THIS BOOK TO MY DEAR FATHER AND MOTHER 20049S1 PREFACE IN this book I have set down the record of a journey in Tibet undertaken by me during the spring, summer, and autumn of 1897. It is illustrated partly from my photographs and partly from sketches made by me on the spot. Only as regards the torture scenes have I had to draw from memory, but it will be easily conceded that their impression must be vivid enough with me. The map is my own, made entirely f'-om my surveys of an area of twelve thousand five hundred square miles in Tibet proper. In Chapter VI. the altitudes of such high peaks in India as Nanda Devi and others are taken from the Trigonometrical Survey, and so are the positions fixed by astronomical observations of the starting and terminating points of my surveys at the spots where I entered and left Tibet. In the orthography of geographical names I have adopted the course advised by the Royal Geographical Society viz., to give the names their true sound as they are locally pronounced, and I have made no exception even for the grand and poetic " Himahlya," which is in English usually distorted into the unmusical and unro- mantic word " Himalaya." PREFACE I submit with all deference the following geographical results of my expedition : The solution of the uncertainty regarding the division of the Mansarowar and Rakastal Lakes ; The ascent to so great an altitude as 22,000 feet, and the pictures of some of the great Himahlyan glaciers ; The visit to and the fixing of the position of the two principal sources of the Brahmaputra, never before reached by a European ; The fact that with only two men I was able to travel for so long in the most populated part of Tibet. In addition to the above, I am glad to state that owing to the publicity which I gave in the Daily Mail to the outrageous Tibetan abuses taking place on British soil, the Government of India has this year (1898) notified the Tibetan authorities that they will in future not be permitted to collect Land Revenue from British subjects there. This fact gives me special satisfaction, because of the exceptional courtesy and kindness bestowed on me by our mountain tribesmen, the Shokas. The Government Report of the official investigation of my case, as well as other documents substantiating the details of my narrative, are printed in an appendix. A. H. S. L. September, 1898. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE FROM LONDON TO NAINI TAL I CHAPTER II LOADS A SET OF USEFUL PACK-SADDLE CASES PROVISIONS AND SCIENTIFIC OUTFIT CLOTHES AND SHOES MEDICINES UNDER WAY THE FIRST MARCH SERVANTS HOW I CAME TO EMPLOY FAITHFUL CHANDEN SING 4 CHAPTER III PITHORAGARH FAKIR WOMEN A WELL-VENTILATED ABODE ASKOTE THE RAJIWAR AND HIS PEOPLE 12 CHAPTER IV THE RAOTS A SLIPPERY JOURNEY SUPERSTITIOUS NOTIONS ANGER AND JEALOUSY FRIENDS TO THE HOMES OF THE SAVAGES PHOTOGRAPHY HABITATIONS l8 CHAPTER V A PILGRIM FROM MANSAROWAR LAKE THE SPIRITS OF THE MOUNTAINS A SAFEGUARD AGAINST THEM TIBETAN ENCAMPMENTS THE RAJIWAR A WATERFALL WATER-MILLS 2g CHAPTER VI HIGHWAYS AND TRADE 'ROUTES THE DARMA ROUTE THE DHOLI RIVER A ROUGH TRACK CONNECTING TWO VALLEYS GLACIERS THREE RANGES AND THEIR PEAKS ALTITUDES DARMA, JOHAR, AND THE PAIXKHA.\DA PARGANAS THE HIGHEST PEAK IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE NATURAL BOUNDARIES 39 CHAPTER VII THE WORD BHOT AND ITS MEANING TIBETAN INFLUENCE TIBETAN ABUSES THE EVER-HELPFUL CHANDEN SING THE FIRST SHOKAH VILLAGE CHANDEN SING IN DISGRACE WEAVING - LOOM FABRICS ALL'S WELL THAT ENDS WELL 45 vii CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII PAGE PRAYER BY WIND-POWER PHOTOGRAPHY UNDER DIFFICULTIES A NIGHT OF MISERY DRYING UP TWO LADY MISSIONARIES THEIR VALUABLE WORK AN INTERESTING DINNER-PARTY AN "ECCENTRIC" MAN'S TEA-PARTY 5! CHAPTER IX DISCOURAGING REPORTS A STEEP ASCENT HOW I CAME TO DESERVE THE NAME OF "MONKEY" HARD AT WORK PROMOTED IN RANK COLLAPSE IN A GALE OF WIND TIME AND LABOR LOST 58 CHAPTER X THE NERPANl, OR ' ' WATERLESS TRACK " EXAGGERATED ACCOUNTS A LONG SHOT THE RESCUE OF TWO COOLIES PICTURESQUE NATURE AN INVOL- UNTARY SHOWER-BATH THE CHAl PASS 63 CHAPTER XI A SERIES OF MISFORTUNES TIBETAN ATROCITIES ON BRITISH SUBJECTS TIB- ETAN EXACTIONS REVOLTING CRUELTY TO ONE OF HER MAJESTY'S SUB- JECTS ASSAULT ON A BRITISH OFFICER A SMART BRITISH ENVOY . . 71 CHAPTER XII TIBETAN THREATS MY BIRTHDAY RAVENOUS DOGS A BIG DINNER SHOKA HOSPITALITY 78 CHAPTER XIII SHOKA HOSPITALITY HOW I OBTAINED MUCH INFORMATION ON A RECON- NOITRING TRIP A TERRIBLE SLIDE 84 CHAPTER XIV A PALAVER TO SEE IS TO BELIEVE DANGERS AND PERILS ON THE SNOW AND ICE THAR AND GHURAL STALKING A TIRING CLIMB TO l6,OOO FEET THE COLLAPSE OF A SNOW BRIDGE 92 CHAPTER XV AN EARTHQUAKE CURIOUS NOTIONS OF THE NATIVES A SHOKA TAILOR AND HIS WAYS THE ARRIVAL OF SILVER CASH TWO ROCKS IN THE KALI ARROGANCE OF A TIBETAN SPY 97 CHAPTER XVI THE RAMBANG SHOKA MUSIC LOVE-SONGSDOLEFUL SINGING ABRUPT END- ING SOLOS SMOKING WHEN MARRIAGE IS CONTEMPLATED THE DELANG ADULTERY PUNISHMENT . 105 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER XVII FUNERAL RITES PAGB DEPARTURE OF THE SOUL CREMATION AMUSEMENT OF THE DEAD MAN'S SOUL THE LAY-FIGURE FEASTING DOLEFUL DANCE TRANSMIGRATION OF THE SOUL EXPENSIVE CEREMONIES OFFERINGS BEFORE THE LAY- FIGURE DANCING AND CONTORTIONS MARTIAL DANCES SOLO DANCES THE ANIMAL TO BE SACRIFICED AND THE LAY-FIGURE CHASING THE ANIMAL FROM THE VILLAGE TEARING OUT ITS HEART THE YAK DRIVEN OVER A PRECIPICE H1.A1' SHAVING A SACRED CAVE 112 CHAPTER XVIII TOUCHING SHOKA FAREWELL FEELINGS CURIOUSLY EXPRESSED SOBS AND TEARS THE START A FUNERAL PROCESSION DISTRESSED FATHER AND MOTHER KACHI AND DOLA THE WORSE FOR DRINK ANXIOUS MOMENTS THE BRIDGE DESTROYER 124 CHAPTER XIX A DANGEROUS TRACK PERILOUS PASSAGE A CURIOUS BRIDGE OVER A PRECI- PICE PATHETIC SHOKA CUSTOM SMALL MISADVENTURES A GRAND RE- CEPTION TEA FOR ALL TASTES 130 CHAPTER XX DR. WILSON JOINS MY EXPEDITION FOR A FEW MARCHES WHAT MISDEEDS A PHOTOGRAPHIC CAMERA CAN DO WEIGHING, DIVIDING, AND PACKING PROVISIONS TWO EXTRA MEN WANTED THE LAST FRIENDLY FACES . . 134 CHAPTER XXI THE KUTI CASTLE UNDER WAY OUR FIRST DISASTER A CHEERFUL AND A SULKY COOLIE MANSING A BRIGAND A STRANGE MEDLEY OF FOLLOW- ERS A CHARACTER TAILORING FIELDS OF STONES TROUBLESOME RIVERS THE JOLINKAN OR LEBUNG PASS SENSE OF HUMOR PLEASED WITH SMALL COMFORTS 138 CHAPTER XXII WANT OF FUEL COOKING UNDER DIFFICULTY MANSING LOST AND FOUND SAVED FROM SUMMARY JUSTICE TIBETAN VISITORS WE PURCHASE SHEEP THE SNOW-LINE COLD STREAMS THE PETRIFIED CHAPATI AND HUMAN HAND 148 CHAPTER XXIII THE SCOUTS RETURN A SMALL EXPLORING PARTY THE MANGSHAN GLACIER . 154 CHAPTER XXIV. SNOW AND TROUBLESOME DEBRIS THE DOCTOR'S SUFFERINGS KACHI DIS- ABLEDFURTHER TRIALS A WEIRD APPARITION DELIRIUM ALL SAFE THE DESCENT 158 ix CONTENTS CHAPTER XXV PAGE THE SOURCES OF THE KUTI RIVER THE LUMl'IY A GLACIER THE SUMMIT Of THE RANGE BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF TIBET RUBSO FROZEN ALMOST TO l>l \TH THE LUMPIYA PASS TWO COOLIES IN DISTRESS l66 CHAPTER XXVI MYSTERIOUS FOOTPRINTS BRIGAND OR SPY ? PASSES AND TRACKS INTENSE COLD NO FUEL A HIGH, FLAT PLATEAU FUEL AT LAST ! TWO SPIES IN DISGUISE WHAT THEY TOOK US FOR 1 7 1 CHAPTER XXVII LAMA CHOKDEN A TIBETAN GUARD THE SACRED KELAS REVERENCE OF MY MEN FOR THE SACRED MOUNTAIN TRYING HARD TO KEEP FRIENDS WITH THE GODS OSOS WATER FLOWING TO US I7f> CHAPTER XXVIII AN EXTENSIVE VALLEY KIANG, OR WILD HORSE THEIR STRANGE WAYS THE GYANEMA FORT APPREHENSION AT OUR APPEARANCE A PARLEY "CUT OUR HEADS!" REVOLT AND MURDER CONTEMPLATED HYPOCRIT- ICAL WAYS OF TIBETAN OFFICIALS HELP SUMMONED FROM EVERYWHERE PREPARING FOR WAR !?<> CHAPTER XXIX ARRIVAL OF A HIGH OFFICIAL THE BARCA TARJUM A TEDIOUS PALAVER THE TARJUM'S ANXIETY PERMISSION TO PROCEED A TRAITOR EN- TREATED TO RETRACE OUR STEPS THIRTY ARMED HORSEMEN A PRETTY SPEECH l86> CHAPTER XXX SPYING OUR MOVEMENTS DISGUISED SEPOYS A GLOOMY OUTLOOK TROUBLE- SOME FOLLOWERS ANOTHER MARCH BACK AN AMUSING INCIDENT . . 193. CHAPTER XXXI AN ATTEMPT THAT FAILED A RESOLUTION A SMART SHOKA LAD THE PLUCKY CHANDEN SING PROPOSES TO ACCOMPANY ME MANSING THE LEPER BECOMES MY SERVANT'S SERVANT IQ& CHAPTER XXXII " DEVIL'S CAMP " A FIERCE SNOW - STORM ABANDONING OUR TENTS DANGERS AND PERILS IN PROSPECT COLLECTING THE MEN ONE LOAD TOO MANY ! ANOTHER MAN WANTED AND FOUND A PROPITIOUS NIGHT GOOD-BYE TO WILSON THE ESCAPE BRIGANDS 2OJ CHAPTER XXXIII SOUTHEAST WIND HUNGRY AND HALF FROZEN LAKES AT 18,960 FEET ABOVE SEA-LEVEL COLD FOOD AT HIGH ALTITUDES BURIED IN SNOW MANSING'S SUFFERINGS FUEL AT LAST 20$ x CONTENTS CHAPTER XXXIV PACK DACOITS NO NONSENSE ALLOWED A MUCH-FREQUENTED REGION A PLATEAU THE GYANE.MA- 1 AKLAKOT TRACK A DANGEROUS SPOT SOLDIERS WAITING FOR US BURYING OUR BAGGAGE OUT OF PROVISIONS A FALL INTO THE GAKKON RIVER A BRIGHT IDEA NETTLES OUR DIET . . . 