\
 
 TUB. TAAM 
 
 OR A 
 
 VINDICATION OF THE JEWISH MODE 
 
 OF SLAUGHTERING ANIMALS 
 
 FOR FOOD 
 
 CALLED 
 
 SHECHITAH 
 
 BY 
 
 AARON ZEBI FRIEDMAN 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE HEBREW 
 BY LAEMLEIN BUTTENWIESER 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 BLOCK PUBLISHING CO., 738 BROADWAY 
 1904
 
 PRESS OF PHILIP COWEN 
 
 489 FIFTH AVENUE 
 
 NEW YORK
 
 StacR 
 
 na 
 
 I. Sketch of Aaron Zebi Friedman 
 
 Some men, modest, pious and self-sacrificing-, are content 
 .to spend their lives humbly but reverently working for the 
 Holy Cause of Religion. Who shall measure their life work, 
 the life of any one of them? No human eye notices, no 
 human heart sympathizes, holds true of many such a life 
 work, or life. But often when the dust of the Beth Haim 
 covers the worker, the value of his work is realized, and 
 when the life is spent, the value of the life is discerned. 
 
 The work and life of Aaron Zebi Friedman eminently il- 
 lustrates what we have stated. 
 
 Modest, pious and self-sacrificing, he spent his life humbly 
 but reverently working for the Holy Cause so dear to him. 
 While his piety, self-sacrifice and scholarship were indeed 
 recognized during his life, it is even now that the value of 
 his work and the inspiration of his life appeal to all who ad- 
 mire the qualities we have named, and who understand what 
 work and life mean in human duty. 
 
 At a very early age he was acquainted with the .contents 
 of the Bible and Talmud. Cabbalistic works were studied 
 by him, and his controversial skill in Talmudic subjects won 
 for him the friendship of grand Rabbi Liberman, whose 
 daughter Rebecca he subsequently married. At the age of 
 seventeen, he was appointed Shohet of the city of Slavisk 
 and the neighboring county, which post he held for sev- 
 eral years. He was then called to fill a position as Rabbi and 
 Shochet in Bernkastle-on-the-Moselle. . Here he remained 
 several years, beloved and revered by all who knew hirrTT 
 During this period he studied medicine, mainly to benefit the 
 poor, many of whom recognized in him their benefactor. Too 
 close application to his duties impaired his health and a sea 
 voyage to America was ordered. The whole town turned out 
 
 2116310
 
 IV. 
 
 en masse to bid their beloved Rabbi God-speed, and to the 
 day of his death he was in correspondence with the members 
 of his flock ,who wrote to him for spiritual advice and 
 guidance. 
 
 His letters of credentials from leading Rabbis of Europe 
 secured for him shortly after his arrival in this countrv the 
 position of supervising some of the largest abbatoirs in New 
 York. He taught many pupils shechitah and his seal was rec- 
 ognized by the Orthodox Jews of New York. In 1866, the 
 Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, through its 
 President, Mr. Henry Bergh, declared the Jewish method of 
 slaughtering animals to be "cruelty needlessly inflicted." 
 But Rabbi Friedman's able defense in his treatise "Tub Taam" 
 convinced the Society of the error of their judgment. "Tub 
 Taam" was originally published in Hebrew and testimonials 
 commending the book and indorsing the author's careful 
 treatment of the subject were received from leading 
 rabbis and physicians of Europe and America. In 1876, the 
 book was translated by Prof. Buttenwieser into English, but 
 owing to the illness of the author the translation was never 
 placed on sale. 
 
 The Book remains a lasting monument to his reverent love 
 for our ancestral faith and customs ; a testimony to his schol- 
 arship and an evidence of his zeal for the religion in which he 
 was born, for whose interests he labored faithfully all his life 
 and as a servant of which he yielded up his breath. 
 
 Shakespeare tells us that the "Evil which men do lives 
 after them, while the good is oft interred with their bones-" 
 
 It is a satisfaction to know that the opposite is likewise 
 true. This little book, long forgotten, rises, as it were, 
 otit of oblivion to resurrect and bless the memory of the ear- 
 liest writer and the careful translator. 
 
 It had served its purpose in removing the mistaken, but 
 sincere, opposition of the New York Society for the Pre- 
 vention of Cruelty to Animals and preserved for the ortho- 
 dox Jew the right, so precious to him, of killing the animal 
 According 'to th6 prescribed Jewish formula. 
 
 Lately Ihe same ignorant opposition developed in Den-
 
 V. 
 
 ver and it seemed as though the Jews must forego their 
 cherished privilege of securing kosher meat. 
 
 It was then that "The American Hebrew" reprinted copi- 
 ous extracts form this work and forwarded it to representa- 
 tive Jews in Denver. The clever exposition of the subject 
 and the invincible arguments the book contained, again 
 carried the day, and Denver, like New York, withdrew its 
 opposition. 
 
 It was then that the children of the writer and translator 
 gladly availed themselves of the precious privilege of per- 
 petuating this little work by having it reprinted. This they 
 did, not only out of respect to the cherished memory of the 
 dear departed ones, but also in the hope that it may contin- 
 ue to spread light upon this important subject and that it 
 may in the future as in the past serve to convince Jew and 
 Gentile alike that the Jewish dietary laws were based 
 on broad scientific and hygienic principles. 
 
 Aaron Zebi Friedman was born in Poland, Adar i^th, 
 5582, (March 8th 1822), and died in New York City the 27th 
 day of lyar, 5636 (May 2ist, 1876).
 
 II. Sketch of L. Buttenwieser 
 
 Rev. Laemmlein Buttenwieser, the translator of this work, 
 was born in Wassertruedingen, Bavaria, Germany, January 
 i6th, 1825. He was descended from a long line of well- 
 known rabbis, his father having been Rabbi at Wassertruedin- 
 gen. At an early age, young Buttenwieser evinced great inter- 
 est in his Hebrew studies and showed his remarkable pre- 
 cociousness by reading the Talmud before his ninth year. 
 
 He progressed rapidly, studying first wi:h his father at 
 Wassertruedingen, then at Aschaffenburg, where he attended 
 the gymnasium, then at Wuerzburg, where he entered the 
 university and finally at Prague, where he likewise satisfied 
 his craving for general culture by attending the famoui 
 university there. 
 
 Mr. Buttenwieser received seven degrees (Morenus,) 
 among which were those from such renowned scholars 
 as Rabbi Wechsler at Schwabach, Bavaria, Dr. Adler at 
 Aschaffenburg, Bavaria, Rabbi Seligman Baer Bamberger, 
 Rabbi Samuel Freund of Prague, and Rabbi Rappaport, 
 Chief Rabbi of Prague. 
 
 All these great teachers agreed in pronouncing him one of 
 the brightest Talmudists that had ever sat at their feet. 
 
 Besides his wonderful acquaintance with the Talmud and 
 his thorough and scientific mastery of pure Hebrew, Chal- 
 daic and Syriac, Mr. Buttenwieser was a thorough Latin 
 and Greek scholar, a good mathematician, was well read in 
 German literature and had a fair acquaintance with the 
 French language. 
 
 ^ In 1854 he decided to emigrate to America. He then 
 took up the study of English, which he likewise soon mas- 
 tered. He arrived in this country in July, 1854. 
 
 Conditions in the ministry here were not such as to attract 
 this typical German scholar. He soon found that America
 
 Vll. 
 
 was a good field for the orator, devoid of real scholars/lip, 
 rather than for the real scholar, unadorned by the gifts of 
 oratory. 
 
 He was just one generation ahead of his mother-country, 
 and one generation behind his adopted country. 
 
 To-day, however, when our American Jewry recognizes 
 that the currents of real Jewish faith and fervor must flow 
 from and be quickened by the deep springs of Jewish lore 
 and when it is ready and anxious to found colleges to renew 
 ami perpetuate the study of the Hebrew language and liter- 
 ature but experiences great difficulty in finding profound 
 scholars to fill the professorial chairs, a Buttenwieser would 
 be appreciated and sought for. 
 
 In those days, however, Mr. Buttenwieser found his rare 
 Hebrew attainments a comparatively valueless asset, but 
 his broad general culture stood him in good stead. 
 
 He became teacher of languages, which vocation he fol- 
 lowed, with much success, in Boston, Cincinnati, Philadel- 
 phia and New York. 
 
 In Cincinnati, where he remained from 1856 till 1863, he 
 taught in the Talmud Yelodin School. In Philadelphia 
 he was teacher in the Hebrew Educational Society and was 
 Professor of Talmud in Maimonides College, where his as- 
 sociates in the faculty were Drs. Leeser and Jastrow. The 
 college was short-lived, owing to lack of funds and of stu- 
 dents. 
 
 In 1873, he left for New York, where he became Profes- 
 sor of Languages in the Public Schools, which position 
 he retained until he retired from active life in 1886. 
 
 Mr. Buttenwieser was too modest to push himself for- 
 ward. He was not a sparkling fountain, displaying its light 
 spray with bright effect in the dazzling glow of the sunlight, 
 but he was indeed a deep well of clear, pure, refreshing wa- 
 ter, where all who thirsted for knowledge, might come and 
 drink eagerly and leave refreshed and satisfied. Many were 
 those who knew of this well and imbibed freely of its inex- 
 haustible supply.
 
 Vlll. 
 
 This great scholar and good man died on Yom Kippur 
 5662, September 23rd, 1901. In his death there passed 
 away one of that small, but brilliant, coterie of great Ger- 
 man scholars, whose life and learning were a golden link 
 between the old and the new, who preserved all that was so 
 valuable and so delightful in the old fashioned real Talmudic 
 scholar and adorned it with the pleasing garb of modern cul- 
 ture. 
 
 What a pity that the busy, money-making, materialistic 
 age, in which he lived, could not more fully appreciate such 
 vast learning and scholarship, coupled with so pure, so sim- 
 ple, so virtuous a character. 
 
 But, as if to prove that "a man is greater in death than 
 in life," his obituary appeared in newspapers in every sec- 
 tion of this broad land, although he had been in retirement 
 for over fifteen years prior to his death. "His good deeds 
 rose up to bless him.'' 
 
 Of him the "Jewish Messenger," in its obituary notice, 
 justly said, "Professor Buttemvieser had erudition that 
 ought to have been more widely acknowledged and brought 
 to the front. Like the typical scholars, his modesty and 
 unobtrusiveness were traits, that made him keep to the back 
 ground. In this respect he resembled Michael Heilprin. 
 Strange want of foresight, decades ago, that prevented these 
 men being made the educators of young Israel."
 
 PREFACE 
 
 This preface is intended to form the foundation of the pres- 
 ent work, which I herewith submit to the public. I found it 
 the more necessary to premise all here proffered, as I know 
 that several of the views expressed in this work may appeajr 
 strange to the medical fraternity, and it may therefore be eas- 
 ily inferred that many physicians will oppose me. At all 
 events, they will propound difficult questions to me on 
 several points. 
 
 For this reason I shall here make known the considerations 
 which induced me to write and publish this little work. 
 
 My first proposition is : The Shechitah, or the Jewish 
 method of killing animals, although slower, is easier and less 
 painful than that caused by blows inflicted on tfhe head ; for 
 no shrinkage and contortion of the limbs are perceptible 
 after dying through Shechitah', as would be the case with an 
 animal that dies in consequence of blows inflicted on its head. 
 
 The reason is the following: Although death does not en- 
 sue after Shechitah until all the blood has departed from the 
 body, we must not forget that there are two kinds of blood in 
 every warm-blooded animal ; the blood of the members, and 
 the life-blood. The blood of the members is the circulating 
 blood and is red ; but the life-blood is of a blackish Tiue. As 
 soon as the black blood has departed from the body, the ani- 
 mal dies immediately. 
 
 The black blood, however, must leave the body before even 
 the whole act of Shechitah, viz., the severing of the windpipe 
 and oesophagus, has been performed, if, as it is prescribed in 
 our religion, not a mere incision into the windpipe and oes- 
 ophagus has been made, but a real separation of the part* 
 has taken place, so that they stand apart and the incision is 
 apparent.
 
