NOTE. Verbs of this ^lass have been variously designated neuter verbs, cop- ula verbs, and apposition verbs ; but there is no need of a special designation for them. They are simply intransitive verbs of incomplete predication. 95, Double Use. Many verbs expressing action may be used either transitively or intransitively, but with a different meaning in each case : thus ^ ( The baby speaks already [intransitive]. ' ( The man speaks several languages [transitive]. 2 j The ship sinks [intransitive]. ' ( The pirate sinks the ship [transitive]. I. In the first examples the action denoted by the verb (" speaks ") is asserted in an indefinite or general manner ; in the transitive use the action is narrowed down to a particular application (" speaks several languages "). II. In the second examples the verb used transitively signifies to cause to do that which the intransitive verb expresses : " sinks the ship"=cau8es the ship to sink.* 96, An auxiliary verb is one used to assist in conjugating other verbs : as, shall, may, should. NOTE. For the definition of conjugation^ see 140. The auxiliary verbs do not form a class distinct from verbs transitive or intransitive, but are themselves either transitive or intransitive. NOTES ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. I. Compounds. Many intransitive verbs when followed by partic- ular prepositions become transitive and take an object. Thus The baby laughs. We laughed at the clown. * This example belongs to a numerous class of verbs which some gramma- rians have called causatives. THE VERB. EXERCISE. 51 In such instances the preposition seems to be so closely united in meaning with the verb as to form a kind of compound verb. Care should be taken, however, not to confound such compounds (which have a transitive force) with intransitive verbs followed by an ordinary prepositional phrase : as, " The bird sang on the lough." The test of a real compound is that the verb may be used in the passive voice, the object of the preposition becoming the subject of the verb. Thus : the " Robbers fell-upon him " (active) ; " He was fallen-upon by robbers" (passive). II. Eeflexive Yerbs. Transitive verbs, when followed by the re- flexive pronouns, myself, himself, etc., are said to be used reflexively ; that is, the agent is spoken of as acting on himself. In the case of many transitive verbs we have almost ceased to repeat the pronoun, and so the verb seems complete without an object. I wash [myself], the cow feeds [herself], he awakes [himself], are used intransitively; but I wash the floor, you feed the cattle, he awolce me, are used transitively. III. Cognate Objective. Some intransitive verbs take as comple- ment a noun in the objective case, with a meaning akin to that of the verb : as, " to run a race," " to die the death," etc. An object of this kind is called the cognate object. EXERCISE 6. Assign each verb to its class transitive or intransitive : 1. The general sent a message. 2. The wild cataract leaps in glory. 3. 1 shot the albatross. 4. Some murmur when their sky is clear. 5. I thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards, to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult. 6. There are more worlds than one. 7. How pale you look ! 8. Richard reads a book. 9. Robert reads well. 10. He was a man, take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again. 11. Whatever is is right. 12. Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap. 13. We all rejoiced at his success. 14. The ship struck on a rock. 15. I struck myself with a hammer. 16. He struck the ball hard. 17. He has not shaved this morning. 18. The barber shaved me yesterday. 19. Get your umbrella. 20. Get out of my way. 21. I withdraw my claim. 22. The deputation with- drew. 23. Every one laughed. 24. They laughed him to scorn. 25. He ran a race. 26. He ran a thorn into his finger. 27. Keep where you are. 28. Keep your place. 29. He roused up at the sound. 30. He launched out into all sorts of extravagance. 31. The horsemen spread over the plain. 52 ETYMOLOGY. III. YERBALS. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. NOTE. Before proceeding to consider the grammatical forms of the verb, it will be convenient to notice two kinds of verb-like words, or verbals, which are much used in the formation of the English verb. 97, The verbals are verb-forms, partaking of the nature of the verb, and having in addition the use of some other part of speech. 98. The verbals are of two kinds: I. INFINITIVES. II. PARTICIPLES. I. Infinitives. 99, The infinitive is a verbal noun. It merely names the action or state which the verb asserts : as, to read, reading. 100, There are two simple forms of the infinitive : 1. The verb in its simplest form, and generally preceded by the preposition to : as, to walk, to run. 2. The infinitive in ing, called the gerund. I. " Infinitive " signifies unlimited that is, unlimited by person and number, and hence incapable of predication. In contrast with the infinitive a verb-word that expresses predication is called & finite verb, i. e., one limited by person and number. II. The infinitive is often spoken of as a mood, but this is to imply that the infinitive is, in the full sense, a verb, which it is not ; for it lacks the distinguishing mark of a verb, namely, the function of asserting. The infinitive has, indeed, some of the properties of the verb for example, it may take an object : as, " To read good ~books is profitable " but its principal use is as a noun. ' III. It is the usual practice to employ the infinitive with the prefix to in order to designate any particular verb. Thus the word which asserts the action writing is called the verb to write ; the word which asserts being is called the verb to be. By this it is not to be understood that the words to write, to le, are them THE VERB. GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 53 selves verbs, but merely that they are names of the action or state asserted by the verb. IV. In form the gerund is identical with the present participle, but is distinguished from that verbal by having the use of a noun. Thus, " I like reading" (1 like to read). "You will be rewarded for studying mathematics.' 7 101. The root of a verb is its simple form as seen in the infinitive without the prefix to : as, write, read, stand. The term root -infinitive will be used to denote the simple infin- itive without to, its so-called sign* This form is much em- ployed in making the compound tenses. II. Participles. 102. The participle is a verbal adjective. It shares or participates in the nature both of the verb and of the ad- jective: thus 1. The water is running. "Water running through a gravelly soil is clear. 2. The good are loved. Warren died loved by all. 103. There are two participles formed by inflection the present participle and the past participle. I. The present participle of all verbs is formed by suffixing ing to the root : as, walk, walking ; write, writing. II. The past participle is generally formed by suffixing ed to the root : as, walk, walked. But some verbs do not form their past participle in this way : as, write, written ; tell, told. Such verbs are called irregular (see 141). IV. GRAMMATICAL FORMS OFTHE VERB. 104, The grammatical forms of the verb are : I. VOICE. II. MOOD. III. TENSE. IV. PERSON. V. NUMBER. * For the origin of the infinitive with to, see Appendix, page 252. 54 -ETYMOLOGY. 105, How denoted, These forms are denoted in four ways : 1. By inflection: as, "Thou lovely" " He loves;" "We loved." 2. By radical change : as, " She feZZsy" " She told: 9 3. By auxiliaries : as, " We have loved ;" " They will love." 4. By grammatical relation; that is, by reference to the gram- matical forms of the subject,vfiih which the verb agrees. Thus in the sentence " I walk," the verb " walk " is parsed as in the first person, singular number, because its subject " I " is in that person and number; but in "They walk," "walk" is parsed as in the third person plural. I. VOICE. 106, Voice is a grammatical form of the transitive verb, expressing whether the subject names the actor or the re- cipient of the action. There are two voices : I. THE ACTIVE VOICE. II. THE PASSIVE VOICE. 107, Active. A verb in the active voice represents the subject as acting upon an object : as "Watt invented the steam-engine. 108, Passive, A verb in the passive voice represents the subject as receiving an action : as The steam-engine was invented by Watt. The passive voice is formed by uniting with the past participle of any transitive verb the various parts of the auxiliary verb to be. Thus I am struck. The Persians were defeated. They will be seen. I. The passive voice is a grammatical expedient for converting the object of a transitive verb into its subject. AVhat in the active voice is represented as the object, receiving or enduring THE VERB. MOOD. 55 the action expressed by the verb, becomes the subject, but is still represented as receiving or enduring the action expressed by the verb ; so that in each case the same or nearly the same meaning is conveyed. Thus (Active) The dog bit the man (or him). (Passive) Ttie man (or he) was bitten by the dog. II. Intransitive verbs have, strictly speaking, no passive voice; for in such verbs the action is confined to the agent (subject), and therefore no object is acted upon. III. The English language has no inflections for the passive voice, which accordingly is denoted by composition, i. e., by the use of auxiliaries. In some languages, such as Latin and Greek, voice is denoted by distinctive terminations. Thus, Latin doceo (act- ive) i=I teach ; doceor (passive) =1 am taught. II. MOOD. 109, Mood (or mode) is a grammatical form denoting the style or manner of predication.* Thus 1. The earth revolves around the sun (assertion of a reality). 2. We may go to Europe next year (assertion of a possibility). 3. If ice go, we will return in the autumn (assertion of a condition, or supposition). 4. Go away (assertion of a command). 110, Exclusive of the infinitive, there are four moods: namely I. THE INDICATIVE. II. THE POTENTIAL. III. THE SUBJUNCTIVE. IV. THE IMPERATIVE. 111, The indicative mood is used in the statement of a fact, or of a matter taken as a fact. * "Mood," says Bain, "means the manner of the action." This is not strictly correct. The manner of the action (or state) is expressed by adverbs; but it is the office of the grammatical form called "mood" to denote manner of predication. The different moods show the manner in which the action or state expressed by the verb is connected in thought with the thing named by the subject. 56 ETYMOLOGY, I. The assertion may be respecting an actual event past, present, or future : as 1. The Romans were victorious. 2. You are writing a letter. 3. We shall set out to-morrow. II. The assertion may be of a supposition assumed as a fact : as- If he did that [which he did], he was unwise. NOTE. This conditional form of the indicative mood is not to be con- founded with the subjunctive mood. 112, The potential mood is used in the statement of something possible, contingent, obligatory, etc. The potential mood expresses, not what the thing named by the subject does or is, but what it may, might, can, could, must, would, or should do or ~be : as 1. James can write a letter. 2. We may be happy yet. 3. Children should obey their parents. 113, The subjunctive mood is used in the statement of something merely thought of. Thus 1. If he were here, he would act differently. 2. Though lie slay me, yet will I trust in him. I. This mood is called " subjunctive," because the assertion made by means of it is always subjoined (as a condition, etc.) to a prin- cipal statement. II. A verb in the subjunctive mood is generally (though not al- ways) preceded lay one of the conjunctions, if, that, lest, though, unless, etc. But (1) The conjunction is not a part of the mood itself; for an asser- tion may be made subjunctively by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject : thus, " Were he"=if he were; " Had he gone"=if he had gone. (2) The conjunctions if, that, etc., may precede the indicative mood when the verb is used to make a supposition assumed as a fact. THE VERB. TENSE. 57 114, The imperative mood is used in the statement of a command or request : thus 1. Charge, Chester, charge ! 2. Give us this day our daily bread. III. TENSE. 115, Tense* is a grammatical form of the verb denoting the time of the action or event asserted and the degree of its completeness. 116, Primary Tenses, There are three divisions of time to which an action or event may be referred the present, the past, and the future. Hence arise three primary or absolute tenses : I. THE PRESENT. II. THE PAST. III. THE FUTURE- 117, Secondary Tenses, An action or event may be spoken of as completed, or perfected, with reference to each of the three divisions of time. Hence arise three sec- ondary or relative tenses : I. THE PRESENT PERFECT. II. TlIE PAST PERFECT. III. TlIE FUTURE PERFECT. The present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses are formed by prefixing to the past participle of a given verb the present, past, and future tenses of the auxiliary verb to have in the mood required. IV. MOODS WITH THEIR TENSES. I. Indicative. 118, The indicative mood has all the six tenses. " Tense" is derived from Latin tempus, time, through French temps. C2 58 ETYMOLOGY. 119 1 The present tense represents an action or event as taking place in present time : thus I see the flower. You smell its perfume. 120. The present perfect tense represents an action or event as completed at the present time, or in a period of which the present forms a part : thus 1. I have walked six miles to-day. 2. He has fraught many captives liome to Rome. 121 The past (sometimes called the preterite) tense rep- resents that an action or event took place in time wholly past: thus 1. Columbus discovered America. 2. I found her in her room reading Plato. 122, Formation, The past tense is formed either by inflection or by radical change. I. Regular verbs (see 141) form their past tense by the addition of the suffix ed to the root ; as, discover, discovcr-ed.* II. Irregular verbs (see 141) form their past tense in some other way; as, break, ~broke ; find, found. 123, The past perfect tense represents a past action or event as completed at or before a certain past time : thus 1. I had written three letters before breakfast yesterday. 2. The steamer had left when the mail arrived. 124, The future tense represents an action or event as yet to take place: thus I will see you again, and your hearts shall rejoice. * The inflection ed, used to form the past tense of all regular verbs, repre- sents a more primitive dede^did, the past tense of do: hence, "I loved "=I \o\Q-did. THE VERB. MOODS AND TENSES. 59 The future tense is formed by combining the auxiliaries shall or will with the root-infinitive of a given verb. The auxiliary verb " shall" is a remnant of an ancient verbal root, meaning to owe ; " will " is a tense form of the verb to will, to de- sire. In Anglo-Saxon, ic sceal and ic wille were followed by an infinitive : thus, " ic sceal niman," that is, literally, I owe to take; "ic wille niman," Twill to take. 125. The future perfect tense represents that an action or event will be completed at or before a certain time yet future: thus I shall have finished my letter by noon. II. Potential. 126. The potential mood has four tenses: the present, the present perfect, the past, and the past perfect. These so-called " tenses," however, by no means represent the re- lations of time which their names denote. 127. The present potential is formed by joining the aux- iliaries may, can, or must with the root-infinitive of a given Verb. I. This tense denotes the present power, possibility, liberty, or neces- sity of an action or event either present or future : as You may leave [now]. It may rain [to-morrow]. The boy can write [now]. She must go [now or next week]. II. The verbs may, can, and must, which are now used merely as auxiliaries of the present potential, were in early English prin- cipal or independent verbs in the indicative mood; and the infinitive (without to) was dependent on them. Thus : " I may walk"r=I may* (or am able) to walk. "You canf write"=You are able to write. * Anglo-Saxon, mcegan, to be able. t Anglo-Saxon, cunnan, to know how (and hence to be able). 60 ETYMOLOGY. 128, The present perfect potential denotes present pos- sibility , liberty, or necessity, with respect to an action or event regarded as past : as He may have written=It is possible that he wrote or has icritten. I must have written yesterday =It is (now) a matter of necessity that I wrote yesterday. 129, The past potential is formed by joining the auxil- iaries might, could, would, or should with the root-infinitive of a given verb. I. " Might" is the past tense of may ; " could," of can; " would," of will ; and " should," of shall. II. This tense expresses a variety of meanings. Thus, it may de- note 1. A past possibility : as I could not reach the train, for I was delayed by the way. 2. A present possibility or liberty : as You might oblige me, if you would. 3. A future contingency : as I should return next week, if I were to leave to-day. 4. A customary past action : as There would she sit and weep for hours. 5. A duty independent of time: as Children should obey their parents. 130, The past perfect potential denotes ability, possibil- ity, or liberty, with respect to some past action or event which (it is implied) was not performed or did not occur : as I could have helped you, if you had asked me [i. e., I was able to help you, but (impliedly) I did not, because you did not ask me]. III. Subjunctive. 131, The subjunctive mood has two tenses: the present and the past. THE VERB. MOODS AND TENSES. 61 132, The present subjunctive is a simple tense having the same forms as the present indicative, except that the personal inflections st (second person) and S (third person) are omitted.* It is usually introduced by the conjunctions if, though, that, etc. This tense often has & future reference ; that is, it denotes a present uncertainty respecting a supposed future action or event: as If I go [=if I shall #o], I shall go alone. Beware lest you fail [=lest you shall fail]. 133, The past subjunctive has the same forms as the past indicative, except that the personal inflection st (sec- ond person) is omitted. The principal use of this tense is to express : 1. A supposition with respect to something present, and at the same time to imply a denial of the thing supposed : thus If I were rich [implied : which I am not], I would give freely. It is also used to express a wish : O had I the wings of a dove ! In this construction the conjunction is omitted and the subject follows the verb. 2. A consequence : as If it were done when 'tis done, then H were well It were done quickly. IV. Imperative. 134, The imperative mood has only the present tense. This has respect to the time of giving the command, etc. ; the time of its performance is necessarily future. V. Compound Verbals. 135, The infinitive, in addition to its simple form, called H\Q present infinitive (as, to write, to walk], has a compound * The verb to be is an exception. 62 ETYMOLOGY. form, called the perfect infinitive : as, to have written, to have walked. The infinitive present and perfect are sometimes spoken of as tenses; but as the infinitive cannot predicate, it can have no relation to any time in particular; and the only distinction between " present " and " perfect " as applied to this verbal is that of the incompleteness (indefiniteness) or the completeness of the action or state named by the infinitive. Thus (Present or indefinite) HQ wishes to write. He wished to write. He will wish to write. (Perfect) He is said to have written [already, yesterday, a year ago, etc.]. 136, The gerund, or infinitive in ing, in addition to its simple form, has a compound form, made up of the gerund of the verb to have and the past participle of a given verb. (Simple) I like reading. (Compound) Through having lost his book, he could not learn his lesson. 137. Participles. Besides the present and past partici- ples, a compound or perfect participle is formed by prefix- ing the present participle of the auxiliary to have to the past participle of a given verb : as, having walked^ having written. NOTES ON THE FORMS IN -ING. I. Number of Forms. The forms in ing present some difficulty from the "fact that this termination is found in no fewer than four kinds of words, each of which, having a distinct function, is a distinct part of speech. These forms are 1. The infinitive in ing, or gerund, which is a verbal noun. Thus Parting is such sweet sorrow. 2. The noun in ing. Thus There came a moaning on the wind the sighing of the tempest. THE VERB. NOTES ON FORMS IN -ING. 3 3. The participle in ing, which is a verbal adjective. Thus Passing the Rubicon, Caesar advanced on Rome. 4. The adjective in ing 1 .* Thus A startling cry came from the house. He is a man of striking appearance. II. Tests. The following tests will aid the student in determining to which of these classes a particular ing form belongs : a. The infinitive in ing (1) may be the subject or the object of a verb, (2) it may take a complement (object, or predicate noun or adjective), and (3) it may be preceded by a possessive adjective or possessive noun. In (1) it resembles the noun in ing, and in (2) the participle ; but (3) in connection with (2) is a peculiarity of the gerund alone. Thus, in the sentence His making money is no proof of merit, " making " is a gerund : it is the subject of " is," has for its object " money," and is preceded by the possessive adjective " his." 1. The noun in ing (!) has the usual distinguishing marks of the noun ; (2) it cannot, like the infinitive and the participle, take a com- plement ; and (3) it may be preceded by the article. In (1) it differs wholly from the adjective and participle, and in (3) it, differs from all the other ing forms. * The several ing forms originated as follows : 1. The infinitive in ing is a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive, which in the nominative and accusative cases ended in an. Thus, writan, to write, became writen, writin, and finally writing. It is probable that the existence of a class of abstract nouns in ing (see 2 below) facilitated the change from in to ing. 2. The noun in ing is originally a modified form of the Anglo-Saxon noun in ung : as, buildung (=building), cleansung (^cleansing). In Anglo-Saxon there was a distinct class of nouns with this termination, and many of our nouns in ing are descendants of these. Many more, however, have since been formed from verbs on the analogy of these nouns. 3. The present participle in Anglo-Saxon ended in ende or ande: as, lufigende =loving, sayande=sa.ymg. This suffix subsequently passed through the sev- eral stages and (or end), in, inge, and finally ing. 4. The adjective in ing is derived from the present participle in ing. It is a participle that has dropped the implication of time and action, and retained only its attributive meaning. Thus, u a charming face," "a cunning boy." 64: ETYMOLOGY. Thus, in the sentence There came a moaning on the wind the sighing of the tempest, " moaning " is a noun : it is the subject of " came," but it cannot take an object, and it is limited by the article "a." c. The participle in ing 1 (1) is an attributive word belonging to some noun, and (2) it expresses action (or state) and time. In (1) it differs from all the other ing forms save the adjective, but in (2) it differs from the adjective, for that part of speech expresses quality, not action or time. Thus, in the sentence Passing the Rubicon, Caesar advanced on Rome, "passing" is a participle, because it is an adjunct of a noun ("Cae- sar "), and because it expresses action and time. d. The adjective in ing (1) is an attributive word belonging to some noun ; (2) it admits of comparison. In (1) it resembles the participle only ; in (2) it differs from all the other ing forms. Thus, in the sentence A man of more striking appearance I never saw, " striking " is an adjective : it qualifies " appearance," and, joined with " more," is in the comparative degree.* V. NUMBER AND PERSON. 138. Number and person in verbs are grammatical forms expressing the agreement of a verb with its subject. 139. There are two numbers in verbs the singular and the plural, corresponding to the numbers in nouns : as, "The man walks f "The men walk" * The examination given above of the resemblances and differences in the four forms in ing is not exhaustive (the aim being merely to present salient characteristics as tests in classification) ; but enough is stated to enable the student to deduce a complete exhibit of the points of agreement and disagree- ment. THE VERB. NUMBER AND PERSON. 65 There are three persons in verbs, corresponding to the three persons of the personal pronouns. Person and number in verbs are denoted almost wholly by grammatical relation. I. The only inflections of person and number are : 1. Est (or st) for the second person singular (solemn and poetic style) in the present and past tenses of the indicative mood: "I wafife;" "Thou walked;" "Thou walked." 2. Es (or s) for the third person singular of the indicative pres- ent : " She crosses;" " He walks." OBS. An old termination th for the third person, singular, present indic- ative (as, " He walked") is still employed in the solemn or poetic style, but is obsolete in common usage. II. By the figure enallage* the second person plural is in ordinary discourse substituted for the second person singular: as, "You walk," not " Thou walked." It is parsed as in the second person plural ; and when one person only is denoted, the verb and pro- noun may be called " plural used for the singular." III. The form in st with the pronoun thou is still used in the solemn or poetic style. The Society of Friends, or Quakers, also employ the singular number in familiar discourse, though generally without the personal ending st: as, "What thou said;" "If thou should come." IV. As the imperative is the mood of commanding, and as a com- mand must be addressed to the person who is to obey it, an imperative verb can, strictly speaking, be used only in the sec- ond person. Thus : " Go [you, sing, or pi.] to bed." When we express ourw T ill in connection with a subject of the first or second person, we employ the following substitutes for the imperative mood : 1. The subjunctive mood : as 1. Confide we in ourselves alone. 2. Laugh those that can, weep those that may. * Enallage, a figure of syntax, is the substitution of one part of speech, or of one grammatical form, for another. 66 ETYMOLOGY. 2. " Let " with an infinitive : as Let us pray. Let him be heard. The latter, however, are not imperative forms of the verbs " pray M and "hear;" but infinitives used as complements of the imper- ative "let" [you]. VI. CONJUGATION. 140, Conjugation is the systematic arrangement of a verb according to its various grammatical forms. 141, There are two conjugations: I. THE REGULAR. II. THE IRREGULAR. These two conjugations are distinguished by the mode of forming the past tense (indicative) and the past participle. I. A regular verb is one whose past tense and past participle are formed by suffixing ed to its root:* as, (root) lave; (past tense) loved; (past participle) loved. OBS. In suffixing ed care must be taken to observe the rules for spelling derivative words. II. An irregular verbf is one whose past tense or past participle, or both, are not formed by suffixing ed to the root : as, (root) take; (past tense) took; (past participle) taken 142, The principal parts of a verb are: I. The tense form of the PRESENT INDICATIVE. II. The tense form of the PAST INDICATIVE. III. TlIE PAST PARTICIPLE. * It would be more accurate to consider d, rather than ed, as the inflection of the past tense, since either d alone is added to the root (as in love-d, save~d), or when ed is used the c is a mere connecting vowel of euphony. t A verb is called u irregular," not because in the formation of its past tense and its past participle it presents any arbitrary departure from a supposed regular or normal method, but because in the irregular conjugation the vari- ous methods of forming these parts are not reducible to one rule. THE VERB. CONJUGATION. 67 CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 143, The auxiliary verbs are: ~be, do, have, shall, will, can, may, and must. I. Be, do, will, and have, besides being used as auxiliaries, are also principal verbs, and as such have the full conjugation. The parts given below are those only that are used as auxiliaries. II. Shall, may, can, and must are auxiliary verbs only, and are de- fective. III. The only tenses that do not require the aid of an auxiliary in their formation are : in the active voice, the present and past of the indicative and of the subjunctive, and the imperative mood. The passive voice is formed wholly by aid of the auxiliary to le. TO BE. AUXILIARY OF THE PASSIVE VOICE AND OP THE PROGRESSIVE FORM.* Present am. SINGULAR. 1. I am, 2. Thou art, 3. He is ; 1 . I was, 2. Thou wast,t 3. He was : PRINCIPAL PARTS. Past was. Past Participle been.f INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. PLUKAL. 1. We are, 2. You are, 3. They are. Past Terse. 1 . We were, 2. You were, 3. They were. * See 145. t The forms of the verb to be are derived from at least two sources : am, was, were, etc., are from the Anglo-Saxon wcsan, to be; be, been, etc., are from Anglo-Saxon beon, to be. I Wert is sometimes used indicatively for wast. 68 ETYMOLOGY. SINGULAR. 1. I shall or will be, 2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 3. He shall or will be ; Future Tense. PLURAL. 1 . We shall or will be, 2. You shall or will be, 3. They shall or will be. 1. I have been, 2. Thou hast been, 3. He has been ; 1. I had been, 2. Thou hadst been, 3. He had been ; Present Perfect Tense. 1. We have been, 2. You have been, 3. They have been. Past Perfect Tense. 1. We had been, 2. You had been, 3. They had been. Future Perfect Tense. 1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been, 3. He shall or will have been ; 3. They shall or will have been. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. 1. We may be, 2. You may be, 3. They may be. Past Tense. 1. We might be, 2. You might be, 3. They might be. Present Perfect Tense. 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. Past Perfect Tense. 1. I might have been, 1. We might bave been, 2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 1. I may be, 2. Thou mayst be, 3. He may be ; 1. I might be, 2. Thou mightst be, 3. He might be ; Present Tense. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Past Tense. SINGULAR. 1. If I be, 2. If thou be, 3. If he be; PLURAL. 1 . If we be, 2. If you be, 3. If they be. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. If I were, 1. If we were, 2. If thou were, 2. If you were, 3. If he were ; 3. If they were. THE VERB. CONJUGATION. 69 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Be (you thou, ye). INFINITIVES. Present to be. Perfect to have been. {Gerunds) being ; having been. PARTICIPLES. Present being. Past been. Perfect having been. TO DO. Present: Sign of the"Present Emphatic and Interrogative.* SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I do, 1. We do, 2. Thou dost, 2. You do, 3. He does ; 3. They do. Past : Sign of the. Past Emphatic and Interrogative. 1. I did, 1. We did, 2. Thou didst, 2. You did, 3. He did ; 3. They did. When used as a principal verb : PRINCIPAL PARTS : present, do ; past, did ; past participle, done. INFINITIVES: present, to do; perfect, to have done; (gerunds) doing ; having done. PARTICIPLES : present, doing ; past, done ; perfect, having done.f TO HAVE. Present: Sign of the Present Perfect Tense. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I have, 1. We have, 2. Thou hast, 2. You have, 3. He has ; 3. They have. Past :Sign of the Perfect Tense. 1. I had, 1. We had, 2. Thou hadst, 2. You had, 3. He had ; 3. They had. * See 146, 147. t Do, as used in the expression, How do you do? is a totally different verb : this "do" comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb dugan, to profit or prosper. Hence, How do you do? means, How do you prosper ? That will cfo=That will prosper or succeed. 70 ETYMOLOGY. When used as a principal verb : PRINCIPAL PARTS : present, have; past, had ; past participle, had. INFINITIVES : present, to have ; perfect, to have had ; (gerunds) having ; having had. PARTICIPLES : present, having ; past, had ; per- fect, having had. CAN. Present: Sign of the Potential Present. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I can, 1. We can, 2. Thou canst, 2. You can, 3. He can ; 3. They can. Past : Sign of the Potential Past. 1. I could,* 1. We could, 2. Thou couldst, 2. You could, 3. He could ; 3. They could. MAY. Present: Sign of the Potential Present. 1. I may, 1. We may, 2. Thou mayst, 2. You may, 3. He may ; 3. They may. Past :Slgn of the Potential Past. 1. I mi^h% 1. We might, 2. Thou mightst, 2. You might, 3. He might ; 3. They might. SHALL. Present: Sign of the Future Tense. 1. I shall, 1. We shall, 2. Thou shalt, 2. You shall, 3. He shall ; 3. They shall. Past: Sign of the Potential Past. 1. I should, 1. We should, 2. Thou shouldst, 2. You should, 3. He should ; 3. They should. * " Could' 7 is the past tense of can. The I is inserted in could in imitation of would and should, but it is a false analogy. The old form is coude. THE VERB.-CONJUGATION. 71 WILL. Present : Sign of the Future Tense. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I will, 1. We will, 2. Thou wilt, 2. You will, 3. He will ; 3. They will. Past : Sign of the Potential Past. 1. I would, 1. We would, 2. Thou wouldst, 2. You would, 3. He would ; 3. They would. When used as a principal verb : PRINCIPAL PARTS : present, will ; past, willed ; past participle, willed. INFINITIVES : present, to will ; perfect, to have willed ; (gerunds) willing ; having willed. PARTICIPLES : present, willing ; past, willed ; perfect, having willed. MUST. Present : Sign of the Potential Present. 1. I must, 1. We must, 2. Thou must, 2. You must, 3. He must ; 3. They must. PARADIGM* OF THE REGULAR VERBS. TO LOVE. Active Voice. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present love. Past loved. Past participle loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. SINGULAR. TLURAT,. 1. I love, 1. We love, 2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, 3. He loves ; 3. They love. * A paradigm is the full conjugation of a verb. ETYMOLOGY. Past Tense. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 3. He loved ; 3. They loved. Future Tense. 1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. You shall or will love, 3. He shall or will love ; 3. They shall or will love. Present Perfect Tense. 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 1. I had loved, 2. Thou hadst loved, 3. He had loved ; Past Perfect Tense. 1. We had loved, 2. You had loved, 3. They had loved. Future Perfect Tense. 1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved, 2. You shall or will have loved, 3. He shall or will have loved ; 3. They shall or will have loved. 1. I may love, 2. Thou mayst love, 3. He may love ; 1 . I might love, 2. Thou mightst love, 3. He might love ; POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. 1. We may love, 2. You may love, 3. They may love. Past Tense. 1. We might love, 2. You might love, 3. They might love. Present Perfect Tense. 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. Past Perfect Tense. 1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. THE VERB. CONJUGATION. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. If I love, 1. If we love, 2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 3. If he love ; 3. If they love. 73 Past Tense. 