213 CHAPTER XXXV ALL THAT REMAINED OF MY MEN'S PROVISIONS THE PLAN TO ENTER THE FORT APPEARANCE OF YAKS A BAND OF BRIGANDS ERECTING FORTI- FICATIONSCHANGES IN THE TEMPERATURE SOLDIERS IN SEARCH OF US 22O CHAPTER XXXVI "TERROR CAM I 1 " TWO MORE MESSENGERS lEAVE CAMP A TRIBE OF DOGPAS A STRANGE SAHIB OUR MESSENGERS RETURN FROM TAKLAKOT THE ACCOUNT AND ADVENTURES OF THEIR MISSION IN GREAT DISTRESS TWO FAKIRS WHO SUFFERED THROUGH ME FIVE HUNDRED RUPEES OFFERED FOR MY HEAD THE SHOKAS WANT TO ABANDON ME A PLOT HOW IT FAILED , 224, CHAPTER XXXVII A TIBETAN GUARD'S KNC AMPMENT NATTOO VOLUNTEERS TO BE A GUIDE TREACHERY AND PUNISHMENT OF THE SHOKAS ALL WAYS FORWARD BARRED TO ME EVADING THE SOLDIERS BY ANOTHER PERILOUS MARCH AT NIGHT MANSING AGAIN LOST A MARVELLOUS PHENOMENON SUF- FERINGS OF MY MEN SEVERE COLD 23! CHAPTER XXXVIII NIGHT MARCHING THE LAFAN AM) MAFAN LAKES TJZE, THE SACRED KELAS RHUBARB BUTTERFLIES A HERMIT LAMA MORE DACOITS SUR- ROUNDED BY THEM ROUTED 236 CHAPTER XXXIX SPIED AND FOLLOWED BY ROBBERS JOGPAS* HOSPITALITY HARES TIBETAN CHARMS RESISTED ATTEMPT TO SNATCH CHANDEN SING'S RIFLE OUT OF HIS HANDS THE RIDGE BETWEEN RAKASTAL AND MA.NSAROWAR LAKES . 243 CHAPTER XL MORE ROBBERS THE FRIENDS OF TIBETAN AUTHORITIES A SNAP-SHOT A MEEK LOT PREPOSSESSING FEMALE AND HER CURIOUS WAYS THE PUR- CHASE OF TWO YAKS 247 CHAPTER XLI TIBETAN COATS, HATS, AND BOOTS WHY A TIBETAN PREFERS TO LEAVE HALF THE CHEST AND ONE ARM BARE ORNAMENTATIONS MANNER AND SPEECH IGNORANCE AND SUPERSTITION WAY OF EATING JOGPA WOMEN AND CHILDREN HEAD-DRESS 252 xi CONTENTS CHAPTER XLII PAGE A DAKU'S STRANGE IDEAS THE RIDGE BETWEEN THE TWO LAKES BLACK I KNTS CONFRONTING THE TWO LAKES A CHAIN OF HIGH PEAKS CHANGE IN THE WEATHER 259 CHAPTER XLIII THE LANGA TSANGPO A TERRIFIC STORM DRENCHED TO THE SKIN HEAVY MARCHING AGAINST THE GODS DIFFICULTY IN FINDING THE LAMASERY \M> VILLAGE A BARK! ARRIVAL AT LAST GENTLE TAPPING UNDER A ROOF 264 CHAPTER XLIV THE INTERIOR OF A SERAI VERMIN FISH, LOCAL JEWELRY, AND POTTERY FOR SALE FAVORITE SHAPES AND PATTERNS HOW POTTERY IS MADE . 268 CHAPTER XLV FRIENDLY LAMAS CHANDEN SING AND MANSING PURIFIED MANSING'S SAR- CASM PILGRIMS TO MANSAROWAR AND THEIR PRIVILEGES FOR LUCK ! OUTSIDE THE GOMBA 2?2 CHAPTER XLVI ENTERING THE LAMASERY THE LAMA'S DWELLING NOVICES WERE WE IN A TRAP ? IMAGES OBLATIONS URCHIN THE HOLY WATER, THE VEIL OF FRIENDSHIP, AND ABSOLUTION MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, BOOKS, ETC. GOD AND THE TRINITY HEAVEN AND HELL A MYSTERY 275 CHAPTER XLVII THE JONG PEN'S STATEMENTS REGARDING ME SECTS OF LAMAS LAMASERIES GOVERNMENT ALLOWANCE IGNORANCE OF THE CROWDS HOW LAMAS ARE RECRUITED LAMAS, NOVICES, AND MENIALS DANCES AND HYPNO- TISM INFALLIBILITY CELIBACY AND VICE SCULPTORS PRAYER-WHEELS AND REVOLVING INSTRUMENTS NUNNERIES HUMAN BONES FOR EATING- VESSELS AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS BLOOD-DRINKING 28l CHAPTER XLVIII ILLNESSES AND REMEDIES CURIOUS THEORIES ABOUT FEVER EVIL SPIRITS- BLACKSMITH AND DENTIST EXORCISMS SURGICAL OPERATIONS MASSAGE AND CUPPING INCURABLE ILLNESSES DEFORMITIES DEAFNESS FITS AND INSANITY MELANCHOLIA SUICIDES 2QO CHAPTER XLIX A TIBETAN MEDICINE - MAN LUMBAGO, AND A STARTLING CURE FOR IT COMBUSTIBLE FUSEES FIRE AND BUTTER PRAYERS, AGONY, AND DIS- TORTIONS STRANGE IDEAS ON MEDICINE 3OO CHAPTER L TUCKER VILLAGE CHOKDENS HOUSES FLYING PRAYERS SOLDIERS OR ROB- BERS ? A STAMPEDE FRESH PROVISIONS DISAPPOINTMENT TREACHERY SHOKAS LEAVE ME OBSERVATIONS FIVE MEN, ALL COUNTED . . . 304 xii ILLUSTRATIONS A. Henry Savage Landor and his Two Faithful Ser- / _ . , > . Frontispiece vants. Photogravure \ A Chinese Passport : I My Start from Naini Tal Facing 6 Lepers " 8 My Faithful Companion 10 Castle at Pithoragarh 13 RaOtS Facing 14 My Abode at Askote 15 A Young Man 18 Raot on Tree 19 Head of Young Man 21 Two Men Sitting Down with Children 23 A Young Man 24 Raot Women of the Forest 27 The Rajiwar of Askote, his Brother and Son 29 Fakir Returning from Mansarowar 30 The Rajiwar and his Brother in Dandies 35 Darma Shokas and Tibetans 40 Shoka Weavers 48 Shrine and Flying Prayers 51 House of a Wealthy Shoka Facing 52 Wrinkled Shoka 54 Lai Sing Tokudar and his Brother 55 The Tent 61 Nerpani Road 63 The Nerpani Road 66 The Nerpani Road 67 The Chai-Lek Pass 68 Narrow Gorge Between Two Mountains 69 The Gates of Garbyang 72 Garbyang Facing 72 Matan Sing Chaprassi Narenghiri Chaprassi 75 xiii The House Where I Stayed at Garbyang 78 Shoka House with Strange Ladder 79 Shoka Houses. 81 Shoka Child Being Smeared with Butter 85 The Master of a High-school, Altitude 10,940 Feet 86 Gungi Shankom 87 Zazzela Mount, near Gungi 89 Chiram 9 Involuntary Tobogganing Facing 90 Shoka Child Smeared with Butter, and Left to Absorb Butter in the Sun 9 1 Kuti 93 Snow Bridges Over the Kuti River Facing 94. Old Shoka Woman Smoking 95 Chanden Sing and the Daku Rolling Up my Bedding ..... 96 A Well-attended School ' . 98- My Banker and Agent 101 The Valley of Garbyang 103 Motema, a Shoka Beauty , , 105 On the Way to the Rambang 106 Shoka Ear-rings 107 Silver Ear-rings of Tibetan Origin, with Coral Beads ...... 108 Shoka Woman Weaving 109 Rambang Girls with Ornaments 1 1 1 Weeping Women Under White Cloth 113 Shoka Funeral Pile 114 Dance in Front of Deceased Man's House Facing 116 Women Dusting and Caressing the Lay-figure 116 Women Dancing Round the Lay-figure : .... 117 Martial Dance Round Lay-figure Facing 1 1 8 The Goat, with Soul of Deceased, Being Fed 119 Goat, with Soul and Clothes of Deceased 120 Yak Driven Over Precipice Facing 120 Sending the Goat Away from the Village 121 Tearing Out the Heart of the Goat 122 Kachi and his Relations 124 The Patan Summoning my Coolies from the Roof of his House . .125 The Chongur Bridge Previous to Being Destroyed 128 A Perilous Passage Facing 130 The Photograph that Caused the Child's Death 135 Plan of Kuti Castle 138 Mansing, the Leper, Showing his Hands 140 The Kuti Castle Facing 142 xiv ILLUSTRATIONS PACE The Jolinkan or Lebung Pass U4 Camping in Snow Facing 148 The Snow-line at 16,000 Feet 151 The Mangshan Glacier Facing \ 54 " I Roused the Rongba " 163 Ascending the Lumpiya Pass Facing 166 The Lumpiya Glacier and Pass " 168 Spied " 172 My Men Salaaming Kelas at Lama Chokden " 176 The Arrival of Reinforcements " 186 The Barca Tarjum and his Officers " 190 "At Night I Led my Men Up the Mountain in a Fierce Snow-storm " " 204 Buried in Snow " 210 Dacoits with a Booty of Sheep " 214 Sheep Carrying Load 214 Behind Our Bulwarks Facing 222 Our First View of Rakastal 237 Rakastal and Mansarowar Lakes 238-239 A Dacoit 244 The Bandits Laid Down Their Arms Facing 248 Pack-saddles for Yaks 250 White Woollen Coat and Sashes ) Woollen Socks i 253 Man's Boot, Made at Sigatz Snow-boot Woman's Boot Boot Made in Lhassa J Hat Worn by Officials 256 A Black Yak 260 My Two Yaks Facing 260 Silver Lhassa Coins ) Copper Coins v 269 Ear-ring Worn by Men ) Silver Charm ) Gold-and-Malachite Brooch \ . Mansarowar Pottery 271 Entrance to the Tucker Temple 276 Stone with Inscription 286 Stone with Inscription 287 Prayer-wheels, Ancient and Modern. Showing Rolls of Prayers to Go Inside 288 Branch with Thorns to Prevent Return of Evil Spirits 294 xv ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE A Medicine-man 301 Tucker Village and Gomba Facing 304 The Panku Gomba 306 COLORED PLATES View of the Himahlyas. Showing Nanda Devi and Trisul Peaks Facing 42 Nerpani Track " 66 The Spectre and Circular Rainbow " 162 A Tibetan Fortune-teller 270 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND rt * 4 + m S ' *.' <* 4* ft ^ *f /h ^ 3^ * * i i # * # f f t i4 * A CHINESE PASSPORT IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND CHAPTER I FROM LONDON TO NAINI TAL ON leaving London, I intended to proceed via Ger- many to Russia, traverse Russian Turkestan, Bokhara, and Chinese Turkestan, and from there enter Tibet. The Russian Government had readily granted me a spe- cial permission to take free of duty through their terri- tory my fire-arms, ammunition, provisions, photographic cameras, surveying and other scientific instruments, and, i. A i IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND moreover, informed me, through His Excellency Sir Nich- olas O'Conor, then our Ambassador in St. Petersburg, that I should be privileged to travel on the military railway through Turkestan as far as the terminus at Samarakand. O I feel under a great obligation to the Russian Embassy in London for the extreme courtesy shown me, and I desire to acknowledge this at the outset, especially be- cause that route might very likely have saved me much of the suffering and disappointment I was subjected to through going by way of India. I was provided with introductions and credentials from the Marquis of Salisbury, the British Museum of Natural History, etc. ; I was carrying scientific instruments for the Royal Geographical Society, and I had a British and two Chinese passports. Having forwarded all my explosives by an ammuni- tion vessel to Russia (the German railways absolutely refusing to carry cartridges), I heard, to my dismay, only a few days previous to leaving London, that the steamer had stranded just before reaching her port of destination, and that grave doubts were entertained as to the possi- bility of saving even a portion of her cargo. This was at the time of the outbreak of the Turco-Greek war, and the Russians were reported to be mobilizing their troops along the Afghan frontier. I did not wish to delay my journey, and although my preparations were complete for going through Russia, I nevertheless decided to abandon that plan and go to India, with a view to penetrating over the Himahlya into Tibet. I sailed for India on March 1 9th, on the P. & O. steamship Peninsular, and reached Bombay three weeks later. It was my first visit to India, and my first impression was certainly not a good one. The heat was intense, and signs of the plague were discernible everywhere. The THE PLAGUE