niumiJg of Califreatp.r r.nmpag gj degth and flexibility, than is developed in common conversation ; all must learn to (regulate the breath, andjkeep the chest in that condition which enables the speaker to emit the succes- sive syllables of discourse with the steadiness and slow- ness required for large rooms; fall must acquire the habit of concentrating the mind on me ideas delivered, to such a degree that no shall prevent the natural impulses from which a good delivery results, from acting with intensity and power ; Jail must acquire that judgment of the ear by which a speaker distinguishes for himself the actual sound of his voice at a distance, and listens to it after it has issued from him, as if he himself were one of the auditors as well as the speaker Mall must acquire that discipline of the mind, by which the words of a written or a memo- rized discourse can be taken from the dead letter before they are uttered, and transferred to the mind in the shape of thoughts not yet completely clothed Jn_Jan- guage, so that when actually spoken^jha^utterance shall proceed from the same impulses as if he were extempo- rizing, and the ideas thus have their living embodiment of words with their inseparably associated tones ; and finally,|ail must acquire those unfettered bodily habits, in consequence of which attitude and gesture become as varied and graceful as the impulses from which they spring. From infancy onwards, the commerce of or- dinary life teaches us to talk. We learn to read Jr ex- pressing aloud the words which silently meet the eye, but in reading merely for our own information, the mind is in the condition of apprehending, not of communica- PREFACE . 11 ting thoughts. Hence the tone of reading is at first ab- stracted andjjiexpressive, and if it becomes otherwise^ the natural ^Yjirfigsi on js at first similar t.n rh^o/ snliin- quizing, or, still more precise! y^t resembles that which to himself words which have just been addressed to him by another, in order to be certain that he has caught them correctly. We next attempt to utter them in living tones, to satisfy ourselves that we understand them. But the regulax_siiccession of written words and their natural rhythm, cause the voice to proceed more or less in a monotonously regular and a mechanically rhythmical manner. The mind likewise is in a musing- state. From both these causes, reading is at first naturally characterized by what is called a tone. The tones with which children read are universal, and are equally exhibited by uneducated men. Among the Asiatic nations, indeed, where the people act less from the impulses of the understanding and more from those of the imagination and feelings, all reading is in the style which we call chanting, and in their lan- guages the same word signifies both to read and to sing. Up to this point, we have nothing which can be called delivery. This term implies the act of addressing ideas to others. When children in school have once acquired the ability to pronounce written words at sight, all instruction in propriety of reading consists in teaching them to make an effort to give the tones by which we communicate writ- ten ideas to others. This act requires in general, the modulations of the voice used in conversation. But as the mind is in an entirely different state from that of con- versation, it is by a long and slow process that the child 12 PREFACE. learns to perform the double mental act, first to make the ideas his own, and then to express them to others. Neither is it necessary for ordinary purposes that these two things be done in perfection. Enough of the latter is merely required to give a reasonable degree of life and interest to the reading. Speaking however, requires a higher excitement and a stronger effort of mind and body. A word of a single syllable may be uttered in three tones : first in that of talking, next in that, partly of apprehending the mean- ing, partly of soliloquizing, and partly of talking, which characterizes reading, and lastly in those tones of enforc- ing or explaining ideas which we use in that higher ef- fort to attract the attention of others, which characterizes speaking. There is indeed still another modification which distinguishes what is called recitation, as when a performer recites a poem before an audience, and which implies an intentional display of art and skill but of recitation we do not propose to treat in the present volume. In regard to speaking, it is a curious and important fact, that the power in the vocal organs of expressing words in the tone which naturally belongs to it, is not developed by the common intercourse of society. A considerable proportion of those men whose public de- livery is confined to compositions prepared beforehand never use this tone and when they apply for instruc- tion to teachers of elocution, are found to be incapable of employing it at pleasure. They have never made use of it, except that occasionally when strongly excited, they have done so instinctively, but have not been after- PREFACE. 13 wards aware that their vocal organs have been engaged in an unwonted action which they cannot repeat at will. In fact the peculiar open state of the fauces, the more tense contraction of the vocalmuscles, and the more sud- den and complete emission of the breath which produce the tone of speaking, are natural indeed, but natural only in that sort of excitement of mind which leads a person to speak rather than to talk, and which is not needed in ordinary life. It will be found on investigation that every one who can at pleasure employ the tones of a speaker, has learned to do so at some period subsequent to that of early childhood. Some indeed of the employ- ments of life, such as those of auctioneers, debaters and lawyers, are certain to develope the habit of using the speaking voice, yet those whose regular duties call only for the deli vej^of compositions previously prepared, are not in circumstances that necessarily elicit this peculiar action of the vocal organs. Boys and young men never exhibit it except after considerable practice ; when once however it is established, from that time they find no difficulty in speaking whenever they wish to do so. They may indeed afterwards improve in de- livery, but as soon as they practically understand how to command the voice that distinguishes speaking from talking or from reading, they feel a consciousness of having acquired^ ne \v_facjjlty, and are ever after consent of their ability to use it. It is indeed a kind of muscular action, which like that of swimming or of skating, is perhaps attained after a long continuance of repeated ef- forts, but when in fact mastered, is often gained sud- denly and at once. Like these acts likewise, that of 2* 14 PREFACE. speaking when once learned, is never forgotten or lost from want of practice. All the three may also be learned either slowly, or suddenly and by an instantaneous and felicitous effort. The author continually witnesses in- stances of the latter kind as well as the former. He has been in the habit of telling those who after a long con- tinued repetition of failures, suddenly break into the speaking tone, that from that time forwards, they will be able to speak. These facts upon which we have been dwelling so long, lie at the foundation of all philosophical and prac- tical elocution. Though they have been too much overlooked by men of learning, yet the unlearned part of the community have always felt that the very act of speaking is a distinct and peculiar one. A sensible and respectable man will say to a teacher, "In town meet- ings I can talk but I cannot speak, and I wish my child to be taught at school to speak, so that he may take a higher stand than his father." The most ignorant class of enthusiasts in religion indeed esteem the distinction so fundamental, that they attach an obscure idea of in- spiration to a suddenly acquired faculty of making reli- gious harangues. President Dwight remarks of this class r>f roiiorirmQ ing|p] 1 p i ^nrg | that they are generally supe- rior to tHeiV hearers in nothing but^vpiuMity.* They might also be described as differing from their hearers in the power of using the speaking voice at pleasure. It is the object of the present volume to assist in ac- quiring the art of public speaking. The whole course * Dwight's Travels. PREFACE. 15 of instruction has for its fundamental idea that the ac- quisition of tliTs^arrrelsults " m"fKe^case'6f all but a very small number of men, from some course of mental or bodily training. This may be acquired after entering upon life, as is so often done by lawyers and debaters, through practice before audiences ; but it is generally considered desirable, that those who are gaining a liberal education should be enabled to step forth from the seclu- sion of a seminary of learning, adorned and equipped with this addition to their other accpmplishmejjts. This volume is prepared with an express adaptation to the wants of the institution in which its author is em- ployed, and is confined strictly to the, topics which he is constantly called o" *<* diar^gy in the course of his in- structions, and in answer to the numergjg_ enquiries of intelligent young__men. The lengthened introduction which follows is addressed exclusively to the students of the institution, and is rendered necessary by there being new classes to teach in each successive year. As " The Philosophy of the Human Voice," by Dr. Rush, is a large volume, and found difficult of compre- hension by many, the writer would particularly recom- mend to those who wish to become acquainted with that gentleman's discoveries, a neat and elegant treatise by Prof. Henry N. Day, of Western Reserve College, which is an independent work on the same general plan. New Haven, Dec. 31,1845. PRACTICAL SPEAKING. INTRODUCTION. IT is the object of the following work, to exhibit the course of instruction in elocution, which is at present pursued in Yale College. Since the writer has had the responsibilities of his present situation, the number of undergraduates in the institu- tion has been on an average about four hundred. The three younger classes receive systematic instruction in speaking throughout the whole of the college year, and any member of the Senior class is accommodated, without charge, with private instruction as often as he wishes. The number to be taught is consequently so great, as to oblige the instructor to resort to short and hurried lessons. It is a necessary rule that each les- son be confined to a single subject, and also that no subject be introduced which is not proved by experience to be absolutely essential in its importance. The problem has all along been, to find out what difficulties most embarrass young men who are preparing to speak in public, and what kind of instruction in reference to these difficulties will be most willingly received. In consequence of the failure of the writer's physical strength, this volume has been prepared during the present college term, in the midst of his labors as an instructor, and has for its object merely to impart the information which he has hitherto given, in the infhrmaLJe^turin^ and conversation which take place in teaching. Not a page having been previously written, and most of it having been composed in a state of severe suffering, it exhibits many deficiencies, yet will enable him to perform 18 INTRODUCTION. his duties with less labor, and, he hopes, with more success. His only alternative is either to resign his situation or attempt to continue by the assistance of a work like the present. No subject has been omitted which the instructor in this in- stitution is called on to teach. (Persevering efforts have in for- mer years been made, to present somewhat of the philosophy of English phonology and orthoepy ; the structure and rhythm of English meters; the rhythm of ancient versification which results from the systematic employment of quantity, considered as distinct from accent ; the distinctions between public read- ing in various styles, and public speaking; the difference be- tween public and parlor reading ; and finally, the adaptation of reading, especially in poetry, to the peculiar styles of thought, sentiment and language which characterize our most original writers so managing elocution as to assist the mind in en- deavoring to sympathize with the peculiar genius of each. None of these subjects, however, have any necessary connexion with the main object of enabling each student to do justice in future life to his talents and education when speaking his own written or extemporaneous ideas. For some time likewise, an effort was made to assist the younger students in acquiring a fondness for the beauties of English literature. For this pur- pose, use was made .of the means which are the province strictly of elocution. The peculiar comment afforded by the voice of a practised reader, and his interjectional remarks, are sometimes valuable iiTawakening an interest in the beauties of literature, and thus preparing the way for the more quiet, but also more studied and learned commentary of the profes- sional critic. The instructor in the present branch, however, has been conscientiously careful never to appear to lend coun- tenance to the opinion, that such accomplishments as he is employed to teach, can be advantageously pursued while any of the severer studies are neglected. All these efforts to teach any thing more than public speaking, have failed, and have INTRODUCTION. 19 been successively abandoned. Serious difficulties have attend- ed efforts to introduce any of the subjects above mentioned, and the attempt will not again be made unless by direction of the governing faculty. The topics discussed in the present volume, have all met with the cordial approbation and sympathy of the students, and notwithstanding the failure of success in respect to the others, the instructor has had the satisfaction of knowing, that though occupying a situation of no official rank or authority, and yet one in which from the very nature of the subject taught, the modest and diffident must be brought forward and protected, and those whose example or conduct obstructs their own and others' improvement must be checked, and if necessary sternly rebuked, he has never to his knowledge made a personal ene- my or caused the governing faculty any trouble. It has been by the manifestations of kind respect on the part of the stu- dents, that he has been encouraged in carrying into action the principle that " faithful are the wounds of a friend." Young men feel that among those whose example does not entice them to immorality, they can have no worse enemy than he who de- frauds them of that part which it is his duty to afford them, of the highest of earthly blessings, education. The instructor is careful to have it understood that speaking is not to be learned by making him a model, and makes it an important rule to endeavor to accommodate himself to the natural tendencies in delivery of the student aiming so to manage his corrections that they shall be received thankfully, and assist instead of hinder him in his natural efforts to be ex- pressive and interesting. As a result of this mode of proceed- ing, no difficulties ever arise from differences of taste. It is not indeed the province of a mere teacher to dictate upon such points, but rather to assist the student towards a satisfactory ex- ecution in the style which he prefers, or which is recommended and enjoined by those placed in authority over him. The pres- 20 INTRODUCTION. ent instructor at first rnet with difficulty in persuading some that he taught, to make a hearty effort to be spirited and inter- esting, in consequence of their supposing that his personal taste was in favor of a disagreeable degree of loudness; but the fact is now well understood in this institution, that loud speaking is at first easier than that which is more subdued, and that the on- ly infallible mode of practice by which a liability to disagreea- ble loudness can be prevented, is for each one to discipline his own voice until he knows its tendencies and capabilities, and never falls into loudness by mistake. He prefers, more than most persons, a subdued and mellow voice, and finds loud- ness the most difficult of all faults to correct. It can be suc- cessfully done only by means of gymnastic vocal exercises, similar to those employed in the ablest schools of music, by which the tone of the voice is made deep, mellow and clear. k Throughout the whole course, the distinction is carefully kept view between what can be taught in delivery, and what must be original with the speaker. In a loose way, we may call this distinction that between elocution and eloquence. The latter must be original, arid will vary according to talents, tem- perament and character."^ A teacher of elocution must con- scientiously bear in mind that if the evil is not guarded against, those who are receiving instruction from him will be apt to trust too exclusively to rules, and thus become less individual and consequently less interesting and effective in their several styles of eloquence. Those who from peculiar organization have a decidedly nat- ural turn of mind for public speaking, seem not to be more in number than two or three in a hundred. Such actually need little or no instruction, and although, when young, they are of- ten the most fond of receiving it, little more is necessary for the teacher than to encourage them to trjjs|j:>oldly to their nat- ural impulses. Experience, however, proves that there is no serious difficulty for the rest, in learning to address a public INTRODUCTION. 21 assembly in a digmfied, agreeable, and interesting manner. These also, if their minds are matured and disciplined by a lib- eral education, may readily make themselves prompt, fluent and methodical, as extemporaneous speakers/ ^Tet it is not to be expected that all will become eloquent. Those who attain to this height, will reach it only by cajgful and persevering self- cultivation of the imagination and character. An instructor can Ho no more than encourage and sometimes assist. Tasks cannot be imposed in eloquence, although elocution must be learned by means of them. It is the object, then, of the present treatise, to exhibit a set of lessons which are to be practised as tasks, and which shall make but little requisition on the knowledge or judgment of in- experienced pupils. It is indispensable that these be neither difficult nor extremely disagreeable to the student that they be such that he can proceed in them with confidence and pleas- ure, and with a consciousness of their utility. If well contri- ved, their practice will ultimately secure good habits, in all the requisites for being an acceptable and effective speaker. De- livery will be audible, distinct, fluent, graceful, earnest, impres- sive, and in consequence of the union of these qualities, will be forcible and interesting. The only efficient modes of giving instruction in elocution, are similar in most respects to the methods pursued in the great schools of vocal music. Such methods are generally adopted in our colleges and higher schools. Not only elocutionists, but professors of rhetoric employ them for pupils of every age. Explanation is always accompanied by vocal illustration, and by associated practice time is saved sufficiently to enable all the learners to discipline their own organs thoroughly, instead of waiting in tedious impatience for each one to take his turn. Attempts at private instruction without the assistance of the discipline of an institution, are generally attended with very unsatisfactory success. It is seldom except by such help, that 3 22 INTRODUCTION. a satisfactory grounding can be given in the elements of any art or science. And in no branch of study is a stringent dis- cipline more required than in this. Time likewise is an important element among the requisites for success. Superior ability in delivery can only result from a gradual development of capabilities and the formation of hab- its. Young men who are preparing to be public speakers, sometimes express a wish that they could have it in their pow- er for a while to devote themselves exclusively or principally to this study, and thus finish it as a distinct branch of education. Such wishes imply a serious mistake. To be ultimately suc- cessful, the study of delivery must proceed part passu with that development of mind which results from the whole course of education. Mr. Russell, who is so extensively known as an able teacher of elocution, has well explained, that delivery pro- ceeds from the whole character. The speaking of a school- boy must necessarily be boyish, and that of a college student, in the early part of his course, will of course be inferior to what he will be capable of exhibiting after his mind has been strengthened by long application to severe studies. Habits al- so cannot be formed at once, while rules, lessons and practice are of little use except as they form habits of voice and gesture. In penmanship, " a good hand" is formed by rules and lessons, but graceful writing is executed without elaborate pains, and is the result of habits previously established. To establish hab- its, the lessons from which they are to proceed must not be in too quick succession. Six lessons given in as many successive hours, will have but little effect compared with what will result if they are given in successive days or weeks. Slowness in this respect is especially true in regard to the mind, and all hab- its of delivery may be ultimately referred to the mind and char- acter. A further illustration of these truths may be derived from the practice of composition in our highest seminaries. The maturity of style displayed in the magazines conducted by INTRODUCTION. 23 their members, is certainly considerable, and yet it is the result, so far as practice is concerned, not of very frequent trials in composition, but of attempts made at considerable intervals throughout the whole course of education. For further explanation of the principles of the present work, reference may be made to partJoujth^QJHtra^ljda Rhetoric, a treatise which was composed when its author was at the head of one of the colleges of Cambridge University. Not only is the false mode of teaching elocution described by him, one in which teachers are liable to proceed, but the injurious habits described are still more often acquired by those who attempt to improve their own delivery, by means of a set of rules, or by imitating a favorite model. As teachers of elocution often meet with those who are strongly prejudiced against any cultivation of an improved de- livery, and who feel a disgust at the very thought of attracting popular applause as speakers, it may not be useless, and will certainly promote a good understanding between instructor and pupil, to give the subject of the true usefulness of elocution a candid consideration. C^ It is a popular notion, loosely entertained indeed, but often \expressed, that a good delivery is the most important of all ac- complishments for promoting the success in life of a man whose profession requires him to be a speaker. This appeal to worldly interest often excites aversion in the minds of young men, while the more acute among them perceive the falsity of the assertion. So far as mere success in life is concerned, impartial observa- tion will prove that though a good delivery is often advanta- geous, it not only is not imperatively called for by society, but bad styles of speaking will often secure applause and patronage. Even dullness of delivery is not without *** ! lsfts - Weakness of thought and incorrectness of style are often concealed from observation by obscurity of enunciation. A sort of dignified mumbling is not unfrequently resorted to by men ambitious of 24 INTRODUCTION. influence. So much easier is it to speak with force and fluency, than to shew ability in writing ; so often is an animated delivery the result merely of confidence and presumption, and so fre- quently are successful arts of delivery used for selfish ends only, that there exists in society a readiness to suspect a good speaker of being insincere or shallow. Men are justly satisfied with learning, talent and elevation of character, although their pos- sessors may express valuable matter in a dull and tedious man- ner. A superior delivery is not even necessary in all cases for eloquence. Webster has stated a philosophical truth in saying that " eloquence must exist in the man, in the subject and in the occasion. "\ Had he been expressly treating the point, he would probabjy have added, that of the three, " the occasion" is the most influential. Indeed the appropriate occasions for high eloquence are rare. * Accomplished oratory, of which de- livery is a part, attracts admiration and may thus be injurious to influence and usefulness. It is a critical remark of F. Schlegel, that Bishop Bossuet, the most splendid of French ora- tors, was too eloquent for a clergyman. There is no evidence that the Apostle Paul was admired as an orator in Greece or Rome. Had he been, his polished hearers might have excused themselves from regarding him in any other light than merely as an interesting speaker. In the most profoundly skillful piece of oratory, perhaps in any language, Shakespeare makes Antony say, " I am no orator, as Brutus is." Still it is commonly acknowledged that there is to a greater or less extent an obligation resting upon all who are pursuing a course of liberal education, to acquire the accomplishment of a good delivery, if circumstances put in their power to obtain it. In the first place a man feels deficient without it, and experien- ces a natural impulse in favor of its.cjiliiyalip.n. just. as he does with respect to other branches of knowledge. Self-cultivation is a universal law of reason arid conscience. On the same ground, society also expects evidences of this accomplishment from men of education. * INTRODUCTION. 25 In the next place we owe it to our fellow men to endeavor to make ourselves useful and agreeable. A good delivery is the most powerful of all instruments for the purpose of communi- cating our ideas at least to the ignorant and illiterate. For this purpose it is far more valuable than mere literary correct- ness or beauty of style. For uneducated minds, and the great majority of miscellaneous audiences are of this description, nothing will compensate for the want of clearness and force of delivery, if the speaker is really desirous of instructing or even ly to Tmpr n h n nd-him Delivery should be especially cultivated by all who are called upon to teach. It is often said that this accomplishment is most valuable to lawyers, but this class of speakers have less need of cultivating it than any other, because from the situation in which they speak, they can scarcely avoid becoming, after a few trials, both fluent and forcible. Some degree of coarseness in delivery is often favor- able in its influence on juries, and a lawyer can never be so absurd as to expect to influence a judge by means of elocution. No situation is so easy for a man to speak in, as that of main- taining one side only of a question before a judge or jury. Lawyers do not succeed as well as clergymen when addressing large audiences, and the debates on party questions in conven- tions of clergymen are at least as eloquent as those in political assemblies. A man is bound also to be reasonably agreeable, as well as useful. So great is the just reverence for intellect and learning, that when listening to speakers whom they respect for their tal- ents and attainments, audiences do not complain of faults in delivery, which would be considered proof of want of good man- ners in private intercourse. This however, is not a very good excuse for such faults on the part of speakers themselves. Avoidance of disagreeable attitudes and gestures, and a mani- fest pains to be at least distinct and audible, are required by common respect and courtesy, as much in a public meeting as 3* 26 INTRODUCTION. in a private company. It is only such considerations as these, in favor of the cultivation of elocution, that are of any real effi- ciency towards inducing young men to apply themselves to its study. Arguments founded in vulgar selfishness, disgust many and cause them to despise the accomplishment; while on the other hand, the same inducements rarely succeed in persuading to useful application even those who apparently consent to them. There is another recommendation to the study and practice of delivery, which being a legitimate motive, it may be well to mention. It is the pleasure which attends upon successful efforts to free ourselves from feeling restrained and hampered in the exercise of our natural faculties. Mind and body both be- come unfettered, and the speaker enjoys his freedom and con- sciousness of power. But in reference to a College education, the strongest reason for practising elocution is found in the fact, that for the last two or three generations, there has been no other available counter- active of certain injurious effects of college life. To say noth- ing of vulgar tastes and coarse manners, the established course of education for some time past has kept a young man occu- pied from the years of childhood up to the period when he con- cludes his professional studies, in such a way as directly and powerfully to induce indolent andjiAvkwjyd habits of character. Unmanly diffidence, absence of mind in common intercourse, social cowardice, and bodily awkwardness and laziness, have been felt extremely difficult to avoid, by serious and intellectual young men, whose time has been spent principally at semina- ries of learning. There have been no counteracting influences from the practice of any accomplishment except that of compo- sition, and this does not answer the purpose, as it is cultivated m solitude. Extemporaneous debate has indeed been of some little use, but the embarrassment which generally accompanies its first practice, fully counteracts its benefits in respect to the things now under consideration. At some former periods, the INTRODUCTION, 27 case was different. Among the Greeks and Romans, the "in- genuipmri" (young gentlemen,) during the whole course of their literary education, practised gymnastic and warlike exer- cises, which tended to keep the manly energies of the charac- ter in equal development with intellectual discipline and refine- ment. During the ages of chivalry, similar exercises were practised by all but the monks. Even down to the middle of the last century, some accomplishments continued to be culti- vated which answered the same purpose to a considerable de- gree. In Lord Chatham's letters to his son, the celebrated Wil- liam Pitt, the latter is earnestly exhorted not to neglect his dan- cing. Fencing and horsemanship were at that period univer- sally cultivated by young men who expected to fill stations of rank. Washington was distinguished as an elegant dancer and an admirable horseman. Among the Greeks, and among the English in the days of Elizabeth, instrumental music was care- fully cultivated by the class corresponding to that which at the present day claims a superior right to the appellation of gentle- men. But in our present systems of education, nothing of this kind finds place. Systematic gymnastic exercises have been thoroughly tried, and universally abandoned, as failing to an- swer their intended purpose. A military education, indeed, such as that at West Point, has its appropria.te.jeniedifisJbr-the evils of the other systems ; yet though the attempt has been faithfully made to imitate in colleges this part of a military ed- ucation, it has not succeeded. Numerous efforts have been made to incorporate systems of manual labor, but the results of such trials have been so unsatisfactory, that they seem not likely to be repeated. To imitate the Greeks in making instrumen- tal music a serious part of a liberal education, would at the pres- ent day be manifestly absurd ; to resort seriously to dancing for this great object, would be ridiciilftus^jrhe^cultivation of pu- gilism, so earnestly pursued in England, is too brutish for this country. The common athletic sports of young men are in- 28 INTRODUCTION. valuable for purposes of exercise, but cannot take rank as ac- complishments. Carriages, rail-cars and steamboats are super- seding the necessity of horsemanship. Nothing seems to re- main as a remedy for this great deficiency but the manly culti- vation of practical oratory, and perhaps this accomplishment will ultimately be found of more value for the purpose than any thing else. \ To make/it thus available, however, it must not be cultiva- ted, as has so often been done, in a mere spirit of emulating theatrical performers. Even the highest and most natural elo- cution for the stage, is not only totally different from, but dia- metrically opposite to that of public speaking. The most seri- ous mistake that can be made with reference to oratory, is to suppose that even an absolutely perfect actor, if such could be found, might be made a model for an orator. The situation of an actor is in all respects different from that of a public speak- er. In proof of this assertion, it will be sufficient simply to re- fer to the totally different style of delivery adopted by an ac- complished and favorite performer, when at the close of the evening he advances to the front of the stage, and speaks not as an actor, but in his own person to thank the audience for their favoring regards. No progress began to be made in improving the elocution of our colleges, until after the banish- ment of serious theatrical performances. Common college col- loquies do not strictly belong to the class of theatrical perform- ances. They may, perhaps, be best described by the appella- tion of intellectual frolics, and as such have a legitimate place and value. It is obvious, however, that to derive these advantages from the practice of elocution, as well as to make any useful attain- ments in the art, the student must yield to use a fine expres- sion of Burke " a liberal nhqdience" to the most thorough dis- cipline. Military discipline soon succeeds in transforming the most clownish and degraded individuals, even the very outcasts INTRODUCTION. 29 of society, who enlist as common soldiers, into men distinguish- ed for an erect, manly carriage and a dignified demsajior. and infuses into them, not only feelings of honor, but of enthusias- tic self-dcvotion_tcMhp flailfl p r>rthpir rn iiptry. The very object of a liberal education is to qualify men for filling the most re- sponsible situations in society. Responsible situations are al- ways those of dicrnifry. and as such demand ^elevation of flliaix. acter ; but it is an e s t a b I is h c The knee of the limb on which the body is not rest- ing, must be suffered to relax and bend. M The breast is to be thrown forward, and the shoulders drawn backward. The head should be held erect and easy. ATTITUDE. 37 An exact position of the feet should be avoided. In the at- titudes of ease and composure, the heels will be two or three inches, and the toes six or eight inches, apart. The figures of attitude in the " Chironomia," a large quarto volume on this subject by Austin, a teacher of elocution, about fifty years since, in Dublin, give various positions of the feet according to diffi- cult and artificial rules. These have been extensively copied in books on elocution. Yet on inspection, we shall find the at- titudes which they produce as unnatural as they are ungraceful. The figures lean as if they were falling to one side or the other. The only good authorities on this subject, are the works of the great masters in painting and sculpture. In earnest address, the body should generally lean for- ward, for a time, on the right foot, while the left falls a little behind. The very attitude thus expresses earae&U ness and bespeaks sympathy. The worst fault in attitude is observable in those who exhibit a weak and bombastic delivery. Such lean backwards, i^feiead of inflecting the body earnestly towards their audience. They likewise throw back the head. One who in earnest address, leans forward towards his audience, will not be liable to serious faults of attitude. Common propriety of manners requires that when a speaker is about to make a formal address, (except in the ordinary ser- vices of the pulpit,) he salute the audience, or the chairman of the meeting, with such a bow as is customary in society. The rules for this are the same as on ordinary occasions in private life. If propriety requires that the chairman receive a saluta- tion of reverence and ceremonious^ respect, let the bow be low. But in other cases, it need be but slight. All the direction ne- cessary to prevent awkwardness in bowing, is that the whole body be flexible, and the shoulders be not kept back. If the shoulders are suffered to relax, the arms will fall forward, ac- 4* 38 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. cording to the common rule. A bow should always be made with a deliberate ease. Suddenness of bending, gives an as- pect of timidity, and is apt to be accompanied with a quick re- bound of the body, which has a bad effect. If a bow is very low, the eyes are cast down ; but if slight, they are steadily fixed on the person or persons saluted. In bowing moderately to a large audience, the eyes look steadily towards the more distant part of the assembly. When the person who salutes by a bow, is so situated that his feet are visible, it is necessary to let the heel of one foot meet the hollow of the other, at the time that the body bends. This is done in two ways most formally, by drawing the heel of one foot into the hollow of the other less formally, by stepping slightly forwards with one foot, and then suffering the hollow of the other to fall against the heel of the foot in advance. The reason why in bowing according to these common rules, the heel of one foot comes into the hollow of the other, is that with this position the base upon which the weight of the body rests is made so small, that the bending is natural and almost unavoidable. There are, however, a few slight va- riations from this position of the feet, which graceful persons often exhibit ; and when such proceed from ease and compo- sure, they produce no ill effect. Ceremonious and submissive bows are also sometimes made by retreating instead of advancing. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE OF ATTITUDE AND SALUTATION. Mr. President ! Mr. Chairman ! Gentlemen of the Jury ! Gentlemen ! Romans, countrymen and lovers! My countrymen ! My brave associates ! partners of my toil, my feelings and my fame ! Friends, Romans, Countrymen ! lend me your ears. Most potent, grave and reverend Seniors ! My very noble and approved good masters ! GESTURE. 39 Sad, my fellow citizens ! are the recollections and fore- bodings, which the present solemnities force upon the mind ! In the above examples the common rule of punctuation has been followed, which marks the nominative independent, of ad- dress, by an exclamation point. When the tone of address is grave and formal, and with a decided pause following, the fall- ing inflexion of the voice is required at the end ; but when the address is more familiar, or if it is with considerable excite- ment, the rising inflexion is more commonly used. GESTURE. The most common as well as most important of all the ges- tures that are used, is that of appeal and enforcement. This should be carefully studied and practiced. When the habit is once formed of using it with grace, spirit and variety, no awk- wardness will be exhibited in the infinite variety of others that spring from imagination and feeling. It is necessary to consider this gesture with care. The plate prefixed to this volume is intended to illustrate the attitude, and the position of the arm and hand, of one who by his very aspect bespeaks the attention of an audience, and is prepared to ex- plain and enforce with spirit and grace what he is about to utter. The erect yet easy attitude expresses composi""^ and a mind collected and concentrated on the subject and audience. The open and presented palm of the hand appeals to the minds of those addressed, while the arm raised and brought forward without relaxing the elbow, expresses freedom of impulse and a confident appeal to sympathy. The fundamental principle of every gesture is SIGNIFI- CANCE. This may be either of some wish or effort con- nected with the understanding, or of some state of im- agination or feeling. 40 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. The gestures that spring from the latter source, are cultiva- ted by abandoning one's self freely to every such impulse. Those of feeling are a part of the natural language of emotion or passion, and all rules for them are worse than useless. The gestures of imagination either point to some image present to the mind of the speaker, and thus direct and assist the imagina- tions of the audience, or they slightly depict the visual outlines of such images, and in this way render the auditors still greater assistance. These likewise, are as various as the images to which they direct attention, and the attempt to reduce them to rule is evidently absurd. The gestures that assist a speaker in explaining and enforcing thought, can be reduced to a few general classes. Yet when thus classified they will be found very numerous, and their ex- planation intricate and tedious. But even if this be done, and a student be patiently and perseveringly drilled in them, there will be great danger of his becoming artificial and formal, and of exhibiting what is one of the most disagreeable of all faults, an appearance of having been long occupied in imitating a model, or endeavoring to put in practice a set of rules. All that is finally necessary after awkward habits, if any such exist, have become corrected, is to make gestures significant; first, of our wish to communicate and explain our ideas ; second- ly, of an effort to appeal to the assent and sympathy of those we address; and thirdly, of an intention to enforce occasionally the truth or importance of what we assert. But five rules are necessary for establishing good habits in the common gesture of appeal and enforcement. (Vide the plate.) I. Let the open palm always be presented to the part of the audience addressed. To effect this, bend back the wrist as much as possi- ble without a violent strain. Open and bend back the thumb and forefinger. GESTURE. 41 Let the other fingers remain slightly bent in a natural and easy manner. With some persons, these naturally remain nearly straight and almost in the same plane with the forefinger. With others they are more or less bent. No precise rule is needed in re- spect to this point. 2. Raise the arm directly from the shoulder, without bending the elbow. The height to which the arm is raised, must correspond to the distance of the persons to whom the voice is addressed and to whom the eyes are directed. If they are towards the ex- tremity of a large room, the hand must not be lower than the shoulder or upper part of the breast. When we are speaking to persons very near, it is somewhat lower, but in this case the body also bends more or less forward. 3. Bring the arm well forward towards the persons addressed. Do not suffer it to extend laterally from the body. This makes the gesture unmeaning, by taking away its expression of appeal. It should be brought at least forty five degrees forward. 4. Let all the muscles of the arm be in a state of ten- sion, corresponding to a spirited and animated state of mind. Graceful, to say nothing of forcible gestures, cannot possibly be executed, when the muscles are slack. If these are not stiff- ened and kept tense, the elbow will drop and the motions be ex- tremely awkward. Even in an easy and animated attitude, the principal muscles of the body are in the same state. The atti- tude will otherwise express not ease but laziness. The true guide for the state and position of the arm, is to have in it a feeling of spirit and expression corresponding to that given by the voice. This causes the motions of the arm and wrist to be slow, graceful, significant, and expressive. 42 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. 5. Let the stroke of gesture which falls on an em- phatic word, be effected in most cases by a sudden stiff- ening of the muscles of the whole arm without bending the elbow. The elbow will indeed be very slightly bent, but an effort should be made to have the arm move exclusively from the shoulder, rather than to bend at the elbow. This direction prevents what is described by Hamlet, in the precept, "do not saw the air too much with the hands." What is called by audiences too much gesture, consists in indulging the arm in motions that are at the same time frequent and extensive. Those who gesture most gracefully, keep one or both arms ex- tended a great part of the time, but make but few motions that attract attention. In fact the finest style of giving attitudes and gestures, consists in a series of positions of the body, arms and hands, which remain unchanged for an appreciable period of time, while each presents a fine study for a painter or sculptor. There is an exception to the last rule, when there is a peculiarly deliberate emphasis on a single word. In this case the elbow is deliberately bent, the hand is raised, (sometimes higher than the head,) and then brought down in the stroke as low as the waist. When the arm falls to the side after gesturing, let it drop naturally and unconsciously. Those who are first beginning to practice speaking, generally make too many gestures It is useless to attempt to prevent this fault by speaking several lines at a time with both arms hanging at the sides as if withered. This custom is not only unnatural as respects gesture, being one which is never exhib- ited for a moment by an interesting extemporaneous speaker, but makes it impossible for the speaker to employ varied and impressive tones of voice. The fault under consideration pro- ceeds always from want of self-command and steadiness, and GESTURE. 43 can be prevented only by avoiding its cause. When however, too many gestures are made, the speaker generally drops his arm too often. He raises it for a single stroke on an emphatic word and then immediately lets it fall. It is this frequent ris- ing and falling of the arm that attracts and offends the eye. It should be a rule, therefore, that when the arm is once raised, it be kept for some short time in the air, and with the hand in the position of appeal. So likewise in a succession of gestures, the arm should not drop when one has been given, and then be raised again for the next. After making a stroke, the arm should remain in the position of appeal, or in that in which it was left by the last gesture, and then be transferred to the next. In speaking passages not distinguished by force of language or sentiment, the arm is often for a short time at the side. But in this case those who are graceful and interesting, always give such inflexions of the body as continue the exhibitions of appeal and sympathy, which the arm and hand express in more earnest pas- sages. So when the arm and hand are employed, the body assists also in the gesture by its flexibility. It should never be stiffly braced, so as to cause the whole expression of a gesture to pro- ceed from the motion of the arm. The question is often asked, What shall be done with the left arm 1 When the right arm is expressively engaged, and the body is kept flexible and suffered to assist, the left naturally hangs passive at the side. It should not, except sometimes in the most familiar and conversational debate, be suffered to rest on the hips, with the elbow akimbo, nor, except in the same cir- cumstances, be placed in the bosom. In earnest or grave de- livery it naturally hangs passive. Any other position makes the atttitude of the body stiff and inflexible, and prevents the 44 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. grace of varied bodily inflexions. On no occasion should it be placed behind the back. To rest it thus, renders the attitude awkward by stiffening the back in the worst manner. To raise the skirts of the coat with the left arm, will be in the case of a young man, not to treat the audience with respect, as it is the sole purpose of that part of the dress, to cover a dishonorable part of the body ! If in familiar and conversational speaking the left hand be rested on the hip, let care be taken that the elbow be carried back as much as possible, in order to diminish the akimbo effect. Should single gestures be made with the left arm and hand ? It is not worth while to dispute this point, yet to use the left hand in gesture seems scarcely more natural than to offer it in salutation, or to strike a blow with it. The ancient Romans rarely or never employed it on any occasion, in speaking. They did not even use gestures with both hands. Yet the rea- son commonly assigned for this total omission of its use is not sufficient, for it could by no means be necessary for them to keep it always occupied in supporting a part of their dress. They must have had it in their power so to support the toga that it should not fall, as well in this as in other situations. When wearing the toga, they were not necessarily one-handed. Gestures that are made with both arms are the same in kind as those made with the right alone. When they are not in- stinctively employed to express extent of space or the univer- sality of an idea, they are generally used to assist in expressing a climax of thought. After repeating several strokes of gesture in enforcing a series of emphatic ideas, both arms are raised towards the close to produce a climax of effect. The stroke is made by both arms simultaneously, in the same way as by the right alone. Variety in the repetition of the common gesture of appeal and enforcement, is effected by successively changing the place of the hand in the air. GESTURE. 45 To acquire the most graceful habits of gesture, the arm must be practised in making a greater part of its motions in a side- way direction, instead of directly up and down. In doing this, especial attention must be paid to cultivating flexibility of side- way motion in the wrist. The hand should be turned over so as to bring the palm uppermost, and while it is well bent back, and the thumb and forefinger fully opened, the wrist should be fully practised in significant and expressive motions made later- ally. The gesticulations thus made by the hand moving at the wrist, are the same that we continually give in earnest conver- sation. The only difference in their employment when we are speaking, is that we execute them while the arm is extended ; whereas in conversation the elbows remain at the sides, and the hands are just in front of the body. Cultivating these expressive motions in speaking, adds much to grace and interest of action. In passages of argument and explanation, some speakers em- ploy a style of gesture in which the arm is most of the time ex- tended, but the elbows are near the sides, and frequent and va- ried gesticulations are made by one or both hands in front of the body. This is an excellent and agreeable style of action, but is difficult to teach, and seems not to be natural to all. Those who instinctively incline to employ it, will do well to cultivate its habitual use. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTISING GESTURE. The following example requires a forcible delivery, and great earnestness of action. I MAKE THE ASSERTION (arm gradually rising) DELIBERATELY. (stroke without bending the elbow then letting the arm re- main in the position the stroke left it in.) I REPEAT IT, (raising the arm, bending the elbow, and bringing down a forcible stroke on the last syllable of repeat letting the arm remain where it was left by the stroke.) 5 46 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. AND I CALL UPON ANY MAN WHO HEARS ME (sideway wave of the whole arm, and with a flexible wrist the hand being turned palm uppermost.) \ TO TAKE DOWN MY WORDS, (arm brought forwards stroke of ges- ture brought down low inflexion of the body, and an earnest look the arm then drops suddenly and unconsciously.) The next example requires also great earnestness of voice and action. SlR ! (look and erect attitude) THE DECLARATION (earnest look, but no gesture.) WILL INSPIRE THE PEOPLE (arm raised from the shoulder palm of the hand making a strong appeal.) \ WITH INCREASED COURAGE ; (inflexion of body, and ear- nest stroke of the arm, made without much bending of the el- bow arm remaining in the air.) INSTEAD OF A LONG AND BLOODY WAR, (inflexion of body, and sideway motion of the hand and arm a significant motion be- ing made with the wrist the arm not dropped.) / FOR RESTORATION OF PRIVILEGES, (the arm brought forward, and a forcible stroke made in a sideway and upward direction the wrist being very flexible.) / FOR REDRESS OF GRIEVANCES, (the same gesture repeated but the hand carried a little higher, for variety, and to give a gradual climax.) FOR CHARTERED IMMUNITIES (hand brought forward towards the audience, to attract attention to the emphasis that is to follow.) / HELD UNDER A BRITISH KING, (earnest look stroke without bending the elbow the arm carried sideways and upwards the hand remaining high in the air.) SET BEFORE THEM THE GLORIOUS OBJECT (hand brought down a little, and stretched forward in earnest appeal.) VOICE. 47 OF ENTIRE INDEPENDENCE, (hand slowly raised on the word entire the elbow bending then a sudden stroke on the accented syllable of independence the arm remaining in the air.) AND IT WILL BREATHE INTO THEM ANEW (attitude brought up very erect the breast swelling out both arms and hands pre- sented in earnest appeal.) \ THE BREATH OF LIFE, (sudden stroke of both arms sideways and downwards on the word life the elbows not bending look of exultation the arms then drop unconsciously the speaker pauses rests a moment, and begins with a transition of manner on the next passage.) Remarks on the above examples. These examples are given as specimens of full and unrestrained earnestness of natural gesture. It will be well carefully to study and practice them. Those who have once mastered the gestures described above, will need no more training in this subject, and will afterwards be liable to no serious faults of action. It must be remembered, that on the same passage no two perfectly natural speakers will ever gesture precisely alike neither will a single speaker speak the same passage with pre- cisely the same action in different repetitions, if his manner is in each case perfectly natural and graceful. It is necessary for instructors however, to discipline themselves in the power of repeating without variation. CHAPTER II. VOICE . Every one knows that school-boy tones in reading, and the dull and tedious manner of some speakers, give a sound to the voice that has little resemblance to the tones of an eloquent ex- 48 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. temporaneous orator. It is well known likewise to be at first difficult, and indeed it is too generally considered impossible, to render a discourse that has been written but not committed to memory, as interesting and eloquent as when a speaker is suc- cessfully extemporizing ; and that even if the composition be memorized, its delivery cannot readily be made as interesting, as when the words as well as the tones proceed from a felicitous impulse of the moment. The explanation of these remarkable differences in the pre- vailing sound of the voice, lies in the fact that speaking to an assembly is a peculiar act of the mind and vocal organs. There are three distinct ways of communicating thought, each of which has its peculiar voice, as distinct from each other as they are from singing. These are talking, speaking, and reading. In the present chapter we shall consider the peculiarities of the speaking voice. It is perhaps the general opinion, that speaking differs from conversation merely in loudness and force. This is not true. We may talk with great force of emphasis, with strong gestures and with an extreme degree of loudness, and yet a person overhearing us in another room would never mistake our tones for those of a person speaking. On the other hand, we may speak with great earnestness and force, and yet not be sufficiently loud to be audible across an ordinary audience room. We may also speak in a languid and uninteresting manner, one which is characterized by want of emphatic force, and at the same time those who hear without seeing us will not be liable to suppose that we are either talking or reading. These facts prove conclusively that speaking differs from talking or reading, in the peculiar quality of voice which it employs. In additional confirmation we may VOICE. 49 mention that this distinction is recognized by reporters of legislative assemblies, inasmuch as they always dis- criminate between what is spoken in debate and the public conversation that frequently takes place among the members on the subject under discussion. As stated in the preface, the power of using the speak- ing voice seems always to be learned at some period con- siderably later than childhood. Those who begin to practice elocution without having previously gained the power of using this voice, by the practice of declamation in schools or by being accustomed to extemporaneous debate, often experience extreme difficulty in attempting to employ it. There have been some who have prac- tised declamation throughout their college course, with- out ever making use of it throughout a whole sentence. There is but one mode by which a person who is un- accustomed to its use can at once break into it. This is by suddenly speaking to persons at a great distance, with an unhesitating abandonment of earnestness, and in a tone almost as loud as a shout. When this experiment is tried, it will be found that the voice strikes into the upper part of the middle, or the lower part of the upper key, and has a peculiar openness and fullness, together with more or less smoothness of sound. There is also some degree of an expulsive and explosive utterance. The breath likewise issues more suddenly and rapidly, and appears to leave the chest with less air remaining in it, than after uttering the same number of words in loud conversation. So too, when at a pause, breath is taken again, it is done more suddenly and with deeper inspira- tion. 5* 50 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. We hence see the reason why an oratorical delivery is more rapidly acquired by those who address audiences in the open air. The exertion that is necessary in such situations, naturally brings a man into the use of the speaking voice. The excite- ment likewise which prompts the utterance of auctioneers, law- yers, and partisan debaters, as also the tumultuous zeal of ig- norant enthusiasts, have the same effect in developing the voice which we are considering. Loud and vehement speaking is thus at first the easi- est and most natural, and it is well known that in noth- ing do speakers improve more by practice, than in the power of being audible and forcible, without breaking into a discordant loud ness. It will be well however to remark, that at the present time a fashion seems to prevail among the speakers in the northern and eastern parts of the United States, of studying to subdue the natural loudness of their voices in an extreme degree. By so doing, they not only become often indistinct and inaudible to those in not very distant parts of a room, but descend into a husky and unmusical voice, such as is not only incapable of in- teresting expression, but disagreeably aspirated and obscure. By subduing the voice in this artificial way, they likewise ex- hibit a mechanical monotony, which prevents the giving of va- rious expressions, for which an increased degree of loudness is natural and necessary. Cheerfulness, hope, joy, triumph, ad- miration, and many other emotions, have considerable loudness and openness of tone for their natural language, and cannot be expressed without them. When a speaker has thoroughly disciplined his voice and ear, in reference to adaptation to larger or smaller audiences, it will be neither necessary nor expedient for him to give himself any concern in respect to the degree of loudness that he may hap- pen to use. His voice will, as it were, instinctively accommo- VOICE AND RESPIRATION. 51 date itself to the room, and be agreeably audible, without lia- bility to offend the most sensitive nerves by excess of force, while it will perpetually vary in the loudness required for ex- pression, according to his feelings and the dictates of propriety. Those therefore who wish to acquire command over their vocal organs as rapidly as possible, must practise loud speaking for a part of the time. Instead however, of depending merely on the rude practice above described, in which the voice ap- proximates to a shout, it will be better to consider the voice un- der the different heads which follow, and to practise exercises which cultivate those separate acts, the union of which produces not only the speaking voice, but that cultivated and musical tone which characterizes those speakers who are not only most agreeable to a delicate and sensitive taste, but who likewise have an effective power over the most obtuse and insensible hearers. DEPENDENCE OF VOICE ON RESPIRATION. Even in the calmest and most familiar styles of pub- lic address, the speaking voice is more dignified than in ordinary conversation, and may also be rendered more musical and expressive. This results from the fact that in all public speaking, the mind of the speaker is more or less in an elevated and excited state. This emotive and elevated state of mind produces a corresponding con- dition of body. The principal effect on the body is a deeper breathing. Reciprocally also, this deeper breathing enkindles the mind and excites the feelings. In strong emotion the thrill of the mind renders the breathing so deep, as to heave up the breast, and send a nervous thrill" through- out the entire frame. So too we may to some extent increase the intensity of a feeling that is too languid, by voluntarily strengthening its bodily expression. 52 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. The depressing emotions indeed, such as despondency, diffi- dence, or shame, make the breathing weaker instead of strong- er, and accordingly it is one of our most common instinctive resources when endeavoring to shake them off, to take deep breathings, and make sudden and vigorous muscular exertions. From this connection of voice with respiration, we may de- rive the most easy and successful of the various modes for culti- vating an improved degree of vocal power, depth and flexibility. On the same principle also depends the ability to speak with ease. It is the habit of not taking breath with sufficient fre- quency and fullness, that, so far as mere physical exertion is concerned, causes those who address even the largest audien- ces to become exhausted. This deep breathing furnishes the reason why in an anima- ted attitude the breast is heaved up and thrown forward, as was described in the previous chapter. Hence the first lesson for acquiring a commanding and ex- pressive voice, should be as follows. Stand in attitude for speaking as has been already de- scribed. Heave up the chest by taking a very deep breath, and keep it in this state by taking breath very frequently during the time of speaking a sentence. Never attempt to speak as many words as possible at a breath, but on the contrary catch breath suddenly and frequently, as is done by players on wind instruments. Assist the vocal effort by voluntarily taking on a state of excited and strong emotion. Aid the natural action of the breast, by strong ges- tures of appeal with the right arm or with both arms. At first students of elocution are liable to suppose that depth of tone and dignity of voice are necessarily connected with a VOICE AND RESPIRATION. 53 low pitch. For this reason it will be well to practise this lesson on each of the three keys which will soon be described. In the examples, the words will be divided into groups, after each of which breath should be taken. EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. (Low pitch) (Higher pitch) Sir! \ I know the uncertainty of human affairs. \ But I see, I see clearly through this day's business. \ (A little lower pitch] You and/ may indeed rue it. (Stia higher pitch) \ We may not live to see the time when this declaration \ shall be made good. \ (Lower pitch) (Higher) (Still higher) (Lower) (Still lower) (Stitt lower) (Quite high) (Same pitch) (Middle key $ loud) We may die : \ die colonists, die slaves ; die, it may be, ignominiously , \ and on the sr.affnld. \ Be it so. \ Be it so. If it is the pleasure of Heaven, that my country shall require the poor offering of my life, \ the victim shall be ready, 54 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. / (Less loud} at the appointed hour of sacrifice, / \ (Higher) come when that hour may. / (Low key fy rising) But while I do live, \ (Middle key) let me have a country, / (Rising) or at least, the HOPE of a country, \ (Descending) and that, a FREE country. Remarks. The directions for the changes of pitch in the above example, have been given with reference to solemnity and climax. A very different set of directions might be given, which would perhaps be equally appropriate. These, however, will coincide with the tastes of all in a sufficient degree for the purposes of practice. It is not indeed necessary for elementa- ry training of the voice, to use extracts from speeches at all. It is equally useful to practise upon tables of single words, such as will be hereafter given under the head of articulation. VOICE OR TONE OF ADDRESS. It is often observable that the voice of a speaker does not really address the audience. It is abstracted, and has precisely the same tone as if there were no auditors. Some likewise appear not to believe what they say. Even a soliloquy should be given with expressive ear- nestness, when an audience is present. Yet some speak- ers not only have the tone of soliloquy when addressing their fellow beings, but even that of merely repeating words without interest in their meaning. The practice of singing may be made highly useful in im- proving the voice for reading and speaking ; yet it is often ob- VOICE OR TONE OF ADDRESS. 55 servable that those who devote considerable time to the practice of singing, have a singularly lifeless and inexpressive elocution. IN ALL THESE CASES THE FAULT PROCEEDS FROM BAD HABITS OF RESPIRATION. In singing the breath is retained, and only suffered to issue very slowly. A singer can execute more notes at a breath than a speaker can utter syllables, with the same slowness, provided the sound of the speaker's voice is EARNESTLY EXPRESSIVE. Therefore practise sending out all the breath on each word, and catching it quickly and deeply between the words. Assist this mechanical practice by imagining a few persons before you, and making vigorous effort of the MIND to speak directly and earnestly TO them. The most advantageous style of speaking for early practice, is that of lawyers. Imitate the hearty earnest- ness and force with which they address juries. Defer the study of refinement and beauty of delivery, until after you have acquired force, and what people call a whole-souled heartiness. Universally, in the common criticisms of miscellaneous audiences, what is called in- teresting in a speaker, is really little else than force and vehement earnestness. The taste of colleges sometimes degenerates so much, as to favor what in the case of those who command no reverence by their learning, the world at large would call dullness and even stupidity. Remember that the object of speaking in college is to qualify for speaking after graduating. Students must pre- pare for dealing with the common sympathies of humanity. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. Either speak with natural earnestness, or make up your mind that in future life you will decline invitations to make public addresses. 56 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. It would be the most approved custom for a man who has pre- pared a written address, but whose delivery of it in person will certainly torture the patience of an audience, to offer his man- uscript to an acceptable speaker to read or speak it for him. This is the established practice of kings and chief magis- trates, and would often in the case of others be as much more dignified as more agreeable. Some entertain an obscure opinion, that earnestness and en- ergy will compromise their dignity. So indeed it will, if the matter is weak and the style bombastic. But in all other ca- ses, true dignity can only be exhibited by means of mental power joined to self-command. A person is always dignified who commands respect by an earnestness and an energy that are perfectly under his own control, and all good delivery re- quires an entire command over our own faculties. There is in- deed a sham dignity which is purely negative. It is the dignity of a tortoise drawing his head within his shell ! EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. Gentlemen of the Jury ! Suppose the prisoners, if the evidence were true, \ DID conspire the king's death, \ \ what are you to found your VERDICT upon ? \ Upon your OATHS. \ What are THEY founded upon ?\ \ Upon the oath of the WITNESS. \ And what is THAT founded upon?\ \ \ Upon this, and this ONLY, \ that he believes there is a just and omnipotent GOD, VOICE OR TONE OF ADDRESS. 57 \ an intelligent supreme EXISTENCE, who will inflict eternal punishment for offences, \/ or confer eternal rewards upon man, after he has passed the boundary of the grave. \ But the INFIDEL ! \ By what can you catch HIS soul ? Or by what can you HOLD it 1 \ \/ / You REPULSE HIM from giving evidence, \ for he has NO CONSCIENCE ! / no nope to cheer him \ no punishment to dread. \ Gentlemen ! the case of my client is, \ that the witness against him is PERJURED ! \ and you are appealed to, in the name of that ever-living GOD whom you revere, \/ but whom HE DESPISES, / \ to SAVE him from the baseness of such an accuser. CURRAN. If naturally spoken, the earnestness of the above plea will cause most of the emphatic words to be given with the interval of the fifth, as described by Dr. Rush and Professor Day. The slide through this interval has been called the triple slide by 6 58 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. Professor Goodrich. With a few exceptions, it is the widest range of the voice in practical speaking, and occurs oftener in excited argumentation than in any other sort of delivery. AGREEABLE AND IMPRESSIVE VOICE. The PERFECT VOICE for reading or speaking, exhib- its what the scientific musicians call a PURE TONE. It is called by Dr. Rush the orotund. This new term seems scarcely necessary, and misleads most students, by inducing them to cultivate pomposity, or some sort of mouthing. The readers of Dr. Rush's invaluable work are apt to understand the orotund as being necessarily connected with a low pitch. The PURE TONE depends on an open state of the throat and back part of the mouth. The whole mouth should indeed be opened as wide as possi- ble in speaking, for unless this is done, the articulation will not be perfectly clear. But the pure tone does not depend on the opening of the teeth and lips. In this country a prevalent fault of the voice is nasality of tone. When the pure tone is used, the breath does not pass through the nose at all, except in uttering a few of the consonants. Let a person try the experiment of uttering the vowels a, e, , o, u, y, in the pure tone, while the nostrils are closed by com- pressing them with the thumb and finger. He will find this closure of the nostrils makes no difference whatever in the sound. A perfectly pure tone can be acquired only by very long and careful cultivation. For practical purposes in life, it is sufficient to acquire as much of this quality as AGREEABLE AND IMPRESSIVE VOICE. 59 will give a degree of dignity, agreeableness and fluency of voice sufficient to satisfy common audiences. It is only by a considerable degree of the pure tone, that a large room can be filled without disagreeable loud- ness and a fatiguing exertion on the part of the speaker. In disciplining the voice for the purpose of acquiring the pure tone, it is necessary always to begin with ex- plosion and the exhausting breath. This is the sole dependence in the schools of vocal music, and was introduced by Dr. Rush into the practice of elocution. The next practice should be in prolongation, and es- pecially prolongation with the median stress or swell. In general, elementary practice in explosion and prolongation should be on single words, such as are subsequently given in ta- bles. The following example, however, may with equal pro- priety be spoken in two different styles, in one of which the principal words have an explosive utterance, and in the other, exhibit prolongation and the swell. The former will be more vehement and excited, while the latter will manifest a stronger earnestness. The very best mode of studying and cultivating the pure tone, is to resort to the fields, and declaim such passages with a full shout. Then noticing the smooth and musical sound that the true shout exhibits, and the condition of the vocal organs that produces it, let the student learn to command the same quali- ties in a voice less and less loud, and on lower degrees of pitch, while at the same time it is kept perfectly natural. The voices of preachers who are accustomed to deliver sermons and exhor- tations at camp-meetings, are remarkable for power and a mu- sical quality, when used in a church. Neither are they neces- sarily loud. As the custom of preaching with too much loud- ness passes away, the improved vocal qualities acquired by such preachers become strikingly manifest. 