1. If I loved, 2. If thou loved, 3. If he loved; 1. If we loved, 2. If you loved, 3. If they loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Love (you thou, ye). INFINITIVES. Present iQ love. Perfect to have loved. (Gerunds) loving; having loved. PARTICIPLES. Present loving. Perfect having loved. TO BE LOVED. Passive Toice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense. I am I was I shall or will Thou art Thou wast Thou shalt or wilt He is loved. He was > loved. He sha11 or wil1 be loved. We are We were We shall or will You are You were You shall or will They are - They were . They shall or will . Present Perfect. Past Perfect* Future Perfect. I have I had I shall or will Thou hast Thou hadst Thou shalt or wilt He has been He had been He shall or will have We have loved. We had loved. We shall or will y been You have You had You shall or will loved. They have They had , They shall or will > D Present. I may or can Thou mayst or canst He may or can We may or can You may or can They may or can Present Perfect. I may, etc. , have Thou mayst, etc., have He may, " " We may, " " You may, " " They may, " " ETYMOLOGY. POTENTIAL MOOD. be loved. been loved. Past. I might, etc., Thou mightst, etc., He might, " We might, " You might, " They might, " Past Perfect. I might, etc., have Thou mightst, etc. , have He might, " " We might, " " You might, " " They might, " " be loved. been loved. Present. If I be If thou be If he " If we " If you ". If they " Present to be loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. loved. Past. If I were If thou were If he If we " If you " If they " IMPERATIVE MOOD. Be (you thou, ye) loved. INFINITIVES. Perfect to have been loved, loved ; having been loved. loved. (Gerunds) being PARTICIPLES. Present being loved. Past loved. Perfect having been loved. MODEL OP CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS. NOTE. The mode of formation of the compound parts of an ir- regular verb is precisely the same as that of a regular verb ; but the irregularity of the past and past participle renders it desirable to illustrate the paradigm of the verb, and to practise pupils therein. THE VERB. CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 75 TO SEE. Active Voice. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present see. Past saw. Past Participle seen. SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB "To SEE" IN THE THIRD PERSON SINGULAR OF ALL THE MOODS AND TENSES IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. Indicative He sees, he saw, he shall or will see, he has seen, he had seen, he shall or will have seen. Potential He may see, he might see, he may have seen, he might have seen. Subjunctive... If he see, if he saw. Imperative.... See (y u tnou ve )- SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB "To SEE" IN THE FIRST PERSON PLURAL OP ALL THE MOODS AND TENSES IN THE PASSIVE VOICE. Indicative We are seen, we were seen, we shall or will be seen, we have been seen, we had been seen, we shall or will have been seen. Potential We may be seen, we might be seen, we may have been seen, we might have been seen. Subjunctive... If we be seen, if we were seen. Imperative.... HQ (you thou, ye) seen. FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 144, Besides the common style of the verb, several special modes of conjugation are used to express particular meanings. The principal of these are : (1) THE PROGRESSIVE. (2) THE EMPHATIC. (3) THE INTERROGATIVE. I. Progressive Form. 145, The progressive form of a verb is that which rep- resents the continuance of the action or state asserted by the verb : as, " I am writing /" " He was sleeping" The progressive form of a verb is made by combining its present participle with the variations of the auxiliary verb to le. 76 ETYMOLOGY. TO LEARN. In the Progressive Form. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense 1. I am learning. 2. Thou art learning. 3. He is learn- ing ; etc. Past Tense 1. I was learning. 2. Thou wast learning. 3. He was learning ; etc. Future Tense 1. I shall or will be learning. 2. Thou shalt or wilt be learning. 3. He shall or will be learning ; etc. Present Perfect. ..I. I have been learning. 2. Thou hast been learning. 3. He has been learning ; etc. Past Perfect 1. I had been learning. 2. Thou hadst been learning. 3. He had been learning; etc. Future Perfect....!. I shall or will have been learning. 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been learning. 3. He shall or will have been learning; etc. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense 1. I may be learning. 2. Thou mayst be learning. 3. Ho may be learning ; etc. Past Tense 1. I might be learning. 2. Thou mightst be learning. 3. He might be learning ; etc. Present Perfect... I. I may have been learning. 2. Thou mayst have been learning. 3. He may have been learning; etc. Past Perfect 1. I might have been learning. 2. Thou mightst have been learning. 3. He might have been learning ; etc. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense 1. If I be learning. 2. If thou be learning. 3. If he be learning; etc. Past Tense 1. If I were learning. 2. If thou were learning. 3. If he were learning ; etc. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense 2. Be learning, or do be learning; etc. INFINITIVES. Present To be learning. Perfect To have been learning. (Ger- und) Being learning.* PARTICIPLES. Present Being learning.* Past Been learning. Perfect Having been learning. * Theoretical forms not used. THE VERB. NOTES ON THE PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE. 77 NOTES ON THE PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE. I. A progressive form for the passive voice, in the present and past tenses indicative, is made by joining the present and past tenses in- dicative of the verb to be with the present passive participle : as The house is being built. The book was being printed. These are two tenses selected from the various tense-combinations which might be made by uniting the variations of the verb to be with the present passive participle.* These two alone are used, because the other verb-phrases are intolerably harsh : thus, " He shall le being loved" II. An old mode of forming the progressive passive is illustrated in the phrases The house is building. The book is printing. This method of combination, which consists in the union of the verb to be and the gerund of a given verb, is now little used. III. It is important to understand the real character of such forms as " building," " printing," in the phrases given above, as these forms have sometimes been mistaken for the " present participle used in a pas- sive sense." In early English these forms were written " a-building," " a-printing :" as Forty-six years was this temple dbuildinge" Tyndale. The particle "a" in "a-building" is a contracted form of the An- glo-Saxon preposition an on or in : hence, " a-building " m building. From this analysis it becomes manifest that the form " building " is not the present participle, but the gerund. It results that the mode of expression exemplified in " The house is, was, will be building " (if regarded as elliptical for " The house is, etc., a-building"), is perfectly grammatical. It is good native English, and is preferable to the combination " The house is being built ;" and on these grounds it is a loss that this form, under an erroneous notion of its origin, is now all but obsolete. * These two tense forms are of comparatively recent introduction (they came into use less than .a century ago), and by some are deemed bad English. They are, however, freely used by many of the best writers, and may be regard- ed as established. 78 ETYMOLOGY. II. Emphatic Form. 146, The emphatic form of a verb is made by joining do and did with the infinitive (without to) : as, " I do learn." " I did learn." This combination is found only in the present and the past indicative (active), and in the imperative. Present. I clo learn, thou dost learn, he does learn, etc. Past. I did learn, thou didst learn, he did learn, etc. Imperative. Do learn. III. Interrogative Form. 147, The interrogative form is that which is used in ask- ing a question : as, " Can he see ?" " Shall he be punished ?" This form is used in the indicative and potential moods. I. A verb is conjugated interrogatively by (1) placing the subject after the verb : as, " Hearest thou ?" or (2) by placing the subject between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " May we go?" or (3) by placing the subject after the first auxiliary when two or more auxiliaries are used : as, " Could he have called ?" II. In common usage, the present and the past of the indicative mood are rendered interrogative by the use of do and did, with the subject following : as, " Do you hear ?" " Did you hear ?" TO SEE. IN THE INTERROGATIVE FORM. ActiTC Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. See I, or do I see? Saw I, or did I see? Shall or will I see? Have I seen ? Had I seen ? Shall or will I have seen ? POTENTIAL. May I see? Might I see? May I have seen? Might I have seen ? Passive Voice. , INDICATIVE MOOD. Am I seen? Was I seen? Shall I be seen? Have I been seen ? Had I been seen ? Shall or will I have been seen ? POTENTIAL. May I be seen? Might I be seen ? May I have been seen ? Might I have been seen ? THE VERB. MODE OF NEGATION. 79 148, Mode of Negation, A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the adverb not immediately after it, or after the first auxiliary: as, "They come not;" or "They do not come /" u He cannot return;" " They will not be governed." I. The negative not, however, precedes the participles and the in- finitives : as, not being loved ; not to see ; (gerund) not seeing. II. A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively by placing the subject followed by not immediately after the verb, or after the first auxiliary : as, " Comes he not ?" or, " Does he not come . ? " "Might he not improve?" The negative-interrogative form is used only in the indicative and potential moods. OBS. There is another mode of placing the negative : thus, " Do not I move ?" contracted into " Don't I move ?" The following distinction exists : if the negative is before "I," the phrase is conversational or familiar : as, " Do not I move?" or "Don't I move?" if the negative is after "I," the phrase is energetic or emphatic : as, u Do I not move?" III. The progressive form also may be conjugated negatively and interrogatively : as, " I am not writing;" "Might they not have been sleeping?" etc. VERBS DEFECTIVE, TJNIPEESONAL, AND EEDTJNDANT. 149, A defective verb is one that lacks one or more of its principal parts. The defective verbs are 1. Can, may, sliall, will (with their variations), and must, already treated as auxiliaries. 2. Ought, "beware. OBS. Ought is the proper past tense of owe; but "I ought," "he ought," etc., have come to be used independently (and like must, without distinctions of person, number, or tense), with the meaning, "It is my duty" (what is due by me) ; " It is his duty," etc. The regular past of owe is owed. 150, A unipersonal verb is a verb used in but one per- son, namely, the third person singular.* Of unipersonal verbs there are two kinds : * Sometimes these are called impersonal, as though they had no person ; but wmpersonal is a more appropriate term. 80 ETYMOLOGY. 1. Those asserting natural phenomena : as, " It rains ;" " It will rain;" "It snows." 2. The forms " niethinks," " methought." " Methinks " is com- posed of " me " (i. e., to me), the indirect object, and " thinks," meaning seems. The subject of the verb " thinks " is the clause following: as, "Methinks [that] I hear a 00/00"= "That I hear a voice seems to me," or "It seems to me that I hear a voice" OBS. "Thinks" is from the Anglo-Saxon verb thincan, to seem, or ap- pear, not from our common verb to think. 151, A redundant verb is one that presents double forms of the past tense or past participle, or both : as, sang, sung ; got, gotten. IRREGULAR VERBS. 152, In the Appendix (page 244) will be found a list of about two hundred irregular verbs comprising all that be- long to this class, except a few compounds. Verbs belonging, in the strict sense, to the irregular (old, or strong) conjugation may be subdivided into the following classes : CLASS 1. Root-vowel modified for past, and en or n added for participle: as Root. Past. Participle. break broke broken give gave given draw drew drawn CLASS 2. Root- vowel modified for past, and no suffix in participle : as Root. Past. Participle. begin began begun find found found stand stood stood CLASS 3. Regular in past ; irregular in participle: as Root. Past. Participle. lade laded laden show showed shown THE VERB, REVIEW. 81 Classes. Gram. Forms. GENERAL REVIEW OF THE VERB. A. TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. TRANSITIVE. INTRANSITIVE. f ( ! Indicative. , r Potential. MooD ............ 1 Subjunctive. [ Imperative. Present Present perfect. TENSE ........... -I Past Past perfect. Future Future perfect. Firgt PERSON ......... { Second. Third. Infinitive.... VEEBALS Infinitive ..... I >s -, ( Present. Gerund ....... } Perfect. I Participle.... Present. Past. Perfect. ^ . A . CoDjugation. REGULAB. IRREGULAR> -s (or -es) ..... present indicative, third singular. -st (or -est)... present indicative, second singular. -ed .............. past indicative and subj. and past part. -ing ............. present participle and gerund. B. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. I. Definition of Yerb. 1. PREDICATION. 2. SUBJECT. 3. DISTINGUISHING MARKS OF THE VERB. r> 9, 2 ETYMOLOGY. II. Classes of Verbs. 1. TRANSITIVE DEFINED. a. Complement. I. Object. 2. INTRANSITIVE DEFINED. Characteristics. 3. VERBS OF DOUBLE USE. 4. AUXILIARIES. III. Verbals. 1. INFINITIVES. a. Infinitive defined. I. Simple infinitive. c. Gerund. 2. PARTICIPLES. a. Present how formed. 2>. Past how formed. c. Root. IV. Grammatical Forms of the Verb. 1. VOICE DEFINED. a. Active defined. Z>. Passive defined. 2. MOOD DEFINED. Number of moods. 3. TENSE DEFINED. a. Primary tenses. Z>. Secondary tenses. c. Tenses of the indicative. d. Tenses of the potential. e. Tenses of the subjunctive. /. Tenses of the imperative. 4. COMPOUND INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. a. Simple infinitive. I. Compound infinitive. c. Simple gerund. d. Compound gerund. e. Participle present. f. Participle past. g. Participle perfect. THE VERB. REVIEW. 83 5. NUMBER AND PERSON. a. Number singular, plural. ~b. Persons number of. c. How denoted. d. Inflections. V. Conjugation. 1. NUMBER OF CONJUGATIONS. a. Regular defined. &. Irregular defined. 2. DEFECTIVE VERB DEFINED. 3. UNIPERSONAL VERB DEFINED. 4. REDUNDANT VERB DEFINED. 5. NUMBERS OF IRREGULAR VERBS. WRITTEN REVIEWS. I. 1. Write a sentence, and draw one line under the subject and two lines under the verb. 2. Define transitive verb. 3. Write a sentence containing a transitive verb, a subject, and an object. 4. Define intransitive verb. 5. Write a sentence containing an intransitive verb. 6. What kind of verbs can by themselves make complete state- ments ? 7. What is meant by an intransitive verb of incomplete predica- tion ? Illustrate by a sentence. 8. Define verbals, state their two divisions, and give examples. 9. Change the following verbs from the active to the passive voice, preserving the full sense : 1. Dr. Livingstone has explored a large part of Africa. 2. Paul Revere carried to Lexington the news of the intended attack by the British. 3. The first fresh dawn awoke us. 4. The people of Lynn manufacture great qiiantities of shoes. 5. No one has yet reached the North Pole. 84 ETYMOLOGY. II. 1. Enumerate the four inflected forms of the English verb, and state their use. 2. Are there in English any inflected forms for the passive voice ? 3. Does " mood" denote manner of action or manner of predication ? 4. Enumerate the principal auxiliaries of the potential mood. 5. What is the original meaning of " shall ?" 6. What part of the verb is "take" in the verb -phrase "I shall 7. What is the original meaning of the inflection ed of the past tense ? 8. What differences of form are there between a verb in the indica- tive mood and a verb in the subjunctive mood ? III. 1. Enumerate the principal auxiliary verbs, and state their use. 2. What are the four forms in ing? Give an example of each. 3. What are the only personal inflections of the English verb ? 4. Explain the term " redundant verb." 5. From how many sources are the parts of the verb to le derived ? 6. Write a synopsis of the verb to walk in the third person, singular, indicative mood, negative-interrogative form. 7. What is the meaning of the second " do" in " How do you do?" 8. What rules of spelling apply in forming the following derivatives : deceive-\-ed-\-ing ? veri/y-\-ed-\-ing ? obey -\-ed-\-ingf die-\-ed-\-ing f 9. Give a written statement of the grammatical forms of the verbs in the following passage from Milton's " Paradise Lost :" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste Brought death into the world and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heavenly Muse, that on the secret top Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed In the beginning how the heavens and earth Rose out of Chaos. THE ADVERB.-DEFINITION. 85 CPIAPTEK VI. THE ADVERB. DEFINITION CLASSIFICATION INFLECTION. 153, An adverb* is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb : thus ( Verb ) The lowing herd WINDS slowly o'er the lea. (Adjective) Ye quenchless stars ! so eloquently BRIGHT. (Adverb) One who loved not wisely, but too WELL. The office of the adverb is to modify the meaning of a word de- noting an action or an attribute, by connecting with that word some condition or circumstance as of time, place, man ner, etc. The verb expresses action, and adjectives and adverbs express at- tributes : hence the adverb qualifies three parts of speech 1. The verb, expressing action. 2. The adjective, denoting an attribute. 3. The adverb, denoting an attribute of another attribute. 154, Classification, As regards their use in a sentence, adverbs are of four kinds: I. SIMPLE. II. CONJUNCTIVE. III. INTEKKOGATIVE. IV. MODAL. Under the adverb may also be considered the kind of words termed responsives. (See 161.) 155, A simple adverb is one that merely modifies the word with which it is used : as, " We arrived yesterday ;" " You are always ready." 156, A conjunctive (or relative) adverb is one that not * Adverbium, from ad (to) and verbum (verb), the name " adverb" implying a word attached to a verb. 86 ETYMOLOGY. only modifies the word with which it is used, but connects the clause in which it occurs with the rest of the sentence : thus 1. Come where my love lies dreaming. 2. We know not whence it cometh or whither it goeth. The office filled by a conjunctive adverb in a sentence is analogous to the function of the relative pronoun ; and as the relative pro- noun refers to an antecedent, so the conjunctive adverb refers to some preceding term of the nature of a demonstrative, expressed or understood. Thus 1. There where a few torn shrubs the place disclose. 2. Coine [then] when you are ready. 157 The following words are conjunctive adverbs : when whence whereby whereat whenever where why wherefore while as* whether wherein wherepn whereafter than 158, An interrogative adverb is one by which a question is asked : as 1. Mother, oh ! where is that radiant shore ? 2. When shall we three meet again? 159, A modal adverb is one that denotes in what man- ner a thought is conceived by the speaker : as (Affirmatively) Thou shalt surely die. (Negatively) It is not all of life to live. (Contingently) Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid some heart. Modal adverbs differ from all other adverbs in that they modify the whole sentence rather than some particular word or phrase in it. This fact may be taken into account as a partial qualifi- cation of the definition of the adverb. 160, Classes by Meaning, With reference to their mean- ing, adverbs may be divided into the following classes : * When correlative with so, sucJi, or as. THE ADVERB. CLASSIFICATION. 87 1. Adverbs of place answering the questions where? whither? whence? as, here, there, nowhere, backwards. 2. Adverbs of time answering the questions when f how long ? Iww often ? as, then, formerly, seldom, thrice. 3. Adverbs of manner answering the question how ? as, truly, faithfidly, well, otherwise. 4. Adverbs of degree answering the question how much? as, scarcely, little, enough. 5. Adverbs of cause answering the question why f as, therefore, wherefore, why. 161, Eesponsives. The words yes and no which are equivalent, the former to a responsive sentence affirmative, the latter to a responsive sentence negative are sometimes called responsives: as, "Will you go?" "Yes" (1 will go) ; "No" (=1 will not go). These words are derived from adverbs, but in their use they re- semble interjections. In truth, neither the responsives nor the interjections are parts of speech, but are entire sentences in el- liptical form : they are therefore non-grammatical words. Adverbial Phrases, Certain combinations of words used ad- verbially are called adverb ia I p hrases : as at length ; at last ; at best ; at large ; at all ; at times ; at hand ; by and by; by turns; by chance; by no means; in that; inasmuch as ; in truth ; in case ; from above ; from below ; one by one ; in like manner ; now and then ; ever and anon ; up and down ; in and out ; here and there ; as yet ; by far. 162, Comparison, Some adverbs admit of comparison. The comparative and superlative degrees are formed in the same manner as those of adjectives : as, soon, sooner ', soonest; beautifully, more beautifully, most beautifully. The following adverbs, like the adjectives with which they correspond, are irregularly compared : well, ill., badly, much, nigh or near, late, little, far, forth. 88 ETYMOLOGY. NOTES ON THE ADVERB. I. Prononiinals. Many of the most used adverbs have a pronominal origin, as shown in the following table : PLACE. MEAN- ING. IN. TO. FUOM. He- this he- re ( hi-ther ( he-re hen-ce (now) (so) } The- that the-re ( thi-ther 1 the-re then-ce then thus the there- fore r Whe- what whe-re ( whi-ther I whe-re when-ce when how why elative. J Rj II. Adverbial (( The." " The " in such expressions as " the sooner the better" is not the definite article the, but a case of the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative that. The older form was thy (compare why), and the meaning is, " ly what (in what degree) sooner, ly that (in that degree) better." " The sooner" and "the better" should be parsed as adverb- ial phrases. So with similar forms : as, " the more the merrier," etc. EXERCISE 7. Select and classify the adverbs : 1. And now a bubble bursts, and now a world. 2. Night has already gone. 3. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn. 4. She weeps not, but often and deeply she sighs. 5. Again thy fires began to burn. 6. I was daily with you. 7. Thought, once tangled, never cleared again. 8. Dulness is ever apt to magnify. 9. Where is my child? and echo answers, " Where?" 10. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth. 11. Look downward on yonder globe. 12. Come hither, my little page. 13. Onward in haste Llewellyn passed. 14. Let Norval go hence as he came. 15. I thence invoke thy aid. 16. Whence and what art thou? 17. Henceforth, to rule was not enough for Bonaparte. 18. This institution universally prevailed. 19. Isaac trembled exceedingly. 20. Think much, speak little. 21. We cannot wholly deprive them of merit. 22. The same actions may arise from quite contrary principles* 23. It was tnought very strange. 24. They were completely in my power. THE PREPOSITION. DEFINITION. 89 CHAPTER VII. THE PREPOSITION. 163, Definition, A preposition* is a connective word ex- pressing a relation of meaning between a noun or pronoun and some other word : as, " The book lies before me on the desk." I. The noun or pronoun depending on the preposition is said to be governed by it, and is in the objective case. II. A preposition connects words, but it shows the relation between some thing and (1) some other thing, or (2) some action, or (3) some attribute. Thus, in the sentence, " I saw a man in a boat," " in" is a preposition, and marks the relation (of place) in which the man stands to the boat. In the sentence, " The boat went down the stream," " down " is a preposition, and marks the relation (of direction) which the action of going bears to the stream. In the sentence, " Honey is sweet to the taste," " to " denotes the relation (of nearness) of taste to the attribute sweet. III. The equivalents of the noun (before which a preposition can be placed) are (1) An infinitive : " None knew thee BUT to love thee." (2) An infinitive in ing (gerund) : " His conduct IN rescuing the child was greatly praised." (3) A clause : " This will depend ON w?io the commissioners are." 164, The connection made by a preposition is between a noun (or pronoun) and a noun, a verb, or an adjective. 1. Another noun (or pronoun) : " There is a BOOK on the talk." " Give IT to me." * The word preposition (prce, before, and ponere, to place) literally means placed before something ; and they were so named because they were originally prefixed to the verb to modify its meaning. Now, however, they are usually placed before nouns or pronouns. 90 ETYMOLOGY. 2. A verb: "James HAS RETURNED from school." 3. An adjective : " He is FOND of his look." 165 1 The object of a preposition is the noun or the pro- noun depending on (or governed by) it. Thus She is far from the land where her young hero sleeps, And lovers around her are sighing ; But coldly she turns from their gaze and weeps, For her heart in his grave is lying. I. In the common arrangement of words the preposition comes be- fore its object. But inversions of this order are frequent, both in poetry as, " Where echo walks the steep hills among " and in prose as, " The pen that I am writing with" = with which I am writing. II. By governing the objective case is meant making it necessary that the noun or pronoun shall assume that case ; just as transitive verbs control nouns and pronouns in the objective case. Owing to the absence of an objective case-form in the noun, this gov- erning or controlling power of the preposition is not manifest in words belonging to that part of speech ; but it is seen in such pronouns as possess a distinct case-form : thus, "from him" " to me" " by us" " among them" List of the Principal Prepositions. about above across after against along amid | amidst > among ^ amongst ) around at athwart before behind below beneath beside > besides f between betwixt beyond but by down excepting for from in to into toward > of towards ) off under on underneath over until pending unto regarding up respecting upon round with since within through without throughout till THE PREPOSITION. NOTES. 91 NOTES ON THE PREPOSITION. I. Analysis. In the list of prepositions above given, the following are simple prepositions : at from off till up by in on to with for of through Most of the other prepositions may, with regard to their origin, be classed as follows : 1. Prepositions formed by prefixing the preposition a=:<9/i, or be=fa/, to a noun or an adjective used substantively : viz. a-cross* a-mong, or a-mongst be-low a-gainst a-round be-side, or be-sides a-mid, or a-midstf a-thwart be-tween, or be-twixt Along is made up of anfcopposite, and long ; since is derived from Anglo-Saxon sith \2iiQ ; inside=in+side ; outside out+side. 2. Prepositions formed by prefixing a preposition to an adverb : viz. - a-bout=a (on)+\)Q (fa/) -f-out. a-K)Ove=a (on) -{-be (fa/)+ove (up). be-forer=be (?>#)+ fore. be-hind=:be (fo/)-fhind. be-neath^rbe (fo/)-f neath (under). be-yond=be %)+yond (yonder, or there). but^be (fa/)-futan, by out, i. e., on the outside of, and hence except. throughout = through + out. underneath =under4 neath. 3. Prepositions derived from adverbs by a comparative suffix : viz. af-ter, a comparative of the root #/ ofcfrom : that is, more from* (a certain time, etc.). ov-er, a comparative of the root of, or uf: that is, more up. * From French croix, a cross. t Anglo-Saxon, on mid'' dum: on-fadjective mid in middle. Between comes from tweon, twain, a derivative of twa, two. 92 ETYMOLOGY. un-der, which contains the root itt-fder (=ther), a comparative suffix. II. Prepositional Forms. Several words commonly classed as prepositions belong properly to parts of speech whose functions are better defined. Among these are : 1. Except and save, imperatives of the verbs to except, to save to leave out.* concerning ^ considering I barring [ are present participles used absolutely, and take regarding f objects after them. respecting ^touching 3. During (present participle of dure, to endure, or last) accompanies a noun in the nominative absolute : as, " during the night"=the night during or lasting. Notwithstanding 1 , accompanying a noun, is in the same construction. EXERCISE 8. Select the prepositions : 1. The man with the gray coat fell from the top of the wall. 2. We rise at seven o'clock in the winter, and in summer at six. 3. James VI., of Scot- land, was the great-grand-nephew of Henry VII. of England, the first of the Tudor line. 4. There are many proofs of the roundness of the earth. 5. The head of the gang listened in silence to the remonstrances of his subordinates. 6. His head had not been five seconds under water, when he rose to the sur- face and swam towards the bank. 7. He of the rueful countenance answered without delay. 8. As we walked across the bridge we saw a number of fish tn the pool beneath us. 9. With patience you may succeed. 10. I have not seen him since Monday, but I expect him within an hour. 11. A brilliant meteor shot athwart the sky, and was lost behind the hill. 12. The poor bird took refuge in a hole in the oak, and died of fright. 13. Indian corn, when ripe in October, is gathered in the field by men who go from hill to hill with bas- kets into which they put the corn. 14. The creaking of the masts was fright- ful. 15. We gazed with inexpressible pleasure on those happy islands. 16. It happened one day, when going towards my boat, I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man's naked foot on the shore. * Or except and save may be remnants of Latin ablatives absolute, in which excepto and salvo were used. THE CONJUNCTION. 93 CHAPTER VIII. THE CONJUNCTION. 166, A conjunction* is a word used to connect sentences or the elements of a sentence. The elements of a sentence are (1) words, (2) phrases^ and (3) prop- ositions^ 1. Hamilton AND Jefferson were distinguished statesmen. The conjunction "and" unites the words "Hamilton" and "Jeffer- son" as component parts of the subject of the verb "were." 2. The sound of falling waters OR of the rustling leaves is agreeable to the ear. The conjunction "or" connects the two phrases "of falling waters,'' "of the rustling leaves," as modifiers of the noun "sound." 3. [James will come] IF [you call]. The conjunction "if" joins the two propositions "James will come' N and "you call." The first is the principal proposition, the second, " [if] you call," the subordinate proposition (or clause). 167 1 Conjunctions are divided, according to their use, into two classes : I. CO-OEDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. II. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 168. A CO-ordinate conjunction is one that connects (1) words and phrases which have the same grammatical rela- tion to some other word in the sentence ; (2) propositions each of which is of the same rank that is, both indepen- dent or both dependent. * From Latin con, together, and jungere, to join. t See 218. \ See 219. 94: ETYMOLOGY. 1. The winds AND the waves are absent there. Here " winds" and " waves" have the same relationthat of subject to "are." The conjunction "and" which connects them in con- struction is, therefore, a co-ordinate conjunction. 2. The boy is always running down to the river OR into the woods. The phrases u to the river" and "into the woods" have the same relation to the verb "is running" (being adverbial phrases modi- fying that verb). "Or" is, therefore, a co-ordinate conjunction. 3. [He chid their wanderings] BUT [relieved their pain]. " Both of the propositions connected by "but" are of the same rank each being an independent statement. "But" is, therefore, a co-ordinate conjunction. 169. The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are: and neither either whether but nor or both 170. Correlatives. Some conjunctions that are used in pairs are called correlatives ; that is, conjunctions having a mutual relation. Both and It is loth yours and mine. Either or He is either a knave or a fool. Neither nor Neither the horse nor the carriage was injured. Whether or It matters little whether I go or stay. 171 A subordinate conjunction is one used to connect a dependent with a 'principal proposition. Subordinate conjunctions never couple words only. If we cannot remove pain, we may alleviate it. I fled "because I was afraid. 172, The principal subordinate conjunctions are: that though for if although till lest after until unless before because notwithstanding since except THE INTERJECTION. 95 EXERCISE 9. Select and classify the conjunctions : 1. Take heed lest ye fall. 2. I have cut my finger, therefore I cannot write. 3. I fear I shall fail, but I shall make the attempt. 4. I shall make the attempt, though I fear that I shall fail. 5. He speaks so low that he cannot be heard. 6. Remain where you are till I return. 7. He will neither come nor send an apology. 8. It is as cold as Iceland. 9. I know not whether to go or to remain. 10. Ask James if he is ready ; and if he is ready, tell him to follow as quick- ly as he can. 11. He did not deserve to succeed ; for he made no effort, and showed no interest. 12. I shall not go unless you call me, nor will I remain if I can avoid it. 13. I can wonder at nothing more than how a man can be idle; but of all others a scholar. 14. The precise era of the invention and application of gunpowder is in- volved in doubtful traditions and equivocal language; yet we may clearly discern that it was known before the middle of the fourteenth century ; and that before the end of the same the use of artillery in battles and sieges, by sea and land, was familiar to the states of Germany, Italy, Spain, France, and England. 15. Whether he was combined With those of Norway ; or did line the rebel With hidden help and vantage ; or that with both He labor' d in his country's wrack, I know not. THE INTERJECTION. 173 Definition, An interjection is a word which ex- presses an emotion, but which does not enter into the con- struction of the sentence : as, Ok ! Ah ! Alas ! Hurrah ! NOTE. What is further to be said respecting the interjection will be found under Syntax, 96 ETYMOLOGY. GENEKAL REVIEW OP THE ADVERB, PREPOSITION, AND CONJUNCTION A. TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. i. THE: ADVERB. (SIMPLE. I?. -*' Com P a MODAL. 2. THE PREPOSITION. Classes None. Gram. Forms None. 3. THE CONJUNCTION. {CO-ORDINJ SUBORDINATE. j CO-ORDINATE. Gram. Forms None. B. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. I. Adverb Defined. II. Classes of Adverbs. 1. SIMPLE ADVERB DEFINED. 2. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB DEFINED. 3. INTERROGATIVE ADVERB DEFINED. 4. MODAL ADVERB DEFINED. III. Grammatical Form. COMPARISON HOW FORMED. IV. Preposition Defined. NATURE OF THE RELATION DENOTED. V. Government by Prepositions. OBJECT DEFINED. VI. Conjunction Defined. ELEMENTS CONNECTED. VII. Classes of Conjunctions. 1. CO-ORDINATE DEFINED. 2. SUBORDINATE DEFINED. 3. CORRELATIVE DEFINED. GENERAL REVIEW OF ADVERB, PREPOSITION, ETC. 97 c. WRITTEN REVIEWS. I. 1. What is the derivation of the word adverb? 2. What are the classes of adverbs with respect to grammatical use ? 3. Write a sentence containing a conjunctive adverb. 