streets were deserted, and the hotels bad and dirty for want of servants, who had abandoned the town in fear of the scourge. Accompanied by a Parsee friend, I went to several of the districts of Bombay chiefly affected by the disease, but I noticed, wherever I went, little else than a strong odor of disinfectants. It is true, there were few houses in those parts which had not ten, twenty, and even more circular red marks, denoting as many deaths, and on one door, which I photographed, I counted no less than forty- nine circles. But I was unable to gauge personally with any sort of accuracy the nature or extent of the disease, beyond seeing in the hospitals a few violent cases of bu- bonic attacks. On the day following my arrival in Bombay I pro- ceeded by rail to Bareilly, which was reached in three days, and from there one more night brought me to Kathgodam, the terminus of the railway line. Travel- ling partly by tonga (a two-wheeled vehicle drawn by two horses) and partly on horseback, I found myself at last at Naini Tal, a hill station in the lower Himahlyas, and the summer seat of the Government of the Northwest Prov- inces and Oudh, from whence I wrote to the Lieutenant- Governor, informing him of my intention to proceed to Tibet. I also called on the Deputy Commissioner and made him fully acquainted with my plans. Neither one nor the other of these gentlemen raised the slightest ob- jection to my intended journey into the sacred Land of the Lamas. CHAPTER II LOADS A SET OF USEFUL PACK-SADDLE CASES PROVISION'S AND SCIEN- TIFIC OUTFIT CLOTHES AND SHOES MEDICINES UNDER WAY THE FIRST MARCH SERVANTS HOW I CAME TO EMPLOY FAITHFUL CHANDEN SING I KNEW that from Naini Tal, 6407 feet (sixty feet above lake level), all my loads would have to be transported on the backs of coolies, and therefore they had to be divided into equal weights not exceeding twenty-five seers, or fifty pounds. I packed instruments, negatives, and articles lia- ble to get damaged in cases of my own make, designed especially for rough usage. A set of four such cases, of well-seasoned deal wood, carefully joined and fitted, zinc- lined, and soaked in a special preparation of mine by which they were rendered water and air tight, could be made use- ful in many ways. Taken separately they could be used as seats ; four placed in a row answered the purpose of bedstead ; three could be used as seat and table ; and the combination of four, used in a certain manner, made a punt or boat of quick, solid, and easy construction, by which an unfordable river could be crossed or soundings taken in the still waters of a lake. The cases could also be used as baths for myself and my followers (if I could induce these to so far indulge), and also, in the develop- ing of my negatives, as tanks to properly wash my plates. I conjectured even that in case of emergency they might serve as water-casks in arid regions, if I should have to traverse any. One of these boxes packed was exactly a coolie load, and two could be easily slung over a pack- 4 A SET OF USEFUL CASES saddle by means of straps and rings. It was due mainly to the stoutness and strength of these cases that, notwith- standing the amount of knocking about they got, my pho- tographic and painting work, as well as my maps, instru- ments, etc., were really in no way injured until we fell into the hands of the Tibetans. Fortunately, the most im- portant part of my work, from a scientific point of view, had already been accomplished. My provisions were prepared for me by the Bovril Company, after instruc- tions furnished by me, with a view to the severe Tibetan climate and the altitudes we should find ourselves in. They contained a vast amount of fat and carbonaceous food, as well as ingredients easily digestible and calcu- lated to maintain one's strength even in moments of un- usual stress. I had them packed in tin cases and skin bags. I carried in a water-tight box 1000 cartridges for my .256 Mannlicher rifle, besides 500 cartridges for my revolver, and a number of hunting-knives, skinning imple- ments, wire traps of several sizes for capturing small mammals, butterfly nets, bottles for preserving reptiles in alcohol, insect- killing bottles (cyanide of potassium), a quantity of arsenical soap, bone nippers, scalpels, and all other accessories necessary for the collection of natural- history specimens. There were three sets of photographic apparatus in my outfit, and one hundred and fifty-eight dozen dry plates, as well as all adjuncts for the devel- oping, fixing, etc., of the negatives as they were taken. The collecting materials were given me by the British Museum of Natural History, to which institution I had promised to present all specimens of fauna and flora I might collect during my journey. I had two sets of instruments for astronomical observation and for use in surveying (one of which had been furnished me by the Royal Geographical Society), such as the six -inch 5 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND sextant, hypsometrical apparatus for measuring heights, with boiling-point thermometers specially constructed for very great altitudes; two aneroids, one to 20,000 feet, the other to 25,000 feet ; three artificial horizons (one mercury, the others plate-glass with levels); a powerful telescope with astronomical eye-piece and stand ; a prismatic, a luminous, a floating, and two pocket compasses; maximum and minimum thermometers; a case of drawing-instru- ments, protractors, parallel rules, tape rules, a silver water- tight half -chronometer watch and three other watches, O section paper in books and in large sheets, Rapers and the Nautical Almanac for 1897 and 1898. Not to neglect the artistic aspect of my expedition, I had provided myself with ample painting and drawing materials, and I trust to the appearance of my sketches in these volumes to prove that I did not carry them in vain. I was provided with a very light mountain tente d'abri, seven feet long, four feet wide, and three feet high. Well accustomed to the sort of travelling I was in for, I decided that I required for myself only a camel-hair blanket in the way of bedding. I reduced my clothing also to a min- imum, and made no difference in it from start to finish. The only thing I ever missed was my straw hat, which I wore up in the Himahlyas just as I had worn it on the broiling plains, because it seemed to me always the most comfortable headgear. It was rendered unwearable through the clumsiness of one of my Shokas, to whom I had lent it to carry in it some swan eggs (presented by a friendly Shoka), and who fell with it, or on it, to the detriment and destruction both of vessel and load. After that I generally went about with my head uncov- ered, as I only had a small cap left, which was not com- fortable. I wore medium thick shoes without nails, and never carried a stick, and I think it was clue largely to 6 the simplicity of my personal equipment that I was able, as will be seen presently, to climb to one of the greatest alti- tudes ever reached by a human being.* My provision of medicines cost me only half a crown, firm as I am in the belief that man, living naturally under natural conditions, and giving himself plenty of exercise, can be helped very little by drugs. And thus I started. On the first day I rode from Naini Tal to Almora, thirty miles by the lower and well - known road via Khairna. Almora (5510 feet) is the last hill station towards the frontier where I expected to find a European, or rather an Anglo - Indian, community, and I made it my head- quarters for a few days. It was my intention to obtain some reliable hill men, possibly Gourkhas, to accompany me. I applied in vain for this purpose to the Lieutenant- Colonel of the ist 3d Gourkha Regiment quartered in the station, duly showing letters, introductions, and docu- ments, from the highest authorities and institutions in England, plainly demonstrating the scientific object of my journey to Tibet. The superior authorities seemed open to negotiations had I been able to afford a wait of several months; but, as this would have involved the postponement of my journey for a year, on account of the passes leading into Tibet becoming impassable at the end of the summer, I decided to snap my fingers at all the red tape the job re- quired, and to start on my journey without the Gourkhas. As luck would have it, I came across a gentleman at Almora, a Mr. J. Larkin, who showed me great polite- ness and gave me much useful information with re- * See Appendix. Letter by Dr. H. Wilson. 