60 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. \ STRIKE! TILL THE LAST ARMED FOE EXPIRES! / \ STRIKE! FOR YOUR ALTARS AND YOUR FIRES! \ STRIKE FOR THE GREEN GRAVES OF YOUR SIRES! \ GOD! AND YOUR NATIVE LAND! No inflexion has been marked on the first word of each of the above lines, because either the rising or the falling may be used. The former will be more eager, and the latter more com- manding. The most decisive test of true skill in using the pure tone, is the ability to give such a passage as the above in the subdued loudness of parlor reading, and yet to make it sound like a bold war-cry. REFINEMENT AND SUAVITY OF VOICE. The difference is very great between an utter coarseness of tone, such as we hear from teamsters and hostlers, addressing their cattle, and the agreeable and captivating sound of that frank and gentlemanly address, which expresses mutual respect between human beings. That quality of voice which expresses refinement of feeling, and cultivation of mind and manners, depends in some degree upon the pure tone, but principally upon the vanishing movement of the voice in the utterance of each syllable. Affectation of refinement and suavity, consists in the vanish being carried to excess and unduly prolonged, either in a sing- ing or in a whispering tone. DRAWLING proceeds from prolonging vowels without the slide. Drawling is an approximation to singing. REFINEMENT AND SUAVITY OP VOICE. 61 To explain the vanishing movement of the voice, we may take the vowel a. If this be uttered in a polite and pleasant tone, yet at the same time with such a deliberate prolongation that we can watch the movement of the voice, we shall find that it commences with an opening fullness that indicates frankness, and then tapers away into the sound of ee. This final sound does not break offabruptly, but gradually vanishes into silence, so that the precise ending is imperceptible. This vanishing move- ment, when deliberately given, expresses considerateness or def- erence, and hence, as above mentioned, an affectation or excess of politeness prolongs it into a whisper, or prolongs the delicate termination with an effeminate tone. On the other hand, the coarse tone of hostlers, which has been alluded to, being ad- dressed to brute animals, is destitute of the vanishing movement. The vanish of the vowel o is into oo. That of i is into ee ; that of ou into oo, and that of oy or oi into ee. Every syllable however, whatever is its vowel, or whether it ends with a vowel or a consonant, exhibits this vanishing move- ment, unless the tone with which it is uttered is extremely coarse. For study and practice on the vanish, it is best at first to take separate words of one syllable, and afterwards to watch the voice, in respect to executing it well on the more prominent syllables of a whole sentence or para- graph. In the latter case none but the accented syllables need be noticed. If the above directions are not sufficient for enabling the stu- dent to distinguish this movement, let him experiment upon the word no. He will find that when uttered with politeness and consideration, the sound of oo is very perceptible at the end, while it is scarcely heard in the tone of rudeness or surliness. We remarked above that the opening fullness which precedes the vanish expresses frankness. It may likewise represent con- 6* 63 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. fidence and other such states of feeling. It will be found on trial, that a sneaking or sniveling, or an extremely embarrassed tone, begins otherwise. As this quality of the speaking voice ought to be habitually exhibited in all delivery whatever, no especial example is required for its cultivation. Yet as the fol- lowing extract from an address of Mr. Burke, on declin- ing to stand a candidate for reelection from Bristol, ex- hibits so strikingly that great orator's characteristic un- ion of dignity and grace, it may be well to subjoin it. EXTRACT FOR PRACTICE. / Gentlemen! I decline the election. \ / It has ever been my rule through life, to observe a proportion between my efforts and my objects. \ \/ I have not canvassed the whole of this city inform; / but I have taken such a view of it as satisfies my own mind, that your choice will not ultimately fall upon me.\ Your city, gentlemen , is in a state of miserable distraction ; \ \ and I am resolved to withdraw whatever share my pretensions / [have had in its unhappy divisions. \ \/ To say that I am no way concerned, / \ would be neither decent nor true. The representation of Bristol was an object on many accounts dear to me ; REFINEMENT AND SUAVITY OF VOICE. 63 and I should certainly very far prefer it to any other in the kingdom. \ \ My habits are made to it : / and it is in general more unpleasant to be rejected after long trial than not to be chosen at all.\ But, gentlemen, I will see nothing except your former [kindness ,\ and I will give way > to no other sentiments than those ofgratitude.\ / From the bottom of my heart I thank you for what you have done for me.\ You have given me a long term, which is now expired. \ / I have performed the conditions / and enjoyed all the profits to the full ;\ and I now surrender your estate into your hands / without being in a single tile or a singk stone impaired or wasted by my use. \ I have served the public for Jif teen years. \ \/ I have served you in particular for six.\ 64 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. / What is passed is well stored. \ / It is safe, and out of the power of fortune. \ \/ What is to come \ is in wiser hands than ours ; and HE, in whose hands it is, / best knows / whether it is best for you and me / that / should be in parliament or even in the world.\ The above extract will also be found one of the best in the language, for practising the student in those grave yet polite at- titudes and bendings of the body, which are required in an ad- dress so formal and yet so sincere. In the gestures, the hand will often require to be brought quite low, to correspond with the inflexions of the body and the low pitch of the cadences. KEYS OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. For practical purposes, it is best to recognize the old distinction of three keys in every person's speaking voice. These correspond somewhat to the registers, as they are called, of the singing voice. If we make the supposition that an absolutely perfect male voice for singing, would have three registers, one for the bass, one for the tenor, and one for the soprano, these would be analogous to the three keys of the speaking voice. These keys are the lower, the middle and the upper. The middle is the most important, and is that which KEYS OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 65 should generally be used. The other two however, ought to be carefully cultivated, since in varied and ani- mated addresses, all three are used, though the middle occurs in the largest proportion. Students of elocution who are also musicians, should bear carefully in mind the fact, that the range of pitch in speaking is lower and less extensive than in singing. The pitch of the middle key in most male voices is not much above the middle of the bass in singing. The higher notes of the air are never used in speaking, except occasionally in dramatic elocution. On the other hand, the voice descends lower in the cadences of speech than it ever does in music. Indeed, many good speak- ers sometimes descend in their cadences into a whisper. But this is a habit which is liable to appear affected, and is never necessary or expedient. The upper key of the voice is that which we instinc- tively use in calling to a person at a great distance and upon this fact is founded a natural and easy mode of cul- tivating the voice in the different keys. To cultivate the upper key, we may employ as one mode of practice, the instinctive effort to make ourselves audible when declaiming to persons at a very considera- ble distance. Then by imagining the hearers at no greater distance than the length of a large church, our voices will natur- ally fall into the middle key. Finally, if we speak with a tone of deep earnestness of feeling to persons very near, the voice proceeds in the lower key. It is highly important to cultivate power and a pure tone throughout the whole range of each one's voice. In general, there are two classes of voices in respect to range of pitch. 66 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. Some have their middle key on a high pitch and cannot readily be made to descend to a low pitch, while others have their mid- dle range very low and cannot readily strike into high and spirit- stirring notes. Popular audiences generally prefer to hear voices of high pitch. A majority of the most celebrated speak- ers have had such. Pitt and Fox are instances. Still the very best voices are capable of descending, with strength of tone, to a very low pitch, and at other times rising very high without loss of fullness and dignity. Each one should endeavor to im- prove his voice most in that part of its range in which it is naturally most inferior. It will be impossible to acquire a practical command over a particular key, merely by practising passages whose appropriate expression compels us to use it. On the contrary, we must dis- cipline ourselves in the power of speaking the same passage in each of the keys. For this reason we furnish no examples for the especial cultivation of the keys. Any extract or table of words may be used for this purpose. CHAPTER III. ANIMATED AND IMPRESSIVE UTTERANCE. IN the previous chapter we treated of those qualities of the voice which are required in all speaking, whatever may be the particular expression demanded by the passage. The present will be devoted to two modes of utterance, without which even the most plain and calm delivery will be lifeless and uninter- esting. For the sake of rendering the study of elocution as simple and easy as possible, we shall not in this chapter consider the forms of stress, and the different ways of managing the slide, by which such kinds of expression are given as are classified in ANIMATED UTTERANCE. 67 the third part of the work. Each will there be briefly describ- ed under the style of delivery of which it is the characteristic. ANIMATED UTTERANCE AND SPIRITED ACCENT. Animation of voice and accent are here considered, in op- position to the faults of sluggishness and languor of tone. These faults proceed from want of what is called by Dr. Rush, the " radical stress," i. e. stress at the very commencement of each vowel. In lively rnoods of mind, the syllables of discourse issue suddenly. This suddenness gives spirit and animation to the voice. It is of course most striking on accented syllables. Animation of voice thus depends on a quick and sud- den impulse given to the enunciation of the vowel of each syllable, and on the strong and decided accent which naturally accompanies it. At the moment of beginning the vowel of each syl- lable, there takes place a slight check in the flow of the breath, and a sudden and instantaneous action of the vo- cal organs in the throat. This description will enable any one to exemplify the quality under consideration; but in practising according to it, care must be taken to make the sounds perfectly natural, or else if the utterance is quite loud, it will resemble the barking of a dog rather than human speech. The very highest degree of this quality is what is called ex- ploding in speech, arid the explosive tone in singing. In rapid speech, in which the syllables are not prolonged, this stress is the same thing as what is called staccato stress in music. As in music the staccato stress may be given to the commence- ment of notes that are somewhat prolonged, so in speech the utterance may be slow and the syllables not shortened, yet at the same time each may be sent forth with a sudden and stri- DO GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. king effect, that awakens attention and arouses the spirits of the audience. This is one of the principal qualities of delivery, in conse- quence of which the mere sound of the voice, independently of the ideas offered, secures attention from the hearers. The very highest degrees of earnestness, however, as will presently be described, cause the voice to proceed in prolonged tones ; and in these, the swell of the voice often takes the place of the suddenly expulsive accent now under consideration. Great care likewise must be taken, that not only this, but all other qualities of voice be so managed when we cultivate elo- cution, as to be perfectly natural and agreeable. The sudden- ness of utterance which has just been described, should be con- joined with graceful ease and fluency. A very high degree of the vocal action we are now consider- ing, is exhibited in the natural utterance of various interjec- tions which express surprise, alarm, caution, command, or cheer- ful willingness. These interjections and imperative phrases are such as, Ah ! Oh ! Take care ! Who ! (to horses,) Come, come ! Look out ! Ay, ay ! EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. The following harangue from Shakespeare, requires an ex- tremely high degree of this utterance. It will be useful to prac- tise the declamation of such passages with great force, and even with violence. It must be remembered, however, that in ordi- nary delivery it should be impossible for common auditors to de- tect this peculiar vocal action, even when it decidedly characteri- zes the speaking. It must be so managed as to give spirit and attractive interest to the whole run of the voice, and yet with such ease and fluency, as to make the delivery even more graceful. It is not for any one a new use of the voice. The reason why it must be carefully cultivated, is that the necessary slowness of ANIMATED UTTERANCE. b9 public speaking is apt to prevent its natural use, and substitute for it some sort of drawl. After declaiming the following pas- sage with the energy of a harangue, it will be well to practise repeating it again in the more rapid and familiar manner of reading or of conversation. By so doing, the student will be able to distinguish that the same suddenly expulsive utterance which in its highest degree represents the excitement of the mil- itary harangue, in a less degree and with a subdued loudness gives spirit and animation. To secure the confidence and cordial cooperation of intellec- tual young men, in such declamatory exercises as this which follows, it will be well to remark that they are of no value ex- cept for gymnastic vocal training. A man may excel in them, and yet have neither skill, taste, nor judgment, in the ordinary delivery of practical life. As an intellectual accomplishment, the ability to execute them need not be considered of higher rank than skill in playing ball. Many shrink from them in consequence of supposing, that they are considered by a teach- er as evidences of talent or mental cultivation ; whereas they in fact task the body more than the mind. Sensitive young men must however remember, that audiences cannot very well discriminate between faults of delivery that proceed from the mind, and those that result from natural weakness or infelici- tous habits of the bodily organs. We have occasionally observed that an auditor has accused a speaker of not having his feelings interested in his subject, when the fact happened to be, that he was both earnest and enthusiastic, but had merely a bad habit of not taking breath with sufficient frequency and fullness to render his voice flexible and significant. Such declamation as the following confers also free habits of respiration in speaking, as well as a voice habitually spirited. 70 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. HARANGUE OF HENRY FIFTH TO HIS TROOPS BEFORE HAR- FLEUR. \ ,. \ Once more unto the breach, dear friends ! once more ; Or close the wall up with our English dead. In peace there's nothing so becomes a man \ f As modest stillness and humility : But when the blast of war blows in our ears, \ Then imitate the action of the tiger : \ \ Stiffen the sinews; summon up the blood; Disguise fair nature with hard-favored rage : \ Then lend the eye a terrible aspect; Let it pry through the portage of the head, \ Like the brass cannon ; let the brow overwhelm it, \ As fearfully, as doth a gatted rock O'erhang and jutty his confounded base, \ Swill'd with the wild and wasteful ocean. \ \ Now set the teeth and stretch the nostril wide.\ \ Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit \ To ITS FULL HEIGHT! / / \ On, on, you NOBLE English, Whose blood is fetch'd from fathers of war proof! \ Fathers that like so many Alexanders t IMPRESSIVE UTTERANCE. 71 Have, in these parts, from morn till even fought, \ And sheathed their swords for lack of argument! \ Be copy now to men of grosser blood, \ And teach them HOW TO WAR ! \ And you t good YEOMEN ! \ Whose limbs were made in ENGLAND ! show us here \ The mettle of your pasture ! I see you stand like greyhounds in the slips , \ Straining upon the start. THE GAME'S AFOOT! FOLLOW YOUR SPIRIT : and upon this charge t Cry STRIKE FOR HARRY ! ENGLAND! and ST. GEORGE. IMPRESSIVE UTTERANCE, OR PROLONGED TONES. Impressiveness depends principally upon prolongation. Be- fore attempting the regular declamation of extracts, the voice ought to be disciplined in the power of prolonging syllables and words, for purposes of emphasis and expression. Prolongation is the most universal form of emphasis, and characterizes all earnest delivery. It takes place however, only on syllables that have what is called in prosody, long quantity. The English language is remarkable for abounding in mono- syllabic words, generally of Saxon origin, which have great strength and energy, in consequence of their length. GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. It will be useful to exhibit tables of these, arranging them ac- cording to the nature of their constituent letters. The first class consists of syllables that end with a long vowel. Such admit of indefinite prolongation, ac- cording to the strength and earnestness of the emotion with which they are uttered. true glow flee joy away straw bow sigh stay strow stray destroy high thou high now The next class consists of syllables in which a long vowel is followed by a consonant that admits of being lengthened. In prolonging these, both the vowel and the consonant following it are lengthened. Such sylla- bles also, may be prolonged to any extent required, all fame join came zone spoil feel wane roll time calm scowl prove fail rule frail revile grave save move soothe smooth breathe ire admire store jeer near lure roar stare aware fall'n strong soar The next have long vowels, and final consonants that can be prolonged to some extent but not indefinitely. made robe proud tide need stride found mind mild rolled road heed speed side sold The next have long vowels, but end with a consonant that cannot be lengthened. These words can be pro- longed, but not indefinitely. smite sweet state awake seek sleep flight mute deep hope partake mistake awoke light smote flout daunt faint heart haste float height harp shark short IMPRESSIVE UTTERANCE. 73 The next have short vowels, but terminal consonants that can be indefinitely lengthened. swell dim on won shun pull well loll film starve still span hymn sum full thrill shall whelm serve sing bring string wing sprung wrung drum sung swing hung run G and Z at the end of syllables admit of some pro- longation. age oblige amaze feels joins days bridge edge muse fills joys ties Whispering letters at the end are not prolonged, leaf safe horse reach pelf teeth ice beach rush self Syllables with short vowels and only whispering let- ters or mutes at the end, cannot be prolonged. push hiss map clock shot split mists cut knot rash cliff struck ships pith insist test butt such stretch rest Many of this class however, are long for the purposes of me- ter, on account of the number of consonants at the end. They are long " by position," as it is called. In respect to the last class of syllables, the question occurs, in what way does the voice give those expressions that cause other syllables to be prolonged? This is done by making pre- cisely the same vigorous mental effort as upon those that can be lengthened. This effort however, causes the voice first to ex- ert itself with more force, and then, as the syllable does not length- en, an unconscious pause succeeds, which makes the syllable, 7* 74 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. or at least the whole word, to occupy as much time, as if the sound were continued by prolongation. It will be unnecessary to furnish extracts for the practice of prolongation, because this use of the voice is the universal re- source of nature for all earnestness on emphatic passages, and is always exhibited in a high degree whenever large rooms are satisfactorily filled, or discourse rendered intelligible and inter- esting to very large audiences. It is the natural and necessary prolongation of seriousness and solemnity, which, if unaccom- panied with spirit and energy, produces the drawling tone which we sometimes hear in the pulpit. The faults of pulpit elocution should be corrected, not by adopting an inappropriate familiarity of manner, or the sort of energy that characterizes the bar and the legislative assembly, but by superadding hearti- ness and animation, to impressiveness. A single caution must be given with respect to the practice of such tables as we have given above. Instead of disciplining the voice by prolonging the syllables in a merely mechanical way, it is better always to imagine one's self to be speaking, and thus give to each a natural expression of emphatic earnestness. CHAPTER IV. ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION. WE place this chapter after those which treat of the general qualities and habits of the voice, because if these are bad, it will be difficult for articulation to be such as is desirable in reading or speaking, or for pronunciation to be truly graceful and elegant. ARTIC ULATI ON. In most cases a good articulation in conversation and famil- iar reading, either results from natural organization, or is formed ARTICULATION. 75 in early childhood by models afforded in the domestic circle. The influences of schools however, are generally such as tend to produce the very worst habits of enunciation. In most schools, and sometimes in a college, lessons are recited in a manner so hurried and yet so hesitating, that the enunciation is like the following example. Suppose the rule to be repeated is, " A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person." Tt will be recited thus : " Vub m'st 'gree w'ts nom- 'tuv case 'ri numbu 'n puss'n." Those who cultivate propriety of manners in a high degree, are remarkable for a pleasant and respectful distinctness of ar- ticulation. Suppose a person passing along a dark street, stum- bles against another ; if a mutual apology is not made, at least some exclamation ensues. In such a case, the tone of voice, and style of articulation, immediately indicates whether either or both the persons are refined and gentlemanly. In nothing is that cultivation of mind and character, from which cultivated manners proceed, so much shown as by the voice. Every one articulates distinctly, when addressing, with sincere respect, one much above him in age and station. The tone of patient def- erence indeed, is marked by little else than distinctness of enun- ciation. So too, that of high self-respect, or of condescension to presuming vulgarity, is remarkably elaborate and distinct. On the other hand, the vulgarity of manners which proceeds from an egotistical enthusiasm, such as forgets to accommodate itself to others, causes words to be hurried in utterance, and makes it difficult to catch them. Extreme and egotistical diffidence also makes the voice guttural, or what is called snuffling, and pre- vents the perfect formation of syllables. These remarks are made with no purpose of inculcating points of manners, but in direct and sole reference to public speaking. When such causes of indistinct articulation as these which we have just mentioned, are accurately explained, it be- comes easy to avoid them in that more excited, yet more col- 76 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. lected state of mind, that distinguishes speaking from conversa- tion. The influences which make a person articulate distinct- ly, when respectfully addressing a superior, are similar to those which promote a good enunciation in speaking. In both, the importance of the occasion excites, intensifies, and steadies the mind. There is but one mode of practice by which we can in a short time, acquire the habit of a good articulation when addressing an audience. This is by a vigorous and concentrated effort of the mind, to explain or set forth to the auditors, the IDEA conveyed by the word we are uttering. This natural and distinctive effort tends to make the organs of speech enunciate distinctly every letter of every syllable : and this is what is meant by the very term, a perfect articulation. Experience proves that when students of elocution have done nothing more than study the principles and practice of articula- tion of single words, there is no certainty that they will exhibit an accurate and clear enunciation during the flow of continu- ous discourse. Yet the study of the analysis of syllables into their constituent letters, and the consequent principles of a per- fect articulation, should not be neglected. It is difficult however, to find time and opportunity for this study, in college instruction. There are but two ways in which it can be carried on ; the one, linguistically, or as a part of the science of languages, and the other by that patient and endless iteration which constitutes the mode of instruction in schools. For the latter there is not sufficient time in college, and it is inconsistent with the style of instruction most appropriate for intelligent young men. The former requires, on the other hand, more maturity of mental discipline, than it is possible for the younger classes in a college to possess. VOWELS. 77 Audiences however, do not trouble themselves to distinguish an elegant from a clumsy articulation, provided they are ena- bled readily to catch the principal sound of every syllable. For practical purposes of speaking, the refinement of phonology and orthoepy are lost upon them. We shall presently devote a section to the head of distinctness, considered as different from articulation ; by which we mean the avoidance, either of omit- ting syllables, or of huddling them together. If audiences can distinctly catch the vowel of each syllable, they never complain of the imperfect articulation of a speaker, unless he has a lisp or some habit which is commonly referred to " impediment of speech." Training therefore, in what properly belongs to articulation, is the duty of parents and school teachers ; and when their in- struction or example has left bad habits, the teacher of elocution generally has time and opportunity to do little more, than in- form his pupil of the fact, and advise him to institute some course of self-cultivation. But if the student learns to explain thought, and give natural earnestness of expression, his articulation will necessarily be sufficiently perfect for practical purposes in speaking. Elegant reading and artistic recitation of poetry, indeed, as also vocal music, require a careful analysis of letters in the minutest points, and a patient and persevering discipline of the vocal organs and the ear. But these subjects do not come within the scope of the present treatise. Yet as some directions are required for the management of articulation in speaking, the following are given as the result of experience in teaching. VOWELS. In studying articulation, it is not strictly necessary to inves- tigate the different sounds of the vowels. Any errors in these, will fall under the head of pronunciation. 78 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. Yet we must be careful that no vowel be omitted. A large part of the faults of articulation, consist in omitting short vow- els, and thus contracting words by huddling the consonants to- gether. E. g. p'rtic'lar for particular; Sample for example, &c. The first practical rule, then, in articulation, is NEVER TO OMIT A VOWEL. It may happen, however, that the best custom in pronuncia- tion drops it, in order to prevent what is called in Latin and Greek a hiatus, as in the word extraordinary, which is to be pronounced extrordinary . A certain degree of easy and pleasant deliberation, such as is heard from the citizens of Philadelphia, and in general from the polished inhabitants of the southern states a deliberation just sufficient to admit of room for every vowel even in the most rapid and fluent utterance, is the most attractive beauty of ar- ticulation. It must be carefully borne in mind, that the more syl- lables a word contains, the more time will be required for its complete utterance. The most common faults under this head, proceed from an improper shortening of words, or clipping them, as it is called ; or from what the French, when they describe the English pro- nunciation of their own tongue, term the swallowing of vowels. Still it is very common to observe, that those who have taken considerable pains to acquire a good articulation, enunciate with a pedantic slowness and stiffness, somewhat like a school teacher putting out words to be spelled. Such do not accent with sufficient spirit to make the utterance of the unaccented syllables light and fluent. A strong accent must be studiously cultivated by all who would acquire a good articulation of the English tongue. VOWELS. 79 This causes the voice to glide lightly and gracefully over the unaccented vowels, while at the same time they are uttered with perfect distinctness. It is a curious fact in regard to speech, that if in addressing even a very large assembly, the accented syllables of words are heard, the others will also be sufficiently audible. Tt will not be necessary for the speaker to bestow attention upon the oth- ers, further than not to skip them or huddle them together. It is also an important fact, that by cultivating a vigorous ac- cent, it becomes easy to avoid the most important of all the er- rors which distinguish an elegant from a slovenly pronunciation. And as a truly elegant pronunciation is inseparably connected with a clear and graceful articulation, we shall mention under the present head the following fault. It is that of not sounding vowels distinctly and defi- nitely when they occur in unaccented syllables, but on the contrary, either dropping them or changing them in- to short u. It will be useful for many, to practise upon the left hand col- umn of the following table. believe, and not b'lieve or bulieve opposite, opp'site or opposite domestic, d'mestic or dumestic monument, mon'miint or monumiint commencement, c'mmencemunt or commencemunt innocence, innVnce or innusiince confidence, conf'd'nce or confiidunce government, gov'm'nt or govunmunt liberty, lib'ty or libutty accident, ax'd'nt or axiidunt opinion, 'pinion or iipinion polite, 'plite or pulite propose pr'pose or prupose algebray permanent permaynent Canayday armament , armayment aymuse predicament predicayment aytone efficacy efficaycy ay bate delicacy delicaycy SO GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. On the other hand, many who aim to be distinct, mispro- nounce words in their endeavors to become so. They often change short a and short i, of unaccented syllables, into the (shortened) long sounds of the same letters. Thus, America becomes Americay ligament becomes ligayment algebra Canada amuse atone abate So too civilization becomes civilization colonization colonization naturalization naturalization organization ' organization generalization generalization We might furnish such tables in reference to the other vow- els, but a and i are the most important. Let us again repeat that it will be useless to attempt to correct such faults, without cultivating a spirited accent. When they exist in a high de- gree, the tone of voice is generally drawling. CONSONANTS. The English language is remarkably distinguished by a strong enunciation of consonants at the ends of syllables. A large number of its syllables are also characterized by ending with clusters of consonants which are difficult to enunciate. It is highly useful in reference merely to speaking, to disci- pline the articulating organs in their enunciation. By so doing, we characterize the general sound of our utterance by a manly firmness and energy. Some consonants, however, are never, even in the most careless utterance, enunciated indistinctly, ex- cept by those who have what is called " an impediment of speech." CONSONANTS. 81 Those that are liable to be imperfectly articulated, are T and D, K and G, J, S and Z. The care necessary to be taken with consonants is, however, very much reduced by the fact, that those at the beginning of syllables are not, as a general rule, to be dwelt upon, or uttered with intentional energy. No one fails in distinctness in reference to these. It is only at the end of a syllable, that they are liable to be enunciated too weakly to be heard, or if heard, to give a feeble and effeminate character to the enunciation. Observe, we say feeble and effeminate. Our language, when correctly enunciated, is remarkable for the manly energy which is bestowed upon it by our vigorous accent and strong enuncia- tion of terminal consonants. On this account, it really seems the most difficult of all European dialects to enunciate well. Even the Polish and Russian are probably easier, by reason of the less close sounds of their vowels, and the weaker and more whispering utterance of their consonants. The following practical directions, however, are found on tri- al to be of so great assistance, as to remove most of this diffi- culty in the case of clusters of consonants at the ends of sylla- bles. When several consonants follow a vowel, do not dwell too long on the vowel, but expend the articulating effort principally on the consonants that follow. Pass on rather rapidly to the very last consonant of the terminal cluster, and let that be dwelt upon. For example, in uttering the word storm'dst, no pains should be taken with the st preceding the vowel, neither must the vow- el be much prolonged. But as r, m, d, s and t are all to be ut- tered at one impulse, there still is danger of dwelling too long on some one of them before the voice arrives at the t. There- 8 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY stretch'dst prompt's! hop'dst stopp'dst screech'dst shrink'st harp'dst help'dst stamp'dst thrust'st clutch'dst splitt'st fore if we pass rather rapidly over all but this, the organs will be able to enunciate it firmly, and the syllable will yet have been extremely long. The following table will be both amusing and useful to prac- tise. In doing so, it must be borne in mind that in many com- binations d sounds'like t. scorch'dst splash'dst thump'dst loath'dst To the above rule for dwelling on the last consonant, there is one important exception. The consonants s or sh should be sounded as short as possible, to avoid a disagreeable hissing. There is no danger that they will not be heard, as their sound is so sharp. E. g. hiss push life's scraps six miss flush depths lengths sense cross strifes scarfs shrinks sconce Remember that after all consonants that are not strict mutes, (P) *> ^) or tne whispering letters, f and sharp th t s sounds like z. It will contribute to firmness of general enunciation, to practise the following table, and discipline the organs in sounding s like z. flags drubs builds steals dulls seethes zones spins breeds spreads spends rubs steers speeds scuds spills dwells drills writhes mouths scorns thrones evens stuns drugs ribs guards babes flags spoils baths slugs swells bathes storms heavens spurns sevens strives shelves CONSONANTS. CO starves lives lives moves saves serves things strings thongs mouths clothes throngs brings scares scores flares stirs fires sires wears There is a large number of words, in which the letters t and d are apt to be dropped from a cluster. The following table will afford specimens of words that are liable to be pronounced alike. finds pronounced like fines wilds pronounced like wiles minds mines cents sense faults false acts ax mists miss masts mass colds coals fields feels chants chance drafts draffs In the same way likewise, boldly is often pronounced bolely coldly colely friendly frienly kindly kinely blindly blinely worlds worls yields yiels softly sofly drifts drifts accepts acceps adepts adeps enactment enacment Even when such tables as the two last are before them, many find it difficult to make the requisite discrimination. The fol- lowing direction will therefore be found useful, not only to such, but to all who wish to unite distinctness with grace. Articulate t or d, in connexion with the following, and not with the preceding consonants. Enunciate the words as if 84 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. they were divided as follows, yet let the utterance be rapid and without a break in the graceful smoothness that is necessary, soun-dly roun-dly pos-ts coas-ta direc-tly exac-tly drif-ts gif-ts sof-tly sof-tness attemp-ts exemp-ts swif-tly enac-tment dissen-ts has-tes erec-tness frien-dly las-ts lis-ts To show the correspondence of the above direction with the effort which the articulating organs naturally make, we will mention the well known fact, that the low Londoners, or cock- neys, as they are called, make two syllables of words of one syl- lable that end in sts. Thus, posts they pronounce postis ; Jists t Jistis, &c. ARTICULATION OF POLYSYLLABIC WORDS. Upon the strong accent, which characterizes the English lan- guage, depend as has before been suggested, many of the most important points, both of its articulation and pronunciation. The consonants indeed, of unaccented syllables, are to be enunciated as perfectly as in those which are un- der the accent ; but the vowels have a weak, and often to some extent, an obscure sound. It has been mentioned also, that it is only by means of a de- cidedly strong and spirited accent, that a distinct articulation of our language can be effected with rapidity and fluency. It is a fact to which there are but few exceptions, that in English, the accented syllable of a word is made long. Hence it is one of the most important rules for easy and graceful articulation, to dwell upon the principal accented syllable. After so doing, the voice is enabled to glide fluently over the unaccented ones that follow. When likewise the accented syl- POLYSYLLABIC WORDS. 