4. Write examples of adverbs of time, place, and negation. 5. Explain " the " in " the more the merrier." 6. How are adverbs compared ? 7. Give the origin of five adverbs derived from a pronominal root. II. 1. Draw out in tabular form the prepositions and conjunctions : It is enacted in the laws of Venice, If it be proved against an alien, That by direct or indirect attempts He seek the life of any citizen, The party 'gainst the which he doth contrive Shall seize one half his goods ; the other half Comes to the privy coffer of the state ; And the offender's life lies in the mercy Of the duke only, 'gainst all other voice. In which predicament I say thou stand'st: For it appears, by manifest proceeding, That indirectly and directly too Thou hast contrived against the very life Of the defendant ; and thou hast incurred The danger formerly by me rehearsed. Down, therefore, and beg mercy of the duke. 2. Write sentences illustrating the use of all the simple prepositions. III. 1. Give the etymology of the word conjunction. 2. What is a co-ordinate conjunction ? Illustrate by examples. 3. What is a subordinate conjunction ? Illustrate by examples. ^. Write a sentence containing a pair of correlative conjunctions. 5. Write out in tabular form all the conjunctions in the passage from the Merchant of Venice, given above. 6. Write a sentence containing two interjections. E 98 ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTEK IX. USES AND PARSING- OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. I. THE 174, A noun is parsed etymologically by stating : I. Its class proper, common, or abstract. II. Its grammatical forms number, gender, and case. The person of a noun need not be given unless of the first or second person. III. Its use, TEACHER'S NOTE. The introduction, into the treatment of etymology, of the uses of a given part of speech a subject which may seem to belong rather to syntax needs a word of explanation. The English language, as we have seen, is to a very limited degree an inflected tongue : it is often impossible to determine the grammatical form of a noun (and consequently to perform even the etymological parsing thereof) without reference to the function of the noun in the sentence. Thus there is no visible distinction between a noun in the nominative case and one in the objective case or in the absolute construc- tion; no difference between a noun in the objective case and one in what is, in fact, the dative case, or in the adverbial construction. Accordingly, to require pupils to assign grammatical properties to a word destitute of any sign of such properties, while at the same time leaving them ignorant as to the functional tests of grammatical form, appears to be a somewhat irrational procedure, and one that sufficiently accounts for the vague and unsatisfactory notions that pupils generally acquire respecting the important and deeply interesting study of English etymology. It is for this reason that in the present text-book the etymological treat- ment of a given part of speech is supplemented by a detailed exhibit of the functions of said part of speech. This is not syntax any more than it is ety- mologyit is rather a border-land between the two. In the exercises in etymo- logical parsing the enumeration of the properties of a word is followed by the statement of the particular use of the word not in the shape of a syntactical rule, but merely by way of accounting for the word's otherwise indeterminable grammatical form. THE NOUN. ITS USES. 99 175, There are nine uses or functions of the noun in a sentence. I, Subject, A noun may be in the nominative case as the subject of a verb. Model for Parsing. The bugle's note and cannon's roar the death-like silence broke. note is a common noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case the subject of the verb "broke." roar (same parsing). EXERCISE 10. Parse etymologically the noim-subjects in the following sentences : 1. Water consists of two gases. 2. Napoleon went to Egypt with forty sail-of-the-line. 3. Life's but a walking shadow. 4. Holy and heavenly thoughts shall counsel her. 5. Then rose from sea to sky the wild farewell. 6. The boy stood on the burning deck, Whence all but him had fled. 7. Kindness to animals is a duty of all. II, Possessive, A. noun may be used attributively* in the possessive case. It is then said to limit or modify the noun with which it is joined in meaning. Model for Parsing. The bugle's note and cannon's roar the death-like silence broke. bugle's is a common noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, and possessive case limiting the noun " note." cannon's... is a common noun, of the singular number,f neuter gen- der, and possessive case limiting the noun " roar." * See page 137. t It may, however, be construed as in the plural, being an indeterminate form. 100 ETYMOLOGY. EXERCISE 11. Parse etymologically the nouns possessive in the f ollow* irig sentences : 1. The spider's web is a wonderful piece of work. 2. Some judge of authors 1 names, not works. 3. See laurels on the bald first Caesar's head. 4. This is my fathers' ancient burial-place. 5. So shall the Northern pioneer go joyful on his way, To wed Penobscot's waters to San Francisco's bay. 6. Progress, Liberty's proud teacher; Progress, Labor's sure reward. Ill, Object, A noun may be in the objective case as the object of a transitive verb. Model for Parsing. The bugle's note and cannon's roar the death-like silence broke, silence... is an abstract noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, and objective case the object of the verb "broke."* EXERCISE 12. Parse etymologically the noun-objects in the following sentences : 1. I met a little cottage girl. 2. The Muses haunt clear spring or shady grove or sunny hill. 3. The reindeer draws the Laplander's sledge. 4. The Laplander defies the severity of his native climate. 5. When he read the note, he shook his head, and observed that an affair of this sort demanded the utmost circumspection. 6. We carved not a line, we raised not a stone. 7. Enough, enough ; sit down and share A soldier's couch, a soldier's fare. 8. Who would bear the whips and scornsf of time, The oppressor's wrong,fthe proud man's contumely ?f * The object "silence" is here in the inverted or poetic order; the usual place of an object is after the governing verb. t Supply " bear." The governing verb is often understood. THE NOUX.ITS usxs: 101 IV, Phrase-use i A noun may be joined to another word by means of a preposition. It is then parsed as in the ob- jective case, depending on the preposition. The noun and its so-called "governing" preposition form a prepositional phrase. Model for Parsing. The army crossed the river by a bridge made of pontoon-boats. bridge is a common noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, and objective case depending on the prepo- sition " by." pontoon-boats... is a common noun, of the plural number, neuter gen- der, and objective case depending on the preposi- tion " of." EXERCISE 13. Parse etymologically the nouns in the objective case gov- erned by prepositions : 1. The Gauls were conquered by Caesar. 2. We gazed with inexpressible pleasure on those happy islands. 3. The end of government is the good of mankind. 4. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. 5. From peak to peak the rattling crags among, Leaps the live thunder. 6. Out flew Millions of flaming swords drawn from the thighs Of mighty cherubim. V, Indirect object, A noun may be used in the objective case as the indirect object of a verb. The indirect object may readily be recognized by these tests : it comes before a direct object, and answers the question, " For or to whom ?" " For or to what ?"* * In the earliest English there was a special inflection to denote the indi- rect object. This was called the dative case, which means literally the giving case, because this inflected form was used chiefly after such verbs as give, lend, send, and the like. Thus (Early English} This king gave large gifts ministr-?^m. (Modern English) This king gave [to] the ministers large gifts. Abbott's Shakespearean Grammar, 102 'ETYMOLOGY. Model for Parsing. 1. We gave the man a book. 2. Socrates taught Plato philosophy. man ....is a common noun, of the singular number, masculine gender^ and objective case indirect object of the verb "gave." Plato... is a proper noun, singular number, masculine gender, and ob- jective case indirect object of the verb "taught." EXERCISE 14. Parse etymologically the nouns used as indirect objects : 1. This king gave the ministers large gifts. 2. The judge granted the prisoner a full pardon. 3. Ascham taught Lady Jane Grey the Greek language. 4. Lend the poor man a dollar. 5. We sent the teacher a request. VI, Appositive. A noun may be used to explain another noun. It is then said to be an appositive, or to be in appo- sition * with the noun which it explains, and is in the same case (nominative, possessive, or objective) as that noun. Model for Parsing. 1. Ali reclined, a man of war and woes. man is a common noun, of the singular number and masculine gender ; it is in the nominative case, because "Ali," with which it is in apposition, is the subject of the verb "reclined." 2. We beheld the Mississippi, that mighty river. river ....is a common noun, of the singular number and neuter gender ; it is in the objective case, being in apposition with. " Missis- sippi," the object of the verb "beheld." * From ad, near or alongside of, and ponere, to place or put. There may be intervening words, but no connecting words ; and both words must be in the same member of the sentence. THE NOUN. ITS USES. 1Q3 EXERCISE 15. Parse etymologically the nouns in apposition in the fol- lowing sentences : 1. Next came Thomas, the boy that cleans the boots. 2. Then we saw Thomas, the boy that cleans the boots. 3. Washington, the father of his country, was the first president of the United States. 4. Whang the miller was very avaricious. 5. "We admire Milton, the great English poet. VII, Predicate Nominative, A noun may come after, or complete the meaning of, certain intransitive or passive verbs, and yet denote the same person or thing as the sub- ject of the verb. It is then called the predicate nominative. Thus, in the sentence, " The author of this book is my brother," " brother" is in the predicate, but it is not the object of the verb, for the verb "is" asserts the identity of "author" and "broth- er:" so that, as " author" is in the nominative case, " brother" must be in the same case. We may say, " The author of this book is J" (nom. case), not " is me" (obj. case). Model for Parsing. 1. Tennyson is a poet. poet is a common noun, of the singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case predicate nominative after the verb " is." 2. Washington was elected president in 1789. president... is a common noun, of the singular number, masculine gen- der, and nominative case predicate nominative after " was elected." EXERCISE 16. Parse etymologically the nouns that are predicate nomi- natives in the following sentences : 104: ETYMOLOGY. 1. And, Saxon, I am Roderick Dhu. 2. The earth is a planet. 3. Mary still seemed a queen (=was a queen in seeming, or appearance). 4. King William of Prussia became Emperor of Germany in 1871. 5. He was a man, take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again. VIII, Independent and Absolute, A noun may be in the nominative case independent or absolute: thus 1. Eoratius, saith the consul, as thou sayest, so let it be. 2. The storm having ceased, we departed. I. Nominative Independent. In example l,the noun "Horatius" has no grammatical dependence on any other word in the sen- tence. Hence it is said to be independent, and it is parsed as in the nominative case. II. Nominative Absolute. In example 2, the noun " storm" has no grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. The sentence is not "The storm ceased, and we departed," or " When the storm ceased, we departed," but " The storm having ceased, we departed." The words " the storm having ceased" form a phrase. (See 218.) "When a noun is found in this construction, it is parsed as in the nominative absolute* Model for Parsing. 1. Mary, your lilies are in bloom. Mary... is a proper noun, of the second person, singular number, femi- nine gender, and nominative case independent. 2. The river not being fordable, we had to make a great detour, river.. .is a common noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case absolute. NOTE. See examples for parsing under Exercise 17, page 107. * The author has deemed it more in accordance with the history of our lan- guage to separate the construction here called the nominative absolute from that called the nominative independent than to call the former the ''nomina- tive independent" and the latter the "nominative independent by address." The nominative absolute corresponds to the Latin "ablative absolute" (in Anglo- Saxon the noun in this construction was in the dative case), while what is here termed the nominative independent corresponds to the Latin vocative. THE NOUN. ITS USES. 105 IX, Objective Adverbial, A noun may be used in the objective case when it is employed in the manner of an ad- verb to modify a verb or an adjective, by expressing meas- ure of time, distance, value, etc. : as 1. We walked a mile. 2. You are afoot taller than I. 3. The battle lasted three days. In this use the noun is called the objective adverbial* Model for Parsing 1 . That pole is ten feet high, feet... is a common noun, of the plural number, neuter gender, and objective case objective adverbial modifying the adjective "high" (=high ly ten feet). NOTE. See examples for parsing under Exercise 17, page 107. EXERCISE 17. A. Parse the italicized nouns in the following sentences : [Under I.-V., pages 99-101.] 1. All men are created equal. Jefferson, 2. Then rose from sea to sky the wild farewell. Byron. 3. Vanish' d is the ancient splendor, and before my dreamy eye Wave these mingling shapes and figures, like a faded tapestry. Longfellow. 4. The steed along the drawbridge flies. Scott. 5. I could hear my friend chide him for not finding out some work, but at the same time saw him put his hand in his pocket and give him sixpence. Spectator. * Many grammarians parse nouns thus used as governed by a preposition understood (" We walked for a mile;" "You are taller by a foot," etc.). But there is no preposition to be supplied, and there never was any. Nouns in this construction are disguised forms of early English genitives or datives cases that were used to denote measure, time, etc. Thus, "three furlongs broad" was in Anglo-Saxon " ihreor&furlanga brad," where " furlanga " is in the geni- tive case. So the expression "bound hand and/oo" was in Anglo-Saxon "bound hand-;*m and fot-um (=as regards or in hand and foot), the nouns being in the dative case. E2 ETYMOLOGY. 6. Thou knowest my praise of nature most sincere, And that my raptures are not conjured up To serve occasions of poetic pomp, But genuine, and art partner of them all. Cowper. 7. Thy name and watchword o'er this land I hear in every breeze that stirs, And round a thousand altars stand Thy banded party worshippers. Whittier. 8. Whilst I was thus musing, I cast my eyes towards the summit of a rock that was not far from me, where I discovered one in the habit of a shepherd, with a little musical instrument in his hand.Addison. 9. His spear, to equal which the tallest pine Hewn on Norwegian hills to he the mast Of some great ammiral were but a wand, He walked with, to support uneasy steps Over the burning marie. Milton. 10. The gushmg flood the tartans dyed. Scott. 11. Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time. Longfellow. 12. His father 1 s sword he has girded on. Moore. 13. Leaves have their time to fall And flowers to wither at the North Wind's breath. Hemans. 14. Then future ages with delight shall see How Plato's, Bacon's, Newton's looks agree. Pope. 15. The only, the perpetual dirge That's heard there is the sea-bird's cry, The mournful murmur of the surge, The cloud's deep voice, the wind's low sigh. Pierpont. 16. The patriarch made Joseph a coat of many colors. 17. Lend your neighbors a helping hand. 18. We forgive our friends their faults. 19. Then give humility a coach-and-six, Justice a conqueror's sword, or truth a gown, Or public spirit its great cure, a crown. Pope. 20. He chooses company, but not the squire's.* Addison. B. [Under VI.-IX., pages 102-105.] 1. Thomson, the poet, was a contemporary of Hume, the historian. 2. The emperor Kaoti, a soldier of fortune, marched against the Huns. Gibbon. * That is, " the squire's company." The noun limited by a noun in the pos- sessive case is often omitted, but in parsing it must be supplied as understood. THE NOUN. ITS USES. 107 3. 'Tis I, Hamlet the Dane. Shakspeare. 4. This is my son, mine own Tdemachus. Tennyson. 5. There, swinging wide at her moorings, lay The Somerset, British man-of-war A phantom ship. Longfellow. 6. Be a hero in the strife. Longfellow. 7. Discretion is the better part of valor. Shakspeare. 8. There were two fathers in this ghastly crew. Byron. 9. Brevity is the soul of wit. Shakspeare. 10. The proper study of mankind is man. Pope. 11. The principle which gave a peculiar coloring to Isabella's mind VMS piety Prescott. 12. And the earth was all rest, and the air was all love. Shelley. 13. Others, their blue eyes with tears o'erflowing, Stand, like Ruth, amid the golden com. Longfellow. 14. The hill-range stood Transfigured in the silver flood, Its blown snows flashing cold and keen. Whittier. 15. Success being hopeless, preparations were made for a retreat. Alison. 16. Uriel, no wonder if thy perfect sight, Amid the sun's bright circlet where thou sitt'st, See far and wide. Milton. 17. Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise ! Pope. 18. With that she fell distract, And, her attendants absent, swallowed fire. Shakspeare. 19. The war being ended, the soldiers returned to their homes. 20. Listen, my children, and you shall hear Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere. Longfellow. 21. O Caledonia ! stern and wild, Meet nurse for a poetic child. Land of brown heath and shaggy wood, Land of the mountain and the flood. Scott. 22. O lonely tomb in Moab's land, O dark Bethpeor's hill, Speak to these curious hearts of ours And teach them to be still. Anon. 23. The antechambers were crowded all night with lords and councillors. Macaulay. 24. Home they brought her warrior dead. Tennyson. 25. Patrick Henry was nearly six. feet high. Wirt. 26. Not without deep solicitude I saw the angry clouds gathering in the horizon, north and south. Everett. 27. He that was dead came forth bound hand and/ooZ. Hible. 28. You came three times last week, but did you come the nearest way? 29. Awake, my St. John, leave all meaner things. Pope. 30. Milton, thou shouldst be with us at this hour. Wordsworth. 108 ETYMOLOGY. II. THE I. USES. 176, Of the nine uses of the noun, the pronoun has all except that of the objective adverbial ; but one class of pro- nouns, the relatives, have an office distinct from the noun :- namely, the office of a connective : I. Subject of a verb : thus 1. J know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows. 2. We looked on him as he lay wounded on the ground. 3. Some murmur when their sky is clear. II. Possessive: thus 1. He knows his rights. 2. Whose is this image and superscription ? III. Object of a verb : thus 1. Take her up tenderly. 2. He taught you how you might conquer them. 3. Whom do you mean ? What are you doing ? IV. Indirect object : thus 1. Tell him not to vex her. 2. The master gave them one dollar each. V. Phrase use object of a preposition : thus 1. To whom much is given, of them much is required. 2. With malice toward none, with charity for all. VI. Predicate nominative : thus 1. It is 7, be not afraid. 2. Those lips are thine. 3. Who say ye that I am ? VII. Appositive: thus We all do fade as a flower. NOTE. This construction is rare. THE PRONOUN. ITS USES. 1Q9 VIII. Independent or absolute : thus 1. O Thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers. 2. We being mounted, the cavalcade advanced. IX. Connective. The relative pronouns serve to connect the dependent proposition, which they introduce, with some w r ord or words in the principal statement of the sentence : thus 1. Longfellow is the poet who wrote " Evangeliue." 2. I had a dream which was not all a dream. 3. Solomon was the wisest man that ever lived. In sentence 1 "Longfellow is the poet" is the principal statement; " who wrote * Evangeline ' " is a clause; the relative "who" connects the clause with the antecedent "poet." In like manner in sentence 2 "which" connects the clause that it intro- duces with the antecedent "dream;" and in 3 "that" connects the clause that it introduces with the antecedent "man." Relative " What." The relative what is often parsed by separat- ing it into that which, and then disposing of each of these words according to its use in the sentence. But it is preferable to parse wJiat itself as subject of a verb or object of a verb (or preposition), and then treat as a whole the clause introduced by what* II. PARSING. 177, Personal Pronouns, In parsing a personal pronoun, tate 1. Class. 2. Person : first, second, or third. 3. Gender : (if of the 3d person). 4. Number : singular or plural. 5. Case : nominative, [possessive] or objective. 6. Use. * What is simply the neuter of who, with its antecedent (that) omitted ; just as the antecedent of who is sometimes omitted. Thus the function of who and of what is precisely alike in the sentences " Who steals my purse steals trash" and " What is done cannot be undone." HO ETYMOLOGY. NOTE. The forms my, thy, his, etc., are most readily disposed of as adjec- tives (or possessive adjectives); the independent forms mine, thine, etc., as possessive pronouns in the nominative or objective case, according to the con- struction. 178, Relative Pronouns. In parsing a relative pronoun, state 1. Class. 2. Antecedent : noun (or its equivalent pronoun, etc.). 3. Person : first, second, or third. 4. Gender : masculine, feminine [common], or neuter. 5. Number : singular or plural. 6. Case : nominative, possessive, or objective. 7. Use. NOTE. A relative pronoun is in the same person, gender, and number as its antecedent. * 179, Interrogative Pronouns, In parsing an interroga- tive pronoun, state 1. Class. 2. Gender : masculine, feminine [common], or neuter (according to the gender of the noun that answers the question). 3. Number : singular or plural. 4. Case : nominative, possessive, or objective. 5. Use. Models for Parsing Pronouns. 1. Who steals my purse steals trash : 'tis something, nothing 'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands. But he that filches from me my good name Robs me of that which not enriches him, And makes me poor indeed. who is a relative pronoun (used independently of an antece- dent),* of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case subject of the verb " steals." * Or having he understood, for its antecedent. THE PRONOUN.-RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE. it (contracted ' in " 'tis") is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case subject of the verb "is." it (in " 'twas " and " %" is to be parsed in a similar manner). mine is a pronominal adjective (possessive)* of the first person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case predicate nominative after the intransitive verb " was." his (parsed in a similar manner as to gender, case, and use). he is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num- ber, masculine gender, and nominative case subject of the verb "robs." that is a relative pronoun, having for its antecedent the pro- noun " he," of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case subject of the verb " filches." me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular num- ber, masculine gender,f and objective case depending on the preposition " from." me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case object of the verb " robs." that is a pronominal adjective (demonstrative), \ of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case depending on the preposition " of." which is a relative pronoun, having for its antecedent "that;" of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case subject of the verb " enriches." him...; is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num- ber, masculine gender, and objective case object of the verb " enriches." me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case object of the verb " leaves." * Or, simply, a possessive pronoun. t As the person speaking, in this passage from Shakspeare's play of Othello^ was a man, the pronoun "me" is of the masculine gender. \ Or, simply, a demonstrative pronoun. 112 ETYMOLOGY. 2. The messenger himself revealed the treachery. himself.... is a compound personal pronoun, of the third person, sin- gular number, masculine gender, and nominative case in apposition with the noun " messenger." 3. O Thou* that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers ! thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular num- ber, (masculine gender), and nominative case nominative independent. that is a relative pronoun, having for its antecedent the pro- noun "Thou," of the second person, singular number, (mas- culine gender), and nominative case subject of the verb " rollest." 4. I shall not lag behind, nor err The way, thou leading. I is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, (gender indeterminate), and nominative case subject of the verb " shall lag." thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular num- ber (gender indeterminate), and nominative case nomina- tive absolute. EXERCISE 18. Parse etymologically the italicized pronouns in the fol- bwing sentences: 1. We can show you where he lies. Scott. 2. Surely, said /, man is but a shadow, and life a dream. Addison. 3. Each thought on the woman who loved him be&t.Kingsley. 4. /could hear my friend chide him for not finding out some work; but at the same time saw him put his hand in his pocket and give him sixpence. Spectator. 5. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. Milton. 6. Teach me thy statutes. Bible. 7. There taught us how to live, and (oh ! too high The price for knowledge) taught us how to die. Tickell. 8. Methought my request was heard, for it seemed to me as though the stains of manhood were passing from me, and / were relapsing into the purity and simplicity of childhood. Lamb. * The sun. THE ADJECTIVE. PARSING. 113 9. /know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death. Patrick Henry. 10. Who was the thane lives jet.Shakspeare. 11. What in me is dark, Illumine ; what is low, raise and support. Milton. 12. I had a dream which was not all a dream. Byron. 13. Ah ! little they think who delight in the strains, How the heart of the minstrel is breaking. Moore. 14. Oh that those lips had language ! Life has passed With me but roughly since I heard thee last. Those lips are thine thy own sweet smile I see, The same that oft in childhood solaced me. Cowper. 15. Who would fardels bear ? Shakspeare. 16. Koll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll ! Byron. 17. Those who came to laugh remained to pray. Goldsmith. 18. We two set upon you four. Shakspeare. 19. England herself will sooner treat for peace with us on a footing of inde- pendence. John Adams. 20. O ye Romans, you are poor slaves. Shakspeare. 21. What do you mean, you blockhead ? 22. On these and kindred thoughts intent I lay In silence musing by my comrade's side, He [being] also silent. Wordsworth. 23. Thou away, the very birds are mute. Shakspeare. 24. God from the Mount of Sinai, whose gray top Shall tremble, he descending, will himself Ordain them laws. Milton. III. THE ADJECTIVE. I. PARSING. 180 1 An adjective is parsed etyinologically by stating 1. Its class limiting (article, pronominal adjective, or numeral adjective) or qualifying. 2. Its degree of comparison (that is, if comparative or superla- tive, and omitting comparison if positive). 3. Its use (see below). II. USES OF THE ADJECTIVE. 181. The two principal relations of the adjective are 1. The attributive relation. 2. The predicative relation. ETYMOLOGY. I, Attributive, In the attributive relation or use the adjective is closely joined with its noun or pronoun, and is never separated from it by a verb.* Thus 1. Now Morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime Advancing, sowed the earth with orient pearl. 2. They the holy ones and weakly Who the cross of suffering bore. I. In parsing an adjective in the attributive use this function need not be specified; it is enough to say that the adjective modifies the noun or pronoun [naming it] with which it is joined. II. An adjective sometimes modifies a noun which is already modified by another adjective: as, "A pretty wooden bowl." Here pretty does not relate to " bowl " separately, but to the words " wooden-bowl." In such instances the remote adjective may be parsed as modifying the noun and proximate adjective as one compound term. Models of Parsing. 1. Around the fire one wintry night The farmer's rosy children sat. the is the definite article, modifying the noun "fire." one is a limiting adjective (numeral), modifying the noun " night." wintry ....is a qualifying adjective, modifying the noun " night." the is the definite article, modifying the noun "farmer's.''! rosy is a qualifying adjective, modifying the noun "children." 2. I met a little cottage girl. a is the indefinite article, modifying the noun "girl." little is a qualifying adjective, modifying the noun "girl" as modified by the adjective " cottage." cottage... is a noun used as an adjective, modifying the noun "girl." * This is called the attributive use because an adjective thus employed ex- presses some attribute or property represented as inherent in the object named by the noun. The attribute or property is not predicated or asserted of the noun, but is assumed as belonging to it. t Or, modifying the complex expression "farmer's rosy children." THE ADJECTIVE. EXERCISES. 115 3. They the holy ones and weakly Who the cross of suffering bore. holy is a qualifying adjective, modifying the noun " ones." weakly... .is a qualifying adjective, modifying the noun " ones." 4. His opinion would have greater weight, were it supported by some arguments of the least value. his is a limiting adjective (possessive), modifying the noun " opinion." greater.... is a qualifying adjective, in the comparative degree (com- pared great, greater, greatest), modifying the noun " weight." some is a limiting adjective (indefinite), modifying the noun " arguments." least is a qualifying adjective, in the superlative degree (com- pared little, less, least), modifying the noun " value." EXERCISE 19. Parse etymologically the italicized adjectives in the fol- lowing sentences: 1. I am fond of loitering about country churches, and this was so delight- fully situated that it frequently attracted me. It stood on a knoll, round which a small stream made a beautiful bend, and then wound its way through a long reach of soft meadow scenery. The church was sur- rounded by yew-trees, which seemed almost coeval with itself. Its tall Gothic spire shot up lightly from among them, with rooks and crows generally wheeling about it. Washington Irving. 2. There eternal summer dwells, And west winds with musky wing About the cedar* d alleys fling Nard and cassia's balmy smells. Milton. 3. Three fishers went sailing away to the Wesi.Kingsley. 4. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll I Byron. 5. For of all sad words of tongue or pen, The saddest are these " It might have been." Whiltier. 6. Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. Shelley. 7. Like other dull men, the king was all his life suspicious of superior peo pie. Thackeray. 8. And first review that long, extended plain, And those wide groves already passed with pain. Collins. ETYMOLOGY. 9. Each ivied arch and pillar lone Pleads haughtily for glories gone. Byron. 10. If disastrous war should sweep our commerce from the ocean, another generation may renew it ; if it exhaust our treasurj T , future industry may replenish it ; if it desolate and lay waste our fields, still, under a new cultivation, they will grow green again, and ripen to future har- vests. It were but a trifle, even if the wall of yonder Capitol were to crumble, if its lofty pillars should fall, and its gorgeous decorations be all covered by the dust of the valley. All these might be rebuilt. But who shall reconstruct the fabric of demolished government ? Who shall rear again the well-proportioned columns of constitutional liberty ? Who shall frame together the skilful architecture which unites national sovereignty with state rights, individual security, and public prosperity ? No ; if these columns fall, they will be raised not again. Like the Coli- seum and the Parthenon, they will be destined to a mournful, a melan- choly immortality. Bitterer tears, however, will flow over them than ever were shed over the monuments of Roman or Grecian art ; they will be the remnants of a more glorious edifice than Greece or Rome ever saw the edifice of constitutional American liberty ! Webster. Hi Predicative, In the predicative use* the adjective has a double office : 1. It may be the complement of an intransitive verb ; or of a transitive verb in the passive voice. It is then called &e predicate adjective. Thus 1. The fields are green. 2. The nation became powerful. 3. Mary looks cold. 4. Some men are called happy. In this use the adjective relates to the subject of the verb ; but this relation is indirect ; the adjective, taken with the verb, expresses the condition of the subject. In parsing an adjective thus used, it should be stated that it is the complement of the verb [naming it], and relates to the sub- ject. Or it may simply be called the predicate adjective. * An adjective in the predicative relation must not be confounded with an attributive adjective in the predicate, and associated with a noun or pronoun: as, "Here are green fields." An adjective is in the predicative relation when it completes the sense of the verb, and is not joined directly to a noun or pronoun. THE ADJECTIVE. PREDICATIVE. 117 2. It may relate to a noun -complement of a transitive verb, and be at the same time a partial complement of the verb. 1. We call the proud happy. 2. The streams whereof shall make glad the city of God. In this use the adjective, taken with the verb, expresses the condition of the object. In parsing an adjective thus used, it should be stated that it is the complement of the transitive verb [naming it], and relates to the object. Model for Parsing. 1. The fields are green. green is a qualifying adjective, the complement of the intransi- tive verb "are," and relates to the subject "fields" (or, it is the predicate adjective after "are," and relates to "fields"). 2. Some men are called happy. some is a pronominal adjective, and modifies the noun "men." happy is a qualifying adjective, the complement of the passive verb " are called," and relates to the subject " men." 3. Leave the lily pale, and tinge the violet blue. pale is a qualifying adjective, the complement of the transitive verb " leave," and relates to the object "lily." blue is a qualifying adjective, the complement . of the transitive verb " tinge," and relates to the object " violet." EXERCISE 20, Parse etymologically the italicized adjectives in the fol- lowing sentences : 1. The rainbow comes and goes, And lovely is the rose ; The moon doth with delight Look round her when the heavens are bare; V/aters on a starry night Are beautiful and/ai?\ Wordsworth. ETYMOLOGY. 2. "O, sir," said the good woman, "he was such a likely lad so sweet-tem- pered^ so kind to every one around him, so dutiful to his parents. Washington Irving. 