7 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND gard to the roads, the mode of travelling, etc., on the British side of the Tibetan frontier. He had himself travelled nearly up to the boundary the previous year, and knew that part of Kumaon better than any Anglo- Indian in the province. In fact, with the exception of Colonel Grigg, Commissioner of Kumaon, Mr. Larkin is the only other official who has any knowledge at all of the northeast of Kumaon, now so neglected by the Government of the Northwest Provinces. Gourkhas being unobtainable, the question weighed heavily on my mind of obtaining plucky, honest, wiry, healthy servants, of whatever caste they might be, who would be ready, for the sake of a good salary and a hand- some reward, to brave the many discomforts, hardships, and perils my expedition was likely to involve. Both at Naini Tal and here scores of servants and Shikaris (sporting attendants) offered themselves. They one and all produced " certificates " of good conduct, irreproacha- ble honesty, good - nature, and willingness to work, and praises unbounded of all possible virtues that a servant could possess. Each certificate was duly ornamented with the signature of a General, a Captain, a Lieutenant- Governor, or some other considerable personage, but each bearer of such testimonial seemed sadly neglected by those who had been so enthusiastically pleased with his services, for he invariably commenced by asking for a loan of several rupees to purchase boots and blankets, and to enable him to support a wife with or without a family whom he would be leaving behind. I decided that my means did not permit of my sup- porting " the dear ones at home " of the two or three dozen followers I should require, and I made up my mind to wait and see whether I could not find men to suit me farther on my road without involving myself in 8 MY FAITHFUL COMPANION the liability of supporting the entire population I left be- hind me. I made only one exception. I was sitting one fine day in my room at the Dak Bungalow (post resting-house) when an odd creature entered and offered his services, salaaming me. " Where are your certificates ?" I asked. " Sahib, hum 'certificates' ne hai" (Sir, I have no cer- tificates.) " Well, then I may employ you." I had previously had a good look at the fellow. His facial lines showed considerably more character and force than I had noticed in the features of other local natives. His attire was peculiar. He wore a white turban, and from under a short velvet waistcoat there protruded a gaudy flannel shirt in yellow and black stripes, which he wore oddly outside of his pajamas instead of in them. He had no shoes, and carried in his right hand an old cricket stump, with which he " presented arms," as it were, every time that I came in and went out of the room. I at once decided to try him. It was about nine o'clock in the morning when I, having many people to see, handed Chanden Sing, for that was his name, a pair of shoes and some blacking. " Mind I find them clean when I return." " Acha, Sahib T (All right, sir!) " You will find some brushes in my room." " Bahut acha, Sahib /" (Very good, sir !) I left. At six P.M., when I returned to my quarters, I found Chanden Sing still polishing my footgear with all his might. He had been at it the whole day, and had used for the purpose my best hair and clothes brushes. "Oh, you budmdsh ! crab log ! pagaU" (Oh, you bad character ! bad man ! fool ! ) I exclaimed, disgusted, mak- ing as much display as possible of the only three or 9 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND four words I then knew of Hindustani. I snatched the blackened articles of toilet out of his hands, while he, with an air of wounded feelings, pointed out the wonderful re- sults he had achieved. It was clear that Chanden Sing was not much a valet, neither was he a master at opening soda-water bottles. He generally managed to give you a spray-bath, if he did not actually shoot the flying cork in your face. It was owing to one (by no means the first) of these ac- cidents that Chanden Sinor O r having hit me full, was a few days later flung bodily out of the front door. I am very adverse to the hab- it of punishing the natives injudiciously and unjustly, but I believe that firm if not too severe a punishment administered in time is ab- solutely necessary with na- tive servants, and generally saves much trouble and un- MY FAITHFUL COMPANION pleasantness in the end. Anyhow, Chanden Sing, none the worse, returned the next day to get his cricket stump, which he had forgotten in his hurried and in- voluntary departure. He seized this opportunity to offer his humblest apologies for his clumsiness, and produced the following letter, which he had got written in English by a Babu in the Bazaar : 10 FAITHFUL CHANDEN SING " DEAR SIR, I am a stupid man, but I hear you intend to take two- Gourkha soldiers with you to Tibet. I am a good and very stout man, and therefore far superior to any Gourkha. Please employ me. " Your faithful servant, "CHANDEN SlNG." This was touching, and I forgave him and allowed him to stay. He improved as time went on, and after a while became quite tolerable. One morning Mr. Larkin called when Chanden Sing happened to be about. "Who is that?" said Larkin. " That is my bearer." " But he is not a bearer. He was once a policeman, and a smart fellow, too. He worked out a good case in his own village, and had many people arrested and con- victed for theft. As a reward they sacked him." " I am thinking of taking him with me." " He is a good lad," replied Mr. Larkin. " You can, anyhow, take him as far as the frontier, but I would not advise you to take him into Tibet." Mr. Larkin counselled Chanden Sing to be diligent and attentive, and the ex-policeman beamed all over with joy when I told him definitely that he might accompany me to Bhot. He turned out to be the one plucky man among all my followers, and he stood by me through thick and thin. CHAPTER III PITHORAGARH FAKIR WOMEN A WELL-VENTILATED ABODE ASKOTE THE RAJIWAR AND HIS PEOPLE THE country up to Bhot is comparatively well known, therefore I will not dwell at length on the first portion of my journey. On May gth all my baggage, accompanied by two Chaprassis, left on its way to the frontier, and I followed on the next day. Two days' marching, at the rate 'of twenty-five miles a day, brought me to Shor, otherwise called Pithoragarh. The road is good all the way, running through thick forests of pine and fir trees, and you get here and there pretty views of wooded mountain ranges. Nevertheless, it is tiring, owing to the many ascents and descents, as will be seen from the following figures showing the principal elevations. From 5510 feet we climbed to 7650 feet, descended to 2475 feet, climbed again up to 6020 feet at Gangoli Hat, and redescended by a steep in- cline to 2500 feet. The intense heat prevented me from walking at my usual pace, and I did not, therefore, reach my destination before sundown. Walking on in the dark, we saw the distant flickering forest fires crawling here and there like incandescent snakes along or up the mountain-side ; these are caused by the igniting of the grass, shrubs, and undergrowth by the natives, the flames not unfrequently spreading and playing havoc among the finest trees of the forest. 12 CASTLE AT PITHORAGARH At Pithoragarh (6650 feet) there is the old Loudon Gourkha fort to be seen, on a hill - top, also a well-kept leper hospital, a school, and a mission-house. The soil is fertile, and there are many stretches of well-cultivated land dotted with habitations. Water is plentiful, and though the scenery certainly lacks trees except in the immediate neighborhood of the villages and houses, it has, nevertheless, a certain picturesqueness on account of CASTLE AT PITHORAGARH its background of wooded mountains. I started from Pithoragarh at 6.30 A.M.; leaving the road to Tal on the left, I followed the track at a medium elevation of 6250 feet, arriving at Shadgora (6350 feet) just in time to witness the blessing of a calf by a Brahmin. Inside a diminutive shrine into the door of which I was curi- ous enough to peep I discovered two skinny, repulsive old women, with sunken, discolored eyes, untidy locks of scanty hair, long, unwashed, bony arms and legs, and fin- ger and toe nails of abnormal length. They were clad in a few dirty rags, and were busily attending to the lights burning on several primitive stone candlesticks along the walls of the shrine. There were also some curiously shaped stones standing upright among the candlesticks. The ceiling of this place of worship was not high enough i. B 13 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND to allow the women to stand, and they were compelled to crawl about inside on all fours. When they saw me they stretched out their angular arms towards me, begging for money. I gave them a silver coin, which they shoved under one of the peculiar stones, and then, turning round, immediately made violent gestures suggesting to me that I was to depart. Farther on I came upon a point where three roads branched off to Deolthal (six miles) on the left, to Askote (twelve and three - quarter miles) in the centre, and to Pithoragarh (eleven and a quarter miles), a different route from the one followed, on the right. I took the middle one, and travelled on in a storm of hail and wind with a constant deafening roar of thunder and splendid flashes of lightning, which produced magical effects on the ever -changing and fantastic clouds and the weird mountain- sides along which I ploughed my way. I arrived late in the evening at Askote, where there is neither Dak Bungalow nor Daramsalla,* and found to my disgust that none of my carriers had yet arrived. I was offered hospitality by Pundit Jibanand, who put me up in his school-room, a structure consisting of a number of planks put together regardless of width, height, length, or shape, and supporting a roof of straw and grass. The ventilation of my abode was all one could wish for, and as during the night I lay wrapped up in my blanket under the sheltering roof I could admire through the disconnected portions of the walls the brilliancy of the star-studded heaven above. When the sun arose, bits of scenery appeared between plank and plank, until by de- * Daramsalla, a stone-walled shelter for the use of travellers and natives. 