 X. 
 
 In this case the arteries and veins have been cut, the red 
 and black blood flows out, and life is immediately extinct. 
 The fact is noticeable in the eyes of the animal immediate- 
 ly after Shechitah ; for they immediately roll about and are 
 closed in their sockets. . They shortly afterwards are opened 
 again, but they then show that life has departed. 
 
 My second proposition is : Through blows inflicted on the 
 brain the blood becomes black and dark. Now, although the 
 life-blood, on which the existence of life depends far more 
 than on the circulating red blood, has a black color, still any 
 one gifted with a good power of observation will easily find 
 that there is as .much difference between the original clear col- 
 or of the real black life-blood, and that which was driginally 
 red and has by degeneration become black, as there 13 a dif- 
 ference between pure and clear and dark or putrid water. 
 
 With the naked eye we can distinguish both the red and 
 black blood, as well as the mixture of both kinds of blood of 
 an animal on which the act of Shechitah has been performed, 
 and the blood that has been vitiated by blows inflicted on the 
 brain. For the blood of an animal killed by Shechitah is clear 
 and pure, but the blood of an animal killed by blows on the 
 brain is black and dark. In the latter case the black color of 
 the blood is not natural, as is the case with the life-blood of 
 an animal in good health or killed by Shechitah. But the 
 black color only shows that the blood, whose original color 
 was red, has, by degeneration, become black. 
 
 The black color of the life-blood of an animal killed by 
 iblo'ws is likewise unnaturally black and dark, not clear. 
 
 Although chemistry has not yet investigated and ascer- 
 tained if blood, as an article of food, is wholesome or injurious 
 -to the human system, still the evidence of Maimonides is fully 
 sufficient for us, who says: Blood begets cruelty, not only in 
 the person who partakes of it, but that cruelty is also inher- 
 ited by his future offspring. The Bible also enjoins on us very 
 emphatically (Dent. xii. 23) : ''Only be sure that thou eat not 
 the blood, for the blood is the life." 
 
 And by our own reason we can also ascertain the effect the 
 eating of blood has on the system. For every article of food
 
 XI. 
 
 can only produce that effect on the svstem which is inherent 
 in it. Now the nature of the animal is free from all vices, and 
 void of all virtues. There is neither envy nor hatred, neither 
 honor nor pride, neither bashfulness nor repentance, neither 
 kindness nor probity to be found in an animal. The whole 
 ornament of oxen is their horns. With them they gore one 
 another, inflicting 1 injury or even death, without, however, be- 
 ing possessed of any of the vices mentioned. And although 
 they gore one another as often as they meet, still they do not 
 hate each other. They only do so because the inclination o! 
 doing so is innate in them. 
 
 If, then, any one eats blood, he partakes of its properties, 
 and transfers them also to his children after him. For by 
 means of food body and soul are kept united, and therefore 
 food exercises its influence both on body and soul. Taste it- 
 self is more spiritual than corporeal. Maimonides, therefore, 
 is fully correct. But this is only the case with the blood, 
 which is life itself, and which alone has the effects described. 
 In it we find all those properties which are unbecoming" to the 
 foremost of all creatures man. But we do not find these 
 properties in the flesh, as that has no will of its own and waits 
 with the members of the body for the orders of the spirit, itt 
 order to execute them and be guided by them. 
 
 My third proposition is : 
 
 Besides the special functions which all members of the body 
 have to perform for the preservation of the body, they also 
 have to perform spiritual ones for the strengthening of body 
 and soul. For instance, the mouth/ has to nourish and 
 strengthen the body by eating and drinking- This is the bod- 
 ily function, without which life would cease. But tihe mouth 
 is also the organ of the voice, whfch is quite necessajry for the 
 preservation of the whole race of animals. .For by the voice 
 the different animals recognize and call one another. 
 
 This becomes yet more apparent if we consider the human 
 voice ; for every one of the five organs of speech in tfiw first 
 place serves its part to support our system by providing it 
 with proper food. 
 
 The lips, which are the doors of the mouth, and open to re-
 
 XII. 
 
 ceive the food, and close to prevent the food from falling out, 
 produce the labial letters. 
 
 The teeth, which bite and grind the food, produce the den- 
 tal letters. 
 
 The tongue, which turns the food about in the mouth, for 
 its thorough mastication, produces the lingual letters. 
 
 The palate, whose function is to taste, produces the palatal 
 letters. 
 
 The windpipe, which promotes the digestion of the food by 
 providing it with saliva, produces the guttural letters. 
 
 Likewise the brain, which gives strength to all members, 
 produces thought. 
 
 The hands, with which we work, have also the power of 
 feeling. The urinary organs likewise subserve genital pur- 
 poses. The kidneys, which prepare the urine, are the advisory 
 organs of the soul. In the heart, which is the -source of the 
 blood, wisdom resides. 
 
 And this is the case with all organs. They all have to serve 
 two masters, the body and the soul. This means : they have 
 to perform bodily functions far the preservation of the body, 
 and spiritual functions for the preservation of the soul. 
 
 But my tffteory must not be -refuted by offering me the 
 instance of a man who was sick with the laughing sickness, 
 and whose spleen had been removed from his body, and 
 yet was not ^ow-red by such operation. For it may be the 
 sickness was incurable, because the veins were affected and 
 diseased up to the heart and brain. In this case the sick- 
 ness could not be cured any more, as I have explained in 
 'Rule VIII. 
 
 My fourth proposition concerns animals of prey. They 
 vent their rage and fury, that burn like fire, upon the bodies 
 of the animals, attacked by them, through their crooked 
 nails and 'teeth. The formation of the feet and teeth of 
 <ttttittlab of prey indicates 'that. For it Jies in the nature of 
 fc'nimals to walk on their paws and feet. Why now have 
 the nails tff animals -off prey been created pointed and 
 crooked and their teeth likewise, if it were not that 'they 
 have -'aftfothefr function "to perform by means of those nails
 
 X11I. 
 
 and teeth, viz., to devour other animals and to pour their 
 venom into them? 
 
 This instinct to devour other animals in their wrath and 
 fury, animals of prey cannot resist. But they can only give 
 vent to their furious instinct by means of the organization 
 of their members, which the Creator has thus shaped and 
 formed for that purpose. 
 
 But my proposition must not be refuted by the argument 
 held out to me, that we know instances of men who were 
 attacked and wounded by animals of prey and were cured. 
 For \ve cannot draw a parallel between man and other liv- 
 ing beings. Concerning man, the Lord ordained (Gen. 
 ix. 2) : "And the fear of you and the dread of you shall be 
 on all the animals of the earth and all the fowls of the heav- 
 en." But all the other animals are killed by the poison of 
 animals of prey. 
 
 There are, however, two .kinds of animals, whose venom 
 kills even man, viz., the serpent, in reference to which Adam 
 was cursed by the words (Gen. iii. 15): "And thou shalt 
 wound his heel," and mad animals. For their sickness or 
 madness derives its origin also from from the curse that 
 was pronounced over Adam, and therefore they can injure 
 man by their poison. 
 
 But no other animal besides the two mentioned is able to 
 injure man in this way. 
 
 But the words of our Rabbins deserve full credence, that 
 beasts of prey have poison in their teeth and nails, to tear 
 and kill the animals attacked by them. 
 
 Still our sages set a limit both to the devouring and the 
 devoured animal, that means, they tell us which animals 
 can be killed by the poison of certain animals and which 
 not. 
 
 And the animals that can kill by their poison can do so 
 only with certain members, adapted to that purpose, and 
 only if those members are in their sound, perfect state, and 
 connected with the body, but not otherwise. 
 
 Nor can the serpent bite except when in anger, in which
 
 XI V. 
 
 state it pours out its venom through the biting of its teeth 
 and the spittle of its mouth. 
 
 But if the tongue and teeth of the serpent, by which it 
 bites, have been removed, it becomes harmless, though it 
 be full of rage and anger. Nor can the tongue and teeth 
 of a lion or leopard inflict a mortal wound after they have 
 been separated from the body of those animals. 
 
 If, for instance, a man took a lion's teeth or claws and 
 scratched an animal, even if he did that in the most violent 
 passion and the fiercest anger, he still could not work any 
 fatal injury, because the teeth and claws of animals of prey 
 are only the servants of those animals themselves and not 
 of any other being. 
 
 Likewise, if a serpent bites in its wrath into an inanimate 
 object, although it pours out its wrath and spittle over that 
 object, still the venom evaporates and becomes powerless 
 in the air, just as it is the case with any hot liquid that is 
 exposed to free air for some time, and loses in this way it 
 power and fire. 
 
 For the Creator has ordained all things to work in a cer- 
 tain way, and in no other. '
 
 TUB T A AM 
 
 The following letter has been sent by the Society for the 
 Prevention of Cruelty to Animals to Mr. Henry West- 
 heimer. 
 
 SOCIETY PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO ANIMAL 
 
 Rooms of the Society, 
 No. 826 Broadway, Corner of I2th Street, ' 
 
 New York, January 9, 1866. 
 Mr. Henry Westheimer: 
 
 Sir: An employee in the service of this society reports 
 to me that the cruelty inflicted needlessly on dumb ani- 
 mals while slaughtering them at your establishment, is of 
 the most barbarous, revolting, and wicked character. 
 
 This statement has before been communicated to this So- 
 ciety, and it is proper that I call your attention to the fact, 
 with a view to its immediate correction. 
 
 You are forbidden by the laws of this State, as well as 
 that higher law of God, thus to mangle and torture His 
 creatures. 
 
 You should, at least, so far feel for the miserable lot of 
 the creatures which support, and in so many ways contrib- 
 ute to the well-being of mankind, by killing them with mer- 
 ciful dispatch, and in no way can this be so perfectly done 
 as by a blow from a pointed axe on the head. 
 
 At any rate, these horrible scenes must end, and you must 
 not suppose that the laws of this State are to be daily vio- 
 lated by you without responsibility any more than by any 
 other citizen. 
 
 If you believe that there is a God in Heaven tremble! 
 for you may be certain that misfortune will overtake you 
 sooner or later, for these infractions of His natural laws.
 
 16 
 
 I desire to hear from you on this subject before addres c - 
 ing myself to the public authorities, which I shall do, if un- 
 heeded by you ; but I trust that this appeal will obtain a 
 share of that mercy and pity which you yourself will one 
 day ask of your Maker. 
 
 Yours, etc., 
 
 Henry Bergh, President. 
 Society Prevention Cruelty to Animals. 
 
 The following is mv answer: 
 
 It is an apparent truth that the nature of death, and the 
 feeling at the hour of death, at the time when body and soul 
 are separated, are unknown to all living beings. For, since 
 no living being is subject to two or more different kinds of 
 death, it cannot possibly find out and tell us the difference 
 between one kind of death and the other. Nor has yet any 
 living being come back after its death to describe to us the 
 particulars of death, for the mouth of all beings is sealed 
 forever as soon as they are dead. Still our Rabbins said: 
 There are 903 different kinds of death, and they relied on 
 the Biblical verse (Psalms Ixviii. 20) : "And unto God the 
 Lord belong the issues from death"; since the Hebrew 
 term for issues, "Tozaoth," amounts to 903, if we take the 
 letters of the word "Tozaoth" as figures. 
 
 They also described the most painful and most painless 
 kinds of death. They said that, in the case of the most 
 painful kind of death, the soul departs from the body with 
 the same difficulty with which wool is taken out from 
 thorns ; but in the easiest kind of death, body and soul part 
 with the same ease with which a hair is drawn out of milk. 
 