3. The stately homes of England, How beautiful they stand. Hemans. 4. Why call ye me good? Bible. 5. Or, if a path be dangerous known, The danger's self is lure alone. Scott. 6. Come when the heart beats high and warm. Halleck. 7. Thus, from afar, each dim-discovered scene More pleasing seems than all the past have been. Campbell. 8. By heaven, I change My thought, and hold thy valor light, As that of some vain carpet-knight. Scott. IV. THE VEKB. 182, In regard to their use in sentences, verbs may be divided into two classes : 1. FINITE VERBS. 2. THE VERBALS. The radical distinction between verbs and verbals is that verbs are used in predication, and that verbals are not so used. I. FINITE VERBS. 183, Parsing, A finite verb is parsed as agreeing with its subject in person and in number.* Its etymology is given thus : 1. Its conjugation regular or irregular. 2. Its class transitive or intransitive. 3. Its yoice active or passive (if transitive ; no mention is made of voice in intransitive verbs). 4. Its mood indicative, potential, subjunctive, or imperative. 5. Its tense present, past, future, etc. (In the imperative, tense may be omitted.) 6. Its person and number first, second, or third, and singular or plural, according to the person and number of the subject. * This coincides with the syntactical rule for verbs : its introduction here is necessary, since, from the paucity of personal endings in English verbs, the person and number of a verb can generally be determined only by reference to the person and number of its subject. THE VERB. PARSING. NOTE. If a verb is in the progressive, interrogative, or emphatic form, this may be noted ; if in the common form, nothing need be said as to form. Models for Parsing. 1. Tell me not in mournful numbers Life is but an empty dream. tell is an irregular transitive verb,* active voice, imperative mood, second person, singular number, agreeing with its subject you, understood. An abbreviated form like the following may be found serviceable : " Tell," a verb, irregular, transitive, active, imperative, second singu- lar, agreeing with you understood. is is an irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person, singular number, agree- ing with its subject " life." 2. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike th' inevitable hour. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. gave is an irregular transitive verb, active voice, indicative mood, past tense, third person, singular number, agree- ing with its subject tl wealth." await is a regular transitive verb, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, third person, plural number, agreeing with its subjects " boast," " pomp," and " all." lead is an irregular intransitive verb, indicative mood, pres- ent tense, third person, plural number, agreeing with its subject "paths." 3. I do believe that the lad was telling the truth. do believe is a regular transitive verb, emphatic form, active voice, indicative mood, present tense, first person, sin- gular number, agreeing with its subject " I." was telling.... is an irregular transitive verb, progressive form, in- dicative mood, past tense, third person, singular num- ber, agreeing with its subject "lad." * Transitive because it requires an object : the object is the clause " [that] life is but an empty dream ;" " me " is the indirect object. 120 ETYMOLOGY. EXERCISE 21. Parse etymologically the italicized verbs in the following sentences : 1. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. Declaration of Independence. 2. Then shrieked the timid. Byron. 3. The grave is the ordeal of true affection. W. Irving. 4. So hard a winter had [not] been known for years. Milman. 5. When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept.Shakspeare. 6. Each thought o,n the woman who loved him best. Kingdey. 7. Don't flatter* yourselves that friendship authorizes you to say disagree- able things to your intimates. On the contrary, the nearer you come into relation with a person, the more necessary do [tact and courtesy 7 ] become. Except in cases of necessity, which are rare, leave your friend to learn unpleasant truths from his enemies ; they are ready enough to tell them. Good -breeding never forgets that self-love is universal. When you read the story of the Archbishop and Gil Bias, you may laugh, if you will, at the poor old man's delusion ; but don't forget that the youth was the greater fool of the two, and that his master served such a booby rightly in turning him out of doors. Oliver Wendell Holmes. 8. Holy and heavenly thoughts shall counsel her. Shakspeare. 9. Then rose from sea to sky the wild farewell. -^Byron. 10. The better part of valor is discretion. Shakspeare. 11. At this sultry noontide, I am cupbearer to the parched populace, for whose benefit an iron goblet is chained to my waist. Like a dram- seller on the mall, at muster-day, I cry aloud to all and sundry, in my plainest accents, and at the very tiptop of my voice, Here it is, gentle- men ! Here is the good liquor ! Walk up, walk up, gentlemen ; walk up, walk up ! Hawthorne. 12. The public opinion of the civilized world is [rapidly] gaining an ascend- ency over mere brute force. It may be silenced by military power, but it can [not] be conquered. Webster. 13. In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold, Alike fantastic if too new or old ; Be not the first by whom the new is tried, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. Pope. * Parse "do flatter." THE VERB. VERBALS. 121 II. VERBALS. I. The Infinitive. 184, The infinitive may be used as I. A noun. As a noun an infinitive may serve as 1. The subject of a verb: as, " To walk [or, walking] is healthy." 2. The object of a transitive verb : as, " I like to walk [or, walk- ing}" II. An adjective. In this use the infinitive may serve as 1. The complement of an intransitive or of a passive verb : as, "He appeared to comply;' 1 '' "Your mistake is to fo deplored" ^deplorable) ; " He is to Name" =. (blameworthy). 2. An attributive adjective relating to a noun: as, "water to drink " (=dnnMng--WB,ter ; here " drinking " is a gerund) ; " a time to laugh;" " permission to speak." III. An adverb, modifying a verb or an adjective : thus 1. I have come to see you. 2. I am sorry to hear this. 185, A gerund, also, may be used as the object of a prep- osition, thus forming an adjective or adverbial phrqse: as 1. Benjamin West had as a boy a talent for painting. 2. Bees are skilful in 'building their hives. 3. By working hard we improve. 186, In parsing an infinitive, state 1. Its kind ordinary infinitive or gerund. 2. Whether simple or compound. 3. Its use as noun, adjective, or adverb. Models for Parsing. 1. To learn is a task indeed. to learn ............ is a simple infinitive, used as a noun, and subject of the verb " is." 122 ETYMOLOGY. 2. Talking overmuch is a sign of vanity. talking is the simple gerund of the verb talk, used as a noun, and subject of the verb "is." 3. A miser is to be pitied. to be pitied is a simple infinitive, used as adjective complement of the verb " is," and relating to " miser." 4. We are all striving to secure happiness. to secure =..is a simple infinitive, used as an adverb, modifying the verb " are striving." ("Are striving to secure " =striving/0r the purpose of securing.) ' 5. We are happy in doing our duty. doing r...is the simple gerund of the verb do, used as a noun, and depending on the preposition " in." 6. 'Tis better to have loved and [to have] lost than never to have loved at all. to have loved.... is a compound infinitive, used as a noun, and sub- ject of "is" (introduced by "it"). " To have lost" is parsed in the same way; "to have loved (at all)" is sub- ject of is, understood. II. The Participles. 187. Participles are attributive words, and are parsed, like adjectives, as modifying the noun or pronoun with which they are joined in meaning. Models for Parsing. 1 . The farmer sat in his easy-chair, Smoking his pipe of clay. 2. His head, bent down, on her soft hair lay ; Fast asleep were they both on that summer day. smoking... is the present (active) participle of the regular transitive verb "smoke," modifying the noun " farmer." THE VERB. PARSING. 123 bent is the past (passive) participle of the irregular transitive' verb " bend," modifying the noun " head." EXERCISE 22, Parse etymologically the italicized infinitives and par- ticiples in the following sentences : 1. To "be virtuous is to be happy. 2. Seeing is believing. 3. I remember to have seen William at the Rink. 4. Philosophy teaches us to endure afflictions. 5. Learn to labor and to wait. 6. It is painful to see an animal suffering. 7. His having failed is not surprising. 8. I recommended turning a new leaf. 9. Throwing their muskets aside, the soldiers rushed on the foe. 10. Born to a crown, Louis XVI. died on the scaffold. 11. They wish to turn him from keeping bad company. 12. What we always put off doing ^ Clearly we shall never do. V. THE ADVEEB. 188, A simple adverb is used to modify the word with which it is joined in meaning. A conjunctive adverb is used both as a modifier and as a connective. 189, In parsing an adverb, state- Its class simple, conjunctive, interrogative, or modal. Its comparison (if comparative or superlative ; otherwise com- parison may be omitted). Its use as above. Models for Parsing. 1. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! Here will we sit, and let the sounds of music Creep in our ears. how is a simple adverb, modifying the adjective " sweet." 124: ETYMOLOGY. here is a simple adverb, modifying the verb " will sit." 2. Shall I be frighted when a madman stares ? when.. ..is a conjunctive adverb, modifying the verb "stares," and connecting the clause which it introduces with the previous (principal) proposition. 3. Where are the songs of Spring ? where ...is an interrogative adverb, modifying the verb " are." EXERCISE 23. Parse etymologically the italicized adverbs in the follow- ing sentences : 1. Washington ate heartily, but was no epicure. He took tea, of which he was very fond, early in the evening. Irving. 2. Ill fared it then with Roderick Dhu. Scott. 3. Touch her not scornfully! Think of her mournfully, Gently and humanly. Hood. 4. The world was all before them where to choose Their place of rest, and Providence their guide. Milton. 5. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State I Longfellow. 6. And when above the surges They saw his crest appear, All Rome sent forth a rapturous cry, And even the ranks of Tuscany Could scarce forbear to cheer. Macaulay. 7. Why should we shrink from what we cannot shun tBijron. VI. THE PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION, AND INTERJECTION. I. THE PREPOSITION. 190. The use of the preposition is to form with its ob- ject a phrase: thus 1. There is rest for the weary. 2. Under Tier torn hat glowed the wealth Of simple leauty and [of] rustic health. THE PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION, AND INTERJECTION. 125 The combination of words formed by the preposition and object is termed a prepositional phrase. (This is to distinguish it from & participial phrase; see 218). 191 In parsing a preposition proceed as follows: 1. Name the part of speech. 2. State what two words it joins naming the object first. Model. Around the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran. around... is a preposition, and joins the noun "rocks" to the verb "ran." EXERCISE 24. Parse etymologically the prepositions in the following sentences : 1. The thunders bellowed over the wide waste of waters. Irving. 2. A murmuring whisper through the nunnery ran. Tennyson. 3. He goes on Sunday to the church. Longfellow. 4. I seek divine simplicity in him Who handles things divine. Cowper. 5. He starts from his dream at the blast of the horn. Wilson. 6. Through all the wild October days the clash and din resounded in the air. Dickens. 7. But on the hill the golden-rod, and the aster in the wood, And the yellow sunflower by the brook, in autumn beauty stood. Bryant. 8. There is a special providence in the fall of a sparrow. Shakspeare. 9. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. Gray. 10. In the spring of 1493, while the court was still at Barcelona, letters were received from Christopher Columbus, announcing his return to Spain, and the successful achievement of his great enterprise, by the dis- covery of land beyond the western ocean. Prescott. II. THE CONJUNCTION. 192, The use of the conjunction is to connect sentences and the elements of sentences the co-ordinate conjunctions connecting sentences and elements of equal rank ; and the subordinate conjunctions connecting dependent with princi- pal propositions. 126 ETYMOLOGY. 193, In parsing a conjunction, state (1) its class and (2) what it connects. EXERCISE 25. Parse etymologically the italicized conjunctions in the following sentences: 1. When my time was expired, I worked my passage home ; and glad I was to see Old-England again, because I loved my country. Goldsmith. 2. Some murmur when their sky is clear, And wholly bright to view, If one small speck of dark appear In their great heaven of blue. Trench. 3. 'Twas noon, And Helon knelt beside a stagnant pool In the lone wilderness. 4. Millions of spiritual creatures walk thejearth unseen, Both when we wake and when we sleep. Milton. 194, The Interjection, The interjection is parsed by simply naming it : it has no grammatical relations in the sentence. METHOD OF ABBREVIATED PAUSING-. The method of abbreviated parsing here presented is based on the principle of enumerating only such grammatical forms as affect the construction, and of omitting what may be understood in the terms of statement ; as, singular for " singular number," indicative for " in- dicative mood," etc. (NUMBER singular or plural. (Number in proper nouns omitted). CASE nominative, possessive, or objective (as denoted by form or use). Omitted: CLASS, PERSON, and GENDER as not affecting the construction. When, however, a noun is in the 2d or 3d person, the fact may be stated. CLASS personal, relative, or interrogative. PERSON (in personal pronouns ; in relative pronouns of the 1st or 2d person only). NUMBER singular or plural. Pronoun.... GENDER (in personal pronouns of the 3d person singu lar only). CASE (nominative or objective as denoted by use: possess! ves to be parsed as adjectives or as pronominals, nominative or objective). Omitted: PERSON in all but the personal pronouns and in relatives of 1st and 2d persons; GENDER in all but the personal pronoun of the 3d pers. sing. f CLASS limiting (pronominal) or qualifying. Adjective... \ COMPARISON (if comparative or superlative). L OFFICE attributive or complementary. Omitted: SUBDIVISIONS of limiting adjectives; DEGREE, if positive. 128 METHOD OF ABBREVIATED PARSING. CONJUGATION regular or irregular. CLASS transitive or intransitive. VOICE (only if passive). Verb { MOOD indicative, potential, etc. TENSE present, past, etc. PERSON -first, second, or third. . NUMBER singular or plural. ( CLASS simple or conjunctive. COMPARISON (if comparative or superlative). * OFFICE (if simple, What does it modify ? If conjunc* tive, What propositions does it connect ? Prepositions.... words connected. Conjunctions... words or propositions connected. I. MODEL OF ABBREVIATED ORAL PARSING. After Wellington's victory at Waterloo, Napoleon, the Emperor of France, was banished to St. Helena, a desolate island in the At- lantic Ocean. after is a preposition, connecting "victory" with "was banished." Wellington's is a noun in the possessive case, modifying "vic- tory." victory is a noun in the objective singular, depending on " after." at is a preposition, connecting "Waterloo" with " victory." Waterloo is a noun in the objective case, depending on "at." Napoleon is a noun in the nominative case, subject of "was banished." , the is a limiting adjective, limiting "Emperor." Emperor is a noun in the nominative singular, in apposition with " Napoleon." of. is a preposition, connecting "France" with "Em- peror." METHOD OF ABBREVIATED PARSING. 129 was banished is a regular transitive verb, passive, in the third person singular, past indicative. to is a preposition, connecting "St. Helena" with " was banished." a is a limiting adjective, limiting "island." desolate is a qualifying adjective, modifying "island." island is a noun in the objective singular, in apposition with " St. Helena." in is a preposition, connecting "Atlantic Ocean" with " island." Atlantic Ocean... is a noun in the objective singular, depending on " in." II. MODEL OF ABBREVIATED WRITTEN PARSING. Speech is . a great blessing to mankind ; but, alas ! we too often pervert it. Speech... is noun verb sing., nom. irreg. intran., indie., subject of "is" agreeing with "Speech" a limiting adj. pres., 3d sing. limiting "blessing" great blessing., to. adjective noun preposition sing., nom. modifying "blessing" complement of "is" connecting "mankind" mankind., but noun conjunction sing., obj. and "blessing" depending on " to " connecting the two prop- alas ! interjection ositions we . . pers. pronoun 1st pers pi nom subject of " pervert " too adverb modifying " often " often pervert. . . it . adverb verb pers pronoun reg. trans., indie., pres., 1st pi. 3d pers sin * neut modifying "pervert" obicct of " pervert " obj. F2 130 NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. [For Reference.] a ARTICLE: "a beautiful face." PREPOSITION : " I go a-fishing." after* PREPOSITION : " You came after me." ADVERB: (simple), "You came soon after;' 1 ' 1 (conjunctive)^ " You came after I left."f above PREPOSITION : " above the ground ;" " above mean actions." ADVERB : " that rollest above." ADJECTIVE : " the above remarks ;" " the above rule." 1. The adjective use of "above" is generally condemned by grammarians, but it seems to be firmly established. 2. The metaphorical application of "above," as in the phrase "above com- prehension," readily passes over to the meaning more than: as, "above the price of rubies ; " u above a dozen " [dozen, a noun]. all ADJECTIVE : "All men are mortal." PRONOMINAL : " each for all, all for each." NOUN: "All is lost" ADVERB : " all round the world." any ADJECTIVE : " any age ;" " any complaints." PRONOMINAL : " Who is here so base that would be a bond- man ? If any, speak." ADVERB : " Are you any better ?" asf ADVERB: (simple) "As brave as a lion." (Conjunctive) "He spoke as we entered;" "as far as we can see." * Termed: Continuative conjunction (Morrell). Usually called a conjunc- tion ; better an adverb (Mason). Relative adverb or subordinating conjunction (Bain). t In older English the usual conjunctive form was "after that:" as, " After that I was turned I repented." Bible. This would indicate that, in its con- nective office, u after" is a preposition* rather than a conjunction, the construc- tion being that of a preposition followed by a noun-clause : " after [that I was turned]." t Termed: Continuative conjunction (Morrell). Conjunctive or connective adverb, in some cases; subordinative conjunction in other cases (Mason). Relative or conjunctive adverb, or subordinating conjunction (Bain}. NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. CONJUNCTION : "As he was ambitious, I slew him." PRONOMINAL : " I have not such kind treatment as I used to have " (which I used to have). 1. " As" is from a pronominal root (ail-so), and signifies in which way or in that way. This pronominal sense is at the root of the word in all its uses : thus, " brave in that a lion [is brave] ; " "in that he was ambitious, I slew him;" " I have not kind treatment [in the way] in which I used to have." 2. "As" is now used as a relative only in correlation with a preceding such or same; but the vulgarism, "This is the boy as I saw yesterday" is an exemplification of its original pronominal meaning. below PREPOSITION: "high life ~below stairs." ADVERB : " Go 'below.' 1 '' NOUN : " The power comes from 'below.' 1 ' 1 beside PREPOSITION : " Sit beside me." ADVERB : " Beloved of heaven o'er all the world 'beside.' 11 but PREPOSITION: "All lut him had fled;"* "None knew thee lut to love thee." CONJUNCTION : "I go, lut I return." ADVERB : " 'Tis lut [only] a little faded flower;" " I can ~but lament the result."t But is sometimes used with the force of a negative relative, when it has a negative correlative : as There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, But has one vacant chair. Longfellow. In this construction "but" is equivalent to that . . . not or who . . . not. This force, however, it acquires through ellipsis. Thus, in Shakspeare, "I found no man but he was true to me," where but as a preposition governs tne proposition "he was true to me." * " But," as thus used, is a true preposition, being originally be-out=without, or except (Anglo-Saxon be-utan, butan) ; it should not be confounded with the conjunction but. To such an extent has the prepositional use of "but" been forgotten, that many grammarians regard the word as a conjunction only ; they condemn as violations of grammar the constructions, There was no one present but me. They all went away but Mm; substituting but I and but he, which is correcting good English into bad. t The adverbial force of "but" here arises from the ellipsis of a negative. The construction was originally, "I can not but lament the result," "lament" being an infinitive governed by the preposition " but." So, " That I may have not but my meat and drink." Chaucer. 132 NOTES ON VARIABLE PARTS OP" SPEECH. else ADJECTIVE: "any one else' 1 ' 1 (=any other one); "nobody else" (=no other body, or person). ADVERB : " Where else can such fruits be found ?" CONJUNCTION: "He must be sick, else he would have written to us."* enough.... AD VERB : " He has been punished enough.' 1 ' 1 NOUN : " We have had enough of action." ADJECTIVE : " We have not enough men " (adjective in use, though really a noun with of omitted). " I have not enough men : " adverb in position ; adjective in use. fast ADJECTIVE : " a fast horse." ADVERB: "You talk fast.' 1 ' 1 "Fast" may be taken as a type of a considerable class of monosyllabic ad- jectives which are often used as adverbs : as, u to work hard" " to speak loud" "to rise high," etc. In Anglo-Saxon and early English the adverbial form was marked by a final e, as hard (adj.), hard-e (adv.). When this e became silent and was dropped, the adverbial form became identical with the adjective. t for PREPOSITION: " He works/0^ his bread ;" "for us." CONJUNCTION: "He pressed on,/ etc. The indefinite pronouns none, any, all, such, etc., take verbs in the singular or plural, according as unity or plurality of idea is intended. Thus None [=no one] but the brave deserves the fair. None of my friends were at laome=all were not-at-home. All [= every thing] is peaceful and still. All [persons] fear, none [=no persons] aid you, and few [persons] under- stand. II. Subject + verb -f predicate nominative. When the verb to le stands between a subject nominative and a predicate nominative, as in the sentence, " The wages of sin is death," doubt may arise as to which determines the number of the verb, since the order of the sen- tence is sometimes inverted. The principle is, to decide which is the real subject, and make the verb agree with that, construing the other nominative noun as the predicate nominative, even though it holds RULE IT. AGREEMENT OF VERB. 151 the place in the order of words usually held by the subject. Thus in the sentence cited above the natural subject is " death," and the verb is in the singular; "wages 1 ' is the predicate nominative. III. Divided Subjects. When a verb separates its subjects, the verb may agree in number with the first, while it is understood with the rest. Thus The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof. This is in seeming violation of Special Rule I. ; but the idiom of our language allows it. In parsing, supply the verb where it is understood. IV. Poetic License. In poetry there are frequent departures from the principle (see Caution 3) that an ellipsis of a verb must not occur where the verb, if supplied, would not agree with its subject. Thus Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro, And [there were] gathering tears and [there were] tremblings of distress, And [there were] cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness. Byron. In parsing such sentences supply in its correct form the verb un- derstood. Though this construction is permitted by poetic license, it is not allowable in ordinary prose. V. Double Subject. In prose it is improper to use both a noun and its representative personal pronoun as subject of the same verb, unless they are in apposition. But in poetry this irregularity is common. Thus 1. The Count, he was left to the vulture and hound. 2. For the deck, it was their field of fame. EXERCISE 29. In the following sentences correct the violations of Rule II. General Rule. 1. What have become of our friends ? 2. The Normans, under which general term is comprehended the Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes, were accustomed to rapine and pillage. 3. I came to see you because I knew you was my old master. 4. Our cousin's kind and even temper endear her to all. 5. What signifies fair words without good deeds ? 6. Neither of the parties are much better. 7. There was no data given. 152 SYNTAX. Cautions 1-3. 1. The derivation of these words are uncertain. 2. To these belong the power of licensing places for the sale of spirits. 3. Six months' interest are due. 4. The condition of the crops show that the country has suffered much. 5. The trend of the Rocky Mountains are toward the south. 6. Bless them that curses you. 7 It is an ill wind that blow nobody good. 8. The strata that contains coal belong to the tertiary era. 9. In Alaska the winters are long and the cold intense. Special Rules T.-III. 1. The f-agrant woodbine and the sweet-scented myrtle renders the air in this spot truly delicious. 2. My trusty counsellor and friend have warned me to have no dealings with such men. 3. How pale each worshipful and reverend guest Rise from a clergy or a city feast ! 4. Every house-top and every steeple show the flag of the republic. 5. To read and write were once an honorary distinction. 6. Our will, and not our stars, make us what we are. 7. Bread and milk are excellent food for children. 8. A word or an epithet paint a whole scene. 9. Neither the captain nor the sailors was saved. 10. One or both of the boys is in the garden. 11. No voice nor sound but their own echoes were heard in reply. 12. Nor eye nor listening ear an object find. 13. I, whom nor avarice nor pleasure move. 14. He or I is to go. 15. I, or thou, or he, are the author of it. Special Rules IV.-VIII. 1. Not you, but Mary, are the best scholar 2. The club meet on Tuesday. 3. Congress have adjourned. 4. A herd of cattle peacefully grazing afford a pleasing sight. 5. The assembly thus convened were numerous. 6. Mankind was not united by the bonds of civil society. 7. Campbell's Pleasures of Hope were sold for fifty cents. 8. Silver threads among the Gold are a hackneyed song. 9. The rising and the falling inflection is to be carefully distinguished. 10. A Webster's and a Worcester's dictionary was consulted. 11. It is a long road has no turning. 12. Our friend brought two loads to market, and were sold at good price. 13. This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined, and was formerly very prevalent. RULE III. ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE. III. ATTRIBUTIVE RELATION. I, ADJECTIVE AND PAETIOIPLE, Eule III Adjectives and participles modify nouns or pro- nouns, I. The word u modifies " as here used is synonymous with relates, limits, belongs to terms employed by different grammarians to denote that the adjective and the participle are adjunct words. II. Adjectives used as complements of incomplete verbs have a double office that of complements and that of modifiers. EXERCISE 30. In the following sentences apply Eule III.* 1. Outflow Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the thighs Of mighty cherubim. Milton. 2. With a slow and noiseless footstep Comes that messenger divine. Longfellow. 3. The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade For talking age and whispering lovers made. Goldsmith. 4. The younger guest purloined the glittering prize. Parnell. 5. The service past, around the pious man, With steady zeal, each honest rustic ran. Goldsmith. 6. The wretch, concentred all in self, Living, shall forfeit fair renown, And, doubly dying, shall go down To the vile dust, from whence he sprung, Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. Scott. 7. The patient face that once had lain upon the bed was glorified and radi- ant; but his heart found out his sister among all the host. Dickens. 8 First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen, Washington was second to none in the humble and endearing scenes of private life. Henry Lee. * Model : " The adjective flaming modifies the noun swords ; the participle drawn modifies the noun sivords ; the adjective the limits the noun thighs; tlis adjective mighty modifies the noun cherubim, according to Rule III." G2 154: SYNTAX. 9 How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, When fond recollection presents them to view ! Woodworth. 10. This day I was gratified with what I had often desired to witness the condition of the sea in a tempest. I had contemplated the ocean in all its other phases, and they are almost innumerable. At one time it is seen reposing in perfect stillness under the blue sky and bright sun. At another, slightly ruffled, and then its motion causes his rays to tremble and dance in broken fragments of silvery or golden light and the sight is dazzled by following the track from whence his beams are reflected while all besides seems to frown in the darkness of its ripple. Archbishop Hughes. SYNTAX OF RTJL.E III. NOTE. Adjectives in the English language, being destitute of inflections for gender, number, and case, do not admit of those formal concords with the noun which Latin and Greek, German and French adjectives exhibit. For this reason a violation of Rule III. is scarcely possible. Still some adjectives imply the relation of number, and others present peculiarities of construction ; and these properly form the subject of several special rules. Special Rules under Rule III, 1, Pronominal Adjectives, SPECIAL RULE I. Adjectives that imply unity or plurality must agree witli their nouns in number: as, " That sort, those sorts;" " This hand, these hands." I. Indefinite adjectives denoting quantity are used before nouns in the singular ; those of number, if implying more than one, must be used before plurals : thus SINGULAR. PLURAL. much IT any little few less fewer least fewest II. The indefinite adjectives all, some, no, any, other agree with nouns in either number. RULE III. ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 155 SPECIAL RULE II. The adjectives EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER are used with nouns in the singular only: as, "each man;" "every day;" " either side;" "neither bank." Either and neither denote one of two objects only ; when more are referred to, any or any one and none or no one should be used. Thus, " any [or any one] of the three," not " either of the three." "None [or no one] of the four," not "neither of the four." OBS. Either should never be used for both or for each. Such expressions as "On either side is level fen," when the writer means on each side or on both sides, have no justification except that of very loose usage. 2, The Articles, SPECIAL RULE III. When two or more adjectives relate to a noun de- noting one and the same object, the article is used before the first only; but if two or more objects are intended, the article must be repeated. Thus, in the expression, " a tall, old, fat man," reference is made to only one man; but "a tall, an old, and a fat man" denotes three men. Ex. It is difficult in some cases to distinguish between an inter- rogative and exclamatory sentence. Incorrect : two kinds of " sentence " are intended ; hence the article should be used before each noun ; that is, we should say, " between an interrogative and an exclamatory sentence." OBS. Sometimes, however, the article is repeated for the sake of emphasis : as, u He returned a sadder and a wiser man." In such ex- ceptional cases the context will prevent ambiguity. Ex. There is a difference between a liberal and a prodigal hand. This is an example which may be brought under the latter part of Special Rule III. One hand, which is " liberal," is contrasted with another, which is " prodigal ;" hence two objects are thought of, and the article is used with both adjectives. Ex. There is about the whole book a vehement, contentious, re- plying manner. This sentence is correct. It is here not necessary to repeat the a, because it is one manner that is spoken of a manner " vehement," ' " contentious," and " replying." 156 SYNTAX. SPECIAL EULE IV. When two or more nouns describe one person, the article is used before the first only, "A priest and king" implies that both offices are vested in one individual; "a priest and a king" implies that each office is held by a separate person. So, also, when two or more appositives are joined to a noun, the article precedes the first only: thus, "Johnson, the bookseller and stationer "=zone " Johnson," who was both " bookseller and stationer." SPECIAL EULE V. When two nouns used as terms of a comparison refer to the same person or thing, the article is omitted with the latter noun ; but when they refer to different persons or things, the article must be used with each noun, 1. He would make a better statesman than lawyer. 2. He would make a better statesman than a lawyer. In 1, "lawyer" and "statesman" refer to the same persons" He would make a better statesman than [he would make a] law- yer." In 2, " lawyer " and " statesman " refer to different per- sons" He would make a better statesman than a lawyer [would make]." SPECIAL EULE VI. The indefinite article should be repeated before each of several nouns when the same form of it would not agree with all. Thus we can say, " a man, woman, and child ;" but we must not say, " a cow, ox, and pig," because on supplying the expressed article " a," it is not in the form required by " ox." 3, Construction of Comparatives and Superlatives, SPECIAL EULE VII. The comparative degree is used when two ob- jects or classes of objects are compared; the superlative, when more than two are compared: as, "Iron is harder than wood." "Could make the worse appear the better reason." "Oh! bloodiest picture in the book of time." SPECIAL EULE VIII. When the comparative degree is used, the latter term of comparison should always exclude the former ; but when the su- perlative is used, the latter term should always include the former : as. RULE III. ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 157 "Russia is larger than any other country in Europe." "Russia is the largest country [of all countries] in Europe." The following sentences exemplify violations of Special Rule VIII. 1. Bismarck is greater than any German statesman. As Bismarck is a German statesman, the sentence affirms that he is greater than himself. It should read: "Bismarck is greater than any other German statesman" or "than all other German statesmen." The phrase than any other satisfies the rule by excluding Bismarck from the class with which he is compared. We can properly say, " Bismarck is greater than any Chinese statesman" because Bismarck does not belong to the class Chinese statesmen. 2. Shakspeare is the most admired of all the other English poets. In order to satisfy the rule that, when the superlative is used, the latter term of comparison must include the former, the word "other" must be expunged. Thus: "the most admired of all the English poets." SPECIAL RULE IX. Double forms of the same word in the comparative or superlative degree must not be used: thus, "the strictest sect" not " the most strictest sect :" " the worse result " not "the worser result." 