14 ASKOTE grees the gaps were all stopped up by figures of natives, who took possession of these points of vantage to gaze to their hearts' content on the sahib, who, with signs of evident suspense on the part of these spectators, managed even to shave. Hilarity, on the other hand, was caused when I smeared myself all over with soap while bathing- Admiration followed __^ at my putting on my last starched shirt and other mysterious garments, but the ex- citement grew al- O most to fever-heat when I went through the daily nuisance of winding up m y watches and res;is- O tering daily observa- tions of temperature, etc. The strain was too much, I fancy, and a general stampede followed the moment I touched my unloaded rifle. The town of Askote is not unlike an old feudal castle such as are found in many parts of Central Italy. Perched on the crown of a central hill, the Rajiwar's palace over- looks a fine panorama of mountains encircling it on all sides. Among the higher peaks discernible from the palace are the Chipla Mountain and the Dafia. Then across the Kali River, forming the boundary of Nepal, is Mount Dooti. The "gown? or town, itself numbers some two hundred houses scattered on the slope of the hill, and includes a school, a post-office, and two Mahommedan shops. The Raj i war had on my arrival just completed building a new Court, a simple and dignified structure of 15 MY ABODE AT ASKOTE IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND brown stone, with fine wooden carvings on the windows and doors, and with chimneys in European fashion in each room. One wall in each room was left open, and formed a charming veranda, commanding a magnificent view of mountain scenery. The Rajiwar of Askote occupies a unique position in Kumaon. Having repurchased his right to the tenure of land in the Askote Pargana as late as 1855, he now pos- sesses the right of zamindar (translated literally, landed proprietor], and he is the only person to whom it has been granted to retain this privilege in the Kumaon Division. Jagat Sing Pal, the Rajiwar's nephew, assured me that the people of the Askote Pargana are brave and good- natured. They never give any trouble to the Rajiwar, who, on the other hand, is almost a father to them. They apply to him in every difficulty, in sickness and distress, and he looks after them in true patriarchal fashion. The Rajiwar is not rich, probably because he spends so much for the benefit of his people and of the strangers who pass through Askote. Many of these are little more than beggars, of course, even when they travel as fakirs, or other religious fanatics, going to or returning from the sacred Mansarowar Lake in Tibet. The present Rajiwar,* Pushkar Pal, belongs to the Ramchanda family, and he is a descendant of the Solar dynasty. His ancestors lived in Aoudh, or Ayodye (as it was formerly called), whence they migrated to the hills of Katyur in Kumaon, where they built a palace. The hill regions up to Killakanjia and the Jumna River were under the Raja of Katyur's rule, he assuming the title of Maharaja. A branch of the family came from Katyur to Askote, its chief retaining the hereditary title of Rajiwar besides that of Pal, which * Rajiwar (head of kingdom). 16 THE RAJIWAR AND HIS PEOPLE each male assumes. The Rajiwar pays a yearly tribute of 1800 rupees to the Government of India. In the time of the Gourkhas he paid nothing except occasional gifts of Nafas, or musk-deer, to his neighbor the King of Nepal, with whom he is still in very close relation. He was then practically an independent king. Still, Rajiwar Pushkar Pal has always been perfectly loyal to the Gov- ernment of India. "Are the people very obsequious to the Rajiwar?" I asked of Jagat Sing Pal. " Yes, sir. For instance, when the Rajiwar sits on his Karoka (a kind of throne) he is saluted with a particularly respectful salaam. His subjects bring their hand up to the forehead and support the elbow with the left hand, as a sign that this salutation is so weighty that it requires the support of the other hand." At Court functions the male relatives, friends, and ser- vants sit near the Rajiwar, his brother first, his son next, then his nephews, etc. Women are of course not admitted, and although no strict code of etiquette exists, the Raji- war and his family are nevertheless always treated with Eastern deference. 17 CHAPTER IV THE RAOTS A SLIPPERY JOURNEY SUPERSTITIOUS NOTIONS ANGER AND JEALOUSY FRIENDS TO THE HOMES OF THE SAVAGES PHO- TOGRAPHY HABITATIONS. WE had walked seventy-eight miles in three marches, and my men being footsore, I gave them a day's rest, which I employed in going to the haunts of the "Wild men of the forest," or Raots or Rajis, as they style themselves. They live in the woods several miles off, and to reach them I had to descend a steep incline covered by an uncommonly slippery carpet of dried grass and pine-needles. I had to take off shoes and stockings to get along, and even barefooted I found it difficult to maintain my hold. I was accompanied by one of my chaprassis and a man from Askote, and we were forced down more swiftly than comfort- ably till we reached a faint track, which we followed until we came upon a man hiding behind some trees. He was a wild-looking creature, naked and unkempt, with flowing hair and scanty beard and mustache, and, regarding us with an air of suspicion, he was most reluctant to show us the way to the homes of his tribe. He was a Raot, and his reluctance to let us approach his home seemed justified enough when he said to my guide, " No white man has ever visited our home, and should one ever come we shall all die. The spirits of the mountains will pre- 18 A YOUNG MAN A STIFF CLIMB vent your progress not we. You will suffer pain, for the spirit who watches over the Raots will let no one enter their homes." I gave the man a rupee, which he turned and weighed in his hand. " You can come," he muttered, " but you will regret it. You will have great misfortunes." There was something so weirdly peculiar in the tone of voice in which the man spoke, as if he had been in a trance, himself only the channel through which the threat of some occult beinsr O was conveyed to us, that for some minutes I could not get his words out of my head. I followed him as best I could, for he climbed up huge bowlders with the agility of a monkey. It was no easy job, for we bounded and leaped from rock to rock and vaulted over fallen trees. The track became more marked and went up along the incline of a steep ravine. We continued until, hot and panting, we arrived at a large hollow high up in the cliff of clay. There, on a semicircular platform, with intrenchments of felled trees, were about a dozen men almost devoid of clothing, some sitting on their heels and resting their arms on their knees, others lying down flat. One fellow smoked dry leaves inside a pipe of Hindoo origin. I snatched a photo of the group as, with an air of suspicion mingled RAOT ON TREE IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND with surprise and sadness, but no apparent fear, they stared at the unexpected visitors. Two of the elder men, having overcome their first stupor, sprang to their feet, and with mad gesticulations refused to let me come nearer. But I penetrated right into their circle, and found myself surrounded by a sulky and angry crowd. " No man has ever been' here but a Raot. You will soon die. You have offended God !" screamed an old man in a sudden outburst of temper. He bent his knees and curved his spine, protruding his head towards me. He shook his fists in my face, waved them about in the air, opened and tightly clinched them, digging his nails furiously into his palms. Instead of contracting the scalp of his forehead, the old Raot raised his eyebrows and turned his polished forehead into a succession of deep wrinkles, stretching in a straight line across almost from ear to ear, and showing only a dark dimple over his nose. His nostrils, flat and broad to begin with, became widely expanded and raised so as to cause two deep lines to di- verge from the nose along his cheeks. His mouth was open, and a peculiar vacillation of the lower lip demon- strated plainly that its owner had but little command over speech and articulation. His eyes, which may have been brown originally, were discolored, probably through the abuse of excessive animal powers, to the possession of which the formation of his skull strongly testified ; but they assumed extraordinary brilliancy as his fury in- creased. He opened them wide, apparently with an effort, and showed the entire circle of his iris. The pupils were dilated, notwithstanding that the light upon his face was strong at the time. Following his example, some of the rest displayed their discontent in a similar fashion, but others, among whom I 20 STUDYING JEALOUS RAOTS especially noticed two youths with sad, languishing faces, drooping large eyes, and luxuriant growth of black hair, stood apathetically apart, with head reclining towards the right shoulder, their features perfectly composed, and supporting their chins on their hands. Even if they had overcome their stupor, they certainly did not betray it, and appeared perfectly emotionless as far as their