 In the quoted 68th Psalm the severest or most painful 
 manner of death is described, and it is said that the Lord's 
 enemies are chastised and killed by it. The words of the 
 Psalmist run in this way : "Surely God shall strike the head 
 of His enemies." The Psalmist also describes to us the 
 particular place of the head where He strikes them, so that 
 death will be more painful, and he says: "On the skull,"
 
 17 
 
 where the hair is parted, He strikes the head of him wao 
 walks in his transgressions. This is, therefore, the sever- 
 est kind of death. And yet this is the very spot of the head 
 where they strike the animal, in order to kill it and prer 
 pare it for human food. And we can clearly see from this, 
 that death, produced by blows inflicted on the head, is 
 neither the easiest kind of death for the animal that is killed, 
 nor does it produce wholesome food, as I shall show yet 
 more explicitly. Likewise T shall show, by clear and rea- 
 gent proofs, that the Shechitah, and the Shechitah alone, 
 is the fittest and easiest death ; for by the violence of the 
 struggle and spasm of the members that take place at the 
 time of the death of an animal, we can judge of the high 
 degree of the pain and agony which the body and its limbs 
 suffer at the hour of death. 
 
 But, in the first place, we must describe the different 
 parts and members of the animal, which, through their 
 being united, and as long as they are united, constitute the 
 living animal. It is necessary for us to know that every 
 animal, when its members have been united and inclosed 
 by muscles and skin, consists of two distinct bodies the 
 interior and exterior body. Through their being united 
 in some places, they become one body and spirit. The ex- 
 terior body is formed of the head, hands or forefeet, feet 
 or hindfeet, all members, sinews, muscles, bones, and the 
 whole structure, which is covered by the skin. They are 
 all closely connected and united. The interior body con- 
 sists of the heart, intestines, and the organs that are con- 
 nected with them ; as the liver, spleen, and kidneys. Thev 
 lie in the body just as if they were lying in a vessel, and they 
 are not closely united with the exterior body. For there 
 is only a slight connection of the windpipe and gullet with 
 the jaw. Still, slight as this connection is, animal life de- 
 pends on it, wherefore it must be guarded with the utmost 
 care. The connection of the other organs is effected only 
 by the blood-vessels that extend from the heart into the 
 body. For the heart is the source of the veins and arteries, 
 and the fountain of the blood. For the exterior body, -the
 
 18 
 
 Almighty created one special member that must be guarded 
 very carefully; it is the brain. Its chief seat is in the skull, 
 and it extends over the whole spine. The skilll and the 
 spine inclose it like a wall, to protect it from every injury, 
 and it is, indeed, in great need of that protection. It is 
 the brain that gives strength to all parts and members of 
 the body, and keeps them together. If the brain is re- 
 moved from its proper place, all limbs are shaken and lose 
 their strength. The animal cannot live then any longer.. 
 The brain itself is not united with the exterior body by a 
 strong connection, as is the case with the other members; 
 but only through the brains of the heart that extend over 
 all parts of the body and its members, and ramify into my- 
 riads of capillaries. They are united with the brain by its 
 membrane that surrounds it, and they empty into the open- 
 ings of that membrane, in order to convey nourishment 
 (that is, blood) into the brain. When that membrane is 
 peeled off the brain and the spinal cord, the former remains 
 as a clear, shining substance. This substance gives strength 
 to all members, imparts feeling to all parts of the body, and 
 is called the head. It rules and governs as the king of a 
 country, or the father of a family. 
 
 For the intestines, that form the inner body, the Al- 
 mighty created also one special member, the heart. It is 
 a most important part of the system, and is hidden in a bag 
 which preserves and guards it. The heart likewise has not 
 a strong and firm connection with the body and intestines, 
 as is the case with other members that are joined by sin- 
 ews. ! It is only connected by means of veins that proceed 
 from its right and left, and extend and ramify over all parts 
 of the body and every member. These veins extend to the 
 brain and the spinal cord. From them (the brain and spin- 
 al cord) the blood flows back to every part of the body, until 
 it reaches the left chamber of the heart. There it is puri- 
 fied and receives new strength. It passes then over to the 
 right chamber of the heart and resumes its circulating 
 course. 
 
 For the heart is the fountain of the veins, and the spring
 
 19 
 
 that furnishes the life-blood. Another function of the heart 
 is the assistance it affords to all parts and members of the 
 body in feeling pain. This communication between the 
 heart and brain on the one side, and all parts of the body 
 on the other, is kept up by the veins. For every vein is 
 connected at one end with the brain and at the other with 
 the heart. 
 
 The lungs inhale, through the windpipe, fresh and clear 
 air, to cool the heart in order that the heat of the blood in 
 the heart shall not become too intense, and shall not kill . 
 the animal. Therefore the lungs breathe continually, either 
 in long and distinct, or in short and connected breathings. 
 For it is known that, if an animal is tired and fatigued, it 
 breathes incessantly, because the blood in the heart has be- 
 come hot by fatigue and is in need of being cooled off by 
 a fresh supply of air. But if the animal is not fatigued, it 
 breathes in the regular way. 
 
 All food, both the solid and the liquid, passes through 
 the oesophagus into the rumen, from there into the stom- 
 ach. In it the food is digested by the assistance of the 
 liver, and is decomposed into blood, nutritious matter, and 
 fat. But the refuse is driven out through the intestines. 
 The blood first enters the heart; but the food, the sinews. 
 In this way the animal is nourished. 
 
 The brain has two cavities in which the five senses, feel- 
 ing, smell, hearing, taste, and seeing, have their seat. But 
 these five senses are external and limited, because they can 
 only be affected by such things as really exist. But the 
 power of imagination is unlimited. It has a wider scope 
 than the five senses, and may have for its object just as 
 well a thing which is not in existence, as one which is in 
 existence, or just as well an impossible thing as one which 
 is possible. 
 
 The power of imagination has also its seat in the head 
 and brain. The brain communicates its thoughts immedi- 
 ately to the heart, to investigate and examine them. And 
 since the heart has two counsellors, and is gifted with rea- 
 son, it examines quite closely and clearly as to the correct-
 
 20 
 
 ness of anything. Therefore the wise king said : "I gave 
 my heart," "I said to my heart," "I said in my heart," and 
 many similar phrases which all allude to the heart. 
 
 The heart has also two cavities : a large one on the 
 right, and a small one on the left. In the right cavity it 
 receives the blood from the food which has been digested 
 by the assistance of the liver. It sends forth the blood in- 
 to the whole body and into every member, until it reaches 
 the brain and spinal cord. From there the blood flows back 
 through all the parts of the body, until it arrives at the left 
 cavity of the heart. There the blood is renewed and flows 
 back again into the right cavity and resumes its circulating 
 cdurse again. The two cavities of the heart are connected 
 with the cavities of the brain where the five senses have 
 their seat. 
 
 But imagination originates in the brain ; it has no limits 
 and cares not for the laws of Nature. The heart only sets 
 bounds to it. But as far as feeling is concerned, the heart 
 and brain are equally affected, since feeling arises from pres- 
 sure of the veins, and these are connected at their two ends 
 with the brain and the heart. Therefore heart and brain 
 feel simultaneously, in order that they may preserve and 
 guard the animal's life. For through the veins the feeling 
 of pain is conveyed to the heart and brain, as Scripture 
 says (Isaiah i. 5) : "The whole head is sick, and the whole 
 heart faint." 
 
 Now, wounds and hurts generally affect the members 
 of the exterior body, but diseases of the system have their 
 seat in the parts of the inner body, as in the heart and the 
 intestines. Wherefore every sudden death and the disease 
 of fits arise only from inner members, as the heart, intes- 
 tines, brain, and through the deterioration of the blood that 
 has been brought on by some cause or accident. 
 
 Although the inner members have no blood, still the heart 
 is the source and origin of the blood, and as soon as the 
 fountain is spoiled and corrupt, everything becomes cor- 
 rupt, and sickness sets in. For as soon as the blood has 
 become bad. it immediately kills the animal. Wherefore
 
 sudden death, caused by sickness of the heart or brain, is 
 called in German "Schlag" (stroke, apoplexy, or paralysis), 
 as "stroke of the heart" (Herzschlag) or "stroke of the 
 brain" (Gehirnschlag). These diseases have been called so, 
 because they attack and kill instantaneously, just as a Tnan 
 strikes another man and kills him. 
 
 From the intestines comes, on the other hand, the sick- 
 ness called "convulsions" or "cramps," which is one of the 
 most dangerous diseases. 
 
 No sickness like any of those mentioned attacks the 
 members of the external body. Even if they are broken 
 or cut, instantaneous death does not ensue. 
 
 And now, dear reader, I am not one of the great writers 
 who know how to present their thoughts and ideas in such 
 a clear and comprehensive way, that the reader cannot but 
 clearly and fully understand what they intended to say. I 
 therefore beg the dear reader that he may take pains to 
 comprehend the true meaning of my words. He then will 
 find the right and true way, and he will see that the laws of 
 the Jewish religion for the Shechitah show God's kindness 
 and mercy towards His creatures. For He created all 
 beings in His great mercy, and owing to His endless kind- 
 ness He ordained to select for them an easy and calm death, 
 in order to alleviate the pain of the animal, as well as to 
 make the meat of the killed animal more wholesome and 
 palatable. 
 
 For God created all creatures for His own glory, and He 
 created them on the condition that they should become the 
 food of man, His noblest creature, and that they should die 
 only in the way He ordained, which is the easiest death, as I 
 shall explain. And this way of killing is the best for both, 
 viz., for the animal that is killed, and for man that con- 
 sumes its flesh. 
 
 Every way of killing the animal, that inflicts great pain 
 on it, although it brings on instantaneous death, spoils and 
 deteriorates the blood ; and although death ensues very 
 quickly, still it is injurious for the consumer, and therefore 
 detrimental to both animal and man.
 
 22 
 
 But the way of killing that brings on an easy death with- 
 out much pain ought to be chosen for killing the animal, in 
 order to obtain its flesh for the food of man. 
 
 For the illustration of what I said, and in order to prove 
 that what I said is correct, T shall offer eight instances of 
 increasing and of lessening pain. 
 
 1st. If a man cuts into his flesh, even deeply, but cuts 
 quickly and only once, he does not feel so much pain as 
 if he cuts into it only a little, and afterwards cuts again into 
 the old cut, although the two cuts do not form as large and 
 deep a cut as the one that was produced by cutting once, but 
 very quickly. The reason of this is, because cutting into 
 an old cut causes greater pain than cutting once quickly 
 into sound flesh, 
 
 2d. Cutting with a knife to and fro, without pressing 
 the knife downward, does not cause so much pain as if one 
 presses the knife downward and does not move it to and 
 fro. For the pain caused by pressing the knife downward 
 produces heat and inflammation in the wound. 
 
 3d. A cut inflicted by a healthy, agile man does not pro- 
 duce as much pain as the cut of a drunken or old man, or 
 of one whose hands tremble or are heavy. 
 
 4th. To pierce a knife into sound flesh, and then cut the 
 flesh of the wound, is more painful than a mere cut, because 
 piercing and cutting are two different kinds of pain. 
 
 5th. Cutting with a knife that has an indentation or 
 notch causes very severe pain, and is very poisonous and 
 dangerous, but a cut with a sharp, smooth knife, does not 
 produce so much pain, is not poisonous, and dangerous, and 
 if it can be healed, heals quickly. 
 
 6th. To tear loose a part of the flesh causes greater pain 
 than if it is cut off by a knife. It does not heal so quickly 
 either. All this is evident. 
 
 7th. If, immediately after inflicting a cut, warm water of 
 the temperature of the blood is applied to the wound, pain 
 ceases, and the blood flows without interruption. But if 
 the wound is washed out with cold water, the flow of blood
 
 23 
 
 is stopped, and severe pain is felt, just as the pricking of 
 pins. 
 
 8th. If a member has been cut off the body, the body 
 does not feel any pain any longer through that member, 
 and as soon as the wound is healed, the member that has 
 been cut off never causes any pain. But if a member has 
 been destroyed by sickness, it causes pain even after the 
 member has been fully destroyed, just as if it were yet con- 
 nected with the body. For instance, if the disease had its 
 seat in the toes, and the disease destroyed the whole ;".~>ot, 
 still, if any event takes place which would affect that sick- 
 ness, as, for instance, rainy weather or a snowfall, pain of 
 the toes is felt, just as if they were yet connected with the 
 body, and had yet life in them. For the veins of the af- 
 fected member that convey sensibility to the heart and brain 
 have also been affected by that incurable disease. But 
 these remained in their old place. Therefore, every cir- 
 cumstance that aggravates the disease is felt by the sick 
 person or animal, even after the diseased member has been 
 separated from the body, as is well known to physicians. 
 