85 lable is preceded by such as are unaccented, the voice passes distinctly, yet lightly over them, and then breaks out into strong utterance on that which receives the accent. Take such a word as in-ac-CES-si-ble-ness. The voice glides lightly along on the first two syllables, as if preparing itself for an effort on the accent ; it then bursts out upon the syllable ces, and dwells long enough on it to acquire an impetus, that carries it " trip- pingly," (to use Shakespeare's expression,) over the remainder of the word. In this progress of the voice, no conscious regard is bestowed upon the secondary accents. These are quite light, and it is only the primary one upon which any real exer- tion is made. The following table will illustrate this principle. irreconcilably impenetra&iVity undisfmguishable characteristically &/asphemously magistracy invariableness inconszWerableness ob/ectionableness unpremea'itatedly disciplinary peremptorily temporarily secondarily individuality mediatorial irremediably phjlanMropically etymo/ogically unimaginable mathematically instantaneously incommensurably cwstomarily arbitrarily momentarily /roZicsomeness This is perhaps the most suitable place in which to introduce an important principle in pronunciation, which depends entirely upon the management of accent. The principle is, that all syllables which follow the primarily accented one, are to be uttered as lightly as is consistent with rendering them barely audible. 8* insurmowwtablenesg circumstantially inexcwsableness physiognomical unphilosopAically vigilantly infractableness inlerminableness supplicatory trigonomefrically extravagantly perpendicularly rapturously lu ke warm ness 86 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. When in such cases, the last syllables of the word contains a long vowel, or a short one with two or more consonants, many persons suffer it to issue with a semi-accent, or with an inelegant drawl, either of which destroys the trippingness of the utterance. The following table will furnish examples. In pronouncing such words, the syllables that succeed the accented one should be made as short and light as possible. For example, appetite should not become appetyet. telescope microscope substitute vagabond rarioloid equipoise crucify turpentine pharisee scepticism caricature concentrate investigate The same principle explains a peculiarity of our American pronunciation, which is often objected to by the English. Such words as territory, we are apt to pronounce (to use an English criticism) terri-tory : so likewise matrimony becomes matri- mony. Walker directed to give the short u in these words, as, territurry. But all that is required is an accent on the first syl- lable, sufficiently strong to cause the voice to glide trippingly over the others. matrimony territory controversy patrimony repertory presbytery ceremony q/Fertory awditdry testimony adversary tributary appetite contraband persecute countersign prosecute cataract superfine execute sf^trahend intercourse ffz^nify hypoMenuse anecdote s/wplify sarcasm renovate gratify paraphrase reservoir suftbcate tomahawk rampart diphthong arrogate glorify lukewarm pecTigree rAewmatism monotone mysticism methodize judicature /emperature economize particularize naturalize remonstrate conmunicate intimidate POLYSYLLABIC WORDS. 87 While it is commonly noticed that the English style of pro- nunciation differs considerably from the American, few or none have explained in what the difference consists. The former however, will be found on observation, to use less nasality of voice, and to employ a much stronger accent. The Americans incline to drawl. In the English West Indies, the drawl is so ludicrous, and is combined with so many other errors, that the late Mr. Rafinesque, who was a Sicilian by birth, classified the West Indian mode of pronouncing, as a distinct dialect of the English language ! We mentioned lately, (page 81,) that it is only a part of the consonants that are liable to be imperfectly articulated by those who have no lisp or impediment of speech. Perhaps we ought to devote a few words to explaining the point. Take such words as back, bag, bed, hat, buzz, age. It is very common to hear them uttered with a tendency to a drawl not amounting however to a true drawl which proceeds from a feeble enun- ciation of the terminal consonant. From their imperfect strength of articulating organs, children always exhibit this pe- culiarity. We will endeavor to illustrate it by the following mode of spelling, ba-ag, ha-at, &c. Still farther to explain the point, we will mention the fact, that all such words should be pronounced with that shortening of the vowel, and force on the final consonant, that is represented by the ancient mode of spelling such words, viz. bagge, hatte, &c. That is, they should have, when not followed by another word, the vocula, as it is called, which is a whispering sound of short e or u after the consonant. This vowel is represented in French by the mute, e of that language. It will readily be perceived that there is a connexion between this firm and strong enunciation, and the habit of strongly accenting. 88 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. PRONUNCIATION. As long as it is the main object of the instructor to qualify students for practical speaking, he will hardly find time and op- portunity for correcting many errors in pronunciation. During the excitement of earnest delivery, the minds of unpractised speakers can seldom be sufficiently at leisure, to allow of chang- ing fixed habits in regard to this point. It would also seem scarcely advisable to occupy the time of the younger classes in a college, with lessons or lectures on pronunciation. Coming from different districts of the country, they often bring with them local peculiarities ; but these are soon lost, and the average pronunciation in a large institu- tion, corresponds sufficiently with that of men of education throughout England and the United States. Those who may wish to investigate the subject with peculiar care, can do this by themselves with the aid of books, and in leisure moments. For formal lessons or lectures on the subject, the Senior year would seem to be most suitable. If however, formal and full instruction on this point be deferred till that period, it ought to be given in a linguistical, and if possible, in a learned manner. The pronunciation which formerly prevailed in the New England states, and which in the parent country still remains among the uneducated classes, is ill adapted to the purposes of delivery, and on this account more than from the influence of fashion, has now been universally rejected by public speakers in both countries. It is not only more guttural and nasal, but more indefinite and obscure in the sounds of the vowels. It also fails of conforming to that great law in English phonology, which requires us to avoid all hiatus, and all difficult transi- tions in the utterance of letters, by means of smooth and gliding sounds. What is now cultivated as a genteel pronunciation, is not only more fluent and facile, and consequently better suited PRONUNCIATION. 89 to rapid utterance in familiar intercourse, but in public speak- ing, is capable of being rendered more easily audible and intel- ligible, without disagreeable loudness. This pronunciation is as yet better exhibited in the middle and southern states, than in New England. The writer once asked an educated Spanish gentleman, in which part of our country he found it easiest to understand our language when he listened to the conversation of the people. He replied, in the southern. It is remarkable that up to this time, Walker has been the only author who has attempted to investigate systematically, the laws of English pronunciation. No other writer has done more than make detached and fragmentary examinations of the sub- ject. Indeed, scarce any other writer in our tongue has appa- rently had a clear conception that the tendencies to change of pronunciation in any living dialect follow certain definite laws, which laws are in accordance with the genius of the language, and the intellectual and social habits of the people. Yet Walker was as modest as he was industrious, and apparently never im- agined it possible that an absurd effort might be made, to set up his dictionary as an immutable standard by which to fix forever the pronunciation of a living language spoken all over the world. Those who declaim against Walker, often exhibit a surprising ignorance of the principles which he has investigated in the in- troduction to his dictionary, and always manifest a want of ac- quaintance with the fact, that changes in pronunciation are principally caused by the more or less unconscious efforts made by persons of cultivated minds and manners, to be at once distinct and fluent, as well as to conform to the peculiar analogies and laws of their vernacular tongue. As the study of the present subject is however, not very necessary to those for whom this work is written, it does not conform to its plan and objects to treat of it in detail. A discriminating and judicious classifica- tion of the most prevalent errors in pronunciation, may be found in the original and valuable work of Professor Goodrich, on elo- cution, 90 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. It ought to be remarked, that old-fashioned modes of pro- nunciation are not necessarily vulgar. Vulgarity in this re- spect depends on vulgarity of articulation and tone of voice, or on mere affectation of refinement and fashion. The most vulgar pronunciation heard in our country, is that of those who affect what are called Walkerianisms. They who do this, violate Walker's own principles more than those of any other writer. His taste was manly and truly English ; and it is strange that merely fashionable and " Frenchified" affectations, should be charged to the account of the very man who was instant and earnest in opposing them. Walker was a man of education, and was accustomed to the most learned and refined society of his day. His dictionary was suggested by the request of one of the universities of England, that he should deliver a course of lectures on the laws of English orthoepy. Yet the pronunciation of our tongue has become more regular since his day, and the changes that have taken place may be found in the work of Jameson. For common reference, the student of this subject needs noth- ing more than the table prefixed to the abridged octavo edition of Webster's dictionary. In this table, he will find the modes of pronunciation, adopted by different orthoepists, arranged in the order of the times in which they wrote. If he carefully ex- amines it, he will feel inclined to be guided in general by Walk- er and Jameson, and when these differ, generally by the latter. There is a strange mistake prevalent respecting the late honored and venerated Dr. Webster, that he made it one of the objects of his great work, to give a full exhibition of the pronunciation of our language. Such was neither one of his real nor pro- fessed objects. In none of his various and numerous works, has the present writer been able to find any thing from which he could even conjecture what sound Dr. Webster thought ought to be given to the letter M, in such words as nature and feature. In his " Elementary spelling book," indeed, he fur- PRONUNCIATION. 91 nishes a table of a few such words, bat gives no intimation of the manner in which they ought to be pronounced, and merely mentions that the best public speakers in England and this country do pronounce them in a certain way, viz. with the short M preceded by y. It should be observed however, that in this statement the learned author is unquestionably mistaken, as it is the long and not the short u that is required by distinctness, euphony and analogy, and such is undoubtedly the custom of speakers of the highest cultivation. In his " American spelling book," Dr. Webster in too many cases, directed to pronounce different unaccented vowels alike, giving as an example, that rural andjitfuj, were pronounced with the same vowel sound in their last syllables. In a " table of words different in meaning, but alike in pronunciation," he gives the two words chronical and chronicle, as being the same in sound. No one who has hitherto written on this subject seems to have been aware, that the ultimate test of the true sound of un- accented vowels, is only to be found by trying words, with a perfectly clear and open tone of voice, in the deliberate articu- lation required for elevated delivery before large audiences in the artistical recitation of poetry, or in vocal music. In these circumstances or at least in the two latter every unaccented vowel must have a definite sound. In vocal music, especially, no indefinite vowel sounds are ever admissible. If the unac- cented vowels are tried by these tests, Walker will be found to have investigated the subject with remarkable accuracy. Some however object, that in the rapid utterance of conver- sation, such perfection of articulation is unattainable. In the case of many of the thick and husky voices of men, this ob- jection is undoubtedly well founded. But let those who make it, listen to the articulation of unaffected and elegant women, who are distinguished for beauty of conversation, and they will find that the minutest refinements directed by Walker, though unconsciously, are yet habitually exhibited. 92 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. The plan and object of this work, require no other directions to be given for pronunciation than the following. In general, avoid pronouncing in any way that will attract attention, either by its erroneousness or its singu- larity. If your audience are led to take any particular notice of your mode of pronouncing, their attention will be distracted for a time from the main object of the speaker. Dr. Rush observes, that " for every word mispronounced, the audience will miss at least ten words that follow." If you are a man of education, pronounce in such a style as the audience are accustomed to expect from well educated gen- tlemen. Remember that it is not one of the necessary duties of a public speaker, to teach new modes of pronunciation to those whom he addresses. For example, though in some parts of our country the English pronunciation of the word deaf (def ) is now established, and will be expected from a speaker of ed- ucation and refinement, yet it would be more useful to avoid it when delivering an address in a part of the country in which it had never been heard. Remember that your pronunciation can never be refi- ned and graceful, as long as your articulation remains slovenly and obscure. Some of the most important errors in pronunciation, have already been pointed out in the preceding chapter on articula- tion. Before dismissing the subject, reference ought to be made to the valuable labors of the Rev. A. B. Chapin, in regard to the laws of correspondence between the orthoepy and the or- thography of our language. They are exhibited in his " Spell- ing Book." CONTINUOUS DISCOURSE. CHAPTER V. CONTINUOUS DISCOURSE. IN the previous chapters we have considered, first, the gene- ral qualities and habits of the voice ; next, those requisites of expression which are common to all delivery ; and in the last, the management of the voice in articulating and pronouncing single words. The present chapter will be devoted to the practical difficul- ties which every one experiences to a greater or less extent, when he first attempts to exhibit these requisites during the flow of continuous discourse. The facts which we shall proceed to explain, may readily be observed when we investigate the natural action of the organs of speech in conversation, and are still more striking in the ut- terance of accomplished orators. Those however who have never practised public speaking, experience more difficulty in making their delivery natural in these requisites than in any others. If the room to be filled is quite small, the delivery ap- proximates in some respects to conversation, and the difficulties alluded to are less felt. But when it is large, it is only in con- sequence of practice in large rooms or in the open air, that a speaker readily learns to use his voice in a manner so natu- ral and easy, as to be entirely free from vociferation or rant on the one hand, or a tedious monotony on the other. It must be confessed that teachers of elocution have hitherto failed, in most cases, of accomplishing for their pupils what has been ex- pected from them. There are probably but two principal rea- sons for this failure one, the habit of dwelling chiefly on mi- nute and comparatively uninfluential points of enunciation ; and the other and more essential one, that of generally giving 9 94 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. their instruction in small rooms, and neglecting to investigate the principles upon which depends the adaptation of delivery to large ones. Though a chapter will hereafter be devoted to the subject last mentioned, yet the above remarks have been thought ne- cessary in this place, because the importance of the topics which we are now to discuss is more readily perceived when reference is made to large assemblies. It may be well still farther to anticipate, by mentioning that those who can readily accommo- date their reading or speaking to very large audiences, find no difficulty whatever in contracting and reducing it sufficiently for small ones. On the other hand, those whose whole experi- ence has been in speaking to a small number, have a new art to learn when they first attempt to address several hundreds or thousands. The truth of this last assertion is sometimes deci- dedly manifest, when an opportunity is afforded of comparing lawyers with clergymen, in addresses before popular assemblies. ACCENT OF CONSTRUCTION, OR GROUPING OF WORDS. This is one of the most important principles in the phonolo- gy of any language, and it is surprising that it has not hitherto received more attention. It seems to have been first described by Walker, and no longer ago than the time of Dr. Johnson. The Greek and Roman grammarians recognized it in the case of some words to which they gave the name of enclitics, but failed to discover the extent of the principle upon which de- pended the character of the few words which they thus named. Walker gave the principle no name, and indeed appears not fully to have comprehended it, since he notices it only in rela- tion to emphasis. The first who gave it a name was Guest, in his great work on English Rhythms, published a few years since. From him we have adopted that of accent of construc- tion, which appears at the head of this section. The other ap- ACCENT OF CONSTRUCTION. 95 pellation, that of the grouping of words, we have generally em- ployed in familiar teaching, because it so readily explains itself, and corresponds so well with the action of the mind when we read or speak from a written or printed page. The Latin word signifying to read is legere, which properly means to gather. As the eye runs along the uniform lines of a printed page, the mind gathers the words not separately, however, but into short groups. In a corresponding manner, the vocal organs do not attempt to utter each word by itself, but on the contrary, enunciate a group of several words with a sin- gle impulse of the voice. The mind connects the words in groups, so that each group shall express an idea. The groups are then individualized in the vocal effort, by means of a strong accent on the principal syllable of each. For example, in the sentence, "In the beginning was the word," there are two groups, viz. in the beginning and was the word. Each of these has but one primary accent, thus : in the beginning was the word. Each is uttered with precisely the same vocal ac- tion as if it were a polysyllabic word. In the same way as in the word articulate the exclusive accent on the i gives a unity to the group of syllables, and thus individualizes the word, so it is with the exclusive stress on the accented vowel of the above groups of words. We repeat again, that this great law of language is of funda- mental importance in reference to learning to read or speak. In fact, but two things are required to make any one who has a cultivated mind, a speaker ; and it is curious likewise that these two are closely and almost inseparably connected in our natural impulses. These are, first, the habitual command of the speaking voice ; and secondly, the habit of applying it to words taken in groups. In the second part of this work, we shall again resume this subject, and show how the groups are often lengthened by the still stronger accentual and individualizing power of emphasis. 96 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. At present we must confine ourselves to the most elementary form of the principle. The formation of the groups depends on the following facts in regard to language. First, certain words denote complete ideas by them- selves. These are verbs and nouns. Adjectives also are a class of nouns, and receive in general the same decided stress. Secondly, all other parts of speech, viz. articles, pro- nouns, auxiliary verbs, adverbs, prepositions and con- junctions, are used only in subordination to those of the first class, and are connected with them in utterance. Those of the first class receive a strong accent on one syllable, and it is upon this syllable only that a decided effort of the mind and voice is made. Those of the second class are unaccented^ (as they generally have but one syllable,) and are connected in utterance with the others. No strong and voluntary effort is made on them. Being grouped with the others, they are uttered with precisely the same weak and unconscious exertion as is made on the unac- cented syllables of polysyllabic words. If indeed an adverb, or other word of this class, is itself a polysyllabic word, one of its syllables receives an accent ; but even in this case, the ac- cent is generally less strong, and the word likewise requires to be closely connected with one of the first class. The only ex- ceptions are, in cases of emphasis or of separation by interven- ing words. The forcible efforts made in speaking, are thus confyied prin- cipally to nouns, adjectives and verbs. With all other words, (if they are not emphatic,) no effort is necessary, except to ar- ticulate them distinctly. ACCENT OF CONSTRUCTION. 97 It deserves also to be again mentioned, that even on the most important words, all voluntary effort is restricted to the ACCENT- ED SYLLABLE of each. (Vide the preceding chapter.) We thus find a wonderful provision of nature for diminishing the labor necessary for speech. A strong action of the vocal muscles alternates regularly with a weaker one ; and the alter- nation is between fatiguing excitement and effort, and compar- ative rest. Take for example the following sentence. " True eloquence must exist in the man, in the subject, and in the occasion." When divided according to the natural grouping of words in deliberate speaking, and also according to what in the second part we shall term the phrases in delivery, it will stand thus : True efoquence must exz's* in the man, in the subject, and in the occasion. We thus perceive that although there are twenty syllables in the sentence, but six of them are accented, while it is upon these alone that strong vocal efforts are made. One more example will be sufficient for our present purpose, as most of our extracts for practice will hereafter be divided. We remarked above, that adverbs and other dependent words are naturally connected with more important words, and that their accent, when they have one, is weaker. Yet when deliv- ery is slow and deliberately emphatic, the principle, though it still holds true, is less observable. In the following example, we shall not attempt to exhibit this slight distinction. "The injustice of England has driven us to arms; and blinded to her own interest for our good, she has obstinately persisted, till independence is now within our grasp." 9* 93 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. Arranged according to the grouping and phrasing of earnest speaking, this will stand as follows : The in/Mstice of E?ig\znd has driven us to ARMS ; and, blinded to her own interest she has obstinately persisted, till inde/^wdence is now within our GRASP. for our good, It must not be inferred from our remarks, that this part of de- livery is necessarily to be learned by inspecting a passage which we are preparing to speak, and dividing the words into two classes according to their grammatical nature. In practice, the subject is attended with no difficulty. The act of group- ing being a natural one, is readily made habitual by efforts to speak deliberately and with natural ease. We shall proceed to explain its connection with audibility and the easy play of the breath in speaking. It will also be seen how the principle re- moves all the difficulty that has formerly been felt in deter- mining where to make pauses, when, as so often happens, they are required for the sake of taking breath, and in situations where there is no mark of punctuation. In the preceding chapter, the remarkable fact has been stated, that provided the articulation is reasonably per- fect, and the key of the voice is sustained, the unac- cented syllables of polysyllabic words will be heard by the largest audiences, provided the speaker makes suffi- cient effort to render the accented ones audible. The same is true of groups of words. Even when these are rendered very long by strong emphasis, the same pro- vision is made by nature. From ignorance of this fact, speakers sometimes fatigue themselves unnecessarily. In the case of those who contract ACCENT OF CONSTRUCTION. 99 a disease of the throat or lungs from the mere act of speaking, the immediate cause is liable to be some unnecessary exertion, or the habit of not taking breath, with that frequency which the grouping of the words permits. In strong delivery before a large audience, a natural and easy speaker will sometimes take breath before every group. This taking breath is more or less unconscious on his part, and not readily perceptible to spectators ; but if from bad habits he omits this natural act, he will either be feeble and inexpressive, or will speak with great and painful labor. In rapid utterance, breath is not taken so often, but only at the end of phrases of a sentence, instead of between the groups of words. Yet even in this case, the issuing flow of the breath is momentarily CHECKED after each group, and a new impulse given to it upon the succeeding one. Unless this be done, we cannot even individualize words by accent, or exhibit any nat- ural speech. Persons who are constitutionally deficient in phys- ical strength or animation, or who are in feeble health, must pay careful attention to free respiration in speaking. By cul- tivating a habit of taking breath deeply and frequently, and at the same time checking the issue of it after every group, the chest will be kept always full, and the feeblest voice will fill the largest room. It is between the groups of words, that rhetorical and emphatic PAUSES occur ; and it will be found on trial, that pauses of the greatest length may be made after any group of words, (except between an adjective and substantive,) without injury to the sense of the sentence. It is important to notice, that pauses between the groups are not ordinarily for the sake of rest after the effort which has just been made, but in the way of pre- paration for the distinct and expressive utterance of the next group. 100 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. It is solely by regulating the succession of the groups of words, that a speaker adapts his voice to the extent of his au- dience or the size of a room, in SLOWNESS. In the same way likewise, is a voice adapted to the ECHO of a room. Finally, a harmonious or a varied RHYTHM depends on the management of the groups. When we come, in the second part of our work, to treat of Emphasis, and of Rhetorical Groups and Phrases, we shall find that the groups of words actually uttered with one impulse of the voice, are frequently very long. Those of great length, however, receive an impulse of the voice on an emphatic word, which is proportioned to the length of the group, and which makes them as fluent and facile in enunciation as shorter ones. Before leaving this subject, a very important caution must be given, not to suffer the above or any subsequent directions to be so put in practice, as to interfere with the smooth and graceful flow of words in discourse. Those who practise articulation and other requisites of dis- tinct enunciation, are liable to acquire a broken and irregular flow of utterance. On the contrary, great care must always be exercised to give to the slowest speaking, and that which most abounds in rhetorical pauses, a tone of continuity , that carries the minds of the hearers constantly onwards. (Vide the con- clusion of the subsequent section, on Continued Emphasis.) DISTINCT SEPARATION OF SYLLABLES. SUSTAINED EXPRESSION. 101 In very slow speaking, this complete separation is necessary, to keep the rate of delivery equable and easy. In most cases, a speaker will be sufficiently distinct to be in- telligible, if he keep the groups well separated from each oth- er ; but in slow delivery, grace or beauty, and often pointed ex- pression, require that he separate also the words of the groups, and even to some extent the syllables of words from each other. EXAMPLE. / HEAVEN AND EARTH WILL WIT-NESS, \ / IF ROME MUST FALL, / THAT WE ARE IN-NO-CENT.\ Some of the faults of articulation which have been already mentioned, should in strict propriety be placed under this head. They are those in which vowels are omitted, and words short- ened by dropping them; e.g. hist'ry for history, cons'quence for consequence. SUSTAINED EXPRESSION. When first beginning to practise speaking, some experi- ence great difficulty in keeping the requisite expression uniform and consistent as long as is necessary. The voice is apt to flag after the utterance of a few sentences, or even after a few words. The speaker begins with natural animation and a suit- able expression, as also with a key and force adapted to the room, but soon loses this propriety of manner. When the : voice flags, so likewise does the gesture, in respect to earnest- ! ness and significancy. 102 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. Hence, practice in speaking should be at first on very short passages. It is best indeed to begin with the appropriate utterance of single words, and to proceed successively to groups, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and entire discourses. It often happens, that one who has had no practice whatever, can speak a single word or group with propriety, but cannot follow it with another, without a falling off in the appropriate tone with which he began. It should be a rule, not to persevere in practising at any one time, longer than while the mind continues fresh and clear, and the perceptions of the ear remain u neon fused. Longer continuance will be useful merely in strengthening the voice. When this is the principal object, two or three hours at a time may be spent with advantage. The first practice for learning to sustain the voice, should be with reference to keeping it uniformly adapt- ed to the size of a large room, or to the extent of ground occupied by an audience imagined to be present in the open air. This will be judged of by the ear, and will fatigue the mind but little. When after a few trials, considerable difficulty remains in sustaining the voice, the fault will probably in every case, be found to result from habits of not taking breath with sufficient fullness and frequency between the groups. When the voice is adequately sustained for a large room, or when in a small one a consistent elevation of delivery is main- tained, the chest is kept always full and heaved up. It never entirely relaxes, except at long pauses which occur in passing from one sentence or paragraph to another. I EMPHATIC FORCE. 103 CHAPTER VI. EMPHATIC FORCE. IN the preceding chapters we have designedly omitted such general habits in delivery, as render reading or speaking pow- erful and intensely interesting. The present will be devoted to those which are necessary for force and expression. In the second part of the work, we shall treat briefly of the principles which render particular words emphatic ; while in the third we shall classify and describe the general styles into which all ex- pression may be divided. We are now to consider those mental and physical efforts which are common alike to all the modes of emphasis and en- forcement, and to all the varieties of expression. Before practising any of the examples furnished in this chap- ter, it will be well first to read over the remarks in its last sec- tion, on the Tone of Communicating Thought. EMPHATIC FORCE is given to those parts of discourse which excite the mind of the speaker to peculiar earnest- ness, and cause him to make a special effort to awaken the same feelings in those whom he addresses. It may be thought that no one can be liable to experience difficulty in making the mental and physical exertion required for this purpose. Yet such is not the fact. In no part of delivery do unpractised speakers so much fail, as in this; and in no part do teachers of elocution find it so difficult to develope the capa- bilities of those whom they instruct. Indeed, it is found on trial that not only are students of elocution unable to give natural and expressive emphasis, so long as they have no command over the speaking voice, but even after this point has been mas- tered, the delivery will still remain unnatural in regard to em- phasis, unless especial attention be directed to the subject. 104 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. As continuous speech consists of a succession of repeated efforts on groups of words, it is at first most natural and easy to proceed with uniform regularity, and utter each group with the same force and with no variation in slowness. The strength of voice on all the accents is thus the same, while the pauses do not differ from one another in length, or in the modulation of the voice which precedes them. The proclamations of criers, and the enthusiastic harangues of men entirely destitute of educa- tion, afford examples of this sort of delivery. But even in the elocution of speakers of a far higher order, we often witness more or less approximation to this rude mode, whenever their energies are tasked to fill very large rooms. In proportion to the difficulty of making themselves heard, their emphatic words differ less from the others in tone, and the general sound of the voice is more monotonous. In reading, or in speaking written composition without hav- ing first committed it to memory, the difficulty of giving a per- petually varying force, is rendered still greater by the confine- ment of the eye to the unbroken uniformity of the written or printed lines. These tend to carry the mind and voice me- chanically along, and to cause all the words to be uttered with the same force. They likewise make it more difficult for the mind to stop in its onward progress, and exhibit the pauses that are so frequent and important in a natural delivery. The new mode adopted in this treatise, for exhibiting the necessary pauses, will be found of great service, inasmuch as it assists the mind as well as the eye. It follows from these facts, that in learning to empha- size with natural force, attention must first be given to pausing. Before the utterance of an emphatic expression, the mind must pause, in order to collect and concentrate its energies, preparatory to the more earnest effort about to be made. EMPHATIC FORCE. 