counte- nances were concerned. One fellow with an extraordinary head, a mixture it seemed of a Mongolian and a Ne- groid type, was the first to calm himself of those who were so madly ex- cited. With piercing though unsteady eyes, and with nervous, twitching movements, he scrutinized my face more closely than the others, and seemed to reassure them all that I had not come to hurt them. He made signs to the rest to desist from their threats, and then, squatting down himself, invited me to follow his example by sitting on my heels. When the storm had subsided and they had all sat down, I drew out of my pocket some coins and gave one to each of them, with the exception of one man, on whom I thought I might study the passion of jealousy in its most primitive form. I watched the man closely, and soon saw him draw apart from the others and become sulky. The others were by now comparatively calm. They seemed predis- 21 HEAD OF YOUNG MAN IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND posed towards sadness, and I could with difficulty extract from any of them more than a very faint sort of smile. They turned and twisted the coins in their hands, and compared them among one another, jabbering and ap- parently content. The jealous man kept his head turned away from them determinedly, pretending not to see what was going on, and, resting his chin on his hand, he be- gan to sing a weird, melancholy, guttural song, assum- ing an air of contempt, especially when the others chaffed him. Having allowed him to suffer enough, I gave him two coins instead of one, and with them the satisfaction of the last grin. I then tried to photograph them, but my camera was looked upon with suspicion, and as plate after plate was exposed in portraying single individuals or groups, they shuddered at each "click " of the spring. " The gods will be angry with you for doing that? said a Raot, pointing at the camera, " unless you give us a large white coin." I took advantage of this, and promised them as best I could through my guide " two large coins " if they would take me to their huts, some few hundred yards below the lofty eyrie in the cliff, but I must for the sum be allowed not only to see but to touch and have explained to me anything I liked. They consented, and we began our descent of the pre- cipitous track leading to their habitations, a track fit really only for monkeys. Several women and children who had come up, attracted by the sight of strangers, joined with the men in giving us a helping hand, and, in fact, I believe there cannot have been a single paw in the company that did not at one time or other during the descent clutch some portion of my clothing in the friend- liest spirit. Holding on to one another, we proceeded in 22 THE HOMES OF THE RAOTS a body, not always at a pleasant pace, down the dangerous cliff. Two or three times one of the natives or myself tripped and almost dragged the remainder of the party over the precipice, while the piercing yells and screams TWO MEN SITTING DOWN WITH CHILDREN of the women seemed to echo back for miles around. I was not sorry when we at last reached the small huts by the river which made up their village. The habitations were squalid beyond measure. Con- structed with a rough frame of tree-branches, fortified by wooden posts and rafters, roofed over with a thatch of dried grass, the majority of them measured about ten feet. They were built against the hill -side, a strong biforked pole in the centre of the structure supporting the roof, and were usually divided into two sections, so as to give 23 IX THE FORBIDDEN LAND shelter, each of them, to two families. They contained no furniture, and but few utensils of the most primitive make. There were circular wooden bowls scooped out in the past by means of sharp-edged stones, and more recently by cheap blades, which were of Indian manu- facture. For such cultivation as they were capable of these people used prim- itive earth rakes, and they also possessed coarse mallets, sticks, and net bags in which they kept their stores. Their sta- ple food in former days was river fish, flesh of wild animals, and roots of certain trees ; but they now eat grain also, and, like all savages, they have a craving for liquor. The interior of Raot habitations was so primitive and lacking of furniture that it hardly requires to be described, and the odors that emanated from these huts are also better left to the imagina- tion of the reader. Entering one of the dwellings, I found squatted round a fire of \vood some women and men, the women wearing silver bangles and glass-bead necklaces, the men very little more than string ear-rinsfs. Onlv one of the men had on as much as a di- O j minutive loin-cloth, and the women had scanty dresses of Indian manufacture, obtained in Askote. Scanning their features carefully, it struck me that in their facial lines many points could be traced which would make one feel inclined to attribute to them a remote Mon- golian origin, modified largely by the climate, the nature of the country, and probably by intermarriage. In the scale of standard human races the Raots stood extremely low, as can be judged from the accompanying photographs. 24 A YOUNG MAN RAOT FEATURES The women, as will be seen, had abnormally small skulls- with low foreheads, and, although they looked devoid even of a glint of reason, they were actually fairly intelligent. They had high cheek-bones and long, flattish noses, broad and rounded as in the Mongolian type. The chin was in most instances round, very receding, though the lips were in their normal position, thin, and very tightly closed with up-turned corners to the mouth. The low- er jaw was extremely short and narrow, whereas the upper one seemed quite out of proportion to the size of the skull. Their ears were large, outstanding, and unmodelled, capable of catching sounds at great dis- tances. The men had better heads than the women, under- developed, yet comparatively well-balanced. They had higher and broader foreheads, similar though shorter noses, chins not quite so receding, the whole lower jaw extraordinarily narrow, but the upper lip, as with the women, huge and out of all proportion. Undoubtedly the Raots are not a pure race, and even amono- the few I came across variations so considerable O occurred as to puzzle one in tracing their origin. They invariably possess luxuriant coal-black hair, which never attains more than a moderate length. It is not coarse in texture, but is usually so dirty that it appears coarser than it really is. They have very little hair on their bodies except in the armpits, and their mustaches and beards hardly deserve the name. The men generally part the crop on their head in the middle, so that it flows on either side of the skull, just covering the ears, and I found the same strange custom that I observed years ago among the Ainu of Yezo, of shaving a lozenge-shaped portion of the scalp in the centre of the forehead directly above the nose. The women, 25 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND using their fingers as a comb, draw their hair to the back of the head and tie it in a knot. The bodies of the better specimens I saw were slight and agile, with no superfluous fat or flesh. Supple to a degree, yet solid and muscular, with well-proportioned limbs, and skin of a rich tinge between bronze and terra- cotta color, these savages, dirty and unclothed as they were, certainly appealed to the artistic side of my tempera- ment, particularly on account of their very majestic de- portment. I noticed their regular breathing, which they usually did through the nose, keeping their mouths tightly closed, and also one very curious peculiarity about their feet viz., the length of the second toe, protruding considerably beyond the others, and giving them no doubt the power of using their toes almost as we should our fingers. The palms of their hands were almost without lines, the finger-nails flat, and their thumbs stumpy, with the last phalanx curiously short. If the Raots to-day have adopted some articles of cloth- ing and ornament, besides altering their diet to a certain extent, it is due entirely to the Rajiwar of Askote, who, taking a great interest in the tribes he rules over, provides them in a patriarchal way with all sorts of necessaries of life. Very few Raots have of late years visited Askote, as they are of a retiring nature and seem contented with their primitive abodes in the forests of Chipula, which they claim as their own. Their only occupations are fish- ing and hunting, and they are said to have a predilection for the flesh of the larger Himahlyan monkey, although from my own observation I should have said that they would eat almost anything they could get. It has gen- erally been assumed that the Raot women are kept in strict seclusion and hidden from strangers, and I cannot better prove the absurdity of this than by reproducing in 26 RAOT CUSTOMS AND CHARACTER these pages one of several photographs of the Raot women, for which they posed at my request without the slightest objection from the men. They are generally be- lieved to be chaste, and my photographs prove, I think, that whatever charm they may possess for the Raot men, their peculiar beauty offers but little temptation to others. They are rapidly diminishing in numbers, chiefly no doubt on account of constant intermarriage. I