 Now, kind reader, remember everything well I have said 
 here and do not forget it. 
 
 See furthermore. As soon as the windpipe and oesoph- 
 agus are cut apart in the middle of the throat, both bodies 
 are separated from one another; viz., the external body 
 with the brain is by itself, and the internal body, viz., the 
 intestines and the heart, is likewise by itself, and they do 
 not impart either blood or food or perception to one an- 
 other any more. Nor has either the least influence any 
 more on the other, to impart any pain or sickness by the de- 
 terioration of the blood, because the blood pours down to 
 the ground in good color and sound state. And a,- soon 
 as the windpipe and oesophagus are cut. the intestines lie 
 in the external body as in any other vessel, because there 
 is no connection between them any longer. Although they 
 are connected yet in the anus, by which excrement is ex- 
 pelled, still this is not connection enough to bring on any
 
 24 
 
 disease, as this is known to physicians and as we have ex- 
 plained. 
 
 The lungs inhale pure air through the windpipe, also 
 after Shechitah, as in the sound state of the animal, and fan 
 the heart as 'ong as the animal struggles in the agonies of 
 death, in order to cool the heart. In this way, the heat of 
 the blood does not become too intense, and the blood con- 
 tinually decreases by flowing to the ground until the ani- 
 mal dies by losing its life, that is its blood, entirely, for the 
 blood is the life. 
 
 Nor can the veins in the other members, that have not 
 been separated by the Shechitah, receive any more blood, 
 because the circulation of the blood has been stopped by 
 the cutting of the windpipe, gullet, and arteries of the 
 throat, and the blood pours down to the ground on both 
 sides of the severed parts, viz., the windpipe, gullet, and 
 arteries. 
 
 The skilful operation in the act of Shechitah, according 
 to the Tsraelitish law, depends on two conditions : on the 
 fitness of the Shochet (the man who performs the Shecni- 
 tah), and on that of the knife. By Shochet we mean a care- 
 ful and active or brisk performer. But one who is drunk, 
 or whose hands tremble, who is weak, who is not well versed 
 in the laws of Shechitah or in the laws of examining the 
 inner structure of the animal, or one who does not believe 
 in the Mosaic and Israelitish law, as, for instance, one who 
 breaks the Sabbath, is not called a Shochet, but his name 
 is "Nabal," miscreant, and an animal killed by such a man 
 is called "Nebelah" or "dead of itself." But no Israelite 
 is allowed to eat a Nebelah, as the Bible says : "Ye shall 
 not eat any Nebelah, or anything that dieth of itself." 
 (Dent. xvi. 21.) Although such an animal is not a "Nebe- 
 lah" by itself, but on account of the Nabal who slaughtered it. 
 The second condition of a good Shechitah is a good knife, 
 that is, one. of the required length, that is sharp and smooth 
 without the least indentation, in order to cut with it the 
 windpipe and the oesophagus in the middle of the throat
 
 25 
 
 without stopping and without pressing down the knife in 
 the least, in full accordance with all the laws that pertain 
 to Shechitah. In this way the two bodies of the animal 
 are separated from one another in the easiest and best man- 
 ne,r. All the other auxiliaries, intended to alleviate the 
 suffering and pain after the act of Shechitah until the mo- 
 ment of death, come of themselves. As soon as the wind- 
 pipe and gullet are cut, the arteries instantaneously pour 
 out their blood around and upon the cut, on the right and 
 left, like water, in exactly the right temperature. In this 
 way they wash out the wound, and surely pain ceases im- 
 mediately. 
 
 Another common means of alleviating the pain of a 
 wound is also found in the throat. I mean the breathing 
 over the place of a wound. For it is customary, if a man 
 has an inflamed wound, that he breathes over the place of 
 the wound and the inflammation, to mitigate the pain, and 
 momentary relief is obtained in this way. But Shechitah 
 offers this very remedy. For the windpipe constantly ex- 
 hales its breath over the cut to allay pain, and undoubtedly 
 pain ceases for the moment. (And that is a full proof that 
 the Creator from the very beginning ordained that every 
 clean animal should be subject to Shechitah, and that Shech- 
 itah should be performed on the throat, because there is 
 no other place so fit for a comparatively painless Shechitah 
 as the throat. For in the throat the auxiliaries that are 
 needed to alleviate the pain present themselves spontane- 
 ously. But that is not the case with any other part of the 
 body.) 
 
 And from the very beginning, when God created His 
 creatures and ordained that animals should serve for hu- 
 man food, He commanded the Israelites to alleviate the 
 pains and sufferings of animals by killing them in the kind 
 way of Shechitah. 
 
 As soon as the operation of Shechitah has been per- 
 formed and the blood flows, pain ceases, because there is 
 nothing left to receive or communicate the pain. For the 
 head and body are separated from the intestines and the
 
 26 
 
 heart, and the blood is flowing out to the ground. Nor 
 exists there any longer any communication of feeling be- 
 tween the two bodies, that any pain should be conducted 
 from one body to the other. 
 
 The lungs continually inhale pure and fresh air and cool 
 the heart just as in lifetime, and all pain ceases. And when 
 the animal dies, the flesh remains sound and clean, pure 
 and good for food. But by any cut inflicted farther up or 
 down than the windpipe or gullet, or in any place where 
 the windpipe and gullet have not been touched, the two 
 bodies have not been separated and therefore remain one 
 body in every respect. They communicate pain to one an- 
 other; their blood degenerates by their mutual influence: 
 and they receive from one another any sickness or injury 
 (like cholera or paralysis). 
 
 So it is also with the five rules that make the Shechitah 
 unlawful, as : a, if the Shochet separated the windpipe or 
 gullet by pressing on them with the knife, or b, if he killed 
 with a knife that has a notch, or c, if he put the knife un- 
 derneath the windpipe or gullet, or d, if he tore loose the 
 windpipe or the gullet, or e, if the Shochet is drunk or if 
 his hands tremble. From all such Shechitoth (ways of 
 killing) it is forbidden to eat, because they all are injurious 
 to the animal, and all these defects took place when the two 
 Bodies were still united and therefore still one body. 
 
 Although those defects as, for instance, if he paused dur- 
 ing the Shechitah, or if he used a knife that had a notch, 
 mav have had influence on the Shechitah only during the 
 duration of one second, still their influence is injurious to 
 the blood of the whole body and all the members, as we 
 see it manifested when blows that reach the brain are dealt 
 on the head of the animal. Instantly those blows affect 
 the whole body with the quickness of lightning, the mem- 
 bers and sinews are bent, they are seized by fits, the blood 
 becomes black like pitch, and surely the animal dies from 
 nothing else but cholera and apoplexy. Such meat is not 
 clean and fit to be eaten, and such a way of killing is in- 
 jurious both to man and beast, as I shall yet explain. AH
 
 27 
 
 this is vejy plain to men of understanding, and lovers of 
 truth will comprehend that, as long as the living animal 
 forms one body, it is affected by every evil influence and 
 exposed to every accident, and if that evil influence or that 
 accident should last even only one second, still the animal 
 will suffer from it and will die of a hard death, and then the 
 flesh of the animal is dangerous to the consumers. But 
 when the bodies have been separated, neither, can benefit 
 or injure the other any longer, for all communication be- 
 tween them has ceased. 
 
 Let us now describe the manner of death that ensues 
 from blows inflicted on the brain. This way of killing is 
 said to accelerate the death of the animal. But we see the 
 terrible effect it has on the poor animal ; just as if it were 
 struck by thunderbolts and flashes of lightning. The but- 
 cher comes with his axe in his hand, and strikes the head 
 of the poor animal, not once, but many times. For it is 
 not possible to hit. at one blow, the exact place where a 
 blow kills the animal instantly. Wherefore the butcher 
 strikes the animal many times, until he breaks the skull and 
 tears the brain. (But do not forget that, although every 
 blow on the head, inflicted with the intention to kill the an- 
 imal, may be considered like sure half death, still the animal 
 does not fully die before the brain is torn or destroyed. 
 And even if the butcher deals forty blows on the head of 
 the animal and goes on striking it, he only makes the ani- 
 mal sick, but he will not kill it. until he tears the brain.) 
 And now, kind reader, see with your own eyes and judge with 
 your own reason, and you will be convinced that there can- 
 not be a more painful and cruel death than that which en- 
 sues from blows dealt on the head. For, at the very mo- 
 ment that the skull is broken by a blow, terror and tremb- 
 ling seize the whole body, all the members, and every vein; 
 and all the blood and every member and every vein are 
 attacked by cramps. In consequence of which, all the 
 members instantly get crooked and bent. Can we think 
 of any more painful or more sickening kind of death? Must 
 our heart not be filled with compassion on seeing such suf-
 
 28 
 
 fering? But know also, that as long as the animal is 
 seized by cramps and its members are bent, it still is alive. 
 But it suffers the most terrible, indescribable pain, the pro- 
 cess of breathing ceases immediately and the excrement 
 comes out through the nostrils. All this being the case, 
 let physicians tell us if such an animal dies in immediate 
 consequence of the blows it received, or if it does not die 
 of two very malignant diseases : of cholera and apoplexy, 
 which have been brought on by the blows and which end 
 the animals life by cramps. The proof of our assertion is, 
 that if the region of the heart of such an animal is cut, 
 blood flows out, black like pitch and putrid, as is the case 
 with animals that die by cholera or apoplexy, without any 
 blows having been inflicted on the head, but only by the 
 mere disease. For the cramps, of which everybody is 
 afraid, do not leave the animal, until it is fully dead. God 
 protect us from those diseases of apoplexy and cramps, 
 and from eating flesh of an animal that was sick of such 
 diseases.* 
 
 But as long as the animal is attacked by those two dis- 
 eases (cholera and cramps), life is not extinct, although the 
 animal lies motionless. The cause of that want of motion 
 of the animal is, that the pain from which the animal suf- 
 fers, when it is attacked by those two diseases, in conse- 
 quence of blows dealt on its head, is so severe, that we can- 
 not imagine any pain, whatever that equals it in intensity. 
 And how could we think of any pain equally violent and 
 annihilating? Has not the brain, the seat of all life, been 
 hammered down and destroyed, and has not the heart also 
 been consumed by fire through the decomposition of its 
 
 * This our explanation may also account for the extraordinary fact, 
 which often repeated itself in the history of the middle ages, and which 
 was the cause of manyjpersecutions, expulsions, and murders of Israel- 
 ites. I mean the strange fact, that often, when pestilence raged and 
 killed hundreds and thousands of human beings, very few Israelites 
 fell as victims to the scourge. The Christians, who could not find any 
 good reason for this startling anomaly, accused the Israelites of having 
 thrown poison into the wells which furnished drinking water to the 
 communities, and committed the excesses and cruelties just men- 
 tioned.
 
 blood, called in German, "Schwarzer Brand," black mortifica- 
 tion? Woe to him who eats of such meat, viz., of meat of 
 an animal that has been killed by apoplexy and cholera. 
 But we repeat it : the animal dies not directly by the blows 
 dealt on its head, but by the two severe diseases, cholera 
 and apoplexy, brought on by those blows. On this very 
 account, the flesh of the animal has certainly become dis- 
 eased, because blood has been left in it impregnated by 
 those diseases. For there is no difference whether death 
 ensues in consequence of blows dealt on the head, which 
 surely brought on those two diseases of apoplexy and 
 cramps : or if those diseases came of themselves, without 
 any blows, and killed the animal. 
 