105 Sometimes the pause will occur immediately before the precise syllable upon which the emphatic force is to be given. This will happen when an emphatic single word is the first of a group, and is one which begins with an accented syllable. For it must be remembered, that when the emphasis is on a single word, it is its accented syllable only that receives the peculiar tone and force that mark the emphasis. But generally, the pause for collecting the requisite mental energy is made before some group, in the middle of which occurs the accented and emphatic syllable. In the same manner as a pause before emphasizing is required for the mind, so is it for the breath, and for col- lecting vocal energy in the organs of utterance. In the first stages of learning to speak, it continually happens that the speaker pauses and fully intends to give a strong em- phasis, but finds to his great surprise, that his efforts fail. His voice does not in fact vary at all, or instead of a stronger ex- pression, it even gives a weaker one. The writer recollects an instance of a man of a thoughtful and reflecting turn of mind, who devoted considerable time to preparing himself for deliver- ing a course of written lectures. He evidently took pains in regard to delivery, yet all his emphases were marked by a hesi- tating feebleness of utterance. Such difficulties result from a want of the habit of talcing breath before emphasizing. The mental and vocal effort, then, by which emphasis is effected, is the following. Before attempting to utter the group of words which contains the emphatic word, a pause is made, breath is quickly taken, the mind concentrated, and the vocal or- gans made ready for a new effort. Emphatic words are generally accompanied also by some va- riety of the stroke in gesture. If the arm has been hanging at the side, it is during the pause that it is raised. 10 106 GENERAL HABTTS IN DELIVERY. Yet even when the speaker fails in none of the requisites just described, it sometimes happens that he does not succeed in giving a natural and expressive tone of voice, and a truly sig- nificant gesture. His voice and gesture may be forcible, yet mechanical and unmeaning. The remedy for this is in the management of the mind. Speakers are at first liable to utter words without thinking of their meaning. Or if they fix their attention on the meaning, they may still forget that all speaking supposes an audience. Emphasis especially, requires to be directed by its tone and gesture, towards the hearers, and if none are present to be addressed, they must be imagined. To succeed perfectly, then, in emphasizing The effort of the mind must be to enforce thoughts and not mere words. The emphatic force must also be earnestly directed towards an audience. It will be useful to mention, that this vigorous effort to set forth and enforce ideas rather than words, is at first inconsist- ent with that more leisurely state of mind required for articula- tion, pronunciation, and in general, the more mechanical parts of delivery. When first studying emphasis and expression, it is best to neglect every other quality of speaking. After a time, skill and self-command will be acquired, by which such qualities as at first require different and opposite states of mind, can be exhibited in natural conjunction. Since emphasis results from earnestness, it follows that not only are emphatic syllables uttered with more ener- gy, but the voice dwells upon them longer than on those of less importance. Emphatic words take up more time in utterance. In fact, as will be explained in the section on rhythm, an emphatic word occupies just twice as much time in its delivery, (including the pauses,) as an unemphatic one of the same num- ber of syllables. EMPHATIC FORCE. 107 The pause which precedes an effort to emphasize, is not the only one which is made. Another occurs after the utterance of the group. Daring its continuance, the mind of the speaker continues in the same excited state which produced the earnest and significant tone. The countenance keeps the same expression. The eye and the hand continue their appeal to the audience. Thus the hearers also, are made to feel and reflect upon the full importance of what has just been urged. This subsequent pause is necessary likewise for the breath and voice. As the mind remains stationary for a moment, and then prepares for the next passage, so the vocal organs remain in statu quo. The attitude and gesture remaining fixed, the breath likewise is not suffered wholly to escape. Additional breath is then taken, and the vocal organs prepare themselves for the effort required by the next group. It should be carefully noticed, that during the pause that fol- lows an emphasis, the mind does not really relax or rest, but continues excited and vivid. So likewise the body continues in a state of tension and energy. The chest is not suffered to flatten, and no time is allowed for a slow and calm mode of breathing. The very act of breathing is indeed suspended for a time. In this way no flagging of the voice, or relaxation of the exciting interest of the delivery takes place, even in rhetorical pauses of extreme length. Though forcible delivery ought to be easy, yet it admits of no actual rest, either of mind or body, except at the end of a paragraph. CONTINUED EMPHASIS. Emphatic force is still to be considered in reference to the number of words which receive it during a single impulse of the voice. 108 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. In regard to this point, writers distinguish emphasis into two kinds, according as it is given on a single word, or is equally distributed over several. The latter they call continued empha- sis, or an emphatic phrase. This we shall first consider, as it is of more common occurrence than the other, and produces more important effects. It has also been too much neglected by most writers. The mental and physical efforts by which this is executed, are the same as have just been described in reference to em- phasis in general. It was stated above, that emphatic earnest- ness renders the utterance of a word slow. Hence when this earnestness is continued on several words in succession, the entire emphatic passage is given with strikingly prolonged as well as forcible tones. The continuity of the forcible tone must be kept uniform, and if more words are to receive it than can be uttered at a single breath, the lungs must be filled quickly, as is done by a flute player, so that the connexion of the words shall not be inter- rupted. Although the consideration of the theory of emphasis is re- served for the second part of this treatise, yet it will be well to mention under the present head, the following general facts. Most of the sentences in a discourse are introduced on account of the importance of one of its sections only. The remaining sections serve principally the purpose, of con- necting the important one with the other sections of the dis- course. This most important section must always receive, in some degree at least, that slower and more earnest effort of the voice, which is called continued emphasis. It is upon this part of the sentence, that the countenance and attitude are most earnest. So likewise, if gestures are made at EMPHATIC FORCE. 109 all, they will be made as accompaniments to the continued em- phasis of the voice. When the style of a passage is in sentences of the very simplest construction, the emphatic portions will generally be the whole or a part of each predicate. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. (Subj.') A great part of the mission of every man on earth, (Pred.) is to contend with EVIL in some of its FORMS. (Subj.) The great end of society (Pred.) is to givefree scope to the exertions of ALL,. (Subj.) Persecution for opinion (Pred.) is the BASEST instrument of DESPOTISM. (Subj.) The capacity for acquiring truth (Pred.) is one of the NOBLEST attributes of our NATURE. (Subj.) The eulogium pronounced on the character of the state of South Carolina, for her revolutionary and other merits, (Pred.) meets my hearty CONCURRENCE. (Subj.) The citizens of America [ERTIES. (Pred.) celebrate THAT DAY which gave birth to their LIB- (Subj.) The recollection of this event replete with consequences so beneficial to mankind, (Pred.) swells every HEART with joy and Jills every tongue with praise. (Subj.) When public bodies (Pred.) are to be addressed on momentous occasions, Yet in a well constructed style, it perhaps happens quite as often that the subject is the emphatic portion of the sentence. E. g. 10* 110 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. When public bodies (Fred.) are to be addressed on momentous occasions, (Subj.) when great interests (Fred.) are at stake, (Subj.) and strong passions (Fred.) excited, &C. &C. It often happens also, that the subject and predicate ar^both emphatic. This will be seen in continuing the last example still farther. (Subj.) nothing (Fred.) is valuable in speech, (Contin. Fred.} farther (Sub -jprAt) *" than it is connected (Remain. Fred.) with high intellectual and moral endowments. In most of the following example the emphasis falls on the subjects. \ (Subj.) Clearness , force, and earnestness, (Fred.) are the qualities that produce conviction. (Subj.) Labor and learning (Fred.) may toil for it, (Pred.subj. ispron. they) but they will toil in vain. (Subj.) Words and phrases (Fred.) may be marshalled in every way, (Subj. ispron. they) but they cannot compass it. (Subj.) Affected passion, (Subj.) intense expression, (Subj.) the pomp of declamation, (Subj. and Fred.) all may aspire after it (Subj. they) they cannot reach it. (Subj.) Then patriotism (Fred.) is eloquent; EMPHATIC FORCE. Ill (Subj.) then self-devotion (Pred.) is eloquent. \ (Subj.) The dear conception, outrunning the deductions of logic, \ (Subj.) the high purpose, \ > (Subj.) thejirm resolve, \ (Subj.) the dauntless spirit, \ speaking on the tongue, \ beaming from the eye, \ informing every feature, \ and urging the whole man onward, \ t right onward to his object (Subj.) this, THIS (Pred.) is eloquence. Further examples of emphatic subject. (Subj.) Has the stability of the government, or that of the country, (Pred.) been weakened ? \ (Subj.) The ve ry existence of the noftofi i (Pred.) is endangered. \ (Subj.) A great and solemn crisis (Pred.) is evidently approaching. In the mean time these paroxysms of his (Pred.) decline ;\ [moral nature, 112 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. \ (Subj.) and a. fearful apathy, the harbinger of spiritual death, (Pred.) comes on. \ (Subj. and Pred.) His resolution fails ; and his mental energy, and his vigorous en- \ [terprise ; and nervous irritation and depression (Pred.) ensue. (Subj.) All that was once lovely and of good report (Pred.) retires. Sometimes both subject and predicate are equally em- phatic, and the whole sentence is spoken with continued emphasis. A long pause however, must generally inter- vene between the two members. (Subj.) Our chains (Pred.) are forged. (Subj.) Their clanking (Pred.) may be heard on the [plains of Boston. (Subj.) The war (Pred.) is inevitable ; (Subj. and Pred.) and LET IT COME ! / [matter. (Pred.) It is in vain Sir, (Subj.) to extenuate the (Subj.) The war (Pred.) is actually begun ! (Subj.) The next gale that sweeps from the north (Pred.) may bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms. Let not the student suppose that he is expected to carry along in his mind, a grammatical analysis of sentences during the glowing excitement of eloquent reading or speaking. Far from it. He is scarcely to think of words, much less of grammar. For it is with ideas, images and feelings, that he is to be in- EMPHATIC FORCE. 113 tensely occupied. Still a few such analyses as the above will be found of great advantage. They divest the subject of much of the strangeness which it presents in many books of elocution, and form those appropriate habits by which a reader emphasizes with instantaneous correctness, the moment his eye glances on a passage. Unless a person can emphasize at sight, and with- out the necessity of previously studying a passage, he has little practical or even useful knowledge either of reading or speaking. Indeed, emphasis that is the result of ingenious study, is gen- erally wrong. It corresponds neither with the grammar, the logic, nor the general scope of the composition. The " new readings" by which actors so often aim at notoriety, are apt to be as incorrect as they are far-fetched. Every reader however, instinctively makes some sort of analy- sis of passages, as he proceeds, and in the following examples we shall present one of that extremely simple kind, which cor- responds with the most common action of a reader's mind. In the second part of the work, the subject will be resumed. Without then going into a grammatical, or a logical analysis, the mind of a reader generally notices that the most important, and consequently the emphatic portion of a sentence, is either at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end. The same habit is followed likewise, in regard to sections or phrases of a sentence. We should have preferred to present the following example in the ordinary form of continuous discourse, but the page would have become confused. As we give it, each line is not always a strict rhetorical phrase. EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. Emphasis at be- ( Gentlemen, we are at the point of a century ginning. j f rom the birth O f Washington ; Emphasis at bo- ( and what a century ginning. H has been , 114 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. CDuring its course, Emphasis at end.<| the human mind has seemed to proceed [with a sort of geometric velocity, f accomplishing more I for human intelligence and human freedom, Emphasis at end J I than had been done Ltn Jives or tens of centuries preceding. fWashington Emphasis at endJ stands at the commencement [of a new era, Unemphatic. $ as well as at the head of a new world. It is the spirit Emphasis at be- ginning. \ of human freedom, \ the new elevation of individual man in his moral, social and political character, leading the whole long train of other improvements, which has most remarkably distinguished the era of Washington. !Our existing institutions, raised on these foundations, have conferred on us almost unmixed happiness. There are two principles, gentlemen, \ Emphatic clause in the middle. Emphatic clause ^ in the middle. strictly and purely American, which are now likely to overrun the civilized world. r Indeed, they seem \ the necessary result of the progress of civilization and knowledge. We wish to direct the attention of the student to the fact, that in the latter part of the last example, some of the emphatic EMPHATIC FORCE. 115 clauses occurring in the middle of a sentence are somewhat parenthetical in their structure. It is singular that for upwards of a hundred years it should have been the standing rule in books, that parentheses or parenthetical clauses universally re- quire to be read in "a quicker and weaker tone of voice," while it is commonly directed likewise to read them on a lower pitch. So far are these rules from being true universally, that such clauses are as often emphatic as any others, and as often require to be read on a higher as on a lower key. Extempora- neous style and that of conversation, frequently abound in pa- rentheses, which are delivered with more instead of less ear- nestness, from the fact that the speaker is afraid of forgetting the ideas that they present, or puts them in by way of caution to prevent misapprehension. In written styles likewise, parti- cipial clauses, coming in parenthetically, contribute to conden- sation, and are often strongly emphatic. At the end of the section on Grouping or the Accent of Construction, we cautioned against injuring the tone of continuity which is required in a discourse. The same caution is needed in reference to the above exam- ples. If it be asked, upon what does the tone of con- tinuity depend ? we answer, upon that sustained ear- nestness of tone, at the end of groups, which proceeds from the suspension of the respiration, and the fixed at- titude, look, and appeal of the hand, which we have de- scribed above as accompanying rhetorical pauses. EMPHATIC FORCE ON SINGLE WORDS. A strong and exclusive emphasis on a single word, is found quite difficult in early practice. The faults which result from not being accustomed to the strong mental and physical effort required for such emphasis, 116 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. are, first, want of force; and secondly, want of complete and unreserved earnestness of expression. 1. In order to ensure sufficient force, breath must be taken the mind must be made ready and then the emphatic word must be sent forth, with a more fearless energy than is natural to timid and unpractised speakers. The force and energy of the voice on an emphatic word, must be sufficient to produce a strong and frequently a striking and even startling effect on the auditors. 2. Unpractised speakers often emphasize with suffi- cient loudness and force, and yet do not seem to be re- ally in earnest. To use a familiar expression, they do not appear to be whole- souled in their earnestness. This fault proceeds from three causes. First, the mind, as it were, partly holds back, and does not completely surrender itself up to the required, expression. There should be for the time a total abandonment, and espe- cially a fearless indifference as to personal peculiarities of man- ner. These are seldom of serious importance, so long as they do not hinder the expression of earnestness. Apprehensiveness and self-criticism will surely prevent perfect heartiness and sin- cerity of emphatic expression. Secondly, the more earnest the emphasis, the more heartily must the breath be sent out. In the most powerfully emphatic utterance, this is done so heartily, that the lungs seem at first to be completely emptied. Such is not however the fact, although the breath does indeed issue violently during the utterance of the accented syllable of the emphatic word. EMPHATIC FORCE. 117 Thirdly, when the emphasis fails of sufficient earnest- ness, the accompanying stroke of gesture is not general- ly made with a sufficient degree of muscular energy. The energy of the arm must be, as it were, spasmodic; while immediately after the stroke, the muscles of the arm must be kept tense, and not suffered to relax. We have dwelt at some length on the general effort required for emphasis, on account of the importance of the subject. In nothing are orators of great power distinguished from inferior and yet equally natural speakers, more than in the boldness, energy and heartiness of their emphasis. Indeed it is solely by means of emphasis, that the very highest effects of oratory are produced. EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. Extract from the supposed speech of John Adams, on the vote for independence. / SINK \ or SWIM, / LIVE \ or DIE, / SURVIVE \/ or PERISH, I \ give my hand and my HEART to this vote. \ If we FAIL, 11 118 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. it can be no WORSE for us. But we shall NOT fail. \ The CAUSE / will raise up ARMIES ; the cause will create NAVIES. \ The people, \ the PEOPLE, / if we are true to them, / will carry us, \ and will carry THEMSELVES, \ GLORIOUSLY through this struggle. \ \ Send this declaration to the public HALLS ; \ proclaim it THERE ; / let THEM hear it, \ who heard the first roar of the enemy's CANNON ; / let THEM see it, / / who saw their brothers and their sons fall on the Jield of BUNKER HILL, / \ and in the streets of LEXINGTON and CONCORD, \ and the very WALLS will cry out in its support. CONTRASTS OP FORCE. 119 CONTRASTS OF FORCE. In nothing is the progress of those who are learning to speak more slow, than in acquiring the power of perpetually varying the force of their delivery. The difficulty is increased by the unavoidable necessity of confining their practice principally to extracts, instead of being accustomed to speak discourses which occupy towards half an hour, at least, in their delivery. The necessary amount of force and slowness required for large audiences, is another serious obstacle to giving varied de- grees of force on different passages. There is no need, how- ever, of discouragement in reference to this difficulty. Those who have been thoroughly practised in giving an unreserved and yet natural and agreeable energy on the most exciting pas- sages of a long discourse, will in the end find no difficulty in speaking, when necessary, with moderation and calmness. The chief reason why unpractised speakers are apt to fail of occasionally moderating their energy, is that of not having at- tained complete self-possession. Yet the only effectual mode of acquiring this indispensable habit of mind, is by being ac- customed to speak with that force and power which results from an intentional effort to control an audience. It must be remembered that although there can be no eloquence without intense excitement, yet that mere excitement is not of itself sufficient to produce a good delivery. Excitement without self- control, is indeed little different from insanity. If the hearers perceive that a speaker is borne on by the ardor of his feelings to such an extent that he has no power of checking himself, they simply commiserate him. Nothing is easier than to be- come excited in speaking ; but to encourage our own strong impulses, and then intentionally and with judgment make use of them for the sake of accomplishing a useful end this is the very definition of oratory. For such reasons, a practical delivery can never be learned by the process of speaking in those circumstances only which are ab- 120 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. solutely favorable to the speaker such as when he speaks what is in the highest degree interesting to himself, and has every assistance that can be afforded by the audience, the time, the place and the occasion. Practical speaking consequently, as was stated in the introduction, can only be learned by means of such task-work as compels the speaker to rely mainly on his own energies. It is obvious that no rules can be given as to when we must moderate our delivery, and likewise that none are needed. It will however be useful to furnish a single extract for prac- tice. EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. fBut youth Earnest. \ Significant yet moder- ate. Tone of in- difference. Moderation, approach- ing to care- lessness. \ I is not my only crime. I 1 have been accused of acting a theatrical part ! A theatrical part may either imply some peculiarities of gesture, \ or a dissimulation of my real sentiments, and the adoption of the opinions and language \ of another man. In the Jirst sense, the charge is too trifling to be confuted; and deserves only to be mentioned \ that it may be despised. I am at liberty like every other man \ .to use my own language: CONTRASTS OF FORCE. 121 Sarcasm. Concession. an( j t nou g n i may, perhaps, have some ambition, yet to please THIS gentleman, I shall not lay myself under any restraint, or very solicitously / \ copy his diction or his mien ; however matured by age \ or modelled by experience. If any man shall, by charging me with theatrical behavior, imply \/ that I utter any sentiments but my own, Bold. Threatening. I shall treat him \ and a villain : \ as a calumniator \ nor shall any protection shelter him from the treatment \ which he deserves. / I shall, on such an occasion, \ without scruple, \/ trample upon all those forms / [selves, with which wealth and dignity intrench them- \y nor shall any thing but age \ {.restrain my resentment : 11* Lower key & less loud, but sarcas- * tic. 122 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. r\/ age, which always brings with it \ one privilege \/ \/ t hat of being insolent and supercilious \ without punishment. DEEP EARNESTNESS OF TONE. Familiar earnestness, such as we hear in conversation, tends to make the voice run on a high key, and with more or less of loudness or of shrillness. Coarse earnestness causes it to be noisy, and deficient in suavity of tone. On the other hand, the earnestness of intense thought and deep emotion, excites a peculiar effort of the breast, which causes such emphatic words as are naturally uttered in lower notes, to be strengthened in their enunciation. It may be given as a general rule, that deep emotion sinks the key of emphatic words, while familiar excitement raises it. But when earnest- ness is expressed on a relatively lower pitch, a vigorous effort must be made to strengthen the utterance, or it will sound either faint or dull. There is no danger of undignified loudness when we exert the utmost energies of the voice on low notes. It is only by strength on high notes that a noisy loudness is ever produced. This style of earnestness causes the voice to become deep, grave, and broad. The expression which it con- veys is hearty, and seems (as persons say) whole-souled. Although this tone is most strikingly exhibited on the lower notes, it will yet be manifest throughout the entire range of the voice. The higher notes will be less shrill and familiar. DEEP EARNESTNESS. 123 Those who are not accustomed to making accurate distinc- tions in reference to such points, are apt to think the voice considerably lowered in pitch. Though it does indeed, often range somewhat lower, yet it appears to many to be more so than it really is. It is of great importance to cultivate this quality of delivery, and the tone may readily be acquired by attending to the phys- ical effort by which it is produced. To gain it, we must practice expelling the breath with the most exhausting heartiness, while we make at the same time a strong and even convulsive effort at the very bottom of the breast, and indeed, apparently at the pit of the stomach. It is this natural effort which gives rise to various forms of language, which are used to express earnestness, such as that of Burke, in a previous extract, " from the bottom of my heart, I thank you." The very expression " deep emotion," has the same origin, and we might mention numerous others. Those who endeavor to become eloquent by mere imitation of some celebrated model an actor for instance often attempt to gain this quality by altering their voice in an unnatural man- ner. Such a process never produces any thing but mouthing. To succeed in imitating another in this excellence, it is neces- sary to watch the sort of effort that he makes. Let the same effort of mind and body be exerted with an extreme degree of energy, and the voice will be changed from the familiar tone of conversation to the one under consideration. To avoid mouth- ing, we must be sure to exert sufficient energy. All mouthing and affectation imply weakness of feeling and effort. The term orotund, invented by Dr. Rush, seems to refer to this quality, when used in connexion with the pure tone. Though every cultivated voice will exhibit this depth and full- ness of tone in a considerable degree, and that too, indepen- 124 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. dently of the character of the composition delivered, yet it will be well to furnish a single extract for practising it, in this part of the course. No better example indeed, is needed, than the ex- tract furnished in the second chapter, on p. 53 ; and the earnest delivery of that passage will have already cultivated the present quality of voice. The passage which we now furnish is from the same speech, and is selected with especial reference to the fact, that its appropriate delivery requires the voice sometimes to rise very high, as well as to descend very low. EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. (Middle key) But whatever may be our fate, be assured, (Higher) be assured, \ (Lower) that this declaration will stand. (Low and rising) It may cost treasure, \ and it may cost blood; \ but it will stand, / \ (Descending) and will richly compensate for both. (Middle key) Through the thick gloom of the present \ I see the brightness of the future, (Rising) as the sun in heaven. \ \ (High and full) We shall make this a glorious, \ an immortal day.\ (Middle key) When we, are in our graves, DEEP EARNESTNESS. 125 our children \ will honor it. \ They will celebrate it with thanksgiving, (Rising) (MiddkJcey) (Rising) (High and full) \ with festivity, \ with bonfires, and illuminations. / On its annual return, \ they will shed tears, \ copious, \ gushing tears, not of subjection and slavery, / not of agony and distress, \ but of exultation, \ of gratitude, \ and of joy. (Low and strong) Sir, before God, I believe the hour \ is come. (Rising) (Rising) (Descending} My judgment approves this measure, \ and my whole heart is in it. \ All that I have, \ and all that lam, \ / and all that /HOPE in this life, I am now ready here to stake upon it ; 126 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. / \ (Lowandfutt) and I leave off as I begun, / \ that, live or die, / / (Rising) survive or perish, / (Middle and loud) I am for the declaration. \ / (High) It is my living sentiment \ [dying sentiment ; (Descending} and, by the blessing of God, it shall be my (Middle) independence NOW ; (Low and strong) and independence FOREVER.\ WEBSTER. CONSCIOUSNESS OF BEING EARNEST AND INTERESTING. This seems the most suitable place for considering the ques- tion, how a speaker can judge for himself, whether he is suffi- ciently earnest and expressive. No one is willing to yield himself to such excitement as will appear extravagant, and the want of any guide for determining the degree of danger of being so, is perhaps the most common cause of dull delivery among those who really wish to speak well. Men of mature age and talents, and of sufficient experience, need no information on this point, as they have already learned to be guided by the manifestations of interest exhibited by an audience. Students of delivery however, often feel entirely at a loss to determine how much exertion to make, and how much excitement to indulge. Such have always appeared to be grati- fied with information like the following. First, always make a distinction between practice for disciplining the voice and gesture, and that for cultiva- ting propriety of manner. CONSCIOUSNESS OF EARNESTNESS. 127 The former should be managed exactly like any other athletic exercise ; its real object being to strengthen the muscles of voice, respiration and gesture ; and (as a general rule,) the more heartily and even violently these are exercised, the greater will be the benefit. It is important to enter upon such exercises with a willing, hearty, and cheerful spirit, just as in practising some active sport. They constitute some of the most useful forms of exer- cise in reference to health, and there is good reason for thinking them more directly preventive of the torturing malady, dyspep- sia, than any other gymnastic resource. A resort to the cele- brated vocal gymnasium in Philadelphia, conducted by Dr. Comstock, has been found by comparative trial, much more beneficial to health, than following the modes of exercise in one of the common gymnasia in the same city. No modes of exer- cise quicken the circulation of the blood, and promote a health- ful flow of spirits, more than vocal gymnastics. Secondly, when learning to judge of his own expres- siveness, let the student keep in mind, that his voice will generally sound more earnest and interesting to him- self than to his auditors. This is a demonstrable fact. Upon private enquiry it will be ascertained, that in most cases, when men of considerable force of character fail in animation as speakers, they themselves are afraid of being too much excited, and have hardly a suspicion that they are not animated enough. Even when candidly in- formed to the contrary, they find it difficult to believe the fact, and incline to think that the fault is in the hearers. It is not often from conceit or vanity that they make this mistake. They are conscious, and indeed know with certainty, that their internal feelings have been glowing, and that they have intended to express them. The error results from the habit of subjec- 128 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. tively watching their own feelings, instead of objectively notic- ing what is the actual sound of their voices in the room. We first became acquainted with this fact, in the case of men of mature age, and not in that of the young and inexperienced. But when the ear has been well cultivated, and the speaker can accurately judge of the degree of loudness and distinctness required in a given situation, many who have a delicate sensi- bility, still fail of being eloquent from fear of indulging in too much excitement. This is particularly the case with college students, inasmuch as severe study is more powerful than all other influences in superinducing delicacy and modesty of character. The Scotch call a professor of Latin, a professor of humanity using this word in its Latin sense as equivalent to refinement. Bulwer, the novelist, has made an interesting ap- plication of the same fact, in regard to the influence of studious habits. Such being the difficulties in regard to the present subject, we have found the following additional information of great service. A speaker may know when his voice sounds truly expressive, and when he himself seems to others to be really in earnest, by the fact of his being conscious of a convulsive or at least a hearty effort at the bottom of the breast of a thrill throughout the entire bodily frame and especially of a sensation of tingling or bunting in the cheeks. This sensation in the cheeks will not manifest itself to the eyes of the spectators. The face will not flush. If any altera- tion takes place in its color, it will be rather that of a tendency to paleness. A decided flush would be disagreeable to the spec- tators, and embarrassing to the speaker. Indeed, a sufficient reason for even refusing to be eloquent, if flushing efface were necessary for it, would be, that mere theatrical ranters some- COMMUNICATING THOUGHT. 129 times practise a trick of sending the blood into their faces, and thus pretending to be in a " torrent, tempest, and whirlwind of passion." In giving the above directions for judging of one's own exhi- bition of eloquent feeling, we have no reference to tragedy, nor exclusively to oratory that is highly impassioned. Careful ob- servation for many years, of audiences as well as speakers, in court rooms, and popular meetings of various sorts, and the op- portunity of testing the truth of our conclusions, by prevailing on young men to try them in the way of experiment, enable us to say without hesitation, that nothing short of the physical ex- citement just described, will produce an expression that will even be called simply animated, and that too, by the most intel- lectual audiences. Under the present head we have written strongly in favor of the healthfulness of vocal gymnastics. This will perhaps seem strange, in view of the fact that so many, especially clergymen, lose their health from speaking. Some considerations in ex- planation of this evil, will be found in the third part of this trea- tise, under the head of Impassioned Sentiment, while still fur- ther attention will be bestowed on the same subject, in the sec- tion in the Appendix, on the Health of Speakers. TONE OF COMMUNICATING THOUGHT. Before concluding this chapter, it is necessary to caution the student in respect to that management of the voice by which all speaking, whether calm or impassioned, is characterized by that tone which indicates an especial effort to inculcate or ex- plain our ideas to others. The most universal deficiency in the delivery of those who read or speak what they have previously written, is the absence of that appearance of a direct dealing with the minds of the au- dience, which commonly accompanies an extemporaneous ad- 12 130 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. dress. So considerable indeed, is the difference between these two modes of making addresses, that it is commonly supposed impossible to give to the former as much freshness of interest as is expected from the latter. In opposition however, to this opinion, let it be borne in mind, that but few speakers have hitherto fairly tried the experiment, of endeavoring so to manage the delivery of written composition, that their elocution shall be precisely the same as that of ex- temporaneous language. If the attempt be faithfully made, it will certainly be followed by a satisfactory degree of success. The address may not have an entire appearance of being extem- poraneous, but if not, the difference will be in the more method- ical style of the composition, rather than in the elocution. In managing elocution with reference to this important point, it will be necessary, indeed, to bring into use all the general habits of delivery which we have hitherto described, yet even these may not ensure this result. The primary object of all language is to express thought. Even in composition, which is principally addressed to the imagination and feelings such as the most fanciful or sentimental poetry there must always be a course of thought running through the whole. It is the want of the tone of communicating or ex- plaining thought, then, that constitutes the principal deficiency when the delivery of compositions formally prepared, is less interesting than the freshness of extem- poraneous address. In the present treatise, reading and recitation being design- edly omitted, and practical speaking being its exclusive sub- ject, there will be no liability to error in saying, that a speaker must always have, as a sort of foundation for his elocution, the tones of explanation. These may indeed be referred in general to the doctrines of inflexion and emphasis, but it is found by experience, that sometimes when such doctrines have been COMMUNICATING THOUGHT. 