4, Adjectives for Adverbs. SPECIAL RULE X. An adjective must not be used where the con- struction requires an adverb, I. The construction requires an adverb when manner is to be ex- pressed. 1. He arose slow from the ground, and resumed his journey. Incorrect : the intent is to denote the manner of rising ; hence the adverb slowly should be employed. 2. It is easier said than done. This should be, " more easily said," etc. II. The caution expressed in Special Rule X. must not be under- stood as applying to an adjective used as the complement of an in- transitive or a passive verb, and modifying the subject : as, " Apples taste sweet." (See Special Rule II., page 177.) 158 SYNTAX. III. An error analogous to that censured in Special Rule X. is ex- emplified in the use of like for the conjunction as: thus Victory must end in possession, like toil in sleep. Gladstone. This should be, " Victory must end in possession, as [does] toil in sleep." NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. I. Not articles. In some cases what appears to be an article is not really such. Thus a in the phrase " twice a week " was originally a weakened form of the preposition on (compare aboard=:6w board). In this construction, the proper parsing is to call " a week " an adverbial phrase. The word the in such constructions as " the more the merrier " is not, strictly speaking, an article. (For its real nature, see page 88.) II. "Many a," etc. The indefinite article usually precedes an adjective relating to a noun ; but the idiom of our language permits a departure from this usage with the adjectives many, what, or such : as Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. What a piece of work is man. Such a Roman. It is proper to parse many a as a complex adjective, used idio- matically. III. "A hundred," etc. The words hundred, thousand, pair, dozen, etc., may be used with the indefinite article, for the reason that these words are originally nouns : thus, " a hundred sheep." This construc- tion is idiomatic : in Anglo-Saxon, hundred, thousand, etc., were followed by a noun in the genitive case, as though we said " a hundred of sheep. 1 ' (It may be noted that we still say, " a pair of stockings," " a score of men," though, also, " a dozen men.") In parsing, it is proper to con- sider " a hundred " as forming a complex adjective. IV. " First two," etc. When two numerals relate to one noun, the ordinal generally precedes the cardinal : as, " the first two chapters of Matthew," " the last three stanzas of the hymn." (It is plain that, strictly speaking, there cannot be two first chapters, or three last RULE ///. ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 159 stanzas.) However, the terms " two first," " three last," and the like, might occur in another construction, and with a different meaning namely, as the first of each of two series, or the last of each of three series, etc. For instance, if there were two classes in a school, the boys at the head of each might be styled the "two first;" or, if there were three classes, the boys at the foot of each might be termed the "three last." V. Double Comparatives, etc, Some of our older writers, when they wished to be emphatic, employed double comparatives or super- latives: thus The unkindest beast more kinder than mankind. Shakspeare. This was the most unkindest cut of all. Ibid. Such constructions were once good English, but are contrary to modern usage.* EXERCISE 31. In the following sentences correct the violations of Rule III. Special Rules I., II. 1. These kind of verbs are more expressive than their radicals. 2. These sort of peaches are very numerous. 3. They could not speak ; and so I left them both, To bear this tidings to the bloody king. 4. Besides, he had not much provisions left for his army. 5. Not less than twenty dictionaries of the English language have been published. 6. Charles formed expensive habits, and by those means became poor. 7. John, James, and Henry are faithful boys, and either lad will carry the message. Spedal Rules III.-TII. 1. The governor and the commander-in-chief [one person] has arrived. 2. The governor and commander-in-chief [two persons] have arrived. 3. The rich and poor have a common interest. 4. The man wore a large, a dark, and a faded cloak. * "And this [i. e., a double superlative] is a certaine kind of English At- ticisjme, or eloquent phrase of speech, imitating the manner of the most an- cientest and finest Grecians, who for more emphasis and vehemencies sake used to speake thus." Ben Jonson. 160 SYNTAX. 5. A red and a white flag was the only one displayed from the tower. 6. A hot and cold spring were found in the same neighborhood. 7. The first and second book are difficult. 8. A man, woman, and infant were riding in the cars. Special Rules TIII.-X. 1. Both of these opinions have the sanction of the highest authority, and it may be well to examine which of them is the wisest. 2. Shakspeare is more admired than any English poet. 3. When reason doubtful, like the Samian letter, points him two ways, the narrowest is the best. 4. Of all other figures of speech, irony should be the most carefully em- ployed. 5. This kind of wit is that which abounds in Cowley, more than in any author that ever wrote. 6. A fondness for show is, of all other follies, the most vain. 7. A more worthier man you cannot find. 8. The poor girl still coughs considerable. 9. Chattel-ton died miserable poor. 10. The French did not feel the war like we did. 2, NOUNS IN THE POSSESSIVE CASE, Rule IV. A noun modifying another noun signifying a dif- ferent thing is in the pOSSeSSive Case: as, "man's life;" "the boy's books." The noun to which the noun in the possessive case stands in the attributive relation may be called the principal term. EXERCISE 32, In the following sentences apply Rule IV.* 1. Now Jove suspends his golden scales in air, Weighs the men's wit against the lady's hair. 2. Little-minded people's thoughts move in such small circles that five minutes' conversation gives you an arc long enough to determine their whole curve. 0. W. Holmes. * Mod el: "The noun men's in the possessive case modifies the noun jvit, according to Rule IV. ; the noun lady's in the possessive case modifies the noun hair, according to Rule IV." RULE IV. NOUNS IN THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 3. I inhaled the violet's breath. Emerson. 4. Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night's Plutonian shore. P)e. 5. The spider's thread is cable to man's tie on earthly bliss. Young. 6. Richer by far is the heart's adoration. Heber. 7. 'Twas made of the white snail's pearly shell. Drake. 8. Quench the timber's falling embers, Quench the red leaves in December's Hoary rime and chilling spray. Whittier. 9. Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's [ends], thy God's, and truth' s. Shakxpeare. 10. O, well for the fisherman's boy, That he shouts with his sister at play. Ten nyson. SYNTAX OF RULE iv. Special Rules under Rule IV. SPECIAL RULE I. The principal term, when sufficiently obvious, is often omitted: as, "Ball and Black's [store];" "the Court of St. James's [palace];" "from Stiles's pocket into Nokes's [pocket]." SPECIAL RULE II. When joint ownership or possession is attributed to two or more persons, the name of only the last mentioned takes the sign of the possessive: as, "Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon." In such cases the nouns may be parsed as co-ordinate terms in the possessive case, but having the possessive sign affixed to the last only. SPECIAL ROLE III. When separate ownership is attributed to two or more persons, the name of each should be in the possessive case : as, 4< Web- ster\i and Worcester's dictionaries." In such cases the principal term after each possessive noun may be supplied in parsing. SPECIAL RULE IV. When ownership is attributed to a single person described by two or more nouns in apposition, the noun immediately pre- ceding the principal term, expressed or understood, alone takes the posses- sive sign: as, "At Smith, the bookseller s [store] ;" "for my servant David's sake." In such instances the two or more nouns are each to be parsed as in the possessive case according to the rule of apposition. (See Rule V.) 1(32 SYNTAX. SPECIAL RULE V. In a complex term the last word takes tlie posses- sive sign: as, "My father-in-law'* house;" "The bard of Lomond's lay;" i 'Henry the Eighth's reign." In parsing, a complex noun is to be taken as a whole. SPECIAL RULE VI. A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case may relate to a gernnd: as, "This will be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently ;" " This will be the effect of his composing frequently." I. While the gerund in its noun-character may thus take a pos- sessive noun or pronoun as an attributive, it may in its verb- character receive a complement or an adjunct. Hence result such constructions as 1. Disease and death were consequences of the marts neglecting treatment. 2. This is the result of his being diligent in his youth. In these forms of expression there is nothing anomalous: the peculiarities of construction result naturally from the nature of the gerund. II. It follows that the general rule is violated when in this con- struction an attributive noun or pronoun is not put in the pos- sessive case : thus, " There is no doubt of the Trill passing the House," should be, " There is no doubt of the bill's passing the House." EXERCISE 33. In the following sentences correct the violations of Rule IV. Special Rules II.-VI. 1. The bridge is opposite Brown's Brothers'. 2. Was Cain's and Abel's father there? 3. We have men and boy's clothing. 4. There is but little difference between the Earth and Venus' s diameter. 5. Nothing shall die of all that is the children's of Israel. 6. Call at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer's. 7. We read of Jack's the Giant-killer wonderful exploits. 8. Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, A Maker's wise and good. 9. We heard of your honor coming to town. 10. Day and night are a consequence of the earth revolving on its axis. RULE V.APPOSITIVES. 163 3, APPOSITIVES, Rule V. A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same case : as 1. Thomson, the poet, was a contemporary of Hume, the historian. 2. Tis I, Hamlet the Dane. I. The case of the principal term depends on its grammatical re- lation in the sentence : this must first be determined by the ap- propriate rule of syntax, before the case of the appositive can be known. II. A phrase or a proposition may be in apposition with a noun : thus 1. O let us still the secret JOY partake To follow virtue e'en for virtue" 1 & sake. Pope. 2. In the serene expression of her face he read the divine BEATITUDE, "Blessed are the pure in heart." Longfellow. EXERCISE 34. In the following sentence apply Rule V.* 1. 'Tis I, Hamlet the Dane. Shakspeare. 2. At midnight, in the forest shades, Bozzaris ranged his Suliote band, True as the steel of their tried blades, Heroes in heart and hand. Halleck. 3. This is my son, mine own Telemachus. Tennyson. 4. There, swinging wide at her moorings, lay The Somerset, British man-of-war A phantom ship. Longfellow. 5. So work the honey-bees, Creatures that by a rule in nature teach The art of order to a peopled kingdom. Shakspeare. 6. That best portion of a good man's life His little, nameless, unremembered acts Of kindness and of love. Wordsworth. 7. It is seldom that the father and the son, he who has borne the weight, and he who has been brought up in the lustre of the diadem, exhibit equal capacity for the administration of affairs. Gibbon. * Model : "The noun Hamlet, explaining the pronoun 7, is in the nomina- tive case; the noun Dane, explaining Hamlet, is in the nominative case, accord- ing to Rale V." IQ4: SYNTAX. NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. I. Each Other. In the sentences, " They loved each other," "They hated one another," the words "each" and "other," and u one " and " another," though reciprocally related, are not in the same construction. The sentences are contracted forms of " They loved, each [loved] other" and " They hated one [hated] another" " Each " is in the nominative case, in apposition to " they," while "other" is in the objective case, governed by the verb " loved." " One " is in appo- sition to " they," and " another " is object of " hated." This construction is an instance of the action of the law of brevity. On the same principle we may explain " They heard each other's voice" =They heard, each (heard) other's voice.* II. Appositiye with (( as." A species of apposition is formed by introducing the attributive noun by as. Thus Cicero as an orator was bold as a soldier, he was timid. That is, Cicero, considered as an orator, etc. This construction is always elliptical ; in parsing, either the ellipsis may be supplied, or it may be stated that the appositive is introduced by as, and that the construction is idiomatic. III. Appositire to a Pronoun. A puzzling instance of apposition is exemplified in the following construction: Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage, The promised father of the future age. It is customary to construe the noun "father" as in the possessive case, in apposition with " his." But it is better to treat " his " as equivalent to of him. "Father" is, then, in the objective case, in apposition with Mm (=the guardian care of him, i\\Q father, etc). The same explanation, taken in connection with what is said in Note II. in regard to the appositive introduced by as, will explain * "Such phrases as to each other, from one another, are corruptions made upon a false analogy, though they are now thoroughly fixed in the language." Mason: English Grammar. The Old-English constructions were each to other, one from another. RULE V.APPOSITIVES. 165 constructions like the following : " The general ' popularity as a com- mander increases daily "=The popularity of the general [objective] as a commander [objective] increases daily. IV. Pronouns used Adjectively. The use of a pronoun as princi- pal term to a noun appositive is to be distinguished from a pronoun used in the manner of an adjective. The former is illustrated by such constructions as the following But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust. This comes under the regular rule of apposition, and differs from the following : 1. And you, ye waters* roll. 2. We poets in our youth begin in gladness. Constructions like these last are usually treated as instances of apposi- tion; but it would perhaps be more logical to consider a pronoun thus employed as used adjectively, just as a noun may be used ad- jectively. Y. Appositive to a Statement. Sometimes the idea expressed by an entire sentence is repeated pleonastically by means of a noun : thus, " He rashly ventured to ascend the mountain without a guide, an act which cost him his life;" that is, Ms rashly venturing, etc., was an act, etc. EXERCISE 35. In the following sentences correct the violations of Eule V. 1. The insult was offered to my friend, he whom I loved as a brother. 2. We kept silent, her and me. % 3. Do you speak so to me, I who have so often befriended you ? 4. The dress was made by Worth, the milliner, ho that we saw in Paris. 5. Resolve me, why the cottager and king, Him whom sea-severed realms obey, and him Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. * Observe that while u ye" is used adjectively, there is a real instance of apposition between "waters" and "you." 166 SYNTAX. IV. COMPLEMENTARY RELATION. 1, COMPLEMENT OF TEANSITIYE YEEBS, Rule VI, The object of a transitive verb is in the objective case. I. The object, or complement (usually called the direct object), of a transitive verb may be : 1. A noun : as, " Love your enemies." 2. A pronoun : as, " Follow me." 3. An infinitive or a phrase : as 1. Learn to labor and to wait (simple infinitives as objects). 2. Now leave complaining, and begin your tea (gerund as object). 3. Ladies, you deserve to have a temple built you (infinitive phrase as object). 4. A proposition : as, " I perceived that we brought good-humor with us." NOTE. A phrase or a clause used as the object of a verb is parsed as in the singular number and objective case. It should be understood that, with a few idiomatic exceptions, Rule VI. can apply only to transitive verbs in the active voice. II. Verbals. The object may be the complement not only of a finite verb, but of its verbals namely, the infinitives and the participles : thus 1. To PUT [inf.] on your harness is different from PUTTING [ger- und] it off. 2. The thief, SEEING [participle] the officer, ran away. HAVING EXPLORED [part.] the islands, Columbus returned to Spain. III. Arrangement. In the regular order the object follows the verb ; thus And each separate dying ember Wrought its ghost upon the floor. Poe. RULE VI. COMPLEMENT OF TRANSITIVE VERBS. 167 But for rhetorical effect the object may precede the verb :* thus Honey from out the gnarled hive I'll bring, And apples wan with sweetness gather thee. Keats. EXERCISE 36. In the following sentences apply Rule Vl.f 1. The Muses haunt clear spring, or shady grove, or sunny hill. 2. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot. Wolfe. 3. When the enamoured sunny light Brightens her that was so bright. Wordsworth. 4. Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. Gray. 5. Beaux banish beaux, and coaches coaches drive. Pope. 6. The gushing flood the tartans dyed. Scott. 7. Me he restored, and him he hanged. Bible. 8. Knowledge in general expands the mind, exalts the faculties, refines the taste of pleasure, and opens innumerable sources of intellectual en- joyment. Robert Hall. 9. For my own part I have ever believed, and do now know, that there are witches. Sir T. Browne. 10. They lost no more time in asking questions. Dickens. 11. They follow an adventurer whom they fear, and obey a power which they hate ; we serve a monarch whom we love a God whom we adore. Sheridan. 12. Let me live a lifej of faith, Let me die thy people's death.J Newton. 13. He gathered new and greater armies from his own land from subju- gated lands. He called forth the young and brave one from every household from the Pyrenees to the Zuyder Zee from Jura to the ocean. He marshalled them into long and majestic columns, and went forth to seize that universal dominion which seemed almost within his grasp. Channing. * It sometimes happens, especially in poetry, that ambiguity is produced by these transpositions. Thus in the well-known line from Gray's Elegy "And all the air a solemn stillness holds" it is impossible to ascertain from the mere form of construction whether the "air" holds the "stillness," or the "stillness" holds the "air." We may, however, infer that " stillness " is the object ; and, in fact, in this inverted order the object generally comes next to the verb. t Model : " The nouns spring, grove, and hill, objects of the transitive verb haunt, are in the objective case, according to Rule VI." J Cognate objectives. 168 SYNTAX. SYNTAX OIT [RULE VI. Violations of Rule VI. I. As regards nouns, Rule VI. cannot be violated, since nouns have no inflection for the objective case. II. As regards pronouns, the rule is seldom violated when the pronoun object immediately follows the verb ; but there is lia- bility to error when the construction is inverted or elliptical : thus 1. They that honor me I will honor. Incorrect : " they" is the object of the verb " will honor," and should therefore be in the objective case" Them that honor," etc. 2. Let the able-bodied fight, and they that are feeble do guard duty at home. Incorrect: "they" is designed as the object of the verb "let" un- derstood, and should therefore be them (or those). Hence Caution. When a pronoun object is at a distance from its gov- erning verb, eare must be taken to use the objective form of the pro- noun. Special Rules under Rule VI. SPECIAL RULE I. Some transitive verbs, as ALLOW, BRING, BUY, etc, may be followed by two objects a direct and an indirect object: thus 1. Send us [indirect] a message [direct]. 2. Tell him [indirect] to write [direct]. I. The principal verbs taking this construction are : allow do make pour send bring draw offer present show buy get order promise sing carry give pass provide tell cost leave pay refuse throw deny lend play sell write II. The indirect (or personal) object always precedes the direct, It is to be parsed as "in the objective case, indirect object of' 1 the verb. RULE VL COMPLEMENT OF TRANSITIVE VERBS. 169 SPECIAL RULE II. The passive forms of the verbs ALLOW, BRING, BUY, etc,, sometimes admit a direct object: thus 1. We were promised an office. 2. He was refused support. NOTE. Verbs in the passive voice almost always require a complement, in the nominative case (see Kule VII.) ; and Special Rule II. is designed to provide for the very peculiar use of an object after certain passive verbs. These verbs (the passives of those enumerated under Special Rule I.), which in the active voice take both a direct (or personal) and an indirect object, change the per- sonal object into the subject in the passive construction, and retain the objec- tive complement. For explanation, see "Idiomatic Forms," page 171. SPECIAL KCLE III. Verbs signifying to MAKE, CREATE, ELECT, AP- POINT, NAME, CALL, and some others of like meaning, take a double object a direct object and an attributive complement in the objective case: tfms 1. The people elected Washington president. 2. His parents named him John. 3. They made Hollo captain. I. In this construction the object made, named, elected, etc., is the direct object. The object denoting what the person was made, named, elected, etc., is sometimes called the factitive object ;* but the term attributive object or complement is preferable. The direct object always precedes the attributive object. NOTE. This construction is often treated as a case of appositional use the attributive object being construed as an appositive. But this is incorrect. The attributive object has a very peculiar connection with the verb ; and, with respect to meaning, it is the action of the verb as modified by the attributive complement that passes over to the direct object. Thus it is the action of making captain that passes over to "Rollo," of naming John that passes over to "him," and of electing president that passes over to "Washington." II. The attributive complement may be an infinitive : as, " They made him (to) labor." III. In the passive construction the direct object becomes the sub- ject, and the attributive object is converted into the predicate nominative (see Rule VII.) . * " Factitive," from Latin facer e,factum, to make ; because the verb to make stands as the type of this class of verbs. H 170 SYNTAX. SPECIAL KULE IV. Some transitive verbs take an adjective comple- ment modifying their object; as 1. Virtue renders life happy. 2. This struck me dumb. NOTE. It is customary to treat such an adjective as "happy" (see sentence 1 above) as a mere modifier (or attributive) of "life," ignoring wholly its use as a complement. In this view it is impossible to discriminate in analysis be- tween " We call the man rich " and " We call the rich man " SPECIAL RULE V. An infinitive, a gerund, or a participle may take an adjective as its complement : thus 1. To be virtuous is to be happy. 2. He deceived people by seeming poor. 3. Feeling cold, he put on his coat. NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. I. **Ask" and ff Teach. " The verbs ask and teach take two comple- ments, both of which are direct objects ; but these complements are of a different nature from the complements of the kind of verbs considered under Special Rule I. (page 168). Verbs of the latter sort, as allow, 'bring, buy, etc., take a direct and an indirect object. But when we say, "The teacher asked John a question," "Murray taught the ~boy gram- mar" "John" and "question," "boy" and "grammar" form each a double objective complement (both being direct objects), apparently as though ask and teach expressed at the same time two distinct meanings. And in Latin the verbs aslc and teach govern two accusa- tives. When the passive construction is used, the noun denoting what is asked or taught remains in the objective case, the direct object of the verb : thus, "John was asked a question ;" "The boy was taught gram- mar" (In Latin, this object retains its accusative form.) The con- struction is idiomatic, and should be treated as an exceptional in- stance of a passive verb having the power of governing a noun in the objective case. RULE VL COMPLEMENT OF TRANSITIVE VERBS. II. Objective after Passive. The use of an objective-case comple- ment after the passive forms of the verbs referred to in Special Rule II. (page 169) may receive some illustration from what has been said re- specting the verbs ask and teach. Take the examples 1. The conqueror offered them [indirect object] their lives [direct object]. 2. The porter refused them [indirect object] admittance [direct object]. Transforming these into the passive construction, we may say 1. Their lives were offered them [indirect object] by the conqueror. 2. Admittance was refused them [indireet object] by the porter. But there is nothing unusual in these forms, for " them" is in both instances an indirect object (dative), which any passive verb may take. But we may also turn the sentences thus 1. They were offered their lives [direct object] by the conqueror. 2. They were refused admittance [direct object] by the porter. The use of a direct object after the passive forms of the verbs ask and teach is a regular, though rare, construction ; but its employment after the verbs here referred to is irregular and idiomatic, and is contrary to the general analogies of language. It is probable that this construction has arisen from the operation of the " Law of Extension [or Confusion] of Construction," that is, by the extension of the construction in ask and teach to verbs of a differ- ent nature. From the fact that we may say " He was taught grammar" (in which "he" is regularly made the subject of the passive, because forming the direct object of the verb in the active voice "taught him grammar"), a transition has insensibly been made to the usage of say- ing, " They were refused admittance," which presents the anomaly of converting an indirect object into a subject.* EXERCISE 37, In the following sentences correct the violations of Kule VL 1. Who did you say you met this morning ? 2. Who should I meet the other day but him. * This construction is by many grammarians pronounced wholly improper and ungrammatical. But the form in question cannot thus be proscribed, for it has the authority of usage, both popular and literary. The office of the grammarian is to explain what is, not to legislate as to what should be. 172 SYNTAX. 3. My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 4. Let you and I advance. 5. We don't care about your praising we poor fellows. 6. He wished to know who he should love. 7. I do not know who to send. 2, COMPLEMENT OP INTEANSITIVE AND PASSIVE VEKBS, Rule VII. A noun or pronoun used as the complement of an intransitive or a passive verb is in the nominative case : thus I am lie ; Washington became president ; Napoleon was elected emperor. I. The complement of an intransitive or a passive verb is gener- ally called the predicate nominative. II. Rule VII. is confined in its application to the limited number of intransitive verbs of incomplete predication, since most intran- sitive verbs take no complement. The principal intransitive verbs of incomplete predication are: ~be, become, appear, seem, stand, walk (and other verbs of position, motion, or condition) ; together with the passive forms of the verbs make, create, elect, appoint, name, call, and others of like meaning. EXERCISE 38. In the following sentences apply Rule VII.* 1. Tell me not in mournful numbers Life is but an empty dream. Longfellow. 2. The grave is not its goal. Ibid. 3. It is I be not afraid. Bible. 4. Breathes there a man with soul so dead, Who never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native land ? Scott. 5. The proper study of mankind is man. Pope. 6. And the earth was all rest, and the air was all love. Shelley, 7. The better part of valor is discretion. Shakspeare. * Model: "The noun dream used as the complement of the intransitive verb is, is in the nominative case, according to Rule VII." RULE VIL COMPLEMENT OF INTRANSITIVE VERB& 173 8. The other shape If shape it might be called that shape had none Distinguishable in member, joint, or limb ; Or substance might be called that shadow seem'd, For each seem'd either : black it stood as night. Milton. SYNTAX OIT RUJ^E "VII. Special Rules under Eule VIL SPECIAL EULE I. The infinitives and the participles of intransitive or passive verbs may take as complement a noun or pronoun explan- atory of, and in the same case with, a noun or pronoun which precedes them, 1. It was thought to be he. " He " is used as the complement of " to be," and is in the nomina- tive case, because " it " is in the nominative case. 2. I believed him to be a scholar. " Scholar " is used as the complement of the verb " to be," and is in the objective case, because " him " is in the objective case, object of " believed." 3. I cannot help being an admirer of beauty. "Admirer" is explanatory of "I," and hence is in the nominative case. SPECIAL RULE II. An intransitive or a passive verb may take as complement a predicate adjective modifying the subject: as The fields are green. The nation became powerful. Some men are called liappy. Violations of Rule VII. Case 1. In the use of the pronoun who. The pronoun who is placed before the verb to le, representing a complement whose natural position would be after the verb: thus, "I know who you are" ("I know you are John"). This peculiarity of position greatly increases the liability to a viola- tion of Rule VII. : thus : 174 SYNTAX. Whom do men say that I am ? Substituting another pronoun that would answer to the pronoun " whom," we have, Do men say that I am he f The construction here plainly requires the predicate nominative: Hence Caution 1. In the employment of the relative and interrogative pronoun who as predicate nominative, care must be taken that the pronoun is in the nominative form. Case 2. In the use of pronoun complements with the verbals of intransitive verbs : thus Who do you suppose it to be ? Incorrect : " who 7 ' is designed as complement of " to be," indicating the same thing as " it." But " it " is in the objective case, as object of 44 suppose ;" so that " who" should be whom, to agree in case with " it." Hence It being her, there was nothing more to be said. Incorrect: the participle being is preceded by "it," in the nomina- tive case so that " her" should be she. Hence Caution 2. In the use of a pronoun as complement an intransi- tive verbal must agree in case with the noun or pronoun preceding the verbal. EXERCISE 39. In the following sentences correct the violations of Rule VII. 1. I w^juld act the same part if I were him. 2. They believed it to be I. 3. Whom do you think it is ? 4. Who do you suppose it to be ? 5. It is them, you said, deserve most blame. 6. I little thought it had been him. 7. Can you tell whom that man is ? 8. It might have been him, but there is no proof of it. 9. Let him be whom he might be. 10. Those are the persons who he thought true to his interests. RULE VIII.- ADVERBIAL RELATION. 175 V. ADVERBIAL RELATION. Rule VIIL An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. I. The responsives yes and no are used independently : as, " Is he at home ?" "Yes " (=He is at home). II. Modal adverbs are often used to modify an entire proposition : as, " Truly, the world does move." EXERCISE 40, In the following sentences apply Rule VIII.* 1. The very fairest flowers usually wither the most quickly. 2. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. Wolfe. 3. And now a bubble bursts, and now a world. Pope. 4. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn. Gray. 5. Ill blows the wind that profits noloo&y.Shakspeare. 6. Freely we serve because we freely love. Milton. 7. When here, but three days since I came, Bewildered in pursuit of game, All seemed as peaceful and as still As the mist slumbering on yon hill. APPLIED SYNTAX OF 1 RULE Special Rules under Rule VIIL SPECIAL RULE I. Adverbs must be placed in the position that will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable, Adverbs are for the most part placed before adjectives, after a verb in the simple form, and after the first auxiliary in the compound form. This rule (which applies to adverbial phrases as well as to simple adverbs) is a very general principle, to which there are many exceptions. NOTE. The proper placing of adverbs is a matter of nice taste and of keen judgment. The art will best be learned, not by studying rules that are subject to numberless exceptions, but by dealing with actual examples. * Model : "The adverb very modifies the adjective fairest; the adverbs usually and most quickly modify the verb wither, according to Kule VIII. 1 * 176 SYNTAX. 1. We cannot deprive them of merit wholly. The adverb "wholly" is inelegantly placed. It is meant to relate to the verb " deprive," and the intervention of the words " them of merit " between the adverb and the verb is confusing. It should be, 44 We cannot wholly deprive them of merit." 2. I hope not much to tire those I shall not happen to please. Doctor Johnson. Doctor Johnson did not mean to say that he did not much hope to tire, but that he hoped not to tire much. The sentence should be turned in this manner : " I hope I shall not much tire those whom I shall [or may] not happen to please." 3. This mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave style. Murray^s Grammar. Better thus : " This mode of expression suits [a] familiar rather than [a] grave style." 4. A master-mind was equally wanting in the cabinet and in the field. This should be, " Was wanting equally in the cabinet," etc. In this example, as in No. 3, the adverb has a mixed reference. "Equally" modifies "wanting," but it has reference also to the phrase "in the cabinet and in the field." The principle in such cases is, that the ad- verb should be placed between the two words or expressions to which it has reference. 5. I have been disappointed greatly at your conduct. The adverb greatly is not correctly placed. The sentence should read thus : " I have been greatly disappointed," etc. The principle in such cases is, that in compound tenses adverbs should be inserted be- tween the auxiliary and the participle. 6. He used to often come. I wished to really know. With the simple infinitive, the adverb must never separate the sign to from the verb ; it must either precede or it must follow the whole infinitive form. Thus, " He used often to come," or " to come often.' 1 '' " I wished really to know," or " to know really." With the compound infinitive the same rule applies as in the compound tenses. We say, " It is believed to have often happened ;" " He is thought to be well informed on that subject." RULE VIII. ADVERBIAL RELATION. 177 Only. The most troublesome of English adverbs is " only. 1 '* Ac- cording as this word is placed in a sentence, it may express several very different meanings. 1. u Only he mourned for his brother." "Only" here expresses an antithet- ical relation equivalent to but. He was generally a cold-hearted man, only (but, as ail exception to his general character) he mourned for his brother. 2. "He-only [alone] mourned for his brother." No one else mourned for him. 3. " He o?ify-mourned for his brother." He did nothing else. 4. " He mourned only for his brother." And for no other reason. 5. " He mourned for his only brother." His sole brother ; only, an adjective. 