 For the correctness of this assertion, we have the follow- 
 ing proofs: 
 
 1. The blood becomes dark like pitch and rotten, in both 
 ways of death, that is, both if the animal is struck by man 
 with an axe, or if severe sickness brings on such a state. 
 
 2. Cramps set in, as it is the case with cholera. 
 
 3. The animal ceases to breathe. 
 
 4. All this is different with Shechitah. For no such fear- 
 ful and terrible sights are produced by Shechitah. For as 
 soon as the windpipe and gullet are cut, the blood pour-; 
 over the cut and pain ceases. The blood, which is life, de- 
 parts gradually, and when it has entirely departed, the ani- 
 mal dies, not by sickness, but because the essential of life, 
 blood, is wanting. 
 
 The flesh of an animal that died by being struck on the 
 head is also heavier than the flesh of an animal killed bv 
 Shechitah. For in the former case the blood has been ab- 
 sorbed by the members. But the soul, viz., the blood, must 
 not be eaten with the flesh. 
 
 5. The meat of an animal killed by blows putrefies, in 
 hot weather, faster than the meat of an animal that has been 
 killed by Shechitah, because the rotten and black blood has 
 been absorbed by the meat. 
 
 Sometimes coagulated blood is found on the ribs of an
 
 30 
 
 animal killed by blows, inside, near the spine, which can- 
 not be removed by washing. 
 
 By all this it is easy to see the difference between an ani- 
 mal killed by Shechitah and one killed by blows. The meat 
 of the latter animal is not clean, and is unfit food for a good 
 man of pure thought, as I shall explain still more explicitly. 
 Maimonides also writes : "It lies in the nature of blood to 
 produce cruel and detestable habits in those that eat it. The 
 system acquires those habits in a way that they will also 
 be inherited by the descendants of the person who consumes 
 the blood." 
 
 But Gentiles do not kill all animals by blows on the head. 
 For sheep and calves are killed by piercing. Why are now, 
 we ask, small animals, as sheep and calves, different from 
 large animals, as oxen and cows? Why are blows preferable 
 for large animals, and why is piercing preferable for small ani- 
 mals? 
 
 But in both ways of killing, the animal dies without its 
 head, body, heart, and intestines being separated. During 
 the entire struggle of death, full communication and sym- 
 pathy exist between all these vital parts of the animal, and 
 they all perish simultaneously. 
 
 Now, dear reader, ponder over my words, and thou wilt 
 find they are correct and true, and lovers of truth will ap- 
 prove of them. Thou wilt find that the ordinances for Shech- 
 itah are a divine institution, and that God's mercy extends 
 unto all His creatures, even to animals destined for the .food 
 of man. Thou wilt also see that Shechitah is the best and 
 most preferable way of killing and of preparing meat for 
 food, without the least doubt, as thou wilt find in my book 
 "Liviath Chen," which I am presenting here to thee. 
 
 To sum up the foregoing, I say : 
 
 We have seen that neither striking on the head nor Shech- 
 itah kills an animal. But by blows a disease is brought on 
 that kills the animal, and by Shechitah the bodies are separ- 
 ated. The body is not killed directly by Shechitah, but a 
 gate is opened for the arteries and veins to let the life-blood 
 flow out, so that the flesh is left without life. But as long
 
 31 
 
 as the struggles of death last, the animal is considered to 
 be alive, according to Jewish law. 
 
 Let us now consider the question which high-minded and 
 high-standing Gentiles asked. They asked that question 
 from pure motives, viz., to promote the cause of humanity 
 as far as possible, and not for the purpose of annoying the 
 Israelites. 
 
 The interrogators of that question are members of the 
 Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and they pro- 
 secute any one and every one whom they apprehend in hav- 
 ing committed any cruel act towards an animal. If the 
 person accused is convicted by the court, he is punished, 
 in order to prevent him and others from acting so cruelly 
 in future. 
 
 The same question about the Shechitah has also been 
 asked in other countries, and only by making the greatest 
 efforts the Israelites succeeded in inducing the authorities 
 to rely on the assurance of medical experts, who said that 
 Shechitah is not such a painful and terrible death after all. 
 In this way Shechitah has been tolerated, but has by no 
 means been considered preferable to all other modes of 
 killing. 
 
 But the Author Sforno is fully correct when he says that 
 direct proofs for the necessity of Shechitah have to be of- 
 fered by the Israelites. For why should the Gentiles say 
 that Jewish customs are cruel, and Jewish laws ought to be 
 abolished? But it is impossible to do away with Shechitah 
 entirely, because many thousands and myriads of Israelites 
 would prefer death to defiling their body and soul by eat- 
 ing meat of animals not killed in the Jewish way. And since 
 the Israelites are a stubborn people, it is best to tolerate 
 their custom and rather allow the animals to be killed in the 
 Jewish way, even if the animals suffer more pain in this way, 
 than to be the cause of the death of many Israelites. Gentiles 
 further say, Shechitah ought to be tolerated so much the 
 more, since physicians say that Shechitah is not such a painful 
 and cruel death after all. 
 
 But this kindness- of the Gentiles is not creditable to the
 
 32 
 
 Israelites. For Israelites ought to make Gentiles acquainted 
 with the essence and nature of Shechitah. 
 
 The Torah already enjoins on us (Deut. iv. 6) : "And you 
 shall observe and do (it) ; for it is your wisdom and under- 
 standing in the eyes of the nations." The meaning of this 
 biblical verse is : If you observe a divine command quite 
 strictly and closely in all its particulars, you will know how 
 to refute all objections that can be raised against that divine 
 command, and you will be able to give good reasons for its 
 observation. 
 
 But who can be expected to understand and explain all 
 particulars of Shechitah more thoroughly than the Shochet 
 himself? 
 
 I have been now officiating as Shochet over thirty years. 
 I have had great experience in my profession, have taught 
 many pupils the art of Shechitah, and have taken pains to 
 investigate every matter as closely as possible. And I am 
 fully convinced that the way of killing practiced by non-Is- 
 raelitish butchers is extremely cruel and painful, far more so 
 than Shechitah. And if we look at the terrible struggle and 
 the contortion of an animal that dies in the cruel way of hav- 
 ing blows dealt on its head, and compare this way of dying 
 with Shechitah, we perceive and comprehend how exalted is 
 the divine command which ordered Shechitah. For by 
 Shechitah life departs and death ensues without paiv. All 
 the signs which I described above prove also that Shechitah 
 prepares and purifies the meat in such a way that it can be 
 eaten without the least danger. 
 
 Gentiles ought also to observe the command of Shechitah, 
 and wise men and lovers of truth ought to remind their chil- 
 dren not to eat of any animal that has not been killed by 
 Shechitah, if the Israelitish religion prescribes Shechitah for 
 such an animal. But as soon as the meat is allowed to be 
 eaten by the Israelite, it is also allowed to Gentiles. They 
 may then eat of it and praise the Lord and Israel, His people, 
 and they will say : (Deut. iv. 6 and 8) : "Surely this great 
 people is a wise and intelligent people, which has just statutes 
 and judgments like all this law."
 
 33 
 
 The Almighty, blessed be He, who has created all the in- 
 habitants of the world, who loves all His creatures and de- 
 lights in the prosperity of the world, desires the Gentiles 
 also to enjoy future life, as I shall explain yet more explic- 
 itly. Therefore He commanded us to try to understand the 
 reason of the divine commands, so that we shall be able to 
 explain to Gentiles the reasons of the statutes and judg- 
 ments, if they will ask us about them. In this way the Gen- 
 tiles will learn the reason of the divine commands and ob- 
 serve them. They will thus attain long life and. improve their 
 mind, as the Bible says : (Deut. iv. i) : "And now, O Israel, 
 obey the laws and judgments which I teach you to do, in 
 order that you may live." 
 
 Thus we see that he enjoys length of life who observes 
 and performs them. And just as well as the observation of 
 the divine commands secures long life, just so it removes all 
 pain and sickness and everything that shortens man's life, 
 for the reason that it is forbidden. 
 
 The reason why the Israelites are called a wise nation is, 
 because they act for a laudable purpose, as becomes a wise, 
 intelligent and great nation that tries to remove every injur- 
 ious influence, as it is said in the Bible (Exod. xv. 26) : "And 
 it will be, if thou wilt diligently listen to the voice of the Lord 
 thy God, wilt do what is right in His eyes, give ear to His 
 commands and observe all His statutes, that I shall not 
 bring over thee any disease which I brought over Egypt, for 
 I am thy physician." And even if the Gentiles will act in 
 this way, not because God commanded it, but for some other 
 motive, it still will have those beneficial consequences for 
 them. For the Talmud teaches, that if any one performs a 
 good action, even without pure unselfish motives at first, 
 he will, in course of time, do that action from pure, disinter- 
 ested motives. 
 
 The Torah warns us also not to hate Gentiles, not even 
 idolaters, as it says (Deut. xxiii. 8) : "Thou shalt not abhor 
 the Edomite, for he is thy brother. Thou shalt not abhor 
 the Egyptian, for thou wast a stranger in his land." 
 
 The Torah also warns us not to give any man any danger-
 
 34 
 
 ous or injurious thing by which his life can be endangered 
 or he could be hurt. So -the Bible says (Exod. xxii. 30) : 
 "Neither shall you eat flesh that is torn of beasts in the field. 
 Ye shall cast it to the dogs." 
 
 But in Deut. xiv. 21, the Bible admonishes us: Ye shall 
 not eat of any thing that dieth of itself; thou shalt give it 
 unto the stranger that is in thy gates, that he may eat it ; or 
 thou mayest sell it unto an alien, for thou art a holy people 
 unto the Lord thy God. 
 
 In order to understand this apparent incongruity, that in 
 Deuteronomy the Bible allows us to give forbidden meat to 
 the stranger and alien, and in Exodus the Bible commands 
 us to cast forbidden meat to the dogs, we must not forget 
 that there is a great difference between Terephah and Ne- 
 belah. By Terephah is meant an animal that has been torn 
 or mortally wounded by a beast of prey. Such an animal 
 dies of poison, by which the attacking animal of prey in- 
 fected its system. For thus the Bible says: "And flesh in 
 the field that is torn," that means, that has been torn or 
 wounded by a beast of prey. Such an animal we must not 
 even give to a Gentile, but cast it to the dogs, because it is 
 more strictly forbidden to us to eat anything injurious to 
 health than to eat anything unclean on merely religious 
 grounds. 
 
 The Torah teaches us at the same time that dogs are 
 beasts of prey which are not injured by the poison of an- 
 other beast of prey, wherefore dogs may eat of an animal 
 that has been wounded or slain by another. 
 
 But in Deuteronomy the Torah speaks of Nebelah, and 
 not of Terephah ; and whereas there are many animals that 
 die a natural death, and are fit for human food, therefore the 
 Torah commands us: Ye shall not eat any animal that has 
 died of itself, even if it is fit to be eaten, as, for instance, if 
 during Shechitah or the act of killing it has become unfit 
 for the use of an Israelite. 
 
 Now the meat of such an animal thou mayest give to the 
 stranger within thy gates that he may eat it, if he chooses 
 But to the Israelite such meat is forbidden, as the Bible says
 
 35 
 
 (Deuteronomy xiv. 2, 3) : "For thou art an holy people un- 
 to the Lord thy God, and the Lord hath chosen thee to b 
 a peculiar people unto himself, above all the nations that arc 
 upon the earth. Thou shalt not eat any abominable thing," 
 even if it is fit to be eaten. 
 
 See also Aben Esra, Exodus xxii., who quotes the opin 
 ion of Rabbi Moses Cohen, that God forbade us to give a 
 Gentile anything injurious to health or dangerous to the 
 system, because we are enjoined more strictly to abstain from 
 eating anything injurious to health than from eating any- 
 thing forbidden by the statutes of the Israelitish religion. 
 
 So the Bible forbade also the stranger to eat blood, al- 
 though he is allowed to eat of an animal that died of itself. 
 For in reference to Nebelah (an animal that died of itself) 
 the Bible says : "To the stranger that is within thy gates 
 thou mayest give it, that he may eat it." 
 