131 thoroughly mastered, there still remains a deficiency in respect to our present subject. A strictly scientific explanation of this deficiency can be given only by methods similar to those em- ployed in the great work of Dr. Rush. But as it would be in- consistent with the character and objects of the present volume, to enter into such minuteness and intricacy of detail, it is hoped that, as a substitute for such methods of treating the subject, the following directions will be found sufficiently available. As will be again mentioned in the third part of this work, a tone of strongly marked explanation causes the voice to proceed with a waving slide on each syllable, or at least on those which admit of long quantity. The more strongly marked emphases are also made by decided changes of pitch. The emphatic falling inflexions are either given with waves of the third, or of a still greater interval, or with a sudden change in key through the same distance, while the emphatic rising ones begin below the cur- rent pitch and slide up. Such descriptions however, will not be very intelligible, except to the readers of Dr. Rush's work, or the students of that of Prof. Day, or Dr. Comstock or perhaps of some others which have lately been published, but have not yet fallen within our observation and it will be better not to continue this sort of description further. In general then, In the tones of explanation, the vanishing terminations of words and of accented syllables, are significantly pro- longed. The voice is managed with an especial effort at significant flexibility, and has a waving or circumflex tone, A pointed expression is especially given to the ends of words, and particularly to the very last syllable that precedes a rhetorical pause. As a consequence of these efforts, the articulation be- comes peculiarly definite, and assists also in the signifi- cant expression. 132 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. The fixed look of the eye, the sympathizing attitude >, and the significant presentation of the open palm, like- wise contribute to the effect. So also do the free and yet steady stretching forward of the right arm-, and the significant gesticulations, which, while it is thus ex- tended, are made by the wrist. Accompanying these instinctive movements of voice and gesture, the speaker feels in his mind a certain con- sciousness of a natural power of holding the attention of his fellow beings. He leads their understandings along, step by step and word by word, so as to make it impos- sible for them not to understand the ideas he presents to them in the precise way that he wishes. Especially does he feel confident, that the lively and yet deliberate flexibility, and significant precision, which he intentionally gives to his enunciation, cannot fail of accomplishing the same object. These efforts are such as we instinctively make in deliberate conversation, when we make a definite effort to prevent any pos- sible misapprehension of our meaning. It is therefore extremely easy to apply them in public speaking. Nothing more is neces- sary to enable even juvenile speakers to do so, than an intelli- gent conception of the object to be attained, and a sufficient degree of steadiness and collectedness of mind. , On some occasions in public speaking, it is scarcely possible to employ them too strongly. On others, grace and propriety require more or less relaxation in reference to them, lest the de- livery become too precise and not sufficiently sentimental. But let it be again enjoined, that no composition that is addressed to others, either by reading or speaking, should be entirely desti- tute of the peculiar significance bestowed upon delivery by the efforts just described. RHYTHM AND CADENCE. 133 The tones employed for clothing words with emphatic force and significance, must likewise be expressed with sharply defined outlines. When the voice skips up or down, the change must be bold and striking, and the tone prolonged with such steadiness as prevents all un- certainty and indefiniteness. Emphatic tones must have a clear and precise meaning^ which no one can possibly mistake. Though instinct and impulse furnish us with the weapons of oratory, these alone are never sufficient. The higher powers of the speaker's mind must make an intentional use of them, as instruments for effect. It is neither blind impulse nor deliber- ate intention, that singly and by itself will produce a good de- livery. Much less will artifice or cunning. Nor can hypocrisy be made successfully effective. For the time at least, a really good speaker puts forth those efforts which characterize a sin- cere and earnest man. He may indeed be morally a hypocrite, but if he is so as a successful orator, he is a profound one. His hypocrisy is of that deep kind, that in moral actions makes use of his own good and honest impulses, for a selfish or a wicked end. The ancients said that an orator must be a good man. They probably meant that mere art or cunning could never by imitation of external acts, succeed in employing those weapons which are furnished only by sincere feeling. CHAPTER VII. RHYTHM AND CADENCE. THE subjects to be considered in this chapter, need to be studied, not so much with reference to significance, force and earnestness of delivery, as to ease, beauty and agreeable effect. 12* 134 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. The qualities of delivery which we are now to describe, are in- deed equally natural with those which we have considered in previous chapters, and in this respect equally important ; for in nature, grace and strength, significance and agreeableness, can- not be wholly separated from each other. Yet in different cir- cumstances, one set of qualities may be more important than another, and hence require a more peculiar attention. The rhythm of prose is easier to practise than to explain ; and most treatises on elocution wholly omit the consideration of it. In other works, on the contrary, it has been made the foundation of all elocution. We shall employ our best efforts to give an intelligible and useful account of it, so far as this can be done by pursuing the same plan of treatment as in the rest of the work. A strictly scientific description can be given only by means of the notation of music. Even the doctrines of modern music, however, would not be sufficient to explain thoroughly the subject of the rhythm of speech. It would be necessary, in addition, to adopt the distinctions recognized by the ancients in their metrical systems. They considered the subject of far greater importance than the moderns, and carried their investigations of its principles to an extent that the latter find it difficult not only to adopt, but even to understand. In fact, much of the knowledge of rhythm which was familiar to the ancients, has been lost, and is not yet rediscovered. RHYTHM. Speech consists of a flowing series of words, express- ed by successive efforts of the vocal organs. These ef- forts are of two kinds first, the primary and stronger ones, which take place upon accented syllables ; and secondly, the weaker ones upon the unaccented syllables. There is also a third and intermediate kind of effort, by which we utter syllables that have what is called secondary ac- RHYTHM. 135 cents. In practice, however, it is not in most cases necessary to pay particular attention to these. When suitable exertions are made on the primary accents, the secondary ones will not often fail of being correctly given. It is a law of our mental and physical organization, that any series of repeated efforts inclines to be made with uniform regularity. This regularity of succession is called rhythm. Its necessary existence in speech, as in other bodily efforts to say nothing of it as a law of the mind has been strangely overlooked by a considerable proportion of the writers on phys- iology, on language, and on elocution. It is interesting to watch the rhythmical succession of the strokes made by a blacksmith, carpenter, or other mechanic. The bells on a horse keep as correct time (i. e. rhythm) as is beat by the con- ductor of a concert or leader of a choir. If we watch any muscular labor or exercise whatever, we shall observe that those who are most skillful and can endure it the longest, are the most regular and uniform, or in other words, the most rhythmi- cal in their movements. Stammering consists in a total want of rhythm in speech, and is cured almost solely by means of rhythmical exercises. Stammerers find no more difficulty than others in singing, because music is distinguished by a rhythm so definite and invariable as to be instantly apprehended, and at the same time so strongly marked, as to lead the mind on- wards with uniform regularity. The rhythm of poetry is the same as that of music, and is determined by meter. That of prose is perpetu- ally changing, and proceeds according to no unvarying law. The latter differs from the former, in the same way as the varied motions of running and leaping in some active sport, do 136 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. from the regulated and definite movements of dancing. In ut- tering prose, the rhythm must be regular for short passages at a time, but will perpetually vary as the discourse proceeds. A fluent, easy and varied rhythm is indispensable for a speaker, in reference to keeping up an animated deliv- ery, without incurring unreasonable fatigue. If his rhythm is bad, he must either discontinue his endeavor to be animated, or speedily become exhausted. It is of equal importance for the audience. They re- ceive a greater amount of quiet satisfaction from this, than from any other quality of good reading or speak- ing. Nothing else will prevent their becoming weary and restless under the very excitement of earnest ad- dress. Rhythm is measured by time. When it is perfectly regular, the efforts which produce the accents succeed each other at equal intervals. In music and dancing, the observance of reg- ular time is carefully studied ; but it is not generally known, that if we watch a fluent and graceful extemporaneous speaker, we can readily beat time to his accents, during the continuance of short passages unbroken by a pause. It is the frequency and irregular occurrence of pauses in the delivery of prose, that prevents its rhythm from being as noticeable as in poetry. In the latter, however, still greater regularity results from the uni- form number of syllables. It is well known that the varieties of style in composition, differ from each other as much in their harmony, that is, in their rhythm, as in any other quality, and that this is an impor- tant subject of attention for those who wish to write well. Though this quality of style belongs rather to rhetoric than to elocution, yet as the more rhythmical the style, the easier is the exhibition of rhythm in delivery, we shall select our examples RHYTHM OF WORDS. 137 from passages thus distinguished. The finest examples of the rhythm of our tongue, may be found in our common translation of the Bible, and in the liturgy of the English Church; but in a work like the present, it would be scarcely decorous to extract examples for practice from these sources. We shall distinguish the rhythm of prose into two kinds that produced by the succession of the principal accents, and that resulting from the emphatic words of clauses. RHYTHM OF WORDS. It is exceedingly difficult to describe this to the eye. A sys- tem has indeed been invented for the purpose, which borrows from music a notation by means of bars and rests ; but students of elocution find it extremely perplexing, while it is at the same time of itself very deficient in accuracy. In reference to this subject, as well as in regard to emphasis and inflexion, we have concluded to use a notation of a very simple kind, and to aim at pointing out the variations of the voice to the eye, by merely a few general indications. The more minute discriminations must be learned from the vocal illustrations of the teacher, or be suggested by the natural instincts of the student. The dif- ficulty of describing prose rhythm is still further increased by the fact, that while in general secondary accents are to be neg- lected, yet when words or groups have a considerable number of syllables, such accents often become nearly of equal impor- tance with primary ones. In poetry, both are reckoned alike. In the following short examples, the words will be divided into the groups formed by the accents. Each group will be separated from its adjoining ones, although in some cases a sep- aration will take place between words so connected in gram- mar, that no absolute pause is strictly admissible between them. Even in such situations, however, there occurs what may be called an articulating pause one in which there is a marked 138 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. relaxation of vocal effort, closely approaching to the total ces- sation that takes place at a true pause. We must improve the present opportunity to complete our account designedly left imperfect of the grouping of words. Every principal accent gives a unity to a group , and a group can strictly have but one such accent. All groups are separated from each other by pauses. But these pauses are of two kinds , grammatical and articulating. The former have a total cessation of sound. The lat- ter have a relaxation of sound and a prolongation of time, which are closely similar in effect. In reference to these pauses the law of rhythm is, that all groups are of the same length, during the con- tinuance of a single phrase of delivery. For an account of the principle which determines the length of such phrases, we must still refer to the second part of the present treatise. We shall presently show likewise that em- phatic words occupy just twice as much time in utterance as they would if unemphatic. For our first extract, in default of examples from the Bible or Liturgy, the following passage, which is considered one of the finest in McPherson's Ossian, will perhaps be as useful as any we can furnish. McPherson's rhythm is in general so spondaic and monotonous, that it soon palls upon the ear, We select one of his finest passages, yet, like the rest of the poem, it exhibits a species of meter. We shall endeavor to indicate the rhythm by the following mode of printing. The words will be divided into their groups of articulation, that is, into such as have but one primary ac- cent to each. This primary accent will be indicated by print- ing all the letters of the accented syllable in italics. Secondary accents will be marked only when they are of importance in the rhythm ; but if so, will be indicated by printing merely the RHYTHM OF WORDS. 139 vowel in an italic character. When a word, like ocean, has only a single vowel for its accented syllable, such vowel will often be printed with an italic capital, to distinguish it from a secondary accent. The whole is to be read smoothly, and with natural emphasis and inflexion. To prevent confusion, however, no marks of emphasis or inflexion will be given. It will be well sometimes to practise beating time to the reading A strictly accurate notation of any rhythm should indicate all the pauses. As the result of considerable experience in teaching, we have conclu- ded to indicate these by the mark (||) which is used for the cae- sural pause in poetry. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. Whence are thy beams, \\ O sun ! thy everlasting light 1 Thou comest forth, || in thy awful beauty, and the stars \\ hide themselves in the sky; the moon, || cold and pale, sinks || in the western wave. But thou thyself \\ movest a/one ; who || can be a companion || of thy course? The oaks of the mountains || fall; the mountains themsete || decay with years; j the Ocean || shrinks and grows again; the moon herself \\ is lost in heaven; but thou || art former the same, 140 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. rejoicing \\ in the brightness of thy course. When the world \\ is dark with tempests, when thujider rolls, \\ and lightning flies, thou lookest, || in thy beauty, \\ from the clouds, and laughest \\ at the storm. We next select a passage from Sir Walter Scott, which is a direct and especial imitation of the glowing rhythm employed by our translators, in their versions of the poetical parts of the Bible. Subsequent translators of the sacred volume have been grievously deficient in respect of an ear for a truly animated and yet unaffected English rhythm. Though this imitation by Scott is striking, it is yet inferior to his models. Among mod- ern writers, perhaps Edmund Burke and Daniel Webster have the highest merit in respect of rhythm, as well as various other requisites of rhetorical splendor. The extracts from the speeches of the latter, that are commonly selected by young men, are among the finest in respect to rhythm, throughout the whole range of our literature. In the following extract we shall mark some of the inflexions which contribute to the tune of the passage. FROM A SERMON AFTER A VICTORY. Your garments || are dyed, \ but not || with the juice of the wine-press ; / your swords \\ are jilted with blood, \ bin not || with the blood of goafs or of lambs; the dust of the desert || on whzch ye stand, RHYTHM OF WORDS. 141 is made fat || with gore, \ but not || with the blood of few/locks; for the Lord \\ hath a sacrifice j| in .Bozrah, and a great slaughter \\ in the land ofldumea. Heaven \\ has been with you, and has oroken || the bow of the mighty -, then, || let every man's heart, \ be as the heart \\ of the variant Macca&eus; every man's hand, \ as the hand of the mighty Sampson ; \ every man's sword \\ as that of Gideon, which turned not back H from the slaughter. \ For the banner || of Reformation is spread abroad on the mowntains || in its Jirst loveliness, and theses || of hell shall not \\ prevail against it. Having expressed so much admiration of the taste and judg- ment exhibited by the translators of our English Bible, it seems incumbent to extract a single passage by way of comparison not expecting it however, to be used like the others, for purposes of common drilling and instruction. The following is not se_ lected in consequence of any search in the Scriptures for the finest passages in respect of rhythm. 13 142 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. FROM THE SONG OF MOSES. Thy right hand, \\ O Lord, is became ^forious || in power :\ Thy right hand, \\ O Lord, hath dash-ed in pieces the enemy. \ And in the greenness H of thine excellency, thott hast oveithroum jj them that rose t/p against thee : \ thou sentest forth \\ thy wrath, which consumed them || as stubble. And with the blast of thy nostrils, the waters || were g other ed together, \ thejloods || stood upright as a heap, [sea. and the depths || were con gealed \\ intheAearf of the The enemy said, \ \ I will purswe, || I will overtake, I will d'u'idc the spoil ;\ my lust shall be satisfied upon them :\ I will draw my sword, my hand shall destroy them. / Thou H didst How with thy wind, the sea || covered them, RHYTHM OF EMPHASIS. 143 they sank \\ as lead in the mighty waters. Who || ish'ke uutothee \\ O Lord \\ among the gods ? \ Who || ish'ke thee; glorious || in holiness, /earful || in praises, doing wonders ?\ RHYTHM OF EMPHATIC WORDS. This rhythm is formed by the succession of phrases, each of which has a unity given to it by a strongly emphatic word. The principle is precisely the same as that by which an accented syllable gives unity to a group. As in the rhythm of groups, the voice proceeds from one accented syllable to another, and these succeed each other at equal or nearly equal distances in time, so in the rhythm of phrases, the progress is from one strong emphasis to another, and with what seems to the ear like a uniformity of progress. These facts and principles are substantially the same in elo- cution as in music. The rhythm of polysyllabic words, and of groups of shorter ones, corresponds to that of the measures in music, as marked by their bars ; while the regulated succession of phrases, each having a single prominent emphasis, is the same as that of the strains of a tune. It is well known to sci- entific musicians, that generally each strain of a tune has an em- phatic portion, which, in the best style of performance, makes the strongest impression, while the succession of strains is marked by the emphasis in the middle, as well as by the cadences at the close of each. The same things are true of meters in poetry. 144 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. A rhetorical style is as much distinguished by a striking rhythm of emphasis and phrase, as by any other characteristic. What is called poetical prose, generally has a rhythm so very striking and uniform, as to amount to a species of meter, and on this as well as other accounts, is always considered as not being in the very best taste. What is called a balanced style, is one in which the successive phrases are too uniformly of the same length, while the emphatic words recur too nearly in the same part of each. As exemplifications of the extreme of a prin- ciple are most readily understood, we shall first select an ex- tract from a composition in which the phrases are exactly bal- anced the general character of the style being also that of poetical prose. Such passages are favorite ones with juvenile speakers, and are useful in exciting rhetorical enthusiasm, yet on the other hand, their too musical rhythm naturally leads to a tone in reading or speaking. We ought however to remark, that the extracts which we fur- nished in the previous section, illustrate in some respect our present subject, as well as that for which they were selected. It is impossible to find striking passages of any length, whose rhythm shall be exclusively that of unemphatic words. We shall continue the same scheme of notation, but in addi- tion shall generally mark the most emphatic words by inflex- ions. We shall also endeavor so to arrange the lines as to show the parallelism, both of the phrases and of the emphases. To simplify the notation still farther, we shall not as was done in the last section separate all the accentual groups from each other. FROM "ROLLA TO THE PERUVIANS." \ / They || follow an adventurer || whom they fear, / \ and obey a power \\ which they hate. RHYTHM OF EMPHASIS. 145 We || serve a monarch SL God whom we love, \ whom we adore. Whenever they move in anger, \ desolation tracks their progress. \ Wherever they pat/se in amity, affliction \\ mourns their/Kena'ship. \ Such composition, as will readily be perceived, is in fact met- rical. It would be a useful exercise for the student to arrange, in similar modes, the whole speech, which may be found in most books of extracts for reading and speaking. To make further extracts in this place, from compositions written in a style so vicious, would be superfluous. Let us rather substitute a magnificent passage from Plunket, which probably approaches as near in its rhythm to the inva- riableness of poetry, as can be permitted in prose. Plunket was an Irish orator, and while equal to any of his countrymen in splendor, was perhaps superior in manliness of taste. I shall 6ear in my heart, the consciousness || of having done my duty,\ and in the hour of death, I shall not || be haunted by the rejection of having oasely sold, or meanly a&andoned, the liberties j| of my native land.\ 13* 146 GENERAL H A. B I T S IN DELIVERY. / Can every man, / who gives his vote, || on the other side, / this night, / lay his hand \\ upon his heart, / and make the same \\ declaration? \/ I hope so it will be well \\ for his own peace ;\ / the indignation || and abAorrence || of his countrymen, / will not accompany him || through life, / and the cwrses || of his cAtYdren will not follow him || tohisgrave.\ Our subject being of the highest practical importance, we shall extract another passage from the same speech of Plunket's, which will illustrate the compatibility of uniting the most mag- nificent rhythm, with the most powerful argumentation. We shall mark a few inflexions, and print some words in capitals to show their importance in the rhythm as well as the reasoning. . \ Sir, I THANK H the administration for Ziitempting \\ this measure. \ They are, || without intending it, pwtting an end \\ to our dissensions. \ Through this \\ black cloud, RHYTHM OP EMPHASIS. 147 which they have collected over us, \ I see || the LIGHT breaking in \\ upon this unfortunate country. \ They have composed our dissensions ;\ NOT || by fomenting the embers / of a lingering || and subdued \\ rebellion, / NOT || byhalfooing the Protestant [| agmnst the Catholic, / and the Catholic || against the Protestant, NOT || by inconsistent appeals / to local || or party prejudices, N'O! \ but || by the avowal / / of this atrocious conspiracy 1 1 against the /Gerties of Ireland ; \ they have subdued every petty \\ and subordinate distinction. \ \ They have um'ted H every rank and description of men, by the pressure 1 1 of this grand and momentous sw&ject ; \ / And I tell them, \ [Ireland, they will see H every Aonest and independent man || in RALLY il rownd her constitution, \ 148 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. and merge \\ every consideration in his opposition to this ungenerous || and odious measure. For my own part, 7 will rests/ it || to the last gasp of my existence, and with the last drop || of my 6/000* ;\ and when I feel || the hour of my dissolution approaching, \ J will || like the /other of //annibal, \ take my children \\ to the a/tar, \ and swear \\ THEM to eternal hostility against the invaders !| of my country 's freedom. RHYTHM PRODUCED BY QUANTITY. The italic character which we have hitherto employed to in- dicate the accents of rhythm, suggests to the mind of the reader, stress or force rather than prolongation. The examples we have thus far given, will exhibit fine rhythms, even if quantity be to some extent neglected. The most natural mode of read- ing or speaking them, will indeed be characterized by frequent prolongation, as well as by stress, but it has been deemed ad- visable to simplify the notation, by omitting all marks of quantity. In the two passages which we next present, the rhythm de- pends more on prolongation, than on accentual or emphatic stress. We shall therefore print them in such a way as particu- RHYTHM OF QUANTITY 149 larly to attract attention to this prolonged dwelling of the voice on certain words and groups. The mode which we adopt, is that of separating the letters of a word, from each other. This is the German fashion of indicating the importance of words, in situations in which the English and Americans are accustomed to substitute italic for roman characters. When a word is em- phatic by stress alone, without being at the same time strikingly prolonged, we shall indicate its emphasis by italics or capitals, as in our other examples. The rhythm which we are now considering, has not, so far as we know, been hitherto described, in books of rhetoric and elocution. Quantity has indeed, been generally recognized as an important quality of syllables, and the fact that it is most conspicuous in the utterance of those which are accented and emphatic, is now universally known. But the fact that not only the accented syllables of polysyllabic words, but entire emphatic words and groups, are often extremely prolonged in the time of their utterance, has not, we believe, been mentioned. If our memory is inaccurate in this respect, and such prolongation has been previously described, still its importance and the frequency of its occurrence in either impressive or graceful delivery, has certainly not received a due appreciation. Not only accented and emphatic syllables, but long words and complete groups and phrases, are often given with a total change in the rate of utterance. The time of the tune (to use musical language) is changed at once, from a quick movement to a slow one. By resorting to accurate observation and experiment, it may be demonstrated with absolute certainty, that these emphatic words, groups, or phrases, are exactly twice as slow each accentual group occupying two beats instead of one. 150 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. This change of time is common in impressive sacred music. We may sometimes observe at the close of an anthem, that for two or three measures, the time changes to notes of twice the length. The movement being the same, crotchets are changed to minims, minims to semibreves, and so with other notes. The effect of the change is precisely the same in music as in elocution. The same principle, however, is exemplified in va- rious other passages of music besides those we have just men- tioned. Whenever for the sake of emphasis, either in vocal or instrumental music, a succession of long notes is substituted for short ones in the same movement, it is for the same reason. It was not theoretically, or merely in parlor reading, that we first ascertained the practical importance of this principle. We have for many years found it extremely difficult to teach com- plete heartiness of expression on emphatic words and clauses. No matter how powerful and earnest the example set by the teacher, the student would often fall short of expressing real earnestness. Though apparently exerting himself to the ut- most, his voice yet gave no expression but that of an unmean- ing force ; or it seemed to fall short of earnestness, from diffi- dence or want of breath. In reference to such cases we final- ly ascertained, after resorting to various modes of teaching, that the information we have just communicated was precisely that which the student most needed. This knowledge, joined to the directions in our early chapters for practising a thorough expulsion of the breath, enables every student of delivery to give a true emphatic earnestness. It is philosophically interesting in a high degree, to notice the operation of this principle in enabling a person to speak with ease in the style required for the open air. In this situa- tion, speaking is necessarily so slow, that it is easy to estimate accurately the time that elapses between the successive accents. Emphatic words will be noticed as occupying just twice as much time as others. RHYTHM OF QUANTITY. 151 The following extract from Burke, is a surprising instance of the power of language and style, when managed by a man of genius, in elevating the most unpromising subject into rhetori- cal dignity and splendor. NEW ENGLAND WHALE FISHERY. As to the wealth, || Mr. Speaker, / [fisheries, which the colonies || have drawn from the sea, || by their \ you had all that matter fu 1 1 y explained || by Dr. F ranklin. And pray, sir, || what in the world \ is equal to it ? P a s s b y || the other parts, and look at the manner || in which the people of New England have, of late, || carried on the whale fishery. / [ice, Whilst we follow them || among the tumbling mountains of and behold them || penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses / of Hudson's Bay, || and Davis's Straits, whilst we are looking for them || beneath the Arctic circle, we hear that they have pierced || into the op posi te region of po- \ [lar cold ; that they are at the Antipodes; and engaged under the Frozen Serpent || oftheSouth.\ Falkland Island, which seemed too remote \\ and romantic an object for the grasp || of nationa 1 ambition, 152 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. is but a stage, and resting place, in the progress || of their || victorious industry. Js or is the equinoctial heat / more discouraging to them, than the accumulated winter || of both the poles. We know || that whilst some of them draw the line, |j and strike the harpoon, / on the c o a s t of Africa, others run the longitude, and pursue their gigantic game along the coast of Brazil. \ No sea / but what is vexed || by their fisheries, no climate that is not witness j| to their toils. \ / Neither the perseverance || of H o 1 1 a n d , nor the activity || of F r a n c e , nor the dexterous || and firm sagacity of English enterprise, ever carried this most perilous mode || of hardy industry to the extent || to which it has been pushed by this recent peoplej\ RHYTHM OF QUANTITY. 153 a people who are still, as it were, l| but in the gristle, and not yet || hardened into the bone of manhood. When I contemplate || these things; when I know || that the colonies, || in general, / owe little or nothing || to any care of ours; / and that they are not |{ squeezed into this happy form, / by the constraints || of a watchful || and suspicious go vern me nt; but that through a w i s e |j and salutary n eglec t, \ a gen erous nature \ / has been suffered || to take her own way |j to perfection ; when I reflect || upon these effects, / when I see ~~|| how pro fi table they have been to us, I feel a 1 1 the pride of power || sink,\ / and all presumption || in the wisdom of human contrivances melt || and die away within me.\ My rigor || relents. \ I pardon |{ something to the s p i r i t || of 1 i b e r t y . Our next extract is likewise from Burke, and is commonly called his Apostrophe to the Queen of France. We do not, however, quite perceive the propriety of styling it an apostro- phe. It may be considered as carrying the peculiar style of composition in which it is written, to the utmost allowable ex- treme. We feel bound to apologize for making any rhetorical 14 154 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. criticisms in our work, because we consider it a most injurious mistake for teachers of elocution to suppose themselves, as some seem to do, to be really employed in teaching oratory. Unless elocution is distinctly separated from oratory, no useful attain- ments will be made in either. Delivery will become bombastic and ranting, while composition will substitute sound for sense, and theatrical clap-trap for clear exposition and eloquent appeal. Still we do not think the time has yet arrived for attempting to teach all the legitimate resources of powerful and interesting elocution, exclusively on compositions no more rhetorical than students will find strictly appropriate in future dealings with their fellow men. A rhetorical structure of style, for a long time renders great assistance in awakening the imagination and feel- ings, during the practice of speaking. This is the only excuse for tolerating the absurdity of declaiming, instead of reading or reciting poetry in public. We suggest these hints at present, but shall remark further on such matters when we come to de- scribe the lessons and subjects of study for the Junior and Se- nior classes. QUEEN ANTOINETTE. It is now j| sixteen or seventeen years, \ since I saw the Queen of France, \\ then the Dauphiness, at Versailles ;\ and surely || never lighted on this orb, which she hardly || seemed to touch, a more delight f u 1 vision. I saw her || just above the horizon , \ prorating and cheering || the elevated sphere she just began to move in;\ glittering || like the morning star; RHYTHM OP QUANTITY. 155 full || of life and splendor and joy. Oh ! || whatarevolution!\ and what a h ear t || must I have, to contemplate || without emotion , that I) elevation, and that || fall.\ Little || didl dream, \ that, when she added || titles of vene ration , to those of enthusiastic, || distant, l| respectful love, that she should ever || be obliged to carry the sharp antidote || against disgrace concealed || in that bosom; little || did I dream that I should have lived || to see such disasters || fallen upon her in a nation || of gallant men;\ in a nation of men of honor, and of cavaliers. I thought || ten thousand swords must have leaped || from their scabbards, to avenge || even a look that threatened her || with insult. But the age || of chivalry is gone. 156 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. That of sophisters, \\ economists || and coZculators, has succeeded, and the glory of Europe is extinguished jj forever. Never, || nevermore shall we behold that generous loyalty || to rank and sex,\ that proud || submission, \ that dignified || obedience, \ that subordination || of the heart, which kept alive |j even in servitude || itself the spirit || of an exalted freedom.\ The un bought grace )| of life, the cheap defe nee jj of nations, [prise, the nurse || of manly sentiment || and heroic enter- is gone. It is gone, || that sensibility || of principle, \ that chastity || of honor, \ / which felt a stain, like a wo und ; \ which inspired courage, whilst it mitigated || ferocity;\ which ennobled whatever it touched; \ and under which j| vice itself, \ lost half || its e v i 1 , by losing all j| its gross ness . FAMILIAR RHYTHM. 