was as- sured that the women are not sterile, but that there is enor- mous mortality among the young children. They bury their dead, and for several days afterwards offer food and water to the spirit of the departed. I was unable to ascertain what their marriage cere- monies were like, or if they had any to speak of, but it ap- peared that there was a con- siderable family feeling among couples living maritally to- gether. They are supersti- tious, and hold in curious awe the spirits of the mountains, the sun, the moon, fire, water, and wind. Whether this amounts to a definite form of worship I cannot say: I certainly saw no signs of the offering of prayers or sacri- fices. The Raots claim to be the descendants of kings, and they refuse allegiance to any one. They will neither salute you nor bow to you. " It is for other people to salute us. Our blood is the blood of kings, and though for choice we have for cen- 27 RAOT WOMEN OF THE FOREST I. C IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND turies retired to the jungle, we are none the less the sons of kings." After a while, and when I had spent some considerable time among them, these royal savages seemed uncomfort- able and apprehensive. I had turned over, examined, drawn or photographed every household article I had seen, had measured every one, male and female, who con- sented to be measured, and paid them the stipulated money. As I was about to leave, the gray-haired man approached me again. " You have seen the home of the Raots. You are the first stranger who has done so, and you will suffer much. The gods are very angry with you." " Yes," rejoined another savage, pointing at the ravine, " whoever treads along that track and is not a Raot will be afflicted by a great calamity." " Kush paruani, Sahib' 1 '' (Never mind, sir), interrupt- ed the guide, " they are only barbarians ; they know no better. I have myself never been here, so I suppose I shall also come in for my share." " You, too, will suffer," said the old Raot, with self- assurance. The Raots stood round me silently as I packed up the camera, and I felt that they looked upon me as a man whose fate was settled. They did not acknowledge my farewell, and, had I teen in the least superstitious, might have made me thoroughly uncomfortable with their solemn, stolid gravity. But it all came back to me with horrible intensity later on, when I was suffering the agonies of hell, and when I seemed to relive in every moment the experiences of my whole former life. 28 CHAPTER V A PILGRIM FROM MAXSAROWAR LAKE THE SPIRITS OF THE MOUN- TAINSA SAFEGUARD AGAINST THEM TIBETAN ENCAMPMENTS THE RAJIWAR A WATERFALL WATER-MILLS HAVING returned to Askote from my excursion, I saw while going round the town with Jagat Sing, in a low stone shed by the side of j the palace, the tall, gaunt fi 2:11 re of a man emero-ine <* t THE RAJIWAR OF ASKOTE, HIS BROTHER AND SON from a cloud of smoke. " Who is that ?" I in- quired of my companion. " Oh, that is a fakir re- turning from a pilgrim- age to the sacred lake of Mansarowar in Tibet. Many of these fanatics pass through here during the summer on their re- ligious journeys." My curiosity drew me towards the weird individual. He was over six feet in height, and his slim body had been covered with ashes, giving the dark skin a tinge of ghastly gray. I asked him to come out into the light. His masses of long hair had been plaited into small tresses which were wound round his head in the fashion of a turban the Tatta. The hair, too, had been whitened, while the long, thin beard had been dyed bright red. His eyes were sunken, and, apparently to add to the ghastly 29 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND and decidedly repulsive effect, his forehead and cheeks were plastered with a thick white paint. He seemed half stupefied, and had very little to say for himself. As can be seen by the illustration, he was scantily clothed, but he wore the Kamarjuri, or fakir's chain, about his loins, and he had a bead bracelet round his arm above the elbow. FAKIR RETURNING FROM MANSAROWAR His waist was encircled with a belt of wooden beads, and a necklace of plaited hair ornamented his neck. He spent his days rolling himself in ashes and enduring self-imposed bodily privations, with a view to attain a state of sanctifi- cation. Rumors had reached me of some curious superstitions prevalent among these mountain folk. " Tell me," I said to Jagat Sing, " are there ' spirits of the mountains ' in these ranges ? And do the people really believe in them ?" 30 SPIRITS AND CHARMS " Yes, sir," replied the young fellow, " there certainly are a number of them, and they are often very trouble- some, especially to certain people. They are seldom known, however, to kill any one." " Then they are not quite so bad as some human beings," I replied. " Well, sir, they are very bad. They seize sleeping people by the throat with claws like iron, sitting on the chests of their victims." " Does not that sound more like an attack of indices- O tion ?" " No, sir. The ghosts of the mountains are the spirits of people that have not gone to heaven. They are to be found in swarms at night in the forest. The people are terrified of them. They haunt the mountain tops and slopes, and they can assume the semblance of a cat, a mouse, or any other animal ; in fact, they are said to fre- quently change their appearance. Where no man can tread, among rocks and precipices, or in the thick jungle, the spirits seek their retreat, but often they abandon their haunts to seek for men. The person who becomes possessed generally remains in a semiconscious condi- tion and ejaculates mad cries and unintelligible words. There are men who profess to know charms to draw them out. Some remedies for that purpose are common- ly used by the natives with more or less success. A grass called Bichna (nettles) has the faculty of frighten- ing the spirits away when applied on the body of the sufferer, but the most effective remedy is to make pre- tence to beat with a red-hot iron the person possessed. The spirits seem to fear that more than anything else." " Do the spirits ever speak?" I inquired, interested in the curious superstitions of these hill men. " No, sir, not often, nor usually directly, but they do it IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND through people who are possessed by them. It is they who tell many strange tales of the spirits. One curious point about them is that they only seize people who are afraid of them. If defied they vanish." " Do the natives adopt any special method to protect themselves from these mountain demons?" "Fire is the only sure protection. Any one sleeping near a fire is safe, and as long as there is a flame blazing the spirits keep away." " Do you know any one who has seen them ?" 41 Yes. A chaprassi called Joga tells of having been compelled to travel at night through a forest; he heard a voice calling him by name. Terrified, he stopped, and for some moments his voice failed him. At last, trem- bling all over, he replied, and instantly a swarm of spirits appeared and challenged him to do them harm. Joga ran for his life, and the demons vanished. Spirits have been known to throw stones at passers-by." " Have you ever seen a spirit, Jagat Sing ?" "Only once. I was returning to the palace late in the evening when up the steep road I perceived a woman's figure. It was a beautiful moonlight night. I walked up, and as I passed the face of the strange being ap- peared black, inhuman, and ghastly. I staggered when I saw the weird apparition approach, my blood ran cold with fear. I struck a mighty blow with my stick, but, behold ! the cane whirled through the air and hit noth- ing. Instantly the ghost vanished." " I wish, Jagat Sing, that you could show me some of these spirits; I would give anything to make a sketch of them." " You cannot always see them when you want, sir, but they are always to be avoided. They are evil spirits, and can do nothing but harm." TIBETAN ENCAMPMENTS Leaving Askote (4600 feet) by the winding road through a dense forest, I crossed by a suspension-bridge the Gori River at Gargia (2450 feet). The track was along the low and unpleasantly hot valley of the Kali River, a raging stream flowing with indescribable rapidi- ty in the opposite direction to that in which I was travel- ling. It formed the boundary-line between Nepal and Kumaon. Huts and patches of cultivation were to be seen on the Nepalese side, whereas on our side we came upon deserted and roofless winter dwellings of Shokas (usually but not correctly called Botiyas) and Tibetans, who migrate to these warmer regions to graze their sheep during the colder months of the year. The Sho- ka summer residences are at greater elevations, mostly along the highways to Tibet and nearer the Tibetan boundary. On arriving at the Kutzia Daramsalla a mes- senger brought me the news that the Rajiwar, whom I had missed seeing at Askote, was now here for the pur- pose of making offerings to certain deities. He would call upon me at 3 P.M.; so, having some time to spare, I went to bathe in the deliciously cold though, as I found, dangerously rapid stream. Swimming was out of the question, and even an immersion bath was attended with a certain amount of risk. The current caused me to lose my footing, and I soon found myself washed with great force against some rocks thirty