6. "He mourned for his brother only." And for no one else ("only"^ alone). The following are instances of the faulty placing of this adverb : 1. A term which only implies the idea of persons. The force of exclusion possessed by "only" is meant to apply not to the word "implies," but to the word "persons." It should be, " which implies the idea of persons only." 2. I can only regard them as Scotticisms. The force of exclusion in " only " is meant to apply not to the verb " regard," but to the noun " Scotticisms." The sentence should be, " I can regard them only as Scotticisms." 3. When the article stands only before the first of two or more connected nouns. This should be, " When the article stands before only the first," etc. SPECIAL KULE II. An adverb should not be misused for a predicate adjective : thus 1. The rose smells sweet not sweetly. 2. Gutturals sound harsh not harshly. 3. Mary looks cold not coldly. We say, "Mary looks cold" [=she is cold in look or appearance], because we do not wish to mark the manner of looking, but to denote a quality of Mary. If we change the intransitive into the transitive con- struction by the addition of a preposition, and say, " Mary looks on John * "A blunder of which the instances are innumerable is the misplacing of the word ' only.' Indeed, this is so common, so absolutely universal, one may almost say that 'only' cannot be found in its proper place in any book within the whole range of English literature." Gould's Good English, p. 100. 112 178 -SYNTAX. coldly" the use of the adverb is correct, because in this instance we wish to denote the manner of her looking on, and not a quality of Mary. SPECIAL RULE III. Two negatives should never be used to express a negation, 1. I have not done nothing. This means I have done something. If a negation is intended, say, u I have done nothing" or, " I have not done anything" 2. He has eaten no bread nor drunk no water these two days. The negative in nor (=not or), together with the w T ord no before water, makes a double negative. Correct thus: "He has eaten no bread and he has drunk no water;" or, "He has neither eaten any bread nor has he drunk any water," etc. NOTE. Double negatives are elegantly used to express an affirmative in an indirect way. In plaee of saying, "I am somewhat acquainted with his virtues," the sentence might be turned thus: "I am not un- acquainted with his virtues." SPECIAL ROLE IV. A noun denoting measure of TIME, DISTANCE, VALUE, etc,, may be used as an objective adverbial without a preposi- tion: thus 1. The man is seventy years old. 2. Our school is three miles from the church. 3. You are paid twenty dollars a week. EXERCISE 41. In the following sentences correct the errors in the use of adverbs. 1. We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 2. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. 3. The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 4. The colon may be properly applied in the following case. 5. By greatness I not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of the whole view. 6. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature, but for his moral wisdom. 7. The apple tastes sweetly. 8. The dog smells disagreeably. 9. Velvet feels smoothly. 10. I have not had no dinner. 11. I will not take that course by no means. 12. He spoke the piece clear and distinct. RULE IX. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 179 VI. REPRESENTATIVE RELATION. PKONOOT AND ANTECEDENT, Rule IX. A pronoun agrees in person, gender, and number with its antecedent or the word that it represents: thus To Mm who in the love of nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language. I. Relatives agree with their antecedents; personal and other pro- nouns, with the word (noun or its equivalent) represented. II. Pronouns agree in person, gender, and number with their ante- cedents or represented words ; but the case of a pronoun is deter- mined by its construction in the sentence. Hence it usually takes two rules to parse a pronoun Rule IX. for the concord of person, gender, and number, and the appropriate rule of syn- tax for its case. EXERCISE 42. In the following sentences apply Rule IX.* 1. Fools who came to scoff remained to pray. Goldsmith. 2. This petulance ruined Essex, who had to deal with a spirit naturally as proud as his own. Macaulay. 8. Shall he alone whom rational we call. Be pleased with nothing, if not blessed with all? Jbpe. 4. A land of slaves shall ne'er be mine. Byron. 5. Some natural tears they dropped, but wiped them soon. Milton. 6. They [the Indians] are shrinking before the mighty tide which is press- ing them away ; they must soon hear the roar of the last wave, which will settle over them forever. Sprague. 7. Cold is thy brow, my son ! and I am chill, As to my bosom I have tried to press thee. Willis. * Mode! : "The relative pronoun who is of the third person, plural number, and common gender, to agree with its antecedent fools, according to Rule IX. It is in the nominative case according to Rule I." 180 SYNTAX. 8. Woodman, spare that tree; Touch Dot a single bough ; In youth it sheltered me, And I'll protect it now. 'Twas my forefather's hand That placed it near his cot ; Then, woodman, let it stand; Thy axe shall harm it not. Morris. SYNTAX OIT RULE IX. Special Rules under Rule IX. SPECIAL RULE I. A pronoun in the singular is used to represent 1. Two or more words in the singular number connected by or or nor. 2. A collective noun denoting unity of idea. 3. The words each, every, either, neither, one, used either with or without a noun or nouns, however connected. I. Correct Constructions. The following are instances of correct constructions under Special Rule I. : 1. But love or friendship, with its pleasures and embarrassments, was insufficient to occupy Swift's active mind. 2. The army dragged itself along through the mud. f Each in his narrow cell forever laid. Every season has its peculiar power of striking the mind. 3. -j Has either girl finished her lesson ? Neither of these classifications is in itself erroneous. One is seldom at a loss what to do with his money. II. Incorrect Constructions. The following are instances of viola- tions of Special Rule I. : 1. "When he shoots a partridge, a woodcock, or a pheasant, he gives them away. 2. Society is not always answerable for the conduct of their members. ( Each was the centre of their own fair world. I Every plant and every flower proclaims their Maker's praise. 3. < Never was either to see their native land again. Neither boy has learned their lesson. [ He cannot see one in prosperity without envying them. RULE IX. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 181 SPECIAL RULE II. A pronoun in the plural number is used to repre- sent 1. Two or more words in the singular number connected by and, and denoting plurality of idea. 2. A collective noun denoting plurality of idea. I. Correct Constructions. f he following are instances of correct constructions under Special Rule II. : 1. Both Cato and Cicero loved their country. 2. The clergy began to withdraw themselves. II. Incorrect Constructions, The following are instances of viola- tions of Special Rule II. : 1. Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience and freedom of opinion, if he does not pervert it to the injury of others. 2. The people were astonished at its [the people's] success. SPECIAL RULE III. The relatives WHO and WHICH are generally used to introduce explanatory clauses ; THAT is used only in introducing re- strictive clauses, I. A relative is explanatory when it continues the idea expressed by the antecedent, adding another thought, or w r hen it is paren- thetical : thus 1. He gave me a letter, which he requested me to read. 2. Words, which are signs of ideas, may be divided into eight parts of speech. In their explanatory use, who and which introduce an additional proposition, and are equivalent to and he, and she, and it, and this, and they (or these}, etc. Thus sentence 1 above is equivalent to " He gave me a letter, and he requested me to read it." Sen- tence 2 is equivalent to " Words, and these are the signs of ideas, may," etc. II. A relative pronoun is restrictive when, like an adjective, it limits the idea denoted by the antecedent : thus 1. The army which conquered at Waterloo was commanded by Wel- lington (="The conquering army at Waterloo," etc.). 2. The evil that men do lives after them (="The evil done by men," etc.). III. It is stated in Special Rule III. that the relative that is used restrictively only, and that who and which are generally used in explanatory clauses. A rigid rule confining the relatives who 182 SYNTAX. and which to this explanatory use has sometimes been laid down.* But it does not seem possible to draw the line thus precisely, for it frequently happens that who or which is rightly used to introduce a restrictive clause. It may. however, be stated as a general directive principle that who and which are to be used in introducing explanatory clauses, and clauses not marlcedly restrictive, but that that is to be used in introducing a clause of emphatic restriction. In particular, that is to be used in preference to who or ichich in the following instances : 1. After an adjective in the superlative degree: as, "This is the lest that I have seen." 2. After interrogative pronouns, and demonstrative and indefinite adjectives or pronouns : as, " Who that has common-sense can say so ?" " All that he knows." " Some people that were there." "Any man that says so." " The same that I bought." 3. After the verb to le used impersonally : as, " It icas my father that said so." 4. After a joint reference to persons and things: as, "The lady and the lapdog that we saw." 5. After an antecedent consisting of a noun used in an unlimited sense : as, " Thoughts that breathe, and words that burn." SPECIAL RULE IV. In the position of singular pronouns of different persons, the second precedes the others, and the third precedes the first, Of the plural pronouns, WE has the first place, YOU the second, and THEY the third: thus 1 . You and he will go. 2. He and / will go. 1 3. We and they start to-morrow. The reason of the difference in the position of the singular and of the plural pronouns is this: In the singular number, the speaker (/) .puts himself after the person spoken to and the person spoken of. as a matter of politeness. But in the plural number, for the same reason, he puts those who are most intimately associated with him in the first place (unavoidably including himself and making "we "), then the persons spoken to, and then those spoken of. * Especially by Bain (English Grammar, page 23). RULE IX.-PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 183 SPECIAL RULE V. A pronoun representing words of different persons should agree with the first person rather than with the second, and with the second rather than with the third : thus 1. John and you and I will do our duty. 2. You and Mary may do the work between you. Violations of Rule IX. Case 1. When there is obscurity in the reference of a pronoun to its antecedent or represented word : thus He [Philip] wrote to that distinguished philosopher [Aristotle] in terms the most polite and flattering, begging of him [Aris- totle] to undertake his [Alexander's] education, and to bestow upon him [Alexander] those useful lessons which 7m [Philip's] numerous avocations would not allow him [Philip] to bestow. Goldsmith. In tliis sentence it is very difficult to determine what is the noun represented by each pronoun, and this makes the entire proposition ambiguous. Hence Caution 1. There should be no obscurity in the reference of a pronoun to its antecedent or represented word.* Case 2. In the use of a relative without a proper antecedent : thus Be diligent ; without which you can never succeed. In this sentence the only antecedent that the relative "which" can refer to is the adjective " diligent ;" but from its very nature a relative can represent only a noun, or some equivalent of a noun. The method of dealing with this kind of sentence is to use, in place of the relative, an abstract noun expressing the quality implied in the * It often happens that, in order to remove the ambiguity occasioned by pronouns of dubious reference, the only method of correction is to repeat the noun, or some expression equivalent to the noun to be represented. Thus the sentence given above may be corrected thus : " Philip wrote to Aristotle in terms the most polite and flattering, begging of that distinguished philosopher to undertake the education of Alexander, and to bestow upon him those useful lessons that his own numerous avocations would not allow him to bestow." 184 SYNTAX. adjective. Tims, "Be diligent; for without diligence you cannot suc- ceed." Hence Caution 2. JEvery relative pronoun should have for its ante- cedent a noun or its equivalent. Case 3. In the improper ellipsis of a relative : thus He is still in the situation you saw him. The relative pronoun which, connected by in, is here necessary in order to join the clause "you saw him" with the first statement. Thus, " He is still in the situation in which you saw him." Without this the parts of the sentence lack proper cohesion. Hence Caution 3. The relative, and the preposition governing it, should not be omitted when they are necessary to give connection to the sen- tence. NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. I. Problem of Gender. It is customary to use the masculine pro- noun of the third person singular when reference is made to a word, of indeterminate gender : thus, " Let every one attend to his own bus- iness." " A parent should love his child." A difficulty arises when we wish to represent two singular nouns of different genders taken separately : as If an ox gore a man or a woman so that . . . die. To use the plural pronoun, " they die," violates Special Rule I. ; and as in English there is no third personal pronoun singular of common gender, it becomes necessary in such cases to make a clumsy repetition of pronouns of corresponding genders : thus, " If an ox gore a man or a woman so that he or she die." Most writers prefer to use the plural pronoun, disregarding the principle in Special Rule I., rather than adopt this formal iteration.* * Cobbett (English Grammar} insists strongly on the repetition of the pro- noun in different genders, and holds that, however disagreeable repetition may be, it is better than obscurity or inaccuracy. This point is touched in the parody on Cobbett's style in the Brothers Smith's Rejected Addresses: "I take it for granted that every intelligent man, woman, and child to whom I address my- self has stood severally and respectively in Little Russell Street, and cast their, his, her, and its eyes on the outside of this building before they paid their money to view the inside." RULE IX. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 185 II. Uses of "which." The relative which may have a proposition for its antecedent : thus, " Caesar crossed the Rubicon, lohich was in ef- fect a declaration of war." Here " which" has for antecedent, not the noun " Rubicon," but the entire proposition " Caesar crossed the Rubi- con." It is also to be noted that, when the antecedent is a collective noun expressing unity of idea, even though it implies persons, the relative which, and not who, is generally used. Thus, " The family which they considered as usurpers." A proper name taken merely as a name, or an appellative taken in any sense not strictly personal, is represented by which, and not by who : as, "Herod which is but another name for cruelty." III. ff Whose." By some the rule has been laid down that whose should be employed to represent only masculine or feminine nouns; but there is no justification of this, either in etymology or in the best modern usage. In Anglo-Saxon the genitive hwces was em- ployed for the neuter as well as for the masculine and feminine. In the poets we constantly find whose referring to neuter nouns : thus 1. That undiscovered country From whose bourn no traveller returns. Shalc^eare. 2. The poor banished insects ivhose intent, Though they did ill, was innocent. Shelley. IV. Relatives with Prepositions. The relative that cannot be pre- ceded by its governing preposition; the preposition must be placed at the end of the clause : as, " The steamboat that I went up the river in was sunk." The prepositions governing whom and which may be placed at the end of the clause, but modern usage prefers placing them immediate- ly before the relatives. Thus it is deemed more elegant to say, " The steamer in which I went up the river," than " The steamer which I went up the river in." In many cases a much more vigorous and effective statement is made by introducing a clause by that, and following it by its governing preposition, than by introducing it by which or whom, preceded by its governing preposition. Thus, "The musquito is good for nothing that I know of" is much less pompous than " The musquito is good for nothing of which I know." 186 SYNTAX. V. An exception to the principle stated in Caution 2 is found in the following idiomatic construction : And do yon now strew flowers in Jiis way, That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood? tihakspeare. Here " that " has for its antecedent the possessive pronoun " his ;" but the objection that "his" is a mere adjunct may be met by the state- ment that "his" is here equivalent to of Mm, and that him, implied in his, is the logical antecedent of the relative "that." VI. As and But. As is often used as a substitute for a relative pro- noun, especially after same and such : thus 1. Art thou afeard To be the same in thine own act and valor As thou art in desire ? 2. Tears such as angels weep burst forth. But is used as a relative when it follows a negative. Its force is then equivalent to who + not, or which -f- not : thus There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, But has [= which has not] one vacant chair EXERCISE 43, In the following sentences correct the violations of Rule IX. 1. A civilized people has no right to violate their solemn obligations. 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves. 3. We see the beautiful variety of colors in the rainbow, and are led to consider the cause of it. 4. At home I studied geometry, that I found useful afterwards. 5. A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a book. 6. This is the friend which I love. 7. Man is not such a machine as a watch or a clock, which move merely as they are moved. 8. Had the doctor been contented to take my dining-tables, as anybody in their senses would have done. 9. Not on outward charms should man or woman build their pretensions to please. 10. Each contributed what they could. 11. Those that have the Fourth Reader will bring them with them. 12. An invitation was sent to me and George. RULE X.TI1E PREPOSITION AND ITS OBJECT. 187 VII. CONNECTIVE RELATION. 1, THE PREPOSITION AND ITS OBJECT, Rule X, 1. A preposition joins a noun or pronoun to some other word 2. A noun or pronoun depending on a preposition is in the objective case. EXERCISE 44, In the following sentences apply Kule X.* 1. To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language. Bryant. 2. The eulogium pronounced on the character of the State of South Carolina, by the honorable gentleman, for her Revolutionary and other merits, meets my hearty concurrence. Daniel Webster. 8. Into the jaws of death, into the mouth of hell Rode the Three Hundred. Tennyson. 4. At midnight, in his guarded tent, The Turk was dreaming of the hour "When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, Should tremble at his power. Halleck. 5. But now no sound of laughter was heard amongst the foes, A wild and wrathful clamor from all the vanguard rose. Macaulay. 6. Run to your houses, fall upon your knees, Pray to the gods to intermit the plague That needs must light on this ingratitude. Shakspeare. 7. The trees are now in their fullest foliage and brightest verdure; the woods are gay with the clustered flowers of the laurel; the air is per- fumed by the sweetbrier and the wild rose ; the meadows are enamelled with clover blossoms ; while the young apple, the peach, and the plum begin to swell, and the cherry to glow among the green leaves. Wash- ington Irving. * Model : "The preposition to joins the pronoun him to the verb speaks; him is in the objective case, according to Rule X." 188 SYNTAX. SYNTAX OF RULE X. Violations under Rule X. Case 1. When the preposition is remote from the pronoun ob- ject : as Who did you get that bookfromf This sentence exemplifies a common colloquial arrangement of words; and in this type of sentence the remoteness of the object from its governing preposition renders the liability to error in the case-form very great. Hence Caution 1. When a governing preposition is remote from its pronoun object, care must be taken that the pronoun has the objective form. Case 2. When in two or more pronoun objects there is an ellip- sis of a governing preposition : as I lent the book to some one, I know not who. In this sentence there is an ellipsis of the preposition to before who; but to who is a violation of Rule X. It should be : "I know not whom," or " I know not to whom" Hence Caution 2. When there occurs an ellipsis of a governing prep- osition, care should be taken that the pronoun object has the objective form. NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. I. Between and Among. Beticeen literally signifies ly twain, that is, by two's. Hence it cannot apply to more than two. We may say, " Mother divided the apple between sister and me" but not " between John, James, and Martha" The preposition among or amongst is used to denote distribution applied to more than two : as, " The booty was divided among the forty thieves." II. Appropriate Prepositions. There are many words that can be followed by but one preposition; there are other words that admit different prepositions, the sense greatly varying with each. Care RULE XL THE CONJUNCTION. 189 should be taken to select the preposition fitted to denote the precise relation intended to be denoted. (For this purpose reference should, in cases of doubt, be made to the dictionary.) III. Suppression of Object. The object of a preposition is some- times suppressed : as, " We found the man [that] we were looking for." IV. But. But used in such a construction as "all but him" is often wrongly taken for a conjunction. The words differ in origin. But is an old preposition meaning literally on the outside of, and hence without or except. Phrases like " all or none but he" are ungrammatical. But may be followed by the infinitive without to : as, " He does nothing ~but [to] sleep." EXERCISE 45. Ill the following sentences correct the violations of Eule X. 1. Who did you vote for ? 2. There is no one at home now besides mother, uncle, and I. 3. There were no marks to show who the sheep belonged to. 4. Let that remain a secret between you and I. 5. I bestow my favors on whoever I will. 6. Who you spend your evenings with is well known. 7. So you must ride On horseback after we. 8. The boy stood on the burning deck W'hence all but he had fled. 9. The money is to be divided between the three brothers. 10. No one but he should be about the king. 2, THE CONJUNCTION, Rule XL Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or proposi- tions: as 1. Oxygen AND hydrogen are called gases. 2. He strove with all his powers AND to a noble end. 3. [The sun shines] BECAUSE [the sky is clear]. 190 SYNTAX. To the rule that conjunctions have a connective office there appear to be two exceptions : 1. The conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a clause that is the subject of the principal statement : as, " That you have wronged me doth appear in this." But this is merely a case of ellipsis and inversion, the construction being equiva- lent to, " It doth appear in this that you have wronged me.' 1 2. In the construction with correlative conjunctions, the antecedent or introductory conjunction can scarcely be said to connect, the connective force belonging to the subsequent conjunction. In parsing, it is proper to call the first of a pair of corresponding conjunctions an introductory correlative conjunction. EXERCISE 46. In the following sentences apply Eule XI. 1. Lightly and brightly breaks away The morning from her mantle gray. Byron. 2. Right sharp and quick the bells all night Rang out from Bristol town. Macaulay. 3. Men must work and women must weep, Though storms be hidden and waters d.eep.Kingsley. 4. A wise man will make haste to forgive, because he knows the true value of time, and will not suffer it to pass away in unnecessary pain. John- son. 5. These wave their town flag in the arched gateway ; and stand, rolling their drum ; but to no purpose. Carlyle. 6. For none made sweeter melody Than did the poor blind boy. Wordsworth. 7. Whether the thing was green or blue. Colman. 8. No leave ask'st thou of either wind or tide. Joanna Baillie. 9. Whether he was combined With those of Norway ; or did line the rebel With hidden help and vantage ; or that with both He labor'd in his country's wrack, I know not. Shakspeare. 10. This, I think, I may at least say, that we should have a great many fewer disputes in the world, if words were taken for what they are, the csigus of our ideas only, and not for things themselves. Locke. RULE XI. THE CONJUNCTION. SYNTAX OIF ItTJLE XI. Special Rules under Rule XL SPECIAL RULE I. Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions ; and in a pair of correlative conjunctions tlie antecedent and subsequent should correspond, Though requires yet : as Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. TVhether requires or : as Whether the thing was green or blue. Either requires or ; as None of them either returned his gaze or seemed to notice it. Neither requires nor : as Neither in France nor in Spain does this custom exist. NOTE. Either or and neither wor, strictly speaking, express an alterna- tive, or choice between two; and in modern times exact writers are careful not to employ these pairs of correlatives to unite more thau two terms. Both requires and : as Power to judge loth quick and dead. As as is used in affirmative comparison : as Mine is as good as yours. So as is used in negative comparison : as But his is not so good as either ; or to express a restrictive comparison : as Be so good as to read this letter. SPECIAL EULE II. When two terms, the one requiring THAN and the other AS, are connected, the terms should not be joined in such a way as to represent the double relation by only one of these conjunctions: thus 1. He was more beloved but not so much admired as Cyntliio. In this sentence the two terms "more beloved" and "so much ad- mired" are connected, and the double correlation of terms is repre- sented by the conjunction as. But a comparative, as "more beloved," requires to be followed by than (for we cannot say " more beloved as 192 SYNTAX, Cynthio"), and the construction in such cases must be changed so as to introduce the appropriate conjunction. Thus He was more beloved than Cynthio, but not eo much admired. 2. I would do as much or more work than John. Incorrect : the conjunction than is made to represent the correlative both of " as much " and of " more ;" but " as much " requires to be followed by the conjunction as. Correct as follows : I would do as much work as John, or more [than he]. SPECIAL EULE III. Care should be taken to employ a conjunction fitted to express the connection intended, I. That should be used in place of lest, but, l)ut what, l)ut that, after expressions implying doubt, fear, or denial: as I do not doubt that [not but that or but what] he is honest. II. After else, other, rather, and all comparatives, the latter term of comparison should be introduced by than, not by but, besides, or except: as He no sooner retires but [should be than] his heart burns with de- votion. III. Than is often improperly used for a preposition : as 1. That is a very different statement than what [should be from what] you made yesterday. 2. I should prefer being right than being President [should be to being]. NOTES ON PECULIAR AND IDIOMATIC FORMS. I. Rhetoric of Conjunctions. The omission of the conjunction fre- quently imparts energy to the narrative : thus Through many a dark and dreary vale They passed, and many a region dolorous ; O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, .Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death A universe of death. Milton. On the other hand, the rhetorical repetition of the conjunction serves to emphasize details : thus Seasons return; but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or flock, or herds, or human face divine. Milton. RULE XLTHE CONJUNCTION. 193 And and is often used in poetry for loth and, or or for cither or, and nor nor for neither nor : thus 1. And trump and timbrel answered them. Scott. 2. I whom nor avarice nor pleasures move. Walsh. II. Than "than whom." The case of a noun or pronoun follow- ing than depends on the construction of the subsequent clause (which, however, is generally elliptical) : thus 1. I esteem you more than they [esteem you]. 2. I esteem you more than them [=than I esteem them]. A peculiar construction, than whom, is exemplified in the following : 1. Beelzebub, than whom, Satan except, none higher sat. Milton. 2. Pope, than whom few men had more vanity. Johnson. If we substitute the personal pronoun, we shall see that the nomina- tive case is required. Thus: "None sat higher than he;" "had more vanity than Tie." This construction must therefore be regarded as anomalous ; but it has been used by so many reputable authors that we can scarcely refuse to accept it. It is probably the result of con- founding the English idiom with the Latin comparative followed by the ablative quo. " In Latin quo means than who, and than is expressed by the ablative. Classical scholars writing in English have supplied than, and yet, with the Latin syntax in their minds, have retained the oblique (objective) case."* EXERCISE 47. In the following sentences correct the violations of Rule XI. 1. Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 2. He is more bold but not so wise as his companion. 3. Will it be urged that the four Gospels are as old or even older than tradition ? 4. As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 5. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, as knowledge. * Rushton, Rules and Cautions, p. 104. Dr. Priestley seems to have had a no- tion that than is in such cases a preposition, and Mr. Abbott (English Grammar, p. 210) says it was perhaps regarded as a quasi-preposition. But this is no help in the explanation of the construction, which, indeed, is idiomatic. i SYNTAX. 6. These rules should be kept in mind as aids either for speaking, compos- ing, or parsing correctly. 7. No one gave his opinion so modestly as he. 8. I do not deny but he has merit. 9. We expected something more besides this. 10. Was the singing any different to-night than usual ? VIII. ABSOLUTE AND INDEPENDENT CON- STRUCTIONS. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE-INDEPENDENT-INTEEJEOTION, Rule XIL i. A noun or pronoun whose case depends on no other word is put in the nominative absolute. 2. The nominative independent and the interjection have no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence. I. Absolute Construction. In the absolute construction the noun or pronoun is always joined with a participle, the two forming a phrase : thus 1. Spring returning, the swallows reappear. 2. They being unprepared^ we began the attack. This construction is called absolute, because the noun or pronoun is loosed or absolved from grammatical dependence on any other words in the sentence. The absolute construction in Anglo-Saxon was the dative,* and we find this construction in authors as late as Milton : thus And him destroyed For whom all this was made, all this will soon "Follow. Paradise Lost. " Him " is here not an objective, but a real dative. The loss of case- inflections has led to the confounding of the cases, and modern usage requires the nominative case in this construction. * In Latin the ablative, in Greek the genitive. RULE XIL NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE, ETC. 1Q5 EXERCISE 48. In the following sentences apply Rule XII. 1. The president having given his assent, the bill became a law. 2. Those barbarous ages past, succeeded next the birthday of invention. 3. Then shall I be no more ; And Adam, wedded to another Eve, Shall live with her enjoying; I [being] extinct. 4. Success being now hopeless, preparations were made for retreat. 5. Thou looking on, Shamed to be overcome or overreached Would utmost vigor raise. II. Independent Construction. Under the independent construc- tion occur the following cases : 1. When, by direct address, a noun is put in the second person, and set off from the verb by a comma : as fforatius, saith the consul, As thou sayest, so let it be. 2. When, ly pleonasm, it is introduced abruptly for emphasis: as The boy, oh ! where was he ? 3. When, ty exclamation (one of the figures of rhetoric), a word is employed in the manner of an interjection : as Oh \ deep enchanting prelude to repose ! EXERCISE 49. In the following sentences apply Kule XII. 1. Awake, my St. John, leave all meaner things. Pope. 2. O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God. - Zible. 3. A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse \-Shakspeare. 4. Plato, thou reasonest wlLAddison. 5. O thou that with surpassing glory crowned, Look'st from thy sole dominion, like the God Of this new world. O sun ! to tell thee how I hate thy beams. Milton. 6. The gallant king, he skirted still The margin of that mighty hill. Scott. 106 SYNTAX. The Interjection. The interjection is to be parsed as "having no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence." The term interjection (inter, between, and jacere, to cast or throw) sig- nifies something that is thrown in among things of which it does not naturally form a constituent part ; that is to say, among the words of a sentence. Speech is the expression of thought, but an interjection is the expression of feeling : so that it is not, strictly speaking, a part of speech* Indeed, in place of being a part of a sentence, it is itself an entire though unanalyzed utterance of emotion, and expresses in its own way what it would require a whole sentence to state provided this statement were possible. Below will be found a few illustrations of the use of interjections, t 1. Ah I then and there was hurrying to and fro. 2. Alas! both for the deed and for the cause. 3. Alack! when once we have our grace forgot, nothing goes right. 4. They opened their mouth wide against me, and said: "Aha! aha!" 5. Fy! my lord, fy! a soldier, and afraid ! 6. Ha! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? 7. "77b/ shifts she thus?" King Henry cried. 8. Hush! hark! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell. 9. Nature, how in ever} 7 charm supreme ! 