157 FAMILIAR RHYTHM. We have hitherto furnished such examples only, as exhibit rhythms of the most striking kinds. Even the dullest ear feels the charms of such composition. But all prose is clothed with an agreeable rhythm, when issuihg from the lips of an accom- plished reader or speaker. It has been said of the celebrated Lord Mansfield, that his elocution gave even to the driest legal documents a charm as of poetry or song. Even in unpremed- itated conversation, those who have agreeable voices often su- peradd to the other graces of their manner, the fascination of rhythm ever varying, yet always musical. Strong excitement of the imagination and feelings, while it makes poets break into unpremeditated song, exerts a similar influence on men of every variety of character. Outpourings of love, friendship, or sympathy, are uttered by all persons alike in rhythmical modu- lations of voice, as well as in language more or less imaginative and poetical. Indignation and the harsher or sterner feelings, have likewise a strong and abrupt rhythm of their own. The profound emotion and the concentrated meditation of earnest extemporaneous prayer freeing, as they do, the higher faculties from the restraining and disturbing influences of egotism*- have an astonishing effect; prompting even in unlettered minds, a copious flow of elevated language, poured out in a rhythm like that of a grand voluntary on an organ. The perpetually varied rhythm which may be made to con- stitute the highest charm of familiar delivery, cannot be ade- quately represented to the eye, unless we resort to the notation of music; while even this would need to be enriched with q, still larger number of discriminating marks. Even when illus- trated by the voice of a captivating speaker, it is not always fully appreciated by an auditory, until after long cultivation of the ear. Not only the varying length and slovyness of the 14* 158 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY, phrases, together with the rhythm of the emphatic words, but the secondary accents and the separate syllables of words, con- tribute to the whole effect. As the syllables fall trippingly from the tongue, each has its place in the tune, like the rapid notes of spirited instrumental music. To assist therefore still farther in forming the ear for the mu- sic of style, we shall extract a passage from a lecture delivered by Mr. Webster before a Mechanics' Institute. For the pur- pose of exhibiting the peculiar grace and beauty of the tripping flow of speech with which such compositions should be read or spoken, we shall divide the words into their constituent sylla- bles, and mark the secondary as well as the primary accents. We have divided the words into the smallest practicable groups, but in reading each line, care must be exercised that in many cases, none but articulating pauses are made during the course of a phrase. The utterance must proceed with a smooth flu- ency. The most graceful delivery of such passages, is with such tripping distinctness on the unaccented syllables, that the reading or speaking will often appear to some as if much more rapid than it really is. Ma-cAi-ner-y || is made to per-form what has /or-mer-ly || been the toil of Au-man hands, to an ex-tent \\ that as-ton-ish-es the most san-guine, with a de-gree of pow-er to which no nuwi-ber of Au-man arms \\ 'is -qual, and with such pre-cz>-ion || and ex-act-ness, as al-most to sug-gest the no-tion || of rea-son and in-teMi-gence, in the ma-cAines them-selves. Ev-e-ry nat-u-ral .4-gent is put un-re-Zeai-ing-lj || to the task. FAMILIAR RHTfTHM. 159 The winds \\ work, the w>a-ters || work, the e-las-to'-ci-ty of met-a\s \\ works; grav-i-ly \\ is so-Zi-ci-ted in-to a thou-aand new forms ofac-tion; Ze-vers || are muZ-ti-plied up-on Ze-vers ; wheels \\ re-volve up-on the per-ipA-er-ies of o*A-er wheels ; the saw and the plane are tor-tured || in-to an ac-com-mo-da-tion to new U-sea ; and last of all \\ with in-iwi-i-ta-ble pow-er, and with whirl-wind sound, comes the yo-tent ^3-gen-cy || of steam. In com-j>ar-i-son with the past, what cen-tu-ries || of im-prove-ment has this sin-gle ^-gent corn-prised \\ in the short corn-pass offif~iy years! JSp-er-y where || yrac-ti-ca-ble, et>-er-y where ef^-cient, [cu-les, it has an arm \\ a thou-s&nd times strong-er \\ than that of Her- and to which /m-man in-ge-nw-i-ty is ca-pa-ble || of ^-ling a ^ou-sand times as ma-ny hands, as be-Zon^ea* to Bri-a-reus. Steam \\ \sfound in tri-uw-phant op-er-a-tion || on the seas; and wn-der the in-flu-ence of its 160 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. the gal-lanl ship "A.~gainst the wind, [ ^-gainst the tide, Still stead-ies with an up-right keel." It is on the riv-ers, and the boat-man may re-pose on his oars ; it is in Ai^A-ways, [ance ; and be-gins to ex-erf it-sc//" || a-long the cor-ses of land con-vey- it is at the ooMom of mines, a fAou-sand feet \\ be-low the earth's sur-face ; it is in the mill, \\ and in the worfc-shops of the trades. It row?*, it pumps, it ez-ca-vates, j] it car-ries, it draws, it lifts, it Aam-mers, it spins, it weaves, it prints. It seems to say to men, at Zeoft || to the class of ar-ti-sans, a Leave off \\ your man-u-al Za-bor, ^ire 0-ver || your &od-i-ly toil; be-stow but your skill and rea-son to the di-recf-ing of my pow-eT, and / l| will bear the toil t with no 7?iM5-cle || to grow wea-ry, no nerve \\ to re-lax, no breast \\ to feel /ai7^-ness." Before leaving the subject of rhythm, we ought to caution against supposing that we think prose compositions of the high- FAMILIAR RHYTHM. 161 est beauty of style must necessarily possess rhythms similar to those of the extract which we have furnished. So difficult is it to illustrate this subject by description merely, or even by vo- cal exemplifications unaccompanied with a minute and tedious commentary, that we have designedly chosen passages in which the rhythms are of the kind most readily appreciated by those who have devoted little or no attention to the beauties of style. The rhythms of some of our finest writers Southey, Coleridge and Paley, for instance exhibit less approximation to meter ; and while for this reason they make less impression on an un- cultivated ear, they are yet pronounced by the best critics to be on this very account superior in agreeable effect. We believe the best judges consider the most difficult attainment in the management of prose style, to be the exhibition of harmony, i. e. rhythm, without at the same time repeating any one tune so often, that the ear gets accustomed to and anticipates it. It will be noticed that we place rhythm among the General Habits of Delivery. As the subject is so difficult of explana- tion, and understood and appreciated by so small a proportion of teachers and students of elocution, this location may excite surprise. It may seem like expecting too much from the young- er students, that they shall acquire habits of varied and agree- able rhythm during the introductory and elementary part of the study of practical speaking. Our readers may smile when they find us again insisting up- on practice in very large rooms, and in the open air. Yet for the acquisition of rhythmical habits, as of so many other requi- sites of an agreeable delivery, practice in such situations is in- dispensable. When external circumstances interpose no check to the flow of free and hearty efforts, rhythm is as certain to be developed, as prolongation of quantity or a full and melodious voice. It becomes an unfailing accompaniment of natural en- thusiasm, and of that glow of onward progress in the succes- sion of ideas, which was called by the ancients the " torrent" 162 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. of delivery. Let a speaker abandon himself unreservedly to all the influences that produce eloquence, and he will exhibit a striking rhythm, as certainly as he will display a free and cap- tivating series of attitudes and gestures. CADENCE. This word, (derived from cado, to fall,) means the descent of the voice which marks the close of a period or paragraph. It is strictly appropriate only when the close is made by an actual fall of the voice in pitch. Yet many sentences and many long periods and paragraphs do not in fact, end on a lower pitch. It may happen that sentences expressing questions and emo- tions of admiration, as well as various forms of enthusiasm, will terminate most naturally on a high key. In such cases however, the voice is generally softened in loudness during its rise in pitch ; and there thus occurs a falling off in force, which still renders the word cadence not inappropriate. The word cadence is very often used also in another sense, by writers on criticism, who apply the term to the sort of tune which is produced either in prose or poetry, by the rhythm of balanced phrases. This subject we have just considered under the head of Rhythm of Phrases. Cadences are among the most striking portions of the tune of a reader's or a speaker's voice. According as they are harmo- nious or otherwise, will the delivery produce in the minds of the hearers, that impression of repose and satisfaction, which is so essential to agreeable effect. The elocution of uncultivated speakers, whose voices are in- flexible and whose minds proceed mechanically in delivery, is often strikingly faulty in their cadences. Not only do their periods and paragraphs fail of exhibiting the great variety at the end of each, which is required by the grammatical and rhetorical structure, but even the simplest and most common forms of ca- CADENCE. 163 dence such as all use in ordinary conversation are not al- ways given in a natural manner. Sometimes the voice pro- ceeds to the very last syllable in an unvarying monotony. In other cases it leaves off, at the close of a sentence, with what is called a tone. Others again, conclude with an awkward fall in pitch, which produces the effect of a false note in music. Short and simple sentences, which end with a period and are unconnected with others, form their cadences on no more than one or two of the last syllables. There are several variations however, even in these the simplest forms of cadence ; for a de- scription of which, those who are curious in regard to such sub- jects, may refer to the work of Dr. Rush, or that of Prof. Day. It is inconsistent with the plan of the present treatise, to enter into details so minute. Yet as some directions are required, the following are given as having been found most useful. In the first place, follow no rule whatever, in regard to ending a short sentence with a cadence. Very fre- quently, a decided rising inflection is required at a period, and the sentence is to be read as if it were either incom- plete, or inseparably connected with what follows. If rules are constructed for this purpose, (as may readily be done,) they become so intricate and various as to be worse than useless. The natural instincts of the mind and voice will infal- libly direct a reader or speaker aright, precisely as in common conversation. All that is required is a flexible voice, and the habit of entering fully into the spirit of a paragraph, so as to ex- hibit the connexions and relations of thought. Secondly, when a true and proper cadence is to be made, suffer the voice to follow its own instincts, and do not interrupt the flow of delivery, by an awkward pause, made merely in the way of preparation for a cadence. This is a very common fault of those who study elocution by themselves. Every time their eye observes a period in punctu- 164 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. ation, they are apt to stop and deliberately prepare themselves for a downward drop of the voice. By so doing, instead of se- curing their object of executing cadences correctly, they merely substitute an artificial and labored awkwardness, for the natural yet less disagreeable infelicity of some kind of tone. Thirdly, all cadences require some degree at least, of an easy and graceful deliberation. Let the mind, as it approaches towards the close of a sentence (at least of one of any length) be kept collected and composed. Let the rate of utterance generally be- come a little slower. Then suffer the voice to proceed steadily, and with the tones suggested by natural in- stinct. In speaking, and sometimes in public reading, let the eye look steadily and calmly at the faces of the hearers. Then if the mind is composed and collected, the voice will not fail of being correct. The question whether gestures are to be made upon ca- dences, depends on whether they contain strikingly emphatic words. If they do not, it is generally better to let the arm drop, before the close, and in place of a gesture, to substitute a col- lected look, and a sympathizing inflexion of the body. The above directions apply to the ordinary cadences, that are of perpetual occurrence, during the progress of continuous dis- course. It remains to consider the management of the voice in what is one of the most striking parts of a well constructed composition, viz. the winding up or winding off, of the course of thought which runs through an entire discourse, or an im- portant division. In these places, there are but two general modes in which the voice proceeds. Most commonly, there should be exhibited at the end of a discourse or of a long paragraph, a gradual descent in pitch, not only during the utterance of several words, CADENCE. 165 but of several phrases, or even sentences. The ear of the hearer will thus be warned, that the course of thought is coming to a close. Occasionally however, the enthusiastic feeling prompted by the composition, should cause the voice to rise towards the end. This rising progress of the voice needs no cultivation. It is less common, and less important; while at the same time it is at- tended with no difficulty in execution. We need not illustrate it even by a single example. The gradual descent of pitch which marks the winding offof a course of thought, requires for its successful execution, that the voice shall have been previously cultivated. If this has not been done by the habit of actually dealing with audiences, few will be found successful in this part of delivery, unless after care- ful training. Uncultivated voices fail in strength and steadiness on the lower notes, and when earnestness is to be expressed, generally rise in pitch. The effect is to diminish, or actually destroy, all grace, dignity and repose, in this part of delivery. In preparing, then, for the close of a strain of thought, care must be taken gradually to lower the voice in pitch, and at the same time to increase the force and energy of utterance. Unless the voice be deliberately strengthened as it descends to its lower notes, the delivery will fail not only of impressiveness, but of grace and composure. The lower notes will be feeble and languid, or even husky and inarticulate. As we have before remarked, all noisy loudness proceeds from the union of loud force and high pitch of voice. On the lower notes, it is absolutely impossible to make a voice sound disa- greeably loud. The same exertion which produces loud tones on high notes, makes the lowest ones simply musical. Some 15 166 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. who have voices of a low key, occasionally shrink from the en- ergy of utterance which we are directing, because it seems to them to make their voices disagreeably harsh. Such are mis- taken as to the actual quality of sound that they exhibit. What appears like harshness, is merely the agreeable roughness which strong male voices exhibit on the lower notes of the bass. The quality is the same as that which is so much admired in the brass instrument of music called the trombone. In respect to that gradual winding off of delivery, which is now under consideration, there are still two other points which require attention. First, the actual descent of the voice is not from one word or syllable to another, but by successively lower keys of pitch at the beginning of each phrase. The change of key is at the beginning of each phrase. As the phrase proceeds, the voice may rise again. Secondly, if the descent is through several phrases, the downward progress from one to another will not generally be invariable. One or more phrases will begin on a much higher key than that which immediately precedes or follows it. The final phrase, however, will be lower than any that has preceded. All this will be made clear by the mode of printing adopted in the following examples, which resembles the concluding salu- tations and subscriptions of a formal epistle. When the suc- cessive phrases begin on a lower key, they are placed farther to the right on the page. When, after a fall of key on one or more preceding phrases, the next begins on a higher key, it will be brought back farther to the left again. If a phrase af- ter beginning on a lower key, rises as it proceeds, the rise will be indicated by placing the words on a higher line. C A D t ; N C E . 167 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. Sir, so neither the human nor the human ""^standing , w jU bear a perversion monstrous, and absurd >' re _ volting to the soul - shocking so to reason. And then > as now,\ may the sun > in his course, more/' more happy, more than our this, own,\ country. WIRT. WEBSTER. 168 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. And now - the vortex || roars ;\ and the struggling victim buffets the fiery wave, whh feebler stroke, i warning supplication, until de- s P air ' X flashes u Pn hi* soul, and with an outcry || that pierces the heavens, he ceases to strive > and disappears. BEECHER. CHAPTER VIII. CIRCUMSTANCES. THE present chapter will be devoted to those general habits, by which a speaker, or a public reader, adapts his delivery to the circumstances of his situation and audience. It is singular that such subjects should so often have been omitted in treatises on elocution, inasmuch as it is obvious that CIRCUMSTANCES. 169 a careful study of them must be fundamentally important in reference to public efforts. Would it not have been more use- ful to devote to such topics, the space which so many have occu- pied in recommending what audiences consider as disagreeable affectations such as artificial and awkward positions of the feet pronouncing the adjective pronoun my, like the substantive pronoun me giving the Irish pronunciation of the letter r and other peculiarities which a sensible man would dislike to display in private society '? It has already been incidentally remarked, that a principal reason of the imperfect success which has hitherto attended the efforts of elocutionists to teach a truly useful delivery, is the habit of giving instruction in small rooms. It ought to be still further enjoined, that the careful practice of speaking in a small room, will in the great majority of cases, produce habits abso- lutely fatal to success in large ones. When a room at least as large as a church capable of seating six or eight hundred people cannot be occupied for this purpose, there is no resource except to resort to the open air. Mere boys may indeed be profitably taught in a room sufficiently large for an ordinary public school ; but young men who are preparing to be clergymen, debaters, or lecturers, must be accustomed to speak in rooms certainly as large as those which they will occupy in future life. Omitting for the present all consideration of the necessity of strength of voice, of slowness combined with conversational inflexion, and of the expulsive accent required for large audiences, all elevated delivery, and also all familiar reading or speaking that is ad- dressed to several hundreds not to speak of thousands of per- sons, requires what is called in the language of art, BREADTH op STYLE. Without the more enlarged outlines (so to speak) which give what artists describe by this term in painting and sculpture, delivery before large audiences must necessarily ap- pear petty and meagre, and can have neither dignity nor inter* 15* 170 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. est. In vocal music, the same principle is thoroughly under- stood and exemplified by all great public performers; while it is the want of such knowledge that causes amateur singers gener- ally to fail of success when they appear in public concerts. Perhaps it is the same reason, which has prevented several suc- cessful elocutionists from becoming acceptable actors. Without breadth of manner, no performance in any art will be approved of by the great mass of mankind. It seems to be superiority in this respect which causes men destitute of a liberal educa- tion, so often to succeed better as speakers, than those who have prepared themselves in the seclusion of a learned retreat. Their broader and heartier manner, more than compensates for their frequently inferior refinement and correctness in regard to minor details. Hitherto indeed, a considerable portion of most treatises on delivery, has been occupied with subjects of no more fundamental importance in reference to making a useful im- pression on an audience, than in a treatise on politeness, would be the question whether a man should take off his hat, in saluta- tion, with his right or his left hand. In most cases indeed, the right hand will be more convenient, but the essential requisites of a polite salutation depend not at all on which is used. ADAPTATION OF DELIVERY TO SIZE OF AUDIENCE. It is an obvious dictate of common sense, that speakers should wish their audiences to hear them. They are apt, however, to forget that it is a duty incumbent on themselves, to take pains that all may do so. As the countenances of those only who are nearer to them, attract attention and assist by their sympa- thy, the more distant hearers are often neglected. In the case of very large audiences, a speaker cannot determine by sight, whether those most distant are able easily to follow him. His ear however, should be an infallible guide in determining this point, and nature provides him the means for deciding it. SIZE OF AUDIENCE. 171 By reflecting a little, we can recall to mind the fact, that when we address a person at a considerable distance, (suppose for in- stance in asking a question,) we not only speak louder, but raise the pitch of the voice. If the distance is extreme, we use the highest pilch of which the voice is capable. The sound is shrill, and the more shrill it is, the farther is it heard. Hence the appropriate key for large audiences is gov- erned, in the first place and principally, by the distance of the most remote portion. But sound travels rather slowly through the air. It requires an appreciable period of time, for a syllable to reach the ex- tremity of the largest audiences. Greater force, must therefore be given to the impulse, or the sound-waves of the air will die away before reaching the required distance. Now the greater the force, the more fatiguing the exertion, and consequently the slower the repetition of the effort. Hence the more distant the auditor, the slower is the utterance. In hallooing to a person at the distance of a quarter of a mile or more, the utterance becomes a slow and prolonged cry. It may seem surprising that we speak of making ourselves intelli- gible for more than a quarter of a mile, but the strongest voices may be distinctly understood for more than half a. mile. Irving, in his Astoria, mentions that this fact has been observed among our western Indians. In addressing the largest audiences, then, each syllable is prolonged, and their succession is slow. A speech that requires an hour for delivery in the open air, may be deliberately read aloud to a parlor audience in fifteen minutes. Sermons that require half an hour for delivery from the pulpit, may be read to a family in half that time. A natural delivery will therefore require, both a higher key and a slower utterance, in proportion to the size of the audience. 172 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. An unnaturally low key as the prevailing pitch, may indeed be made audible over a large space, by increased exertion, or by a monotonous drawl, but the effect will be as disagreeable as the effort is strained and unnatural. There is an apparent exception to this statement, in that de- livery which is characterized by great depth of emotion and im- pressiveness of manner. In such cases, however, it is the great energy and extreme slowness of the utterance, that compensate for the absence of a high pitch ; these are never exhibited ex- cept when the speaker is deeply interested, and makes a strongly impassioned appeal. If his delivery is simply didactic or famil- iar, his voice naturally rises. The question however will occur, how is it that some men speak with great rapidity, and yet succeed in making themselves intelligible to large audiences? This is effected principally by means of that familiar energy which owes its liveliness and spirit to a very strong accent. Accent in such cases, is given by radi- cal stress upon all, and especially upon the principal syllables. This sudden and expulsive effort of the vocal organs gives an impulse to the sound-waves of the air, which makes them move more rapidly, and causes the sounds to reach the required dis- tance in less time. We shall find however, that even such speakers do not utter as many words in the same period of time, when addressing large assemblies, as when speaking to smaller ones. Their delivery, being characterized by more of the tone of conversation, is in fact less rapid than it appears to be. The rule, then, for adapting the voice to the size of an audience, is to trust confidently to the natural instinct which enables a person to adapt his voice to different distances in conversation. If an unpractised speaker fails at any time of being heard, let him take more pains in his next effort, and afterwards in- quire of a friend how he has succeeded. After one or two ECHO OF ROOMS. 173 such inquiries, it will need but little experience to enable him to place full confidence in his own judgment. Attitude and Gesture should also be adapted to the size of the audience. The rules for this are simple. The farther off the more distant part of the hearers, the more erect will be the speaker's natural attitude, in or- der that the countenance and eye may easily address them. The higher also will the arm be raised, that the palm of the hand may appeal to them in gesture. When the audience is small and very near the speaker, his bo- dy, in earnest address, bends forward at the hips, that he may look them full in the face, while for a similar rea- son, the arm in gesture is somewhat lowered. See p. 41. ADAPTATION TO ECHO OF ROOMS. It is universally known that some rooms are more favorable than others for both speaker and hearer. Any room, however, is better than the open air. The walls and ceiling even of the worst, assist the speaker by rendering his voice more musical, and therefore more expressive in its tone. They produce an effect similar to that of the sounding board of a piano, not only in this respect, but also in causing less strength to be required for mere audibility. Even music will sound tame and spiritless in the open air, unless the instru- ments are of great power and played with energy. This is one of the principal reasons why military bands at the present day make almost exclusive use of brass instruments. A well constructed room assists the voice by its reverberation, and an artist in delivery may be considered as one who makes joint use of two instruments for operating on his audience, viz. his voice and an echoing room. Such a room gives a reverbe- ration strong and distinct, but not so rapid as to make one echo mingle with another, and thus produce a confusion of sounds. 174 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. Rooms which are difficult or disagreeable to speak in, are of two kinds. 1st. The reverberation may be too feeble. In this case the voice sounds more or less as in the open air. It seems dead and inexpressive, and the speaker is apt instinctively to exert himself more than is necessary, even when he is only aiming to be distinctly and easily heard. Clergymen for this reason complain of such rooms, that they are hard and fatiguing to speak in, and say they find it difficult to fill them. If the room be small, this complaint proceeds from a mistake made by the speaker's ear he being accustomed to hear a reverberation, by which he is guided in judging whether his voice is audible. But if large, he is really required to fatigue himself by great exertions, to attain his object. In such a case, if the speaker wishes his voice to sound ex~ pressive and interesting, it is absolutely necessary that he use far greater stress of voice and enunciation, than in a room of the same size, which has a stronger reverberation. He must be guided by the actual sound of his voice in the room, and if speaking in one very unfavorable, sometimes needs to make ex- hausting efforts to produce a satisfactory effect. On the other hand, the echo in some rooms is rapid and mul- tiplying. Being several times repeated, great confusion of sounds results. Not only are there several reverberations of a single syllable, or of a note in music, but each is so quick, that one does not die away before the next syllable or note succeeds, causing both sounds to be mingled together. Such rooms make a speaker appear to have a very indistinct articulation, and when so situated, he must proceed with a careful slowness, and a studied regularity of rhythm. By adapting his voice ac- curately in these respects, his articulation will sound distinct and clear, instead of confused and obscure. He must also guard against being too loud. Too great strength of voice will produce a reverberation too powerful. ECHO OF ROOMS. 175 Tt is by means of the echo, that a practised speaker knows when his voice tills the room. Many persons, who think they have been speaking with great loudness, are surprised when told that they were not readily heard. This mistake proceeds from their attention having been occupied by the physical ex- ertion they were making in the throat, instead of listening to the sound of their voices in the room, and the consequent re- verberation. This habit of doing nothing more than watch one's own internal efforts, is fatal to success, and indeed to mere ease of speaking. In strong delivery there is, likewise, a ringing or crash of the speaker's voice about his own ears, which in fact proceeds from a vibration of the bones in his head, and which is rather disagreeable if he suffers his attention to be occupied with it. This also causes some to mistake as to the degree of loudness which they actually employ. Let the speaker turn his atten- tion wholly away from such bodily sensations, and listen, as it were, to his voice after it has issued from him, observing how it sounds in the distance. By attending to this point, he will soon learn to judge how it actually sounds to others, and espe- cially to those at some distance from him. If he adapts his voice well to a room that is large yet favorable, it is pleasanter for an auditor to be at some distance from him ; and the com- mon habit of preferring the nearest seats, is owing to the pre- vailing carelessness of speakers in regulating their voices. Young men when practising elocution, often complain of the disagreeable sound of their voices in an empty room. Perhaps some of their companions may be present, and declare their speaking not to be loud enough, while on the other hand, they either assert that their voices sound too loud to themselves, or complain of the echo. The above considerations explain both these mistakes. When the voice is accurately adapted to a room, there will be no confusion of echo, even if the loudness is absurdly great. The presence or absence of an audience, 176 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. makes no difference in this respect. The only difference re- sulting from the presence of numerous auditors, is that the re- verberation is less strong, and that generally there is more or less of a rustling noise from an assembly both which circum- stances deaden the sound of the speaker's voice, and make the reverberation less perceptible. The greatest difficulty that speakers have to encounter from an audience, results from the carelessness of those who enter the room with a loud tread. The strength of even the weakest human voices, is greater than seems to be generally known. It was necessary for a Greek actor to be able to make himself distinctly audible to thir- ty thousand people, and that too in a theatre without a roof. We have never met with a voice, where there has been no dis- ease of the throat or lungs, which was not capable, after a little cultivation, of filling the largest audience rooms, and that too without a disagreeable effort. ADAPTATION TO RESTLESS AUDIENCES, The most common difficulty in this respect, proceeds from the entrance of a number of persons after the speaker has com- menced his address. The only remedy is to employ such a de- gree of deliberate force and distinctness, as shall reach to the very extremity of the room, and immediately attract the atten- tion of those who are just entering. When an audience is noisy from restlessness or inattention, the chief means for stilling it will be, to alternate passages of force, power and energy of delivery, with those of low, distinct and impressive tones. In such a situation, the most important quality for a speaker is steadiness and deliberate self-possession. If he exhibits a sort of nervous excitement, the audience will grow more noisy from sympathy. A marked and pointed style of address, likewise, and especially a striking emphasis, are of- ten necessary. At the same time, a forcible and very distinct articulation should be invariably used in such circumstances. SELF POSSESSION. 177 A speaker ought always to consider his delivery in fault, if his audience are not still and attentive, no matter how uninter- esting to them may be his ideas or language. The nervous systems both of men and brute animals, are constructed with an express adaptation to the influences of the human voice. The striking force and earnestness which we instinctively employ to command animals, children and servants, and which in a less degree we use in conversation, when we are determined to be attended to, are familiar instances. Skillful speakers feel conscious of the same power over audien- ces, whatever style of address be most appropriate for the sub- ject and occasion. CHAPTER IX. SELF MANAGEMENT. THE subjects to be considered in the present chapter, must be ranked among the General Habits of Delivery, yet cannot conveniently be classed with any of the previous topics. With a partial exception in reference to the Melody of Speech, they depend not so much on natural and uncultivated instincts of utterance, as on that self consciousness and power of intention- ally regulating and directing our natural impulses, which is the most distinguishing characteristic of cultivated and disciplined minds. The topics of the chapter are self control and stead- iness in speaking ; the manner of beginning an address ; the manner of concluding ; and what is called by Dr. Rush, the melody of speech. SELF POSSESSION. Self control in speaking ought not to be considered as exclu- sively dependent on natural organization and turn of charac- 16 178 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. ter. Those who are constitutionally bold on ordinary occasions, are often most liable to embarrassment and confusion in public speaking; while retiring and diffident, but thoughtful minds, are more frequently prompted to enthusiasm by the presence of an audience. The self possession of a speaker is, in fact, pro- portioned to the inward activity of his mind. Those who are habitually the sport of external impulses, have nothing to steady them when these are new and embarrassing ; but the more re- flecting and meditative, become outwardly calm by means of in- tense mental activity within. Though practical delivery requires a sympathy with the audi- ence, yet this is but a secondary rather than a primary object of attention. Even merely ad captandum speaking is no ex- ception. True enthusiasm either of thought or imagination, is self excited and self encouraged. Without such indepen- dence of external impulses, there cannot indeed be any de- livery that shall be either worthy of applause, or of sufficient interest even to excite disapprobation. Though actors are sup- posed (probably falsely) to be more dependent on approbation than speakers, yet even their principal reliance is on genial im- pulses and inward consciousness of power. But the very practice of speaking cultivates habits of self possession. Improvement in this requisite, keeps pace uni- formly with progress in all the other qualities of a good delivery. Not only the mental but the bodily habits acquired, contribute to this desirable result. No separate lessons or rules are needed, for attaining self possession, farther than the general direction to prac- tise intense thought, and give free play to the imagina- tion and feelings. If the constitutionally nervous still wish for further directions, let them, when in danger of becoming con- fused, always resort to deliberate force and energy. MODE OF BEGINNING. 