 But eating blood is forbidden also to the stranger, for 
 thus it says (Lev. xvii. 10) : "And any one of the house of 
 Israel or of the strangers who sojourn among them, who eats 
 any blood, I will even set my face against that soul that eat- 
 eth blood, and will cut him off from among his people." 
 
 We find the reason for this in Moreh. For Maimonides 
 writes in Moreh that blood creates very cruel inclinations 
 in the system, which not only become inseparable from the 
 system, but which will also be communicated to children 
 and grandchildren. 
 
 From this we see that God desires the welfare of His 
 creatures, that He has pity on them, and wants them to pros- 
 per and improve their minds by virtuous living. Compare 
 Maimonides' letter which he sent to Alexandria to the great 
 Rabbi Chisdai. the Levite and Portuguese. He writes: 
 "Concerning thy question about the Gentiles, thou must 
 know that all God desires is a good heart. Therefore the 
 Rabbins said : 'Pious Gentiles are admitted into paradise, 
 if they acquired the necessary knowledge of the existence 
 and properties of the Creator, and if they improved their 
 minds by good habits"; and there is no doubt that every 
 one who ennobled his mind by good habits, and the proper
 
 36 
 
 knowledge of and belief in the Creator, blessed be He, will 
 inherit the future world or the paradise. Therefore the 
 truly wise men, our teachers, said, 'Even a non-Israelite, 
 who sitidies the law of Moses, our teacher, is equal to the 
 High-priest/ " So Yalkut Shimeoni says: "The words, 
 Thy priests shall put on righteousness,' allude to pious Gen- 
 tiles." 
 
 What we have said until now is fully sufficient to show us 
 that God is a merciful Father, who has compassion on His 
 creatures, and loves all men, both rich and poor. He has 
 given us statutes and judgments, and any one who chooses 
 may find shelter in them, and observe and perform them, in 
 order that he, as well as we, may enjoy the felicity of doing 
 what is right in the eyes of the Lord. 
 
 God commanded us also to make known and explain the 
 statutes and judgments of the Lord to all inquirers, even if 
 they should observe them for some other reason than the 
 one of obeying the Lord's command, in order that they also 
 may enjoy all the good that follows from the observation of 
 the commands of the Lord. 
 
 We owe this duty of explaining the Lord's commands so 
 much the more to the nations of the present day, among 
 whom we live, who are full of wisdom ^and knowledge, and 
 are kindly disposed towards us with all their heart and soul. 
 Therefore it is our duty to answer their questions correctly, 
 and give them the desired information, in order that they 
 also will avoid every injurious thing, and will save their bodv 
 and soul, and the bodies and souls of their children after 
 them, so that their good inclinations and propensities will 
 not be marred by any bad influence. 
 
 For we find that in many ways parents cause their chil- 
 dren to become depraved ; but in all these cases, not only 
 the perpetrators of the bad actions ought to be punished, 
 but also they who caused them to act in their bad way ought 
 to be held accountable. And only in a few rare cases does 
 it occur that children leave the ways of their wicked parents, 
 and become good and virtuous. But if wicked parents use 
 their influence with their children, so that the latter imitate
 
 37 
 
 the former's ways, no improvement of the children can be 
 expected by any means. 
 
 In all these cases, Providence will punish parents for t 
 injurious influence on their children, although no human 
 judge can exercise his authority and punish such an offence. 
 
 For all these reasons I think that if any Israelite is re- 
 quested to explain any topic of the holy law, and he is able 
 to do so and can give a good reason for the existence of 
 that law, it is his sacred duty to give the inquirer all informa- 
 tion and instruction he is able to give. Thus the Bible says 
 (Deut. xxxi. 19) : "Put it in their mouth," so that the matter 
 will be quite plain and clear to them. By this injunction, 
 too, we can see the mercy of the Lord toward His creatures. 
 
 Now let us investigate the four kingdoms of natural bod- 
 ies, their nourishment, and the accidents to which they are 
 subject ; from the different kinds of plants and trees up to 
 the most elevated of all creatures man. 
 
 Thy works are wonderful, O Lord! Thy thoughts are 
 very deep. Thou hast composed Thy world for four differ- 
 ent kingdoms, of minerals, plants, animals, and man. 
 
 God furnishes food for all these beings which He has cre- 
 ated and which He supports by His goodness, kindness, and 
 mercy, and He furnishes that food according to the nature 
 and constitution of these creatures, may they be plants, ani- 
 mals, or man. f 
 
 That being is the strongest and 'healthiest that finds r 
 food readv at all times, without being in need of preparing 
 that food at all. Such a being is not very apt to suffer from 
 external influences. But less strong is that being whose 
 food needs preparation. And the more preparation its food 
 needs, the weaker the being is, and such a being is exposed 
 to external influences, and is injured by them if it is not' 
 very careful. 
 
 For instance, earth, water, and air are the nourishment 
 of plants and trees, and they produce taste and odor in them. 
 But these trees often are extraordinarily high, as, for in- 
 stance, the proud cedar ; they are strong and powerful, they 
 yield their fruit in due season, and their years are almost
 
 38 
 
 numberless. Very seldom any accident befalls them, and 
 rarely do they suffer any change. The reason is, these trees 
 find their food always ready and prepared, and they do not 
 suffer any injury, as long as their nourishment does not de- 
 teriorate and is not changed. 
 
 This is also the case with all plants of the field. As long 
 as their food does not undergo any change, they retain their 
 former strength. 
 
 Higher in the order of natural beings than plants are ani- 
 mals. There is a great variety of these latter, and they an- 
 in need of many different kinds of food. 
 
 Some kinds of animals find their food ready for them at 
 all times, others do not find it ready, since it needs prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 But every species of animals whose food needs prepara- 
 tion is far more exposed to the influence of accidents, and 
 is far more likely to be injured, than those species of animals 
 that find their food ready for them without its being in need 
 of much preparation. 
 
 Some species of animals live on vegetables, and eat tl.em 
 just as they find them; the food of other species must be 
 prepared ; some again subsist on other animals for their 
 food. And the Creator has endowed every species of ani- 
 mals with the proper instinct that enables it to know and to 
 prepare its right food, just as it is fit for its system, and just 
 as its constitution demands it. 
 
 For instance, the serpent has been cursed that it has to 
 eat dust all the days of its life, or in other words, that its 
 food tastes like earth. Therefore the Creator has supplied 
 it with poison that burns everything to earth, so that it tastes 
 like earth. For this reason it finds its food ready and pre- 
 pared at all times. 
 
 Fishes have been blessed with water which is always 
 ready for them and in which they live. 
 
 The hog's nature is that everything serves for its food. 
 And by the bad smell in its mouth and by its crooked teeth 
 it causes the food to rot. In this way, if any poison is found 
 in its food, it is neutralized and becomes harmless. There-
 
 39 
 
 fore every kind of food is fit for the hog, with the exception 
 of powerful mortal poisons which will also kill it. But any 
 poisonous matter that is found in herbs or any decayed food 
 is all digested in its mouth and by its tongue and crooked 
 teeth that cause the food to putrefy. It also has a stom- 
 ach that receives everything. Wherefore our Rabbins say 
 (Tract Sabbath 77, 2) : "Three animals gain strength by 
 becoming old : the snake, the fish, and the hog." Our Rab- 
 bins further said (Tract Sabbath 77, 2) : "There is no ani- 
 mal richer than the hog," because it can live on any kind 
 of food. 
 
 The atmosphere that surrounds us very often varies. 
 Sometimes it is pure and clear, and sometimes it is thick, 
 heavy, and impure. Now clear, pure air is advantageous 
 to man. In such air man feels well and comfortable, and 
 it affords him pleasure to inhale it. 
 
 But it is just the contrary with pigs. If the air is pure, 
 pigs hunt up dung-hills to rest there. On the other hand, 
 on a rainy day, when the air is moist and impure, pigs run 
 about cheerful, but man feels heaviness in his system and 
 has a desire to lie down, as we all know. The reason of 
 this is, because man and hog subsist on all kinds of food, 
 which are fit to be eaten. But while human food requires 
 cleanness in its preparation, in order to be fit to be eaten, 
 the hog wants putrid food and likes to lie in dunghills. If 
 any poisonous matter is contained in the air, it kills both 
 man and hog. 
 
 Now let us examine the two classes of animals that live 
 on vegetables and not on flesh, or that are herbivorous and 
 not carnivorous, viz., those that dhew the cud and have a 
 divided hoof. 
 
 There are two classes of them. The first class includes 
 domestic animals that have been trained by man, and the 
 second class, wild animals that have not been subdued un- 
 der the rule of man. They roam about free in fields and 
 deserts, where no man lives, and they live on herbs and 
 grass of the field which are both pleasant and wholesome 
 to them. They enjoy the best health, as, for instance, the
 
 40 
 
 swift hind, the fleet stag. They obtain old age without 
 being troubled much by sickness or accident, for these very 
 seldom befall them. 
 
 But the other class has been subdued by man, viz., the 
 domestic animals. They are ruled by man, and are made 
 to work in the field or to carry burdens just according 1 to 
 the pleasure of their master. They also look up to their 
 master to have all their wants satisfied by him. For it is 
 he w<ho cares for their eating and drinking; it is he who 
 secures to them a place where they can rest and sleep. 
 
 These domestic animals are subject to many bad diseases 
 and accidents which visit and often detroy them. The rea- 
 son for this is : domestic animals are fed by man even 
 against their will. The animal has not its own choice in 
 the selection of its food, and it often has to eat what is not 
 pleasant or wholesome to it. Sometimes it eats much, 
 sometimes little ; sometimes it can rest, at other times it 
 has to walk or to run, although tired and faint. In this 
 way the system of these animals is ruined. Therefore thev 
 fall an easy prey to the inclemency of the weather and other 
 injurious influences, and therefore a thousand times more 
 domestic than wild animals die of sickness. 
 
 We shall now rexamine those animals that walk on their 
 paws, and attack and devour their ^prey alive, so as to use 
 it for food. But it is greatly astonishing that the flesh of 
 an animal devoured in this way should not ruin the system 
 of the devouring animal, so that it is suffocated and dies, 
 while the flesh oi the devqured animal is still between the 
 devourer's .teeth. .For it is universally known that God 
 has endowed .every animal,' from its birth, with the sense 
 of shielding itself against death, and of fleeing from danger. 
 t ;a.lso know^ the animals that tear and lacerate it, and re- 
 cognizes .them frqm afar. It is then in the .very greatest 
 fear and agqny of death. Now, in consequence of the 
 deadly 'fear that seizes .the animal, when it falls into the 
 .power of the .enemy and destroyer, the whole system of the 
 Attacked animal, ^11 ; }ts .rnerqbers, ve,ins, its .muscles, .and 
 fits ,b.JoQd .r ^seized by cholera. And surely those who eat
 
 41 
 
 such flesh do not escape injury. But to protect the ani- 
 mal of prey from injury, the Creator has provided it with 
 crooked teeth, and with pointed and crooked claws, both 
 full of poison. AVhen now the beast of prey lacerates an 
 animal, it throws poison into it, and that poison burns or 
 consumes all the sickness which overcame the animal on 
 account of its deadly fear at the time of its death. In this 
 way the flesh of the devoured animal is purified again, and 
 it not only becomes fit to be eaten, but it also enters the 
 devouring animal pleasant like water, and it is strength- 
 ening to its bones like oil. 
 
 Now, such meat, that is, the flesh of an animal lacerated 
 by an animal of prey, the Torah has forbidden us to sell 
 or to give to any human being. We have to throw it be- 
 fore the dogs, because dogs also are animals of prey, and 
 therefore do not derive any injury from eating the flesh of 
 such an animal. God rewarded dogs in this way quite ap- 
 propriately. They did not bark at the Israelites, although 
 it' lies in the nature of dogs to bark in consequence of their 
 poisonous anger that suspects strangers. Therefore, *io 
 poison of other animals of prey injures them. 
 