or forty yards down stream. I came out of the water minus a few patches of skin on my knees and shins, and while drying myself in the sun received a deputation of the Patan (head vil- lage man) and other natives, conveying with their most respectful salaams gifts of milk, kielas (bananas), kakri (gigantic cucumbers), and nuts. These hill fellows im- pressed me as being of a far superior standard to the Hindoos of the plains. They were lightly yet strongly 33 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND built, and showed evidence of both character and dig- nity. With their fair complexion and luxuriant black hair and mustache they resembled Spaniards or Southern Italians. They lacked entirely the affected manner and falseness of speech and demeanor so common among the natives who are constantly in contact with Europeans. Below the Daramsalla, near the water-side, was a large Tibetan encampment of some twenty or thirty tents which had all originally been white, but were now black with smoke. In these were men, women, and children, with all their paraphernalia ; and the first thing that at- tracted my eye in each tent was the quantity of shiny brass bowls strewn upon the ground, the entire energy of the tent-owners seemingly being spent in keeping these utensils clean and bright, to the utter neglect of their other property. Walls of sheep-loads were erected either inside the tent or directly outside, covered in the latter case with cloths in order to protect them from the rain. Punctually at 3 P.M. the Rajiwar arrived, carried in a dandy, and followed by his brother, who sat in a mountain dandy. The Rajiwar's son and heir rode a splendid gray pony. I went to assist the old Rajiwar to alight, as for some years he had been paralyzed. We shook hands heartily, and I led him into the Daramsalla (2875 feet), where in default of furniture we all sat on packing-cases. His refined, well-cut features, his attractive manner, and the soft, dignified voice in which he spoke clearly indi- cated a man of superior blood and uncommon ability. His modesty and simplicity were delightful. " I hope that your health is good and that you have not suffered too much on your journey. I was grieved not to be in Askote to receive you. Are your dear par- ents alive ? Have you any brothers and sisters ? Are you married ? I would much like to visit England. It 34 VISIT OF THE RAJIWAH OF ASKOTE must be a wonderful country, and so much do I admire it that I have given my nephews a British education, and one of them is now serving the Maharanee (Queen) Victoria as Political Peshkar." I answered his questions as best I could with the aid of a Hindustani dictionary, expressive gestures, and quick THE RAJIWAR AND HIS BROTHER IN DANDIES sketches. He spoke of many of our latest inventions with marked interest and intelligence. He seemed greatly struck with my scientific instru- ments, but he and his people were more particularly at- tracted by my rifles, revolvers, and other weapons, es- pecially the .256 Mannlicher, sighted to 1000 yards. The Rajiwar pressed me to return with him to Askote,. where he offered to give me tiger, bear, and leopard shooting. Tempting as the invitation was, I could not accept it, for my plans would lead me in the opposite di- rection. His visit lasted for more than three hours, and I was pleased to feel that we parted great friends. On the road to Dharchula, along the low-lying valley, the heat was unbearable, although the sun was near the 35 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND horizon. We came upon a waterfall falling from a great heio-ht over a series of umbrella-like stalactites covered o with moss. The last rays of the sun shone on the drop- ping water, brilliant and sparkling as a shower of dia- monds. Several small rainbows added to the beauty of the scene. I rested some time in this cool and beautiful retreat. There were birds singing and monkeys playing among the trees. Farther on, where the river bends, there are two large caves hollowed in the rock ; the smoke -blackened ceilings prove that these are used as camping - grounds by travelling Shokas and Hunyas (Tibetans). Large black -faced, white -bearded monkeys swarmed everywhere, frankly and gladly mischievous. They throw or roll stones down upon the passers - by, often causing accidents, the track being rather narrow and sheer above the river. Previous to arriving at the spot where the Tsuagar flows into the Kali River one meets with many Tibetan, Humli, and Rongba encampments. I camped at Kalika (3205 feet) by the side of a gigan- tic tree with boughs spreading well over the road, the chaprassis and men erecting a comfortable chopper of mats, foliage, and branches. I was anxious to get through the hot valley with the greatest possible speed, so, notwithstanding that we had halted very late at night, I roused my men at 3 A.M. and again set forth on the march. Here and there along the road we passed deserted winter dwellings of Shokas, nearly all with broken thatched roofs. Some, however, were roofed with slate, the distinctive mark of residence of the Darma Shokas. The primitive Shoka water-mills were curious. By a very ingenious contrivance the water of a stream pro- pelled a heavy cylindrical stone revolving on the top of 36 THE VILLAGE OF DHARCHULA another. The grain fell slowly from a magazine above into a hole pierced in the centre of the upper wheel, and, finding its way through a channel between the two cylin- ders, was ground into fine flour. Dharchula (3550 feet), the largest Shoka winter settle- ment, is situated on a fine stretch of flat land some hun- dred feet above the river; the village consists of twelve long rows of roofless houses very similar in size and shape. Four larger buildings at the extreme limit of the settlement attract notice. One of these is a Daramsalla. The others, two high stone buildings, are a school, hos- pital, and dispensary belonging to the Methodist Episco- pal Mission, and under the careful supervision of Miss Sheldon, M.D., Miss Brown, and that wonderful pioneer, Dr. H. Wilson. A bungalow of the same mission is built higher up on the hill-side. Between the two spots where from Nepal the Lachu and the Shakta join the Kali was Dubart (370x3 feet), and from thence one gradually rose to 4120 feet at the Relegar River, also a tributary of the larger stream. Having crossed the Rankuti River, I ascended still higher by zigzag walking, slowly leaving behind me range after range of mountains beyond the valley of the river; while on the Nepal side, beyond the three nearer ranges, snow peaks of great height and beauty stood out against the sky-line. The highest point on the road was 5450 feet, after which we descended to 5275 feet at the Khela Daramsalla, which we did not reach till late at night. Near Khela, on the top of a high mountain, stood a tall quadrangular rock not unlike a tower. The natives say that a mere touch causes it to shake and revolve, but this belief is not general, for others deny that it ever moves. I could not spare the time to go and obtain the facts, nor could I obtain reliable information from any 37 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND one who had had actual experience. So far as I could see with the aid of my telescope, the rock seemed to be standing firmly on a very solid base. To my regret, also, I was unable to visit the curious hot sulphur springs on the Darma Ganga, and the strange cave in which much animal life is lost owing to the noxious gases rising from the ground. I gathered from various reports that this cave or grotto is packed with skeletons of birds and quadrupeds who have unknowingly entered this chamber of death. 38 CHAPTER VI HIGHWAYS AND TRADE ROUTES THE DARMA ROUTE THE DHOLI RIVER A ROUGH TRACK CONNECTING TWO VALLEYS GLACIERS- THREE RANGES AND THEIR PEAKS ALTITUDES DARMA, JOHAR, AND THE PA1NKHANDA PARGANAS THE HIGHEST PEAK IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE NATURAL BOUNDARIES THERE are two principal highways from Khela to Hundes one by the valley of the Dholi or Darma River, the other along the Kali River and over the Lippu Pass. The trade route via Darma is less frequented than the one by the Lippu, but it is nevertheless of considerable importance, inasmuch as a certain portion of the trade of Southwest Tibet with India is carried on through the medium of the Darma Shokas. It consists mainly of borax, salt, wool, skins, cloth, and utensils, in exchange for which the Tibetans take silver, wheat, rice, satoo, ghur, lump candied sugar, pepper, beads of all kinds, and articles of Indian manufacture. For a mountain track, and considering the altitudes to which it rises, the Darma way is comparatively good and safe, notwith- standing that in following upward the course of the Dholi River the narrow path in many places overhangs deep ravines and precipices. There are many Shoka vil- lages and settlements on the banks of the stream, the o most important ones being the Nyu, Sobala, Sela, Nag- ling (9520 feet), Bahling (10,230 feet), Sona and Tuktung (10,630 feet), Dansu and Yansu, where there is a bridge. On the northeast bank is Goa, facing Dakar, and farther 39 IN THE FORBIDDEN LAND up, at an elevation of 10,400 feet, the Lissar, a rapid tributary with muddy water. The Dholi springs from a series of comparatively small glaciers northeast of a ranq-e forming a branch of O O