10. But she is in her grave and oh The difference to me!J * "Almost all animals have some peculiar sound to explain any sudden feeling they experience. The interjection is such a sound, as employed by man." Morell's Grammar. t The following etymologies of a few common interjections may be of in- terest : Alas! ah lesso=O [me] miserable. Adieu, d Dieu=[I commend you] to God. Good-bye, God &' wV ye God be with you. O dear, Dieu=O God. Amen, a Hebrew adverb signifying verily, truly, yea. \ The last two examples illustrate a distinction which should be observed in writing the interjection or Oh. is merely the sign of the "nominative independent" (vocative), whereas oh conveys a particular sentiment, as of appeal, grief, etc. SYNTAX OF VERBS AND VERBALS. IX. SYNTAX OF VERBS AND VERBALS. I The Infinitive. Eule I. The infinitive depends upon a noun, a verb, or an adjective, and takes the same complements and modifiers as the verb. I. An infinitive may always be disposed of by one of the XII. Rules of Syntax, or by one of the Special Rules. But as it is often difficult to determine the construction of this verbal, the rule above given may be used instead of that which more directly applies. II. To, of the infinitive, is generally omitted after the verbs lid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, in the active voice: as, "Bid him go ;" "I hear thee speak of the better land;" "I dare do all that may become a man." III. The infinitive is sometimes absolute : as, " To tell you the truth, I do not like him ; " " Marley was dead, to legin with." II. The Gerund. Eule II, The gerund has the construction of the noun with the complements and modifications of the verb. I. The noun construction of the gerund is exemplified in its use as subject or object of a verb, in its dependence on a preposition, and in its taking a possessive : as 1. Reading is profitable. 2. Bees are skilful in building. 3. His [or John's] making money is no proof of merit. II. The verb construction of the gerund is exemplified in the fact that it may take an object or other complement, and may re- ceive an adverbial modifier : as 1. Bees are skilful in building their hives. 2. On growing old, he became avaricious. 3. Reading daily is profitable. 198 SYNTAX. HI The Participle. Eule III. The participle has the construction of the ad- jective, with the complement and modifications of the verb : as 1. What man, seeing this, does not blush ? The participle " seeing" has here the construction of the adjective (it modifies "man"), while it takes as object "this," a pronoun in the objective case. 2. Verse, in the finest mould of fancy cast, Was lumber in an age so void of taste. The participle "cast," as an adjective, modifies the noun " verse,*' and is modified by the phrase " in the finest mould of fancy." NOTE. In such sentences as, u He was wonderfully active, considering his age;" "Granting what you say, does it answer any argument?" sentences in which the adjective relation is not apparent the participle may be said to be used independently, or absolutely. IV, Subjunctive Mood. Eule IV. The subjunctive mood is used in a subordi- nate proposition when both contingency and futurity are expressed, or when the contrary fact is implied : as 1. If he continue to study, he will improve. 2. If he iceiv guilty [as he is not], he would suffer. I. But when a condition is assumed as real the statement is made by means of the indicative : as 1. If he has money [as it is assumed he has], he keeps it. 2. If he is guilty [as he probably is], he will suffer. II. A good practical rule with respect to the use of the subjunc- tive is that it is to be employed whenever a potential or a future auxiliary is implied : thus 1. Though he [may] slay me, I will trust in him. 2. Go thy way lest a worse fate [should] befall thee. 3. If it were [should be] done, when 'tis done, then 'twere [would be] well It were [should be] done quickly. SYNTAX OF VERBS AND VERBALS. 199 III. The choice between the indicative and the subjunctive mood has long been a matter of considerable difficulty. The tendency of modern usage is to disregard the niceties discovered or im- agined by grammarians regarding the employment of the sub- junctive, and it is probable that this form will in time disap- pear from our language. V, "Shall" and "Will," Kule V, The correct use of the auxiliaries shall and will depends fundamentally upon the following principle : WILL expresses the will or pleasure of its own SUBJECT ; SHALL subordinates the will of its subject to that of the SPEAKER. I. Usage, however, has modified the application of this principle as follows : 1. In the first person where the subject is also the speaker will is used to express determination ; shall, to express simple fu- turity. 2. In the second and third persons, the speaker asserts his will when he uses shall, and waives his will when he uses will: as, " You (or he) shall "it is my will that you (or he) shall : " You (or he) will" leaves it to your (or his) will ; or simply indicates futurity. 3. Shall is also used when the event is beyond the control both of subject and of speaker : as The Lord will come ; the earth shall quake. 4. In questions, when the "will" of the person interrogated is appealed to, will can be used properly in the second person only : thus, " ShaU I (he) ?"=Is it your will that I (lie) shall? " Witt you ?"=Is it your will ? 5. When the opinion merely of the person addressed is asked, will may be used in the first and third persons, and shall in the second ; thus, " Which will I (he) choose ?" = Which do you think I intend (he intends) to choose ? " Shall you be elected ?" :=Do you think that you shall be elected ? 200 SYNTAX. II. The same rules apply to should and would both in the con- ditional and in the subjunctive mood.* NOTE. It is almost impossible to reduce to rules the niceties of usage in shall and will, should and would; and in fact the fewer rules on this subject the better, since those to whom English is the mother-tongue, and who have not been corrupted by provincialisms, acquire an instinct that is the best guide in the employment of these subtle auxiliaries, f YI, Use of Tense-Perms. Eule VI The following principles regarding the use of tenses are to be carefully observed : I. When a verb, taking an infinitive as complement, refers to a future act or circumstance, the present, not the perfect, infinitive should be used : thus 1. I intended to write you last week [not to have written you]. 2. I expected to go to Europe [not to have gone}. Though the verbs "intended" and "expected" are in the past tense, yet the reference is to a future time as regards what was in- tended and expected. II. But when a verb, taking an infinitive as complement, refers to a past act or circumstance, the perfect, not the present, infinitive should be used : thus He appeared to have seen better days. III. When two or more compound tenses of the same verb are connected, such parts of the tense-forms as are not common to all must be inserted : thus This elucidation may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published. Bolingbroke. " Published," the past participle of the verb publish, is correctly used with "shall be;" its ellipsis with "is" is proper; but the ellipsis with " has " is improper, because the writer intended to say has leen published, using the present perfect tense, passive voice. IV. The past tense should not be employed in forming the com- pound tenses, nor should the past participle be used for the past tense. Thus: say, "to have gone" not "to have went;" " I did it "not " I done it." * Dalgleish : English Grammar. t Sir Edmund Head has devoted to this subject an entire volume, entitled "Shall" and "Will." MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 201 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF IMPROPRIETIES IN SYNTAX FOR CORRECTION. I. 1. This exercise is very easy done. 2. How many square feet is there in a floor twenty feet long and sixteen feet wide ? 3. In France cheap wood is made to perfectly imitate mahogany. 4. The great historian and the essayist is no more. 5. It could not have been her. 6. Did you see the man and the dog which passed this way ? 7. I intend to immediately retire from business. 8. I think I will return home next week. 9. The death was announced lately of the great statesman. 10. Who are you looking for ? 11. The collection of books that have come down to us from that period are very valuable. 12. I expected to have been at home when you called. 13. It was him and me that were chosen to go. 14. When will we three meet again ? 15. He not only ought, but must succeed. 16. I never saw it rain so heavy before. 17. His work is one. of the best that has ever appeared. 18. It has been said that politics are but little more than common-sense. 19. Metal types were now introduced, which before this time had been made of wood. 20. No man ever bestowed such a gift to his kind. II. 1. Each strives to get ahead of the other in their own little craft. 2. Her father and her rode about the country. 3. I would like to know whose hat this is. 4. Of what gender are each of the following nouns? 5. He now began his work in earnest. 6. One of the greatest evils which now oppresses France is the want of a high moral tone among her people. 7. If he plunge into the sea, he feels the law that defies the boundaries of his perfect liberty. 8. I meant to have written to you last Friday. 9. Who did you say you met this morning? 10. They have neither occasion for beauty, money, or good conduct. 11. This is one of the most memorable battles that ever have or will be fought. 12. I trust you shall overlook the circumstance of me having come to school late. 12 202 SYNTAX. 13. What is the difference between an adjective and participle ? 14. These flowers smell very sweetly and look beautifully. 15. Have you no other book but this ? 16. He is only fitted to govern others who can govern himself. 17. The spirit, and not the letter, of the law are what we ought to follow. 18. The man could neither read or write. 19. The Book of Psalms were written by David. 20. That building must be either a church or school. III. 1. The two are here compared with one another. 2. It has taken man thousands of years to in part discover the laws of nature. 3. This we will have occasion to see illustrated hereafter. 4. Mary, for all her anxious words, was not so sure as me. 5. The past has now began to renew its quaint existence. 6. Our words would look very oddly to us in a phonetic dress. 7. Such a club has other merits besides those that are intellectual. 8. I can read as well as her, but she sings better than me. 9. This incident, though it appears improbable, yet I cannot doubt the author's veracity. 10. I had the physician, the surgeon, and the apothecary's assistance. 11. It was Peter the Hermit, him that incited the crusade. 12. Here come my old friend and teacher. 13. The minute finger and the hour hand has each its particular use. 14. Which of that group of men is the taller? 15. What boy amongst us can foretell their future career ? 16. An account of the great events in all parts of the world are given in the daily papers. 17. If I were in his position, I would not have gone. 18. They would neither eat themselves nor suffer nobody else to eat. 19. Did you expect to have heard so poor a speech ? 20. I cannot give you no more money. IV. 1. We did no more but what we ought to. 2. We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 3. He is a man of remarkable clear intellect. 4. He showed me two kinds, but I did not buy any of them. 5. Every one is the best judge of their own conscience. 6. They told me of him having failed. 7. He has already, and will continue to receive many honors. 8. One species of bread of coarse quality was only allowed to be baked. 9. The party whom he invited was very numerous. 10. The doctor said in his lecture that fever always produced thirst. 11. The Annals of Florence are a most imposing work. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 203 12. Such expressions sound harshly. 13. What can be the cause of the Parliament neglecting so important a business? 14. Either you or I are in the way. 15. He would not be persuaded but what I was greatly in fault. 16. I do not think that leisure of life and tranquillity of mind, which fortune and your own wisdom has given you, could be better employed. 17. The fact of me being a stranger to him does not justify his conduct. 18. Let me awake the King of Morven, he that is like the sun of heaven rising in a storm. 19. The nation was ruined by the profligacy of their nobles. 20. Ruth and I, and you too, must answer for yourselves. V. 1. Either the young man or his guardian have acted improperly. 2. The following treatise, together with those that accompany it, were written many years ago. 3. A talent of this kind would prove the likeliest of any other to succeed. 4. On your conduct at this moment depends the color and complexion of their destiny. 5. That is either a man or a woman's voice. 6. Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, yet they are all within his own breast. 7. The ebb and flow of the tides were explained by Newton. 8. And indeed in some cases we derive as much or more pleasure from that source than from anything else. 9. The number of inhabitants were not more than four millions. 10. The logical and historical analysis of a language generally in some de- gree coincides. 11. But she fell a-laughing like one out of their right mind. 12. Verse and prose run into one another like light and shade. 13. Homer had the greatest invention of any writer whatever. 14. Of all the other qualities of style, clearness is the most important. 15. Gold is heavier and more valuable than any metal. 16. In him were happily blended true dignity with softness of manners. 17. The saint, the father, and the husband pray. 18. These verses were written by a young man who has long lain in his grave, for his own amusement. 19. The Atlantic Ocean separates the eastern and western continent. 20. A second deluge learning thus overrun, And the monks finished what the Goths begun. SECTION III. ANALYSIS. CHAPTER I. DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES. I. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 202, Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its constituent elements. For the distinction between analysis and syntax, and for the view that both form parts of the Doctrine of the Sentence, seep. 139. 203 1 A sentence is a combination of words expressing a complete thought : thus 1. The proper study of mankind is man. 2. I hear thee speak of the better land. I. A sentence is informal statement of a thought. An interjec- tion may, in substance, express a thought, but it does not do so inform, and hence it does not constitute a sentence. II. By " expressing a complete thought " is meant that (1) some- thing is said, (2) about sometJiing. 204, The elements of a sentence are its constituent parts. They may be considered with reference to their rank, their structure, and their office. I. By Bank. 205. With reference to rank, the elements of a sentence are classed as I. PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. II. SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. III. INDEPENDENT. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 205 206. Principal or essential elements are the words nec- essary for the expression of a thought. 207. Subordinate elements are words joined with the principal elements for the purpose of expressing some mod- ification of the thought. 208. The principal elements of a sentence are: I. THE SUBJECT. II. THE PREDICATE. 209. The subject represents that of which something is stated. 210. The predicate tells what is stated of the subject: thus BUIUKOT. I'BEDIOATB. 1. Birds 2. Some birds 3. Some birds 4. Some birds of this country sing sing sing sweetly sing sweetly during the day 211, Adjuncts, The subordinate elements of a sentence are called adjuncts, or modifiers. I. When adjuncts are added to a subject or to a predicate, the sub- ject or the predicate is said to be modified or enlarged; and the terms modification or enlargement of the subject or of the predicate may be used as synonymous with adjunct, or modifier, of the subject, etc. II. " Some" in 2 and 3 above, and " some" and " of this country" in 4, are adjuncts, or modifiers, or enlargements, of the subject. " Sweetly" in 3, and " sweetly" and " during the day" in 4, are adjuncts, etc., of the predicate. 212, The simple or grammatical subject is the subject without adjuncts : as, " Birds fly swiftly." 206 ANALYSIS. 213, The complete or logical subject is the subject with its adjuncts : as, " The proper study of mankind is man." LOGICAL SUBJECT. LOGICAL PREDICATE. Grammatical Subject. Adjuncts of Subject. study The is man. proper of mankind 214, The simple or grammatical predicate is the verb- word or verb-phrase used in making the assertion : as 1. Birds fly. 2. Birds may have flown. 215, The complete or logical predicate is the predicate- verb with all that is attached to it complement or adjuncts, or ~both : thus LOGICAL PREDICATE. I [simple pred.] [adjunct] [complement] [adjunct] Night STRETCHES (1) forth (2) her sceptre (3) o'er a prostrate world. The important distinction between the complement of a predicate (which, in the case of all incomplete verbs, is essential to predi- cation) and a mere modifier should be carefully noted. In this view it may be convenient to employ the term complex predicate to designate the predicate-verb together with the complement, and logical predicate to designate the verb with its complement and modifiers. 216, Independent Elements, Independent elements are words or phrases not related to the other parts of the sen- tence; that is, they are neither principal nor subordinate elements : as 1. To say the least, it was very surprising. 2. Mary, your lilies are in bloom. 3. Well, it is now too late. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 207 Connectives are conjunctions, relative pronouns, and conjunctive adverbs. II. By Structure. 217, "With reference to their structure the elements of a sentence are classified as : I. WOKDS. II. PIIKASES. III. PROPOSITIONS (including clauses). 218, A phrase is a combination of related words forming an element of a sentence, and equivalent to a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A phrase may be introduced by 1. A preposition, thus forming a prepositional phrase : as 1. Darius retreated into Persia. 2. The fruit of that forbidden tree. 2. An infinitive, thus forming an infinitive phrase : as To love our neighbors as ourselves is a divine command. 3. A participle, thus forming a participial phrase : as 1. Having crossed the Ritbicon, CaBsar's army advanced on Rome. 2. Children, coming home from school, look in at the open door. 219, A proposition is the combination of a subject with a predicate, forming either an independent or a dependent statement : thus 1. Life is but an empty dream. 2. Tell me not that life is ~but an empty dream. A proposition forming an independent, or principal, statement is a simple sentence. 220, A clause is a dependent, or subordinate, proposition, introduced by a connective : thus 1. Whilst light and colors rise and fly, 2. Lives Newton's deathless memory. 208 ANALYSIS. From the definitions of a proposition and of a clause, it will be inferred that while a sentence is always a proposition, a prop- osition is not necessarily always a sentence: for a clause or dependent proposition is not a sentence, but an element of a sentence. 221, A word is termed an element of the first degree; a phrase, an element of the second degree ; and a clause, an element of the third degree. III. By Office. 222, With reference to their office, the elements of a sentence are classified as: I. SUBSTANTIVE. II. ADJEC- TIVE. III. ADVERBIAL. 223, A substantive word, phrase, or clause is a word, phrase, or clause used as a noun; an adjective word, phrase, or clause is one used as an adjective ; an adverbial word, phrase, or clause is one used as an adverb. If the element is a word, its classification as a part of speech determines its office ; if a phrase or clause, the test is : What part of speech would this be if the idea were expressed by a single word ? SUMMARY. ("Principal, The elements classed by rank are < Subordinate, (independent. (Words, The elements classed by structure are... | Phrases, (Propositions. ( Substantive, The elements classed by office are .j Adjective, (Adverbial. CLASSES OF SENTENCES. Q09 EXERCISE 50. A. In the following sentences select the grammatical and the logical subjects, and the grammatical and the logical predicates. 1. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 2. Chaucer, the father of English poetry, wrote the Canterbury Tales. 3. Brave soldiers fell at Thermopylae. 4. Tennyson wrote the Idylls of the King. 5. Nothing in his life became him like the leaving it. 6. All the land, in flowery squares, beneath a broad and equal-blowing wind, smelt of the coming summer. 7. The morn, in russet mantle clad, Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. 8. Short-lived likings may be bred By a glance from fickle eyes. 9. Under her torn hat glowed the wealth Of simple beauty and rustic health. 10. Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne, In rayless majesty now stretches forth Her leaden sceptre o'er a prostrate world. B. In the following distinguish phrases and clauses from sen- tences. 1. To die is gain. 2. Not to know me. 3. The design has never been com- pleted. 4. A design which has never been completed. 5. Sailing to Europe in a steamer. 6. The morn, in russet mantle clad. 7. From bad to worse. 8. Snow- drifts. 9. When morning showed the snow-drifts. 10. For conscience' sake. 11. Alas ! poor Yorick. 12. When I knew him, Horatio. 13. Remote from towns. 14. Go. 15. Gone from our gaze. 16. Does it matter? 17. No. 18. Into the jaws of death. 19. Rode the Three Hundred. 20. Perish the thought ! II. CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 224, How Classified, Sentences are classified (1) accord- ing to their use; (2) according to their structure. 210 ANALYSIS. I. By Use. 225, According to their use, sentences are divided into four classes: I. DECLARATIVE. II. INTERROGATIVE. III. IMPERATIVE. IY. EXCLAMATIVE (or Exclamatory). 226. A declarative sentence is one that expresses an as- sertion (that is, an affirmation or a negation) : as 1. Man is mortal. 2. Into the jaws of death rode the Three Hundred. 3. If it were so, it were a grievous fault. 227, An interrogative sentence is one that expresses a question: as 1. Is man mortal ? 2. Did the Three Hundred ride into the jaws of death ? 228. An imperative sentence is one that expresses a com- mand or an entreaty : as 1. Come when the heart beats high and warm. 2. Put money in thy purse. 2 29 An exclamative (or exclamatory) sentence is one that expresses a thought in an inter jectional manner : as Oh ! that this too, too solid flesh would melt ! The following passage from a well-known speech of Patrick Henry affords an admirable illustration of the several kinds of sentence as classified by use : " They tell us, sir, that we are weak unable to cope with so for- midable an adversary. But when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or the next year? Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction ? Sir, we are not weak, if we make a proper use of those means which the God of nature hath placed in our power. The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone : it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the contest. The war is inevitable and let it come. Our brethren are al- ready in the field. Why stand we here idle ? Is life so dear. CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 211 or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? Forbid it, Almighty God ! I know not what course others may take ; but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death !" II. By Structure. 230 1 According to their structure sentences are classified as : I. SIMPLE. II. COMPLEX. III. COMPOUND. 231, A simple sentence consists of one independent prop- osition. It must not be supposed that a simple sentence necessarily con- sists of only a few words. No matter how many modifications of the subject, or of the predicate, or of both, there may be, if a sentence contains but one subject and one predicate, it is a simple sentence. "Birds fly" is a simple sentence containing two words. The following is also a simple sentence, though containing sixty-one words: "About fourscore years ago there used to be seen sauntering on the pleasant terraces of Sans Souci, for a short time in the after- noon, or driving in a rapid, business manner on the open roads, or through the scraggy woods and avenues of that intricate, amphibious Potsdam region, a highly interesting, lean, little old man, of alert, though slightly stooping figure." * 232, A complex sentence consists of one independent (or principal) proposition and one or more clauses ; thus - 1. When morning dawned [clause] ALL FEARS WERE DISPELLED [principal proposition]. 2. WE KNOW NOT [principal proposition] whence it comes [clause] or whither it goes [clause]. 233, A compound sentence consists of two or more inde- pendent propositions : thus [All fears were dispelled], AND [we saw the land within a few leagues of us]. In compound sentences the members are merely put together (con and ponere), while in complex sentences they are woven together (con and plectere). * Carlyle : Frederick the Great. 212 ANALYSIS. III. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 234, The subject of a sentence is always a noun or one of its equivalents. The equivalents of a noun are 1. A pronoun: as She is all the world to me. 2. An adjective used substantively : as The weary are at rest. 3. An infinitive or a gerund : as 1. To le contents his natural desire. 2. Seeing is believing. 4. A substantive phrase : as 1. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. 2. Learning a language icell is difficult. 5. A substantive clause: as That the earth is spherical was not known by the Greeks. 235, The predicate consists of a predicate verb (word or words); but in order to make a significant statement it is often necessary to employ a complement. 236, Complements, Transitive verbs require an object as complement : as Columbus discovered [pred. verb] America [object]. The object of a transitive verb may be any of the equivalents of the noun : thus 1. We commend her. 2. Men honor the brave. 3. Boys like to skate. 4. They stopped reciting their lessons. 5. Talleyrand said that the purpose of language is to conceal thought. ADJUNCTS OF TEE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 213 237, Incomplete intransitive and passive verbs may take as a complement a predicate nominative or a predicate adjective: as 1. Knowledge is power. 2. The mountains arc high. 3. She seems better. 4. Socrates was thought wise. The complement of an intransitive or a passive verb may be one of the equivalents of the noun or of the adjective : thus 1. His intention was to go. 2. The probability is that he has gone to Europe. 3. That book seems of little value. 238, Certain transitive verbs (see Syntax, p. 168), take a double object, one direct and the other attributive ; or they may take, in addition to the direct object, an adjective com- plement modifying the object : as 1. We call the J)oy John. 2. "We hold the man accountable. IV. ADJUNCTS OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 239, Of the Subject, Since the subject is always a noun or its equivalent, and since whatever words modify a noun are adjective in office, the adjuncts of the subject must be adjective elements. 240, An adjunct of the subject may be an adjective ele- ment of the first, the second, or the third degree : that is, it may be an adjective word, phrase, or clause. I. As a word an adjective element may be 1. An adjective : as- Kind hearts are more than coronets. 214- ANALYSIS. 2. An appositive noun : as Newton, the philosopher, discovered the law of gravitation. 3. A possessive noun : as Children's voices should be dear to a mother's ear. II. An adjective phrase may be in form prepositional or participial: thus 1. The thirst for fame is an infirmity of noble minds. 2. The man, being injured by the fall, was taken to the hospital. III. An adjective clause is always introduced by a rela- tive pronoun or a relative adverb : thus The man that hath no music in himself is fit for stratagems. The place where Moses was buried is unknown. 241, The subject may be modified not only by one, but by any combination or number of combinations of adjective elements: thus Born to inherit the most illustrious monarchy that the world ever saw, and early united to the object of Tier choice, the amiable PRINCESS, liappy in herself, and joyful in lier future prospects, little antici- pated the fate which was so soon to overtake her. 242, Adjective elements are used to modify not only the subject, but a noun in any part of a sentence. If the subject is an infinitive or a gerund, it may in its fl6r&-charac- ter take a complement or adverbial adjuncts, or both : as 1. To love one's enemies is a Christian duty. 2. Playing with fire is dangerous. 243, Of the Predicate, The predicate verb is modified by adverbial elements. 244, An adverbial element may be an element of the first, second, or third degree. ADJUNCTS OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 215 I. As a word, an adverbial clement may be 1. An adverb : as Leonidas died bravely. 2. An indirect object : as 1. Give the man a seat. 2. Give him'd seat. 3. An objective adverbial: as 1. Our friends have returned home. 2. The book cost three dollars. 4. An infinitive of purpose : as She stoops to conquer. II. An adverbial phrase may be in form prepositional or participial: thus 1. Leonidas died with great "bravery. 2. He reads standing at his desk. III. An adverbial clause is always introduced by a con- junctive adverb or a subordinate conjunction : thus 1. The lawyers smiled that afternoon When he hummed in court an old love-tune. 2. Fishes have no voice because they have no lungs. 245. The predicate verb may be modified by any com- bination or number of combinations of adverbial elements ; and an adverbial element may serve as an adjunct, not only of a verb, but of an adjective or an adverb. From what has been stated, it will be correctly inferred that a noun complement may receive any of the modifications of the noun, while an adjective complement may take as adjunct an ad- verbial element of any degree. 216 ANALYSIS. CHAPTEE II. ANALYSIS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. I. THEORY OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 246, The simple sentence consists of a single proposition,, and hence can contain but one finite verb. 247, The simple subject of the simple sentence consists of a substantive element of the first or second degree ; that is, of a word or phrase equivalent to a noun. 248, Its modifications, The simple subject may be mod- ified (or enlarged) by any adjective element of the first or second degree, or by any combination of adjective elements of those degrees. 249, The simple predicate of the simple sentence always consists of some finite verb, either with or without a com- plement. 250, Its modifications, The simple predicate may be modified by any adverbial element of the first or second degree, or by any combination of adverbial elements of those degrees. II. DIRECTIONS FOK ANALYSIS. In analyzing a simple sentence I. State the nature of the sentence (1) by structure / (2) by use. NOTES ON ANALYSIS. 217 II. Designate 1. The grammatical subject. 2. The grammatical predicate (that is, the predicate verb). 3. The modifications of the subject. 4. The complement, when the verb is incomplete. 5. The modifications, and the complement (if any) of the comple- ment. 6. The modifications of the grammatical predicate. 7. The logical predicate. When the grammatical subject or predicate has no adjuncts, it may be stated that " the subject (or predicate), grammatical and logical, is " NOTES ON ANALYSIS. I. The order of a sentence may be direct or inverted ; and in resolv- ing a sentence that is, in showing the elements that enter into its construction it is proper to reduce it from the inverted to the direct form : thus Inverted. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. ~. j The glimmering landscape fades on the sight now ; or, ( The glimmering landscape now fades on the sight. Inverted. Thee the voice, the dance obey. Direct. The voice, the dance obey thee. Inverted. Slow melting strains their queen's approach declare. Direct. Slow melting strains declare their queen's approach. II. In written analysis it will be found convenient to employ the following method of designating the degree of an element : s' = substantive word : i. e., substantive element first degree. s" rr substantive phrase: i. e., substantive element second degree. s'" = substantive clause : i. e., substantive element third degree. a' = adjective word : i. e., adjective element first degree. a" := adjective phrase : i. e., adjective element second degree. a!" = adjective clause : i. e., adjective element third degree. adv.' = adverbial word : i. e., adverbial element first degree. adv." = adverbial phrase : i. e., adverbial element second degree. adv.'" = adverbial clause: i. e., adverbial element third degree, K 218 ANALYSIS. Models for Oral Analysis. 1. The hardy Laplander, dad in skins, 'boldly defies tfi6 severity of his arctic climate. This is a simple declarative sentence. The grammatical subject is " Laplander ;" the grammatical predicate, " defies." The grammatical subject is modified [or, enlarged'} by "the" and "hardy," adjective words [or, adjective elements of the first degree], and by " clad in skins," an adjective phrase [or, adjective element of the sec- ond degree] thus forming the logical subject, " the hardy Laplander, clad in skins." The predicate verb is completed by the object " severity," thus form- ing the complex predicate, " defies severity." The object is modified [or, enlarged] by " the," an adjective word [or, adjective element of the first degree}, and by " of his arctic climate," an adjective phrase [or, adjective element of the second degree}. The grammatical predicate is modified [or, enlarged] by " boldly," an adverbial word [or, adverbial element of the first degree]. The logical predicate is " boldly defies the severity of his arctic climate." NOTE. The alternate forms of expression given in brackets may be used if preferred ; and when the various synonymous technical terms are thoroughly understood, entire freedom of statement may advan- tageously be permitted. 2. This misfortune will certainly make the poor man miserable for life. This is a simple declarative sentence. The grammatical subject is " misfortune ;" the grammatical predicate, " will make." The grammatical subject is modified by " this," an adjective word thus forming the logical subject, " this misfortune." The simple predicate is completed by the object " man," and by the adjective complement "miserable" thus forming the complex predi- cate, " will make man miserable." The object is modified by "the" and "poor," adjective words; the adjective complement is modified by "for life," an adverbial phrase. NOTES ON ANALYSIS. 210 The grammatical predicate is modified by " certainly," an adverbial word. The logical predicate is "will certainly make the poor man miserable for life." 3. The King of Spain ordered Fernando de Talavera, the prior of Prado, to assemble the most learned astronomers and cosmograpkers of the kingdom, to hold a conference with Columbus. This is a simple declarative sentence. The grammatical subject is " king," and the grammatical predicate, " ordered." The grammatical subject is modified by " the," an adjective word, and by " of Spain," an adjective phrase thus forming the logical sub- ject, " the King of Spain." The predicate verb is completed by the double object, " Fernando de Talavera, the prior of Prado," a substantive phrase, and by " to assemble the most learned astronomers . . . Columbus," a substantive phrase. The grammatical predicate is not modified. The first object, " Fernando . . . Prado," consists of " Fernando de Talavera," a substantive element of the first degree (complex), modified by "the prior of Prado," an adjective phrase. The second object, "to assemble . . . Columbus," consists of " to assemble the most learned astronomers and cosmographers of the kingdom," a substantive phrase, modified by " to hold a conference with Columbus," an adverbial phrase. The logical predicate is " ordered . . . Columbus." 