 We shall speak now of the food of the foremost and most 
 elevated of all creatures man. All food that is not well 
 ^prepared is distasteful to him, and endangers "his health 
 and life greatly. 
 
 I shall first describe that human food which is taken 
 from the vegetable -kingdom. 'Here man has to perform 
 a great many labors before he will obtain 'bread that is fit 
 for him to eat. He has to plough, to sow, and reap the 
 field. He has then to grind the grain, to knead the flour, 
 and bake the dough to bread. 
 
 'But besides the operations mentioned, -there are other 
 hard and difficult ones to be performed, before the grain 
 is fit to be ground, and to be then turned into bread fit >to 
 be eaten by man. 
 
 We must not forget that all those 'labors and troubles 
 are essentially necessary. Without them grain or plants 
 are not only not nourishing, but even greatly endangering
 
 42 
 
 human health and life. For many severe diseases arise 
 from eating bread, if the grain, out of which it has been 
 made, has not been cleaned, because in this way poisonous 
 flowers and seeds that are injurious to human health are 
 mixed with the grain, although all other animals eat such 
 a mixture and are nourished by it, just as if it were the 
 greatest delicacy. 
 
 But it is altogether different with the food of man the 
 foremost of all creatures. He has to be very careful and 
 cautious and he has to examine everything he eats very 
 closely, as the wise king said (Prov. xxv. 30 and 31) : "I 
 passed by the field of the slothful and by the vineyard of 
 the man void of understanding, and lo, it was all grown 
 over with thorns, and nettles had covered the face there- 
 of, etc." 
 
 The wise king is not going to describe to us the injury 
 that will be caused to the field by its being allowed to be 
 filled with thorns and nettles ; but he is depicting to us 
 the damaging influence which the eating of flour, made of 
 grain that is mixed with thorns and poisonous plants, en- 
 tails on the health of man eating it. For it is extremely 
 necessary to glean carefully out of grain all bitter and poi- 
 sonous kernels that are mixed with it, or any grain which 
 is not fully ripe. All these are injurious to man, although 
 they are not hurtful and are even wholesome to animals. 
 
 The Torah has enjoined on us the duty of taking care 
 of our life very emphatically, as it says : "Take the utmost 
 care of thy life." 
 
 The wise king likewise lavishes the greatest praise on 
 her who is careful in this respect. For after he has con- 
 cluded his encomiums in all. other respects and after he has 
 said (Prov. xx*i. 10 et seq.) : "Who can find a virtuous 
 woman ; her price is far above pearls. The heart of her 
 husband trusts safely on her. She bestows benefits on him." 
 
 What for? Because (ibid.) "She bringeth her food from 
 afar, and giveth meat to her household. She looktth well 
 to the ways of her household." 
 
 All this is the good which she has done. But not only
 
 43 
 
 did she do what is good and useful, but she also k^pt back 
 everything that is injurious, as the wise king says (ibid.) : 
 "And she eateth not bread of idleness," which is not clean 
 from thistles : for grain raised on the field of an idle per- 
 son is very dangerous, because bitter grains are mixed with 
 it, as we have said. 
 
 And now see, although the wise king said (Eccl. vii. 
 28) : "One man among a thousand have I found, but a 
 woman among all those I have not found," still when the 
 woman looks well after the affairs of the household, he 
 ascribes greatness to her husband and attributes both to 
 him and her many an adorning name, as : Virtuous wo- 
 man, a woman in whom her husband trusts, one who does 
 good, one who is like the merchant's ship, one who giveth 
 meat to the household. 
 
 Although it is the husband's province to care for the 
 support of the family, still the wise king also gives the 
 virtuous woman credit for giving meat to the household. 
 And so he continues praising and glorifying the virtuous 
 woman who furnishes her family with good meat, that he 
 says at last (ibid.) : "But thou excellest them all." 
 
 Now, why is this extraordinary praise? 
 
 Because it is the part of the wife to watch over the 
 household and the affairs of the family. The husband or 
 the father of the family does not meddle with culinary af- 
 fairs. He toils and works out of the house to furnish the 
 means for buying food for the family. But the wife or 
 the mother of the family applies the money earned by the 
 husband to buying food and drink, and to her the family 
 owes its good health and its safety from sickness and dan 
 ger by her excluding from kitchen and table everything 
 injurious to health. 
 
 All wise and experienced women will give me credit for 
 what I have said, because their own reason will tell them 
 that I have spoken but the truth. And when they will ob- 
 serve everything to which I have drawn their attention, 
 they will thank me for having enlightened them and 
 warned them and kept them and their families back from
 
 44 
 
 danger. In this way no harm will come near their tents, 
 but all will be well, hale, and strong. 
 
 But let us now reason and calculate with a clear mind. 
 
 If man has to be so careful and cautious in eating plants, 
 that he has to know which plants he may eat and from 
 which he must stay away, and that he has also to be ac- 
 quainted with the proper mode of preparing them, that 
 they will not be injurious, but wholesome to him, how 
 much the more is it necessary for him to know the proper 
 way of preparing the flesh of animals for his food. For 
 animals are endowed with sensibility, they have the feel- 
 ing of fear or dread, of pain or ache, of grief or sorrow. 
 How much the more has man to know how to prepare such 
 meat, that it will not injure him. For the Creator has not 
 provided man with means of destroying or neutralizing 
 the poison of plants, so much the less is man allowed to 
 eat the flesh of an animal that has been seized by deadlv 
 fear, when it has been taken to the slaughter-house. Man 
 has no crooked teeth, no bent claws, and no poison in his 
 mouth and tongue which could save him from the effects 
 of the deadlv fear of such an animal 
 
 This fear is less great with domestic animals that are 
 used to the society of man. But animals of the forest 
 are seized by deadly fear, and so much the more if they 
 are struck on the head, until death ensues. Surely chol- 
 era and apoplexy unite to bring on the death of an animal 
 treated in this way. And even a domestic animal is at- 
 tacked by these two diseases if blows are dealt on its fore 
 head. 
 
 We will now also illustrate the distinction mentioned in 
 the Bible (Lev. xi. 47 : "And to distinguish between the 
 unclean and the clean, and between the animal that is eat- 
 en and the animal that is not eaten." 
 
 In order to distinguish them well and without doubt, 
 signs have been handed down to us, namely : chewing the 
 cud and dividing the hoof into two are signs of cleanness r 
 walking on its paws or creeping on the belly are signs of 
 uncleanness.
 
 We have to know that every domestic animal and every 
 animal of the forest that divide the hoof and chew the cud, 
 that are therefore clean animals, have no upper teeth and 
 are compelled to lick the grass and herbs of the field with 
 their tongue, in order to eat them. They do not bite with 
 their teeth, as the horse, the mule, and ass do, but they 
 lick and chew a little with the teeth of their lower jaw and 
 swallow it into the rumen, where it begins to be digested. 
 And when it has been digested there a little, the animal 
 brings it up and chews it again : it then swallows it a sec- 
 ond time and in this way the animal is fed. The food is 
 then fully digested in the intestines. 
 
 The reason for this is, that every grass and herb of the 
 field has a strong poisonous juice which could injure clean 
 animals very easily, because their system is not so strong 
 and their digestive organs are not so powerful as those 
 of unclean animals. The only remedy for their weakness 
 is, that the animal licks with its tongue the herbs of the 
 field and swallows them into the rumen. There the poi- 
 sonous juice is digested and absorbed. The animal then 
 chews the cud again. In this way the cud turns into good 
 food and strengthens the animal. 
 
 It may be that God caused the poisonous juice of herbs 
 to be neutralized in this way, because the animals that eat 
 them are destined to become the food of man. 
 
 The Torah is very minute and exact, concerning the signs 
 of clean animals. If animals lack only one of those signs 
 of cleanness, they are called unclean, although they are 
 possessed of all other signs of clean animals. 
 
 Thus the Bible says (Lev. xi. 2, 3): "These are the 
 beasts which ye may eat, among all the beasts that are on 
 earth : Whatsoever parteth the hoof and is cloven-footed 
 and cheweth the cud among the beasts, that may ye eat." 
 
 Thus we see that all the signs of cleanness must be found 
 united in a species of animals to make it clean. And even 
 if one sign of cleanness is wanting in a species, it is un- 
 clean, as it says fLev. xi. 4-8) : "Nevertheless these shall 
 ye not eat, of them that chew the cud or of them that
 
 46 
 
 divide the hoof: as the camel, because he cheweth the cud, 
 but divideth not the hoof, he is unclean to you. And the 
 coney, because it cheweth the cud, but divideth not the 
 hoof, it is unclean to you. And the hare, because he chew- 
 eth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean to 
 you. And the swine, though it divide the hoof and be 
 cloven-footed, yet it cheweth not the cud; it is unclean 
 to you. Of their flesh ye shall not eat, etc." 
 
 If we investigate the material difference between the un- 
 clean animals and the way of their taking their food and 
 digesting it, and between the clean animals and their way 
 of taking food and digesting it, we find that the flesh of 
 the unclean animals is rugged and it is plainly seen that 
 their life-blood is not equally mixed. If their blood gets 
 hot, it often exceeds its bounds and gets fiercer than is 
 wholesome for their system. Therefore the Creator has 
 provided them with strong limbs. In this way they es- 
 cape many injuries to which their fierceness exposes them. 
 
 But unclean animals are not provided with members that 
 prevent them from excesses. Even those which live on 
 vegetables lack those members. For instance : No bile is 
 found on the liver of a horse or an ass, as is the case with 
 clean animals. But our sages said : _ "The liver gets angry 
 and the bile pours some liquid or juice over it, and the 
 anger of the liver ceases." 
 
 Although the function of the liver is to concoct the food, 
 and the function of the bile is to instil some of its liquid 
 into the food to promote its digestion, still it also allays 
 anger. 
 
 But the horse, the ass, and mule extract all the strong 
 poisonous juice, contained in their food, from it, as soon 
 as they chew it with their teeth. 
 
 The greatest difference exists also in the excrements of 
 unclean and clean animals, so that farmers do not find the 
 excrements of unclean animals fit manure for every kind 
 of ground. 
 
 Now just as well as there is the greatest difference in 
 the excrements of unclean and clean animals, just so, to
 
 47 
 
 be sure, there is a great difference in their flesh, and the 
 flesh of unclean animals is surely not wholesome for the 
 human system. 
 
 And even if the taste of the flesh of unclean animals is 
 pleasant, it has no good effect on the human system, just 
 as it is the case with honey which has a good taste and 
 odor, and still it is injurious to the human system if a great 
 quantity of it is eaten. 
 
 There are also many poisonous matters that kill only 
 by their odor. Their smell affords momentary pleasure, 
 but if the smell is received into the system for a longer 
 time, it has a mortal effect. So there is also a kind of 
 roses found among flowers, which, as we know, have a 
 fatal effect on any one who smells them very long, and 
 still their odor is pleasant. 
 
 Our Rabbins said likewise : 
 
 Pork obstructs or stupefies the heart, and still the hog 
 has some signs of cleanness. I know also for certain that 
 the highest members of society, as princes, abstain from 
 pork, and it never is put on their table, because, as they 
 say, it is injurious to the system. 
 
 This is also the case with all unclean animals; their 
 flesh is rugged or an abomination, and it has Some qual- 
 ities which are not good for man. 
 
 It is the sign of uncleanness which shows that the flesh 
 of those animals is not wholesome. The same is the case 
 with serpents which have no feet at all. They have poi- 
 son in their tongue that burns everything to earth. Still 
 snakes themselves eat that poison without being injured 
 by it. The lion likewise tears and lacerates, and has poi- 
 son in his teeth and claws which serves for his safety, as 
 we have said, because he burns away by it the matter of 
 the disease into which the animal, attacked by him, has fall- 
 en in consequence of its deadly fright. We thus see that 
 the lion eats true poison without being injured, and the 
 same is the case with all kinds of unclean animals. They 
 themselves eat their own poison, and consequently their 
 flesh is fed by their poison. This flesh is, therefore, to
 
 48 
 
 be sure, an abomination for mankind, and must not be 
 eaten by man. 
 
 But it is altogether different with clean animals. From 
 the very moment God created them, He has not put any 
 poison into their mouth or their tongue. Nor have they 
 any crooked teeth. Yea, they have no teeth at all in their 
 upper jaw. But the Creator provided them with one safe- 
 guard that protects them from poisonous matter, for their 
 tongue has a thick strong skin of white color, in order 
 that it will not suffer from the poisonous juice of herbs. 
 In the rumen, then, everything is decocted and the poison- 
 ous matter is absorbed. Clean animals have also been 
 created with bile adhering to the liver, so that, if the ani- 
 mal should become angry, the bile will pour out its liquid, 
 and the animal will become calm. 
 
 In this way we shall comprehend that if in any class or 
 species of an animal a sign of uncleanliness is found, that 
 sign shows that the flesh of the whole class is an abom- 
 ination. For this reason, the Torah specified classes and 
 species of animals, as, the camel, the coney, the hare, the 
 hog, because, as soon as any unclean sign is found, the 
 whole class must not be eaten. 
 
 And even in reference to clean animals, the Bible says 
 (Lev. xi. 2) : "These are the animals which you may eat," 
 and our Rabbins received by tradition that this verse 
 means : An animal t'hat is fit to remain alive thou mayesl 
 eat, but if it is not fit to remain alive, thou must not eat it ; 
 for instance, if it is so sick that it cannot be cured. In 
 this way we can see how the Creator gave us laws for our 
 good, to protect our life. 
 
 I also say that my poor reason tells me, that man would 
 never have found out the most appropriate place for kill- 
 ing animals, so that their flesh will be fit for human food 
 and will not injure man at all, if that place had not been 
 shown him by divine grace. But God, who created and 
 formed all creatures, chose his people Israel and gave them 
 his commandments. For He alone knows what is gx>od 
 for man and what His chosen people shall eat and prepare
 
 49 
 
 in a way pleasing to him, as it says (Deut. xii. 20, et seq.) : 
 "Because thy soul longeth to eat flesh, thou mayest eat 
 flesh, whatsoever thy soul lusteth after, then thou shalt kill 
 of thy herd and thy flock, as I have commanded thee, and 
 thou shalt eat in thy gates whatsoever thy soul lusteth 
 after." And there is no necessity to reflect about the mat- 
 ter, as we read in Job xxxviii. 2 : "Who is this that dark- 
 eneth counsel by words without knowledge? Where wast 
 thou, when I laid the foundations of the earth? Declare, 
 if thou hast understanding." For since we do not know 
 the law of the creation and formation of animals, surely 
 God has created them on the condition that they should 
 be killed in the way He commanded us. 
 
 Do we not also find a great difference in the four differ- 
 ent ways in which criminals were put to death according 
 to the dictates of the Bible and the decisions of Jewish 
 courts? And no criminal was allowed to be put to death 
 in any other way but that prescribed by the Bible for his 
 offence. So the Bible also says (Deut. x. 13) : "To observe 
 the commandments of the Lord, and His statutes which 
 I command thee this day, for thy good. Behold, the heav- 
 en and the heaven of heavens are the Lord's thy God's." 
 The meaning of this passage of the Bible is : "Surely 
 there is no one found who knows, and is able to tell what 
 occurs in heaven and how and when things occur there. 
 Still, all these things are revealed and known to God, for 
 nothing occurs without Him. 
 
 But just as it is with the heaven, so it is with the earth 
 and all which it contains. God created the earth before 
 man was created, as our Rabbins said (Sanhedrin 38, i) : 
 "If man should feel tempted to become proud, he can be 
 reminded that even the fly was created before him." Con- 
 sequently we know nothing about the creatures of the 
 earth below either. But everything is hidden from us, as 
 it says (Job. xxxviii. 4) : ''Where wast thou when I laid 
 the foundation of the earth?" But although all this is hid- 
 den from us, still to God it is revealed and known. 
 
 Another question remains yet to be answered. For we
 
 50 
 
 cannot help asking: Has God created the whole world, in 
 order that it shall be ruled by mere force? For we see 
 that the earth is full of violence. Is not, for instance, the 
 lion desirous of tearing to pieces, and does not the young 
 lion sit in secret places to lie in wait? God also answered 
 Job (Job xxxviii., xxxix. et seq.) : "Wilt thou hunt the prey 
 for the lion? or fill the appetite of the young lion? Who 
 provideth for the raven of his food?" Man also commits 
 violence, and many are the victims of violence of man. 
 For is not an innumerable quantity of oxen, sheep, rams, 
 calves and birds killed every day? Now it is true, we can 
 clearly see that these animals are destined to serve for hu- 
 man food. For were it not that in a supernatural way 
 God causes the great increase of these animals, they could 
 not possibly multiply in this wonderful way. For these 
 animals, as, for instance, cows, generally bring forth only 
 one young one every year. It is therefore quite manifest 
 that God causes the wonderful increase of these animals 
 in order to provide man with food, just as he furnishes man 
 with other articles of food also. 
 
 But nevertheless depriving animals of their life is an act 
 of violence. Now why is this violence allowed by God to 
 exist 
 
 But we know that some kinds of poisonous serpents lie 
 down on the wayside when they are hungry. If then an 
 animal passes by them, they send forth their powerful breath 
 against it. The animal is then bewildered and charmed; 
 it then begins to run before the snake in a circle, and at last 
 runs into the ooen iaws of the snake without fear, just as 
 if it did find safety there 
 
 We see now that this poison or charm of the snake is 
 beneficial to both animals, that is, to the animal that is 
 charmed and devoured, because it loses its sense and has 
 no pain : and to the devouring animal, the snake, because 
 it obtains its food in this way. 
 
 We find many such kinds of snakes, which, if they stare 
 at other animals, make it impossible to those animals to 
 flee from them, for they possess the power of holding their
 
 51 
 
 victims with their eyes, that they cannot move from the 
 spot, just as the loadstone attracts the iron, and just as if 
 feet of those animals were tied with chains. Divine wisdom 
 ordained it in this way. 
 
 The highest Jewish court, the Sanhedrin, acted in a simi- 
 lar way. If a culprit was taken out to be executed, they 
 gave him some drug which deprived him of his senses some- 
 what, so that his grief about his death was lessened. 
 
 Now we know with certainty that poisonous substances 
 very often are very beneficial to mankind, and therefore 
 it is proper that poisonous animals should feed on other ani- 
 mals, in order that the former should benefit man. For 
 all animals have been created for the best of mankind, and 
 the destiny of all animals is to benefit mankind, and they 
 have been created by God only for that purpose. 
 
 But we are not allowed to ask the further question : Why 
 has God arranged His world in this way? For His infinite 
 wisdom ordained it so, and no human reason can fathom 
 His wisdom and remain alive. 
 
 In this way we have also to explain the Biblical verses 
 (Psalms cxlv. 15, et esq.) : "The eyes of all wait upon Thee, 
 and Thou givest them their meat in due season. Thou 
 openest Thy hand and satisfiest the desire of every living 
 thing. The Lord is righteous in all His ways." 
 
 The Psalmist's words teach us that we must not consider 
 it an act of violence that one animal devours another. For 
 the ways of the Lord are different from our ways, and He 
 is righteous according to His ways, and holy in all His 
 works according to His ways. In His wisdom He has 
 created the world that it should be the way it is, and He 
 is a truthful and merciful king, and His mercy extends to 
 the devouring animal as well as to the devoured animal. 
 
 But we hope that the prophecy of Isaiah will be fulfilled, 
 which reads (Isaiah xi. 7, 9) ; "And the lion will eat straw 
 like the ox. They shall not hurt nor destroy. For the 
 earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the wat- 
 ers cover the sea." And we shall pronounce the benedic-
 
 52 
 
 tion of Shechitah, and eat meat according to our hearts' 
 desire. 
 
 What we have said till now will enable anyone who has 
 been endowed with wisdom and knowledge by the Divine 
 Creator, to perceive the difference between death brought 
 on by Shechitah and all other manners of death. 
 
 And every one should remind the members of his family 
 that they also will be careful about the precepts of Shechi- 
 tah; for sufficient reasons for the excellency of Shechitah 
 have been given in the above. 
 
 I shall now mention a conversation and an argument 
 which I had with three excellent physicians about the tis- 
 sues of the lungs that we often find extending from one part 
 of the lungs to the other. 
 
 One day, three excellent physicians came to me into the 
 slaughter-house and found me engaged in trying to remove 
 such a tissue from the lungs of an animal. 
 
 I tried to remove it by repeatedly leading my fingers 
 over it very gently. After I had succeeded in removing 
 the tissue, I examined the place where the tissue had ad- 
 hered to the lungs, by warm water, to find out if no hole had 
 been made in the lungs, by separating the tissue from the 
 lungs. 
 
 Those physicians asked me what all that meant and what the 
 name of the sickness was which could make the flesh of an 
 animal, afflicted with it, unlawful food for Israelites. I 
 told them that those tissues of the lungs were caused by 
 inflammation of the lungs. In most cases the inflammation 
 has made a hole in the lungs. When the inflammation 
 has ceased and the animal become well again, a membrane 
 forms and closes the hole in the lungs, and that membrane 
 extends from one part to the other part of the lungs. 
 
 Those physicians told me I was right and the same was 
 the case with man. If the lungs are inflamed or wounded, 
 such tissues are formed. But as soon as those tissues are 
 formed, the wound is healed and the opening in the lungs 
 is closed up and need not be minded any further. 
 They asked me why the Jewish law required those tissues
 
 53 
 
 to be removed, and their place in the lungs to be examined, 
 if no hole was left there. For even if a hole was there, there 
 was no harm in it, since it had been closed, and the animal 
 was enabled to live in this way. 
 
 I asked these physicians, in return, what they prescribed 
 to a man who had such a sickness, and was cured from 
 it, and how they prevented a reopening of the hole 
 by the tearing of the tissue that had formed itself over that 
 hole? For of course, as soon as the hole gets open again, 
 the old sickness has come back. 
 
 They told me : Such a patient must be warned not to 
 go out in rainy or snowy or foggy weather. He must 
 avoid having cold feet. He must be very careful not to eat 
 indigestible food, for a neglect of these rules might bring on 
 a relapse 
 
 I then told them : Your own words prove the correct- 
 ness of the Jewish law. Man, who has reason and free 
 will, to do what is salutary to him, is cured by the closing 
 of a hole in his lungs ; for he can and does avoid everything 
 that might bring on the disease again. 
 
 But the animal is in the power of man, and has to go 
 wherever man wants it to go, and that in all kinds of weath- 
 er, in rain or in snow, in the severest cold or in the most 
 oppressive heat- To be sure, we cannot speak here of a cure, 
 because the hole has been shut. On the contrary, the sick- 
 ness exists yet, just as if the hole were not closed, and for 
 that reason the rule is with us : 
 
 Every tissue or membrane that has been formed in an 
 animal in consequence of a wound is not considered a mem- 
 brane, the animal cannot remain alive, and is therefore 
 terepha or unfit to be eaten. 
 
 For this reason I make an examination of the lungs, as 
 soon as I observe a tissue in the lungs of an animal, in order 
 to find out if a hole ever was there or not. If no hole ever 
 was there, then no disease was there either, and the animal 
 may be eaten by Israelites, or in other words : the animal 
 is kasher. But if a hole ever was there, the animal is unfit 
 to be eaten by Israelites, and it is terepha. These physicians 
 agreed with me, and said I was right in my statements.
 
 UIWD-JO^ 
 
 ^OF-CA1IFO % 
 
 UNIVER%. ^lOS-; 
 
 University of California 
 
 SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 
 
 Return this material to the library 
 
 from which It was borrowed. 
 
 - 
 
 * 
 DNV-SOl^ %J3AINIH\\ 
 
 BRARYQc 
 
 A 

 
 A 000094216 9