4. Why stand we here idle f This is a simple interrogative sentence. The subject, grammatical and logical, is " we ;" the grammatical predicate, " stand." The predicate verb is completed by the predicate adjective " idle " thus forming the complex predicate, " stand idle." The grammatical predicate is modified by "here," an adverbial word. The logical predicate is " stand here idle." 5. Be a hero in the strife. This is a simple imperative sentence. The subject, grammatical and logical, is ihou or you understood ; the grammatical predicate, " be." ANALYSIS. The grammatical predicate is completed by " hero," a predicative nominative, which is modified by "a," an adjective word thus form- ing the complex predicate, " be a hero." The grammatical predicate is modified by "in the strife," an ad- verbial phrase. The logical predicate is " be a hero in the strife." 6. How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds makes ill deeds done ! This is a simple exclamative sentence. The grammatical subject is " sight ;" the grammatical predicate, " makes." The grammatical subject is modified by " the," an adjective word, and " of means to do ill deeds," an adjective phrase. The simple predicate is completed by the object " deeds," and by " done," an adjective complement which modifies the object thus forming the predicate, "makes deeds done." The object "deeds" is modified by " ill," an adjective word. The simple predicate is modi- fied by " how oft," an adverbial element of the first degree. The logic- al predicate is " makes ill deeds done how oft." Models for Written Analysis. 1. Night, sable goddess^ from her ebon throne^ In rayless majesty, now stretches forth Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. Grammatical subject "Night" (V). Grammatical predicate " stretches." Adjunct of subject " sable goddess " (a'). Complement "sceptre" (dbj. 1 ) Adjuncts of complement.... "her" and "leaden" (a 1 ). Adjuncts of predicate " now " and " forth " (adv.') ; " from her ebon throne," "in rayless majesty," and "o'er a slumbering world " (adv."). EXERCISES. 221 2. Him the Almighty Power Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky. With hideous ruin and combustion, down To bottomless perdition. Grammatical subject "Power' 7 (V). Grammatical predicate " hurled." Adjuncts of subject "the" and "Almighty" (a 1 ). Complement "him" (obj/). Adjuncts of complement.... "flaming from the ethereal sky" (a"). Adjuncts of predicate "headlong" (adv.'), " with hideous ruin and combustion " (adv."}, " down to bottom- less perdition " (adv."). EXERCISE 51. Analyze the following simple sentences : A. 1. In unploughed Maine he sought the lumberer's gang. 2. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate. 3. Stormed at with shot and shell, Boldly they rode and well. 4. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction ? 5. The moon threw its silvery light upon the rippling waters of the lake. 6. Tell all the world thy joy. 7. Clad in a robe of everlasting snow, Mount Everest towers above all other mountain-peaks of the globe. 8. Now upon Syria's land of roses Softly the light of eve reposes. 9. Where are you going this summer ? 10. Be not like dumb, driven cattle ! 11. The mournful tidings of the death of his son filled the proud heart of the old man with the keenest anguish. 12. Forbid it, Almighty God ! 13. How wonderful is sleep ! 14. Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was an eminent English physician. 15. When shall we be stronger ? 16. Vex not thou the poet's mind. 17. Did they make him master ? 222 ANALYSIS. 18. What a world of happiness their harmony foretells ! 19. Between it and the garden lies A league of grass, washed by a slow, broad stream. 30. O, ever thus, from childhood's hour I've seen my fondest hopes decay. B. 1. The master gave his scholars a lesson to learn.* 2. The ploughman homeward plods his weary way.f 3. Will it be the next week,J or the next year?J 4. I will give thee a silver pound to row us o'er the ferry. 5. Having ridden up to the spot, the enraged officer struck the unfortu- nate man dead || with a single blow of his sword. 6. To reach Cathay, famed in the writings of Marco Polo,TT fired the imag- ination of the daring navigator. 7. I saw a man with a sword.** 8. He found all his wants suppliedtt by the care of his friends. 9. All but oneU were killed. 10. Music's golden tongue. 11. Flattered to tears this aged man and poor. HI 12. The scholar did nothing but read. HIT 13. He does not*** laugh. 14. My mother gave meftt a letter to readmit 15. What did you come here for? * " To learn," adjective adjunct of the object, t "Way," cognate objective. I "Week," "year," adverbial objectives equivalent to phrases. "To row," etc., adverbial phrase, modifier of predicate verb. || "Dead," adjective complement, adjunct of object. IF "Famed in the writings," etc., adjective phrase, modifier of complement of infinitive subject. ** " With a sword," adjective phrase, modifier of object. ft "Supplied," etc., adjective complement, adjunct of object. JI "But one," adverbial phrase, modifier of predicate. "To tears," adverbial phrase (of effect}, modifier of predicate verb. II "Aged and poor," co-ordinate adjective adjuncts of object. n "But read"=but (except) to read, adverbial phrase, modifier of predi- cate verb. *** " Not" may either be considered a part of the simple predicate, or an adverbial modifier of it. ftt "Me," adverbial adjunct of predicate (indirect object). \\\ "To read," adverbial adjunct (infinitive of purpose) of predicate verb. "For what," adverbial phrase, adjunct of predicate verb. THEORY OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 223 CHAPTER III. ANALYSIS OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. I. THEORY OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 251. The simple sentence and the complex sentence agree in this, that each contains one, and only one, leading proposition ; they differ in this, that the complex sentence contains, in addition to the leading proposition, a subordinate one made by means of a clause. The complete thought expressed by means of a complex sentence does not necessarily differ from that expressed by a simple sen- tence, and a simple sentence may be converted into a complex . sentence by expanding an element of the first or second degree into an element of the third degree : thus SIMPLE SENTENCE At the dose of the war (phrase), Washington retired to Mount Vernon. COMPLEX SENTENCE... When the war dosed (clause), Washington retired to Mount Vernon. 252, Elements, The following are the principal points in regard to the elements of the complex sentence : I. The subject and the complement of a complex sentence may be a substantive word, phrase, or clause. II. A substantive element in any part of a complex sen- tence may be modified by an adjective element of any degree. III. The predicate verb in a complex sentence may be modified by an adverbial element of any degree. IV. An adjective element in any part of a complex sen- tence may be modified by an adverbial element of any degree. 224 ANALYSIS. 253, Nature of Clauses. A clause in a complex sentence is substantive, adjective, or adverbial, according to its office : thus 1. That you cannot perform the task is evident [substantive clause as subject]. 2. I dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls [substantive clause as object]. 3. You will never see the fruit of the trees which you are planting [adjective clause modifying the noun " trees"]. 4. He found the book where he left it [adverbial clause modifying the verb " found"]. 5. John is taller than his brother is [adverbial clause modifying the adjective " taller"]. 6. She behaves as well as was anticipated [adverbial clause modi- fying the adverb "well"]. 254, Connective, A clause is introduced by a relative pronoun, a relative adverb, or a subordinate conjunction. NOTES ON CLAUSE -CONNECTIVES. I. The following classified table of connectives is given to aid the pupil in distinguishing clauses from principal members of a sentence. I. Of Noun Clauses. j 1. Fact that (conj.), what, where, why, how, etc. 1 2. Alternative whether. . . or. II. Of Adjectiye Clauses. (1. Person who, that. 2. Thing which, that, (such).. . as. 3. Place where, wherein. 4. Time when, whereat. I. PLACE. ' Where, whither, whence. II. TIME. When, while, whenever, till, until. ( 1. Likeness 05, as if. III. MANNER. < 2. Comparison as (much) as, than. ( 3. Effect (so) that. rl. Reason because, since, for. \ 2. Purpose (in order) that, lent. 3. Condition if, unless. 1 4. Concession though. As both substantive and adjective clauses are introduced by who, when, where, etc., care should be taken to note the office of the clause III. Of Adrerbial Clauses. IV. CAUSE. DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 225 before stating its class. Thus: "Tell ine where he lives" (substantive clause) ; " This is the place where he lives " (adjective clause). An ad- jective clause must always have a substantive to which it is an adjunct. II. The conjunction that is frequently omitted before a substantive clause used as the object of a verb : as, u I fear he will not succeed." So also the relative pronoun that, when in the objective case, is often omitted : as, " I have found the book you want." III. A substantive clause introduced by the conjunction that is fre- quently found in apposition with a noun, and in such cases is to be treated as an adjective element of the third degree. Thus : " The re- port that he was killed is untrue." IV. Adverbial clauses of comparison (introduced by as and than) are often highly elliptical sometimes the verb being omitted, and sometimes both subject and verb; as, "He is as rich as Croesus [is rich] ;" u The teacher praised you more than [he praised] me." V. An interrogative proposition is sometimes used in such a way as to be equivalent to a conditional clause; as, "Is any merry [r=if any is merry], let him sing psalms." VI. When a substantive clause forms the subject of a sentence, the anticipative subject it is often employed ; the substantive clause is then the real or logical subject : as, "It was clear that they were on the point of quarrelling " It was clear that-they-icere-on-the point-of -quarrelling. VII. The adverbial connectives while, where, when, as, etc., are to be treated as elements of the clause (adverbial modifiers of the predicate) ; but subordinate conjunctions are merely introductory words, and form no part of the structure of the proposition, though they serve to render it dependent. II. DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. I. After stating the nature of the sentence, analyze the sentence as a whole, taking up the principal proposition, K2 226 ANALYSIS. and treating the dependent propositions (clauses) as if they were single words. In this integral analysis designate 1. The grammatical subject of the principal proposition. 2. The grammatical predicate of the principal proposition. 3. The modifiers of the subject. 4. The complement of the predicate. 5. The modifiers of the complement. 6. The modifiers of the predicate. II. Analyze the clauses in their order, after the manner of the analysis for simple sentences. III. Mention the connective. Models for Oral Analysis. 1. Before Time had touched his hair with silver, he had often gazed with wistful fondness towards that friendly shore on which Puritan huts were already beginning to cluster under the spreading shade of hickory and maple. This is. a complex declarative sentence. The subject, grammatical and logical, is " he;" the predicate is " had gazed," a verb of complete predication, and consequently taking no complement. The grammatical predicate is modified by " before Time had touched his hair with silver," an adverbial element of the third degree (or clause) ; by " often," an adverbial element of the first degree ; and by "with wistful fondness" and "towards that friendly shore," ad- verbial elements of the second degree: the noun "shore" is modified by " on which Puritan huts . . . maple," an adjective element of the third degree. Analysis of tlie Clauses. a. " (Before) Time had touched his hair with silver" is an adverbial clause, of which the subject, grammatical and logical, is " Time," and the grammatical predicate, " had touched." The predicate verb is completed by the object "hair," which is modified by the adjective element "his." DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. - 227 The grammatical predicate is modified by "with silver," an ad- verbial element of the second degree, thus forming the logical predi- cate, " had touched his hair with silver." The connective is " before," an adverbial element. 1). " (On which) Puritan huts were already beginning to cluster un- der the spreading shade of hickory and maple " is an adjective clause, of which the grammatical subject is " huts," and the grammatical predicate " were beginning." The grammatical subject is modified by "Puritan," an adjective element of the first degree. The predicate verb is completed by the object " to cluster . . . maple," a substantive element of the second degree, consisting of the infinitive " to cluster," modified by " under the shade of hickory and maple," an adverbial element of the second degree. The grammatical predicate is modified by " already," an adverbial element of the first degree. The logical predicate is " had often gazed . . . maple." The connective is " on which," an adjective-phrase relative. 2. The ocean is as deep as the mountains are high. This is a complex declarative sentence, the principal proposition being u the ocean is as deep," and the clause, " as the mountains are high." The grammatical subject is "ocean;" the grammatical predicate "is." The grammatical subject is modified by the adjective word "the." The grammatical predicate is modified by the adverb "as," and by the adverbial clause " as the mountains are high. 5 ' Analysis of the Clause. " As the mountains are high." The logical subject is "the mountains;" the grammatical predicate is " are," completed by " high," a predicate adjective, and modified by "as," an adverbial adjunct thus forming the logical predicate, "as are high." 228 ANALYSIS. Model for Written Analysis. A reader unacquainted with the real nature of a clas- sical education will probably undervalue it when he sees that so large a portion of time is devoted to the study of a few ancient authors, ivhose works seem to have no direct bearing on the studies and duties of our own generation. Grammatical subject " reader." Grammatical predicate..." will undervalue." I "A" (a'). Adjuncts of subject < "unacquainted with the real nature of a ( classical education" (a"). Complement "it" (V). Adjuncts of predicate "probably" (adv.'). ["when he sees . . . generation" (adv.'")] A, Analysis of A. " (When) he sees . . . generation" (adv.'", adjunct of predicate). Grammatical subj ect " he. " Grammatical predicate..." sees." Complement ["that so large a portion. . . generation" (*'")] B. Adjunct of predicate "when" (adv. 1 ). Analysis of B. " (That) so large a portion . . . generation" (s" f , obj. and pred. of A). Grammatical subj ect " portion." Grammatical predicate... "is devoted." ( " so large " (a'). Adjuncts of subject < "a" (a'). ("of time" (a"). Adjuncts of predicate "to the study of a few ancient authors (adv.") [whose works seem . . . genera- tion " (a'")] C. EXERCISES. 229 Analysis of C "Whose works seem . . . generation" (a'", adjunct of "authors"). Grammatical subject " works." Grammatical predicate ..." seem." Adjuncts of subject "whose" (a'). Complement "to have" (a f ). Complement of compl "bearing" (s f ). /"no" (O. J" direct" (a'). Adjuncts of second compl, < on the studies and duties of our gen era- ( tion" (a"). EXERCISE 52. Analyze the following complex sentences : A. 1. The rose that all are praising is not the rose for me. 2. When we go forth in the morning we lay a moulding hand upon our flestiny. 3. Whilst light and colors rise and fly, Lives Newton's deathless memory. 4. The boy stood on the burning deck Whence all but him had fled. 5. W T hen he was a boy, Franklin, who afterwards became a distinguished statesman and philosopher, learned his trade in the printing-office of his brother, who published a paper in Boston. 6. He that fights and runs away May live to fight another day. 7. Go into Turkey, where the pachas will tell you that the Turkish govern- ment is the most perfect in the world. 8. The Dutch florist who sells tulips for their weight in gold laughs at the antiquary who pays a great price for a rusty lamp. 9. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies in me. 10. We must not think the life of a man begins when he can feed himself. 11. Tell me not in mournful numbers Life is but an empty dream ! 230 ANALYSIS. 12. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one peo- ple to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God en- title them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. B. 1. I do not admire such books as he writes.* 2. It is only by the fresh feelings of the heart that mankind can be very powerfully affected. t 3. That man has been from time immemorial a right-handed animal is be- yond dispute. % 4. He is proud that he is noble. 5. The boy ran so fast that I could not overtake him. I 6. My Father is greater than I.^[ 7. Oh ! ** that I knew where I might find him ! 8. The older you become, ft the wiser you should be. 9. His conduct is not such as I admire. Jt 10. See, here is a bower Of eglantine with honeysuckles woven, Where not a spark of prying light creeps in. 11. The lamb thy riot doomed to bleed to-day, Had he||| thy reason, would he skip and play? 12. 'TisUTT better to have loved and lost Than never to have loved at all. * "As he writes," adjective clause, adjunct of "books," and correlative with "such." t " That mankind . . . affected," substantive clause in apposition with " it." " Is "exists (complete verb). % "Beyond dispute" (a"), complement of "is." "That he is noble" (adv."'), adjunct of predicate (reason). 1 "That I could . . . him" (adv.'"), modifier of adverb "fast." 1" Supply am. ** Supply a verb : as, I wish. ft "The older," etc. (adv.'"), modifying verb of principal clause, "should be." %% "As I admire" (a'"), complement and co-ordinate with "such." "As" hag the office of a relative pronoun (s'), and is the object of "admire." "Where not a spark," etc. (a'"), adjunct of " bower." III! "He," pleonastic subject; omit in analysis. Ill "It" (in Vis), anticipative subject; logical subject, "to have loved and lost." THEORY OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 231 CHAPTEK IV. ANALYSIS OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. I. THEORY OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 255, The propositions in a compound sentence must be co-ordinate (that is, of the same rank) and connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, expressed or understood. 256, Members, The propositions in a compound sen- tence are called members. These may be two or more simple sentences, or a simple and one or more complex sentences, or any combination of simple and of complex sentences, or of both. I. Whatever the constituent elements oi the members of a compound sentence may be, these members can noways be dependent on one another ; for equality of rank in its members is the test of a compound sentence. II. When a member of a compound sentence is a simple sentence, it may be called a simple member ; when a complex sentence, a complex member. 257, Abridged Compounds, When co-ordinate proposi- tions have the same subject or predicate (or even the same complement, or the same modifier of the subject or of the predicate verb), the common element may be omitted ; and in this case the compound sentence is called a contracted compound sentence. Thus 1. God sustains and [God] governs the world [ellipsis of common subject]. 232 ANALYSIS. 2. He loved not wisely, but [he loved] too well [ellipsis of com- mon predicate]. 3. You advance slowly but [you advance] surely [ellipsis of com- mon subject and predicate, " you advance "]. 4. With every effort, with every breath, and with every motion voluntary or involuntary a part of the muscular substance be- comes dead, separates from the living part, combines with the remaining portions of inhaled oxygen, and is removed. In this sentence are four predicates, having only one subject, but three dis- tinct modifications of these predicates. To express the entire meaning of the sentence in separate propositions, we should have first to repeat the subject with each predicate, making four simple sentences, and then to repeat each of those sentences with each of the modifications thus making twelve proposi- tions. II. METHOD OF ANALYSIS. 258, As the members of a compound sentence are either simple or complex, the analysis of a compound sentence is accomplished by the analysis of its members, according to the models for the analysis of simple and of complex sen- tences. NOTES ON THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. I. The following table of the co-ordinative connectives may aid in distinguishing the special nature of the connection between two or among more than two members of a compound sentence. ( And, also, likewise, again, besides. Copulative. . . ^ Moreover, further, furthermore. ( Not only.. . but, then, too (following another word). (Either... or. Disjunctive . . < Neither. . . nor, nor (in the sense of and not). ( Otherwise, else. f But, on the other hand, but then. \ Only, nevertheless, at the same time. Adversative.. < However, notwithstanding. I On the one hand, on the other hand, conversely. I Yet, still, for all that. ,' Therefore, thereupon, wherefore. 1 Accordingly, consequently. Te I Hence, whence, so then, and so. [ For, thus. REVIEW EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS. 233 II. In regard to the co-ordinative conjunction, it is enough to state that it is a connective ; it does not enter into the construction of the members which it connects. REVIEW EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS. Analyze the following sentences : 1. Life is real. Longfellow. 2. The grave is not its goal. Longfellow. 3. If Hannibal had not wintered at Capua, by which circumstance his troops were enervated, but, on the contrary, after the battle of Can- nae, had proceeded to Rome, it is not improbable that the great city would have fallen. Gibbon. 4. Time but the impression deeper makes, As streams their channels deeper wear. Burns. 5. Gayly chattering to the clattering Of the brown nuts downward pattering Leap the squirrels red and gray. Whittier. 6. The long-remembered beggar was his guest. Goldsmith. 7. All that I have, and all that I am, and all that I hope, in this life, I am now ready here to stake upon it ; and I leave off as I began, that, live or die, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration. Webster. 8. The evil that men do lives after them ; The good is oft interred with their bones. Shakspeare. 9. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward through life he goes. Longfellow. 10. In such a cause I grant An English poet's privilege to rant. Pope. 11. Hence loathed melancholy Of Cerberus and blackest midnight born, In Stygian cave forlorn, 'Mongst horrid shapes, and shrieks and sights unholy. Milton. 12. We do not, indeed, expect all men to be philosophers or statesmen, but we confidently trust, and our expectation of the duration of our sys- tem of government rests on that trust, that by the diffusion of general knowledge, and good and virtuous sentiments, the political fabric may be secure, as well against open violence and overthrow as against that slow but sure undermining of licentiousness. Webster. 13. If we confine our view to the globe we inhabit, it must be allowed that chemistry and geology are the two sciences which not only offer the fairest promise, but already contain the largest generalizations. Buckle 14. Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven. Milton. 234: ANALYSIS. 15. Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately sprung and stood In brighter light and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood? Bryant. 16. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, A youth to fortune and to fame unknown. Gray. 17. Further observation and experience have given me a different idea of this feathered voluptuary, which I will venture to impart, for the benefit of my young readers who may regard him with the same un- qualified envy and admiration which 1 once indulged. Washington Irving. 18. All nature is but art unknbwn to thee ; All chance, direction which thou canst not see ; All discord, harmony not understood ; All partial evil, universal good. Pope. 19. That moss-covered vessel I hail as a treasure ; For often, at noon, when returned from the field, I found it the source of an exquisite pleasure, The purest and sweetest that nature can yield. Woodworth, 20. Now came still evening on, and twilight gray Had in her sober livery all things clad. Milton. 21. On the cross beam under the Old South bell The nest of a pigeon is builded well. In summer and winter that bird is there, Out and in with the morning air. I love to see him track the street, With his wary eye and active feet ; And I often watch him as he springs, Circling the steeple with easy wings, Till across the dial his shade has passed, And the belfry edge is gained at last. Willis. 22. There is a land, of every land the pride, Beloved of heaven o'er all the world beside. Montgomery. 23. Now leave complaining and begin your tea. Pope. 24. This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlock Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of old with voices sad and prophetic, Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. Longfellow. 25. On a sudden, open fly With impetuous recoil and jarring sounds The infernal doors ; and on their hinges grate Harsh thunder. Milton. 26. In her ear he whispers gayly, " If my heart by signs can tell, Maiden, I have watched thee daily, And I think thou lov'st me well." Tennyson. REVIEW EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 235 27. We next hear of him, with myriads of his kind, banqueting among the reeds of the Delaware, and grown corpulent with good-feeding. He has changed his name in travelling. Boblincon no more he is the reed-bird now, the much-sought-for titbit of Pennsylvania epicures, the rival in unlucky fame of the ortolan ! Wherever he goes, pop ! pop ! pop ! every rusty firelock in the country is blazing away. He sees his companions falling by thousands around him. Does he take warning and reform ? Alas ! not he. Incorrigible epicure ! again he wings his flight. The rice swamps of the South invite him. He gorges himself among them almost to bursting; he can scarcely fly for cor- pulency. He has once more changed his name, and is now the famous rice-bird of the Carolinas. Last stage of his career: behold him spit- ted, with dozens of his corpulent companions, and served up, a vaunted dish, on the tr.ble of some Southern gastronome. Washington Irving. APPENDIX. A. THE NOUN. I. NOTES ON NUMBER. [Grammar, pages 11-14.] 1. The Inflection -s, -es. In Anglo-Saxon, or the oldest English, there were several plural suffixes, as, -as, -an, -a, -u: thus, stan-as,* stones ; steorr-an, stars ; hand-a, hands ; lim-u, limbs. After the conquest of England by the Norman French in the llth century, most of these terminations gradually dropped out of the language, and -as, changed to -es, and in many cases to -s, became the ordinary sign of plurality. Hence our plural inflection -s is a shortened form of the Anglo-Saxon as ; thus the plural of smith was first smith-as, then smith-es, and finally smiths. 2. Older Inflections. Though we are in the habit of speaking of the plural in -s or -es as the regular plural, it should not be forgot- ten that there were, in early English, various other inflections of the plural which were quite as much used as -es, and which were therefore quite as regular. Thus Ox, plural oxen (Anglo-Saxon oxa, plural ox-ari), furnishes an example of one of the older and very common modes of forming the plural, namely, by the suffix -an, afterwards changed to -en. Child takes the plural form children. The Anglo-Saxon plural was childru : this became first childre (or childer), and then children, so that it appears to be a double plural = childr(u) -\~ en. Brethren (plural of brother) is an instance of the use of the suffix en, together with a radical change. 3. False Plurals. The s in alms, riches, and eaves is not a sign 238 APPENDIX. of the plural ; but these words, though really singulars, are almost al- ways treated as plurals. Alms is a shortened form of the Anglo-Saxon celmesse, a singular noun. Riches is derived from the French richesse, a singular noun. Eaves is the modern spelling of the Old-English efese (or yfes), a singular noun. II. NOTES ON GENDER [Grammar, pages 16-19.] 1. Historical. It has been seen that in Anglo-Saxon nouns were classified as to gender, not by the sex of the object, but by the termina- tion of the noun, as in Latin and Greek that is, they had grammatical gender. Thus, nouns ending in -dom (as freedom=freedom) were mas- culine; those ending in -img 1 (as gretung= greeting) were feminine, while many ending in -en (as mcegden maiden) were neuter. During this early period of our language the articles, adjectives, and adjective pronouns had distinctive terminations of gender, and were required (as is the case in Latin, Greek, French, and German) to agree in gender with the nouns to which they belonged. 2. Old Feminines. The suffix -ster (Anglo-Saxon -estre) was the feminine inflection corresponding to the masculine ending -er (or -ere) : thus, 'boec-ere (a male baker), bcec-estre (a female baker) ; so sang-ere, sing-er ; sang-estre, a female singer. The substitution of the Norman - French -ess for the Anglo-Saxon -ster occurred about the 14th century. Spinster (an unmarried woman) is an instance of the preservation of this Anglo-Saxon feminine suffix ; for spin-ster originally meant a female spinn-^r. After a time -ster ceased to be felt as a feminine end- ing, and merely denoted one who ; indeed, it often denoted the mascu- line gender, as tapster ; and now it is used principally as a suffix im- plying diminutiveness or some degree of depreciation, as in punster, youngster. Songstress (feminine of singer) is an example of a double termination of the feminine gender &w<7-{-sr-|-m, the French suffix -ess being ap- pended to songster when the Anglo-Saxon suffix -ster had ceased to denote the feminine gender. Yixen (Old English fyx-en, the feminine of fox) is the solitary in- stance now remaining of the use of the once common feminine suffix -en. 3. Masculine from Feminine. As a rule, the feminine is formed from the masculine ; but the reverse is the case in the following words : THE NOUN. 239 Widower: in Old English, widow was both masculine and fem- inine ; later, it was feminine only ; finally, -er was added to denote the masculine. Bridegroom is formed from Ir ide-\- Old-English guma, a man. Gander is derived from gam, a goose. III. NOTES ON CASE. [Grammar, pages 20-22.] 1. Historical. In the ancient languages Latin, Greek, etc. many inflections were used to denote the various relations of nouns to other words ; and these several inflected forms were called cases. The Latin language had changes of form to express The subject of a verb the nominative case : as, url-s, a city. The object of a verb the accusative case : as, urb-em, a city. The indirect object the dative case : as, urb-i, for or to a city. Adverbial relations the ablative case : as, url-e, from, with, or by a city. Specification or limitation the genitive case (corresponding to our possessive) : as, urb-is, a city's. The term case (casus) literally means any form that " happens to oc- cur" any relation that befalls a noun. The old grammarians illus- trated the changes of case by the following diagram : The vertical line represented the nominative case (called casus rectus, or upright case). If this line, moving on a hinge at X, were to fall or be bent downward, it would assume the various oblique positions marked Gr, D, etc., to express the six Latin cases, the nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative. The diagram gives origin to the terms decline, declension (from de, down, and clinere, to bend), the upright line being lent downward ; and inflect, inflection (from in, into, and flectere, to bend). 2. Early English Cases. English, in its earliest or Anglo-Saxon stage, was much fuller in its case-forms than is our modern English. Nouns had then five cases, answering to the nominative, genitive, da- tive, accusative, and ablative of Latin though there were not always distinct forms for all these cases. The following table exhibits the inflections of the noun man in Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and English. 24:0 APPENDIX. LATIN. ANGLO-SAXON. ENGLISH. SINGULAR. SINGULAR. SINGULAR. Nominative Case... homo man man Genitive homin-as mann-^s man's Dative homin-z men man Accusative homin-m man man Vocative homo man man Ablative hornin-0 m^n man PLURAL. PLURAL. PLURAL, Nominative homin-ds men men Genitive homin-wra mann-a men's Dative homin-ibus mann-tm men. Accusative homin-^s men men Vocative homines men men Ablative homin-ifa/s mann-ww men It will be seen from this table that, while the Anglo-Saxon had a less elaborate apparatus of case-endings than the Latin, modern English has still fewer inflections than the Anglo-Saxon had that, in fact, it has lost all the case-forms except the genitive (possessive). 3. Use of -'s. The general use of the apostrophe to mark the elision of the e in the possessive singular is comparatively modern, and first became common about the end of the 17th century. Milton (died 1674) did not use this mark. The probable reason of its employment was to distinguish the possessive singular from the nominative plural : for example, to distinguish Mrdes (possessive singular) from birdes (nominative plural). 4. Possessive Plural. The same explanation does not apply to the use of the apostrophe after the s in the possessive plural. The apos- trophe here does not mark any elision, because no vowel has been dropped. The use of this conventional sign began about the 17th century, through the notion that the s (as in boys) was necessarily the suffix of the nominative plural, though in reality it was quite as much the suffix of the possessive plural. The use of the apostrophe after the e in the plural is therefore arbitrary and meaningless ; still it is a con- venient mode of marking case-use. THE PRONOUN. B. THE PRONOUN. [Grammar, pages 28-32.] 1. The personal pronouns in Anglo-Saxon were thus declined :* First Person. Second Person. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom..lc =1, we =we. thu tbou, ge =ye. Gen. . .min=mme, we=our. thin=t}imQ 1 eower=yo\ir. Dat. . .me =(to) me, us {to} us. the =(to) thee, eow =(to) you. Ace... me =me; us =us. the =tbee; eow =you. Third Person (or Demonstrative). SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASO., FEM., NEUT. Fom..he =he, heo she, hit =it. hi =tbey. Gen. ..his =his, fa*re=her, his =(its). Aira= their. Dat . . .him=(to) him, #i>e=(to) her, A|m=(to) it. fo'm=(to) them. Ace... hine \i\m\ hig = her; Aii =it. 7i&7 =them. 2. My^ thine, etc. The forms my, thy are shortened forms of mine, thine. 3. Its. The possessive form its is a word of comparatively recent introduction (about 1640). It is not found in the English Bible (King James's version, published 1611). The place of its was filled by his, which was the possessive case of hit (it) as well as of he. 4. Him. Him was originally the dative case, the accusative (ob- jective) being hine ; but this latter form was replaced by him as early as the 14th century. The original dative force of him still survives in our modern use of it as indirect object : as in " Give me [=to me] the book." Also in u 7??