179 Though direct acts of self command may not be in their power, yet they will experience no difficulty in making strong and energetic efforts, a short perseverance in which will soon bring their faculties under their own control. When lawyers are hindered by embarrassing interruptions, they commonly resort to loud tones or strong declamation. From the instinctive effort which they thus make to free them- selves from embarrassment, and facilitate their onward progress, we may derive a useful hint for students of elocution. At the close of the volume, additional suggestions will be of- fered, under the head of Extemporaneous Speaking. MANNER OF BEGINNING AN ADDRESS. This part of delivery often occasions needless apprehensions. Practical extemporaneous speakers also, when beginning to speak, sometimes exhibit either an apparently affected slowness and hesitancy, or an obscure mumbling, which seems equally unnecessary. Many of them indulge themselves, when first commencing, in awkward and lounging attitudes, and various little acts which serve the purpose of occupying time until their voices have grown clear and their articulation firm. There is no actual necessity, however, for exhibiting impro- prieties of delivery at the beginning, more than during any sub- sequent part of a discourse. The very first word that is spo- ken, ought to be accurately adapted to the room, in reference to the necessary degree of audibility, distinct articulation, and an appropriate style of address. It is a mistake to suppose, that the commencement of an ad- dress must in all cases be with a subdued loudness. Though this is generally required, yet if the sentiments and language in the first part of the address be bold and abrupt, the delivery ought to correspond. It is also a very prevalent fault, even 180 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. among able speakers, to waste unnecessary time in exordiums, which are made more for their own gratification, than that of the hearers. As however in most cases the tone with which a good speak- er begins, should be different for a short time, some directions may be useful in reference to acquiring suitable habits. All that is really necessary for this purpose, is to cul- tivate the habit of withdrawing the mind in some de- gree from the audience, when beginning to speak, and concentrating it on the train of thought that the speak- er intends to follow. This act puts the mind more or less into a musing state a state which produces a tone of thoughtfulness. The tone thus will be less loud and exciting than that which will soon follow. As the mind is occupied (at least in part) with the train of thought, rather than merely with the few first words of the address, the voice exhibits a tone of prepa- ration, which is in fact the only essential requisite for this part of delivery. It is not difficult to analyze this preparatory tone, and show what modifications of voice unite to produce it. It will how- ever be more useful for the student, to secure the habit of ex- hibiting it, by practising the mental acts from which it proceeds, than to endeavor to master such subtle distinctions, by efforts that are merely vocal. Still farther, while actually uttering the first two or three words, the mind of the speaker should be as it were scarcely conscious of them, but on the contrary, should look forward to words of more force and empha- sis, which are soon to succeed. MODE OF CONCLUDING. 181 Such more important words may occur very soon, or not till after several phrases or even sentences. For unpractised speakers, the more abrupt the commence- ment, and the sooner an emphatic word occurs, the easier, in the first part of a discourse, is the speaking. Though by following the above directions, the speaker will exhibit an appropriate moderation, thoughtfulness and tone of preparation, yet care must be taken that the voice be not ab- stract and inexpressive. The tone of address should be decidedly manifest, while the delivery, as just stated, must be accurately adapted to the size of the audience. At the commencement of an address, it is improper to ex- tend the arm in gesture at the moment of uttering the very first words. Yet if this be done, it is rather a violation of English and American custom, than a fault in natural action. A more appropriate habit, however, for students of elocution, is to sub- stitute graceful inflexions of the body in place of gestures with the hand. One more caution. Let the student be careful not to begin in a hurried manner. If a bow precedes, let it be, as already directed, deliberate, and not succeeded by the voice until after a slight pause. As extreme nervousness is apt to produce a confused haste, such as are subject to it will do well to endeav- or to occupy as much time as possible, while speaking the in- troductory portion of a discourse. MANNER OF CONCLUDING AN ADDRESS. This subject has been in part anticipated by our remarks and examples under the head of cadence. To be able to wind off gradually and with grace or impres- siveness, requires that the voice shall have been practised in de- scending with steady firmness from its middle to its lowest notes, 16* 18*2 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. and that habits of self control and collectedness of mind in speaking, shall have become thoroughly established. As there is a tone of preparation for subsequent force and power, which characterizes an appropriate mode of beginning, so there is a marked modification of manner which warns the hearers that the speaker is drawing to a close. The mental act from which it results, is that of look- ing forwards, and accurately calculating one's approxi- mation to the actual close, while at the same time there is a sense of the propriety of giving a corresponding warning to the hearers. It is not advisable to enter into a complete and scientific anal- ysis of all the modifications of the voice which result. The most important to be known are the following. The rate of utterance is more slow. The syllables are more prolonged. The voice descends by successive stages from phrase to phrase. The phrases also become shorter, and are separated by longer pauses. Though just before the end, there generally oc- curs a phrase on which the voice must suddenly rise again, yet the rise will not be so high as it would be if a new paragraph were to be introduced. After such a rise, the final sentence or phrase is very low lower than that which immediately preceded the higher phrase. The delivery is generally less pointed and explanatory, and inclines more to the meditative mood. As the voice descends lower and lower in pitch, its tone must be made firm and strong, or the delivery will become faint and inefficient. The worst fault that can be exhibited in concluding an ad- dress, is that of suffering the voice, after the tone of winding DIATONIC MELODY. 183 off has been entered upon, to rise too high in pitch, and at the same time proceed in that more lively and familiar manner, which causes the hearers to suppose that the speaker is not in fact near the close, but is proceeding to add still further re- marks. This disappointment is extremely disagreeable, and if, as is sometimes done, the fault is repeated two or three times, the hearers may lose patience, and cease to give further atten- tion. In very many instances, when a discourse is complained of for being too long, the complaint originates, not in the actu- al length, but in this repeated expectation of a close, and sub- sequent disappointment. THE DIATONIC MELODY OP SPEECH. This was first described by Dr. Rush, to whose work, or to the briefer treatise of Prof. Day, we must refer for a full and sci- entific account of it. With respect however, to the examples given in the latter work, in illustration of different varieties of melody, those who consult it must bear in mind, that its author has intentionally avoided deciding positively, as to the strict ap- propriateness of one melody rather than another, for various passages in respect to which there may exist differences of taste. A general description of the diatonic melody may be given as follows. Take any one phrase, clause or sen- tence, in which there occurs no sudden change of the course of thought or expression, and the voice either continues on the same line of pitch, or rises and falls gradually and by very small distances between succes- sive syllables. A sudden and wide transition of pitch is made only when it is necessary to give a marked and distinctive emphasis, or a sudden change of expression. 184 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. If a course of thought flows evenly along, with fullness of lan- guage, and in a style destitute of striking and pointedly emphatic words, an agreeable delivery will run in the diatonic melody. In such a case, to make wide changes of pitch on words which require no emphatic inflexion, will have the effect of introducing an emphasis or a change of expression where none is wanted. Hence no direction is required for enabling a reader or speaker to exhibit this natural quality of speech, farther than never to make a sudden change of pitch on a word, unless for some definite reason in reference to emphasis or expression on that particular word. As this melody is one of the natural habits of the voice, it ought to be exhibited independently of study and practice particularly directed to its acquisition. Yet its description has justly been considered one of the most valuable of the contributions made by Dr. Rush to elocution. Before the publication of his work, it was very common to ob- serve that those who took especial pains to read with an agree- able animation, were in the habit of arbitrarily skipping up and down in pitch, without reference to appropriate emphasis, and thus not only injuring materially the grace and dignity of their reading, but obscuring the sense and natural expression of the language. Some writers seem to suppose that this plain melody is not heard in lively and familiar conversation. We think their opin- ion unfounded. The error results from not distinguishing the unemphatic from the emphatic portions of sentences uttered in such conversation. The more frequent and striking the em- phatic changes of pitch, the more indeed is the plain diatonic melody broken in upon, yet still all but a few of the syllables proceed as above described. There is indeed, a certain vul- gar liveliness of manner sometimes heard in conversation, which constitutes a true exception to the general fact which we assert. This is not however exhibited by those who converse in an agreeable style. DIATONIC MELODY. 185 An instance occasionally, though rarely occurs, in which it is the natural tendency of a person's voice to proceed in a melody of wider intervals, and thus have a tone of banter or mockery, even on the most serious occasions. A speaker who is so un- fortunate as to have a voice of this sort, is liable to appear strangely undignified and incapable of serious earnestness. The tone of the Irish peasantry, which seems to us in this coun- try so unnatural, and to have an expression of so much confus- edriess of feeling, is owing to the fact that it runs in a melody of thirds instead of seconds, and exhibits the vanishing instead of the radical stress. We have no provincial tones in the United States as strongly marked as those of Great Britain and Ireland, in which countries they are often characterized by oddity of melody. Those who wish to study the voice in a strictly scientific man- ner, must acquire a knowledge of music sufficient to enable them to investigate the diatonic melody in its theory and accu- rate analysis. For the purposes of the present treatise, it will be most useful, simply to mention that a liability to violate its principles in practical reading and speaking, will certainly be prevented by the course of lessons which we have prescribed. When the speaker has been sufficiently accustomed to hearty and sincere efforts in the open air, and in large rooms, his voice habitually proceeds in this melody, in precisely the same degree as it becomes capable of ex- pulsive energy, slowness, prolongation, a grave, full tone, and a bold and commanding emphasis and expression. By the same practice also, the odd voices which we have just described, lose their unfortunate peculiarity, and become digni- fied and graceful. Before dismissing this subject, it should be stated that there are two important exceptions to the universality of the diatonic melody in natural speech. First, interrogative and conditional 186 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY. sentences, as will be explained in part second of this treatise, run in a melody of thirds or fifths. Secondly, the tones of irony, sarcasm, sneering, mockery, and other such expressions, are always in a melody strongly marked by wide intervals. In this we see the explanation of the peculiar impression made by the above mentioned odd voices. Let the student try the utter- ing of sentences with either of these expressions, and he will be able to distinguish that his voice skips by wide intervals up and down in pitch, and proceeds, as it were in waving, curling and twisting tones. The general run indeed, (to use technical lan- guage,) is in waves of thirds and fifths. 187 PART II. EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. GREAT injustice would be done to elocution, if its principles should not be more fully explained than has been done in the preceding part of this treatise. All may indeed become prac- tical speakers, by means of the explanation there given of the general facts in regard to the natural action of the mind and body in public delivery, but cultivated minds can never rest sat- isfied, without a knowledge of a set of principles founded more on laws of thought and language. We must endeavor to furnish at least an outline of the physi- ology of speech, in reference to the principles by which words are united into groups and phrases, and receive different inflex- ions and varying degrees of force, for the purpose of exhibiting the exact meaning of sentences. It is obvious that Articulation and Pronunciation, ought not to be classed with these topics. They concern words taken singly, and are not affected by the various relations of sentences, or parts of sentences, to each other. The Grouping of Words, we have indeed partially described, as a physiological law producing one of the general habits of all utterance, but have reserved its more scientific and accurate description for this part of our volume. There will be no prac- tical inconvenience however, from the slight repetition which thus becomes unavoidable. Emphasis has been considered merely in reference to the general mental and physical exertion by which it is effected. It remains to point out the principal relations of thought which make it necessary. 188 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. Rhythm is one of those general habits of utterance which are entirely independent of the meaning of the language; it has therefore been appropriately placed in the preceding part. Yet as it varies somewhat, according to the peculiar sentiment and expression of what is read or spoken, some further notice will be taken of it in part third. Cadences, which have been already treated of, have a few variations, which produce a greater or less completeness of separation between the end of one sentence and the beginning of the next, and accordingly will receive some further consider- ation in respect to this point, under the head of Inflexion. The topics, then, which properly belong to this part of our treatise, are 1st. Grouping, which is of two kinds; one, that of single words into Groups of Words; the other, that of Groups of Words into Phrases of Utterance. 2. Inflexions. 3. Emphasis. 4. Transition between paragraphs. But before proceeding to treat specifically of these subjects, it is necessary to premise some observations on the connexion be- tween elocution, and the established sciences of grammar and rhetoric, as well as the laws of reasoning. The laws which it is now our province to investigate, are like those in the first part of our treatise, physiological; and though they have a general connection with those of grammar, rhetoric and logic, they cannot entirely coincide with them. Unless the reader or speaker is actuated, either consciously or un- consciously, by a part at least of the laws of these three sciences, there can be no delivery that is any thing more than a mere un- meaning articulation of words. Yet though these sciences treat of the relations of language and of thought, neither of them makes any provision for the pauses, and the various modulations of voice, by which the distinctions which they recognize are to be EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. 189 exhibited to the ear. When we examine a written or printed sentence by the eye, in reference to its grammatical or rhet- orical structure, and to the logical relations of its ideas, we mentally place words in juxtaposition, which are separated from each other by intervening ones. In doing this, we are guided by principles of language and reasoning, and are assisted also by marks of punctuation. So likewise, if we listen to the same composition, delivered with an unvarying drawl, like that of a street crier, we are not able to understand its meaning, except by the same process carried on in our minds as we listen. But if the tones of the delivery are those of free and animated con- versation, nature has provided modifications of the voice, which explain to the listener, with infallible certainty, all the grammat- ical, rhetorical and logical distinctions which he must himself make, when he endeavors to understand the meaning of sen- tences, either in silent reading, or while listening to a senseless style of utterance. The description of these provisions of na- ture, is the province of elocution. Every scientific explanatory distinction, is not however neces- sary for intelligibility in ordinary circumstances ; and though we believe it will be found, on thorough investigation, that they are all provided for in the laws of utterance, yet the mind re- lieves both itself and the body of unnecessary labor, by employ- ing no more resources of the voice than are necessary and con- venient in particular circumstances. The same abridgment and carelessness are tolerated in regard to language. No good style employs every word that is grammatically and logically admissible in reference to the ideas and feelings which the writer intends to convey. Accordingly it is not our plan to exhaust the subject of the variations of the voice by enumerating and describing them all. On the contrary, we shall endeavor to confine ourselves within the limits of practical utility. At the same time, while we shall aim to consider elocution in its natural connection with establish- 17 190 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. ed sciences, especially that of grammar, let not the student appre- hend that it will thus be rendered more abstruse and difficult. Instead of becoming more difficult, it will be rendered easier. The grammatical principles which habitually guide our minds in correct reading or speaking, are likewise our instinc- tive guides in conversation. They are natural laws of mental action, which prompt the utterance of the child and the man, the educated and the illiterate. So far as the mind is concern- ed, the very act of reading or speaking consists, as has been mentioned in the preface, in transferring to itself written or printed words, or those which have been laboriously selected for extemporaneous delivery, in the condition of ideas not completely clothed in language, so that their utterance shall spring from those natural impulses by which we express ideas in articulate words and inseparably associated tones. In fewer words, the mind is to be brought into the same situation, so far as the re- lations of thought are concerned, as that of conversation. If, however, the style of a composition is more complicated and intricate than that which the reader or speaker would himself employ, the difficulties of delivery are really those of readily apprehending the grammar, rhetoric and logic, of all but the simplest passages. A teacher of reading in a school, is in fact occupied principally in familiarizing immature and feeble minds, with such uncommon and difficult forms of construction, as are employed by none but men of superior depth and range of mind, and which are never heard in the domestic circle. This is in- deed the most important of the benefits which result from this branch of instruction in schools. By means of it, that cultiva- tion of mind is attained, which qualifies for understanding and appreciating the most elevated compositions, and which can oth- erwise be acquired, only by a laborious study of language, or by a long and varied course of reading. The writer requests permission to insert an account of the following experiment. Believing that the minds even of young EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. 191 children, may readily be taught to apprehend the most unac- customed forms of construction, if familiarized with them through the medium of their appropriate tones of utterance, he took a class of about twelve little boys in a common school, whose average age was not far from ten years, and drilled them for some time, in reading the whole of the epistles to the Ephesians and Philippians ; books which are more difficult of comprehension, so far as their style is concerned, than any others of the sacred vol- ume. He then requested a scholar distinguished for the ability with which he had commented on a volume of Greek literature, to hear the boys read. The gentleman was deeply interested, and himself entered upon a similar course of mental discipline. When listening to these children, it was easy to perceive the reasons of the occasional mistakes which they made. Such errors gener- ally resulted from connected ideas being separated by interven- ing passages of such length, that the mind of the child forgot what at so considerable a distance had preceded, and read ideas as separate, which required to be joined together. Many of the examples which we shall insert in this part of the present vol- ume, are passages written in periods of extreme length, and re- quire some degree of mental cultivation for their successful management in delivery. This cultivation in reference to ap- prehending the meaning and force of difficult passages, can be infallibly acquired, by no other means than the study of lan- guage in some one of the customary modes. Although children must be taught by mere example and through the medium of sympathy with the mind of the teacher, yet a work for acade- mies and colleges ought to proceed on higher grounds. We shall therefore lay down no principle founded on the mere taste and judgment of an elocutionist, but shall state all the laws of reading in coincidence with knowledge derived from established branches of study. This plan will, as we have just said, be found as much more easy and agreeable, as it is more philo- sophical, and in accordance with regular scholarship. 192 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. CHAPTER I. GROUPS AND PHRASES. IN this chapter we shall present a general account of the principles upon which sentences are divided, in reading, into portions which are separated by pauses. The principles of pauses for the exposition of thought, are evidently the same as those for dividing sentences into groups and phrases. It will be necessary likewise, to make some remarks upon punctuation. The common directions in books of elocution, for subdivi- ding sentences by pauses, are so loose, and yet so difficult of ready application, that teachers, we believe, generally recom- mend their pupils to guide themselves solely by the instincts of the ear. Yet as even young children find it natural and easy to read sentences in small portions with appropriate pauses, it would seem that the principles by which their minds are actu- ally guided must necessarily be simple. The real difficulty in the common directions, seems to arise, not from the fact that they are founded on grammar, but from their application re- quiring that sort of grammatical analysis which is called pars- ing. It is difficult, and indeed almost impossible, for one to carry on a process of parsing, during the glowing progress of the mind which is necessary for animated delivery. Still, much of the instinctive analysis made by a reader, is in accordance with common grammatical principles. The most necessary of these we shall endeavor to explain. We hope the occa- sional employment of a few familiar terms of grammar, will not give a repulsive aspect to the following pages, especially as the examples will be intelligible without any description, and their practice will of itself, and without accompanying com- ment, form the desired habits of mind in delivery. In the pres- ent, as in the previous part of the volume, all that is absolutely PUNCTUATION. 193 necessary in the way of precept, will be printed in a larger type, while such portions will be still fewer than heretofore. It will be noticed, that although we refer to grammatical principles for the purpose of explaining the formation of groups and phrases, yet we never describe them as invariably coinci- ding with particular grammatical combinations. In fact the connexions and separations which are made among words in nat- ural utterance, need not be wholly of the same kind throughout a sentence, as those which are made by grammar. When we analyze a sentence of any length, on grammatical principles, we are continually obliged to consider the relations and con- nexions of words that are separated often to a considerable distance from each other, by intervening words. But in ut- tering the sentence, we must take the words in the order in which they occur. Neither can we be guided exclusively by marks of punctua- tion, however often, or with whatever accuracy, these may be inserted. As we shall immediately proceed to explain, these marks are used according to no fixed and invariable rule. It is impossible that they should be, inasmuch as their use is partly to indicate pauses for the voice, and partly to assist in explain- ing the grammatical connexion of words, in situations where no pauses are made in natural and conversational utterance. Even when inserted with the greatest admissible frequency, they never indicate all the divisions in sentences where pauses are naturally made. The frequency and length of vocal pauses also, can never be reduced to fixed and uniform principles, be- cause they are always influenced in a greater or less degree, by the style of delivery, in respect to calm deliberation or eager excitement in pursuing a course of thought. Yet as it is a very prevalent mistake in school instruction, to regard the common marks of punctuation as intended solely for marking pauses of the voice, it will be well to devote a few words to a consideration of our modern system of such marks. 17* 194 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. The ancients employed no marks corresponding to ours of punctuation, and since their introduction by the moderns, the fashion for inserting them has been constantly fluctuating. Authors generally leave the business to the printers, who ex- hibit a better tact in using them ; yet no two of the latter follow precisely the same rules. A hundred years ago, semicolons, and especially colons, were much oftener employed than at pre- sent. The dash is of later adoption than the other marks, and has not yet been introduced to any great extent, in punctuating the sacred Scriptures, or editions of the ancient classics. Some editors and printers, however, make an extremely frequent use of it, as a substitute for all the others. It seems to be the great difference in construction and arrangement between mod- ern and ancient style, that has led to the adoption of the dash in addition to the comma, semicolon, colon and period. These regular marks were first employed for the Latin language, and have never been used for the Greek, for which a different set was invented. They may be inserted on pretty definite and in- variable principles in the former tongue, and likewise in com- positions in modern languages, when their style is arranged af- ter the classic models. But whatever plan be adopted for their use, they are less necessary for the assistance of the reader, than is generally imagined. The ancients did without them, and the moderns make but little use of them in manuscript. A letter of friend- ship, carefully pointed as if for the press, would appear pedan- tic and in bad taste. It is laid down as an important rule of composition by Blair, never to suffer the construction of a sen- tence to depend on the absence or insertion of a mark of punc- tuation. The fashion of the present day, inclines to use as few of them in books as possible, and to insert commas more than formerly, in place of semicolons. The colon, as employed a hundred or a hundred and fifty years ago, is now generally su- perseded by the period. In short, the whole set of marks is in- PUNCTUATION. 195 tended to indicate a part only of the grammatical divisions, and in very many cases, commas are inserted in situations where a pause is never made in the utterance of ordinary conversation. As the latter fact is not generally known, it may be useful to insert a single example, although scarcely an extract is intro- duced into our volume, which does not afford instances. E. g. " The latest foreign news by the steamer is, that war has been declared in England." In this example the comma, by the in- variable rule of printing, is placed between the copula is, and the conjunction that. The rule admits of no exceptions. Yet in conversation, the pause is invariably before is, instead of af- ter it. The two words is and that are unaccented, and are grouped with whatever words immediately follow. If we pause after is, the word becomes accented, contrary to the genius of our tongue. In Latin, this would not perhaps be the case. The rhythm of that language, like that of the French, would suffer est to receive an accent. In English, the division of the sentence is thus : " The latest foreign news by the steam- er is that war has been declared in England." We have mentioned the comma after is, as the only one in accordance with common custom. It is a vague rule, however, to insert one after the nominative, (i. e. the subject,) when this is long, though how long it must be, no one attempts to decide. Ac- cording to this precept, another comma might be introduced in the above sentence, viz. before is, as well as after it. By rule, also, there may be still an additional one after news; e. g. " The latest foreign news, by the steamer, is, that war has been declared in England." Conversational utterance, however, will always group is with that, leaving a pause at the end of the subject; and if the circumstance " by the steamer" is made important, will separate it from the preceding member likewise by a pause : e. g. " The latest foreign news by the steam- er is that war has been declared in England." 196 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. The mind of a reader, then, may notice all the marks of punctuation, and use their assistance in reference to a quick apprehension of the grammatical structure of sentences; or what is the same thing may employ them as aids in catching the meaning of a passage, at an instantaneous glance of the eye. No reader must however take them as invariable guides for vocal pausing. Dismissing therefore all further consideration of the common marks of punctuation, it remains for us to investigate the actu- al connexions and separations of words that take place in utter- ance, and the consequent pauses that are needed. This sub- ject will be considered under the heads of Groups of Utterance, and Phrases of Utterance. The kngths of the different pauses that separate groups and phrases, can be reduced to no unvarying principles, except when they are determined by the rhythm. Neither does any difficulty ever occur in reference to this point. Phrases are naturally separated by longer pauses than groups. Groups of more than one accent, or compound groups, as they will be called, are often subdivided for mere convenience of breath. The absolute length of any particular pause, perpetually varies in accordance with the slowness of the delivery, or the demands of the rhythm ; and in respect to these, the natural instincts of the ear and voice are infallible guides. The significance of a pause does not often depend on the degree of its length, but is determined by the inflexion and prolongation of tone on the word that immediately precedes it. In speaking, the attitude, look and gesture, likewise, are es- sential to the significance of a pause. The management of the breath, though connected with the length of pauses, is not absolutely dependent on them, as has been already mentioned on page 52. Vide also, pp. 99, 101, 105, 107, 108. PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING. 197 PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING. Among our practical directions, we enjoin as the most impor- tant precept for managing the mind in delivery, " to think in- tensely while speaking." It will be necessary therefore, to in- vestigate in this place so much of the action of the mind in thinking, as immediately influences the voice in utterance. It belongs to elocution as a branch of physiology, to describe the joint action of the mental as well as the vocal impulses, which produce the varying modifications of the voice that occur in the utterance of thought and feeling. Though the first impulses from which thought and reasoning spring, do not exist in the form of words, yet these immediately follow ; and whatever may in some cases be possible, it is un- questionable that we ordinarily think by means of words. Words however, take in the mind the forms, not of written but of spoken language.* Even in silent thought, the words which we employ are imagined as sounds. More especially in uttered thought, words are sounds expressed by articulation, and have as necessary accompaniments the various modifications of the voice which we are investigating. From the account given in the second chapter of Genesis, and from the earliest efforts of children in learning to talk, it would seem that the first act of speech is to articulate names of things ; that is, to employ nouns as the first elements of lan- guage. Some, however, have supposed that verbs must, in the history of language, be of earlier origin than nouns. It will not * When we learn a language, without studying the pronunciation, we still associate some sort of sound with the written characters. If, as in the case of Chinese characters or Egyptian hieroglyphics, we know nothing about their sound, we still associate with them words or phrases which express their meaning in our own tongue. We pro- nounce the written characters by means of our own language. 198 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. be necessary for our purpose to adopt either opinion to the ex- clusion of the other. It is certainly the earliest effort in all speech, to make use of words, which by themselves convey ideas. These words are nouns (including adjectives) and verbs If a noun or verb consists of several syllables, the unity with which the mind regards them collectively, is vocally expressed by means of a strong accent on one of the syllables, as described in the first part of this treatise. This strong effort on one syl- lable, causes the others, by the laws of muscular action, to have a weaker utterance. The mind being more strongly interested in these words of primary importance, they are uttered with more force than those which convey no ideas by themselves, but which are merely subservient to the others. On account of this subserviency, secondary words of speech are united, in the view which the mind takes of them, to the primary ones. This union is repre- sented by the voice, through the medium of such a close junc- tion as admits of no pause between them. The actual words of utterance are what we have called groups, and are often com- pounded of a primary word, and one or more of these secondary ones which have no meaning except in union with the primary. The law of repeated muscular action also, being that of an alternation of stronger and weaker efforts, secondary words are uttered in the weaker action. Thus, as they are weaker, and also united to the stronger primary ones, we have a succession of groups, each of which has a single strongly accented syllable, and is separated from those which precede and follow, by some degree of pause, i. e. by a break in the continuity of articula- tion. We have thus, by a strictly scientific investigation, demon- strated the doctrine of the grouping of speech, which we had before explained and illustrated in a general and popular way. We formerly mentioned however, that numerous exceptions oc- cur to the law, by which the secondary parts of speech are either PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING. 199 monosyllabic and unaccented words, or, if polysyllabic, are ac- cented with less force, and inseparably connected, by grouping, with nouns or verbs. It is necessary to notice these exceptions more carefully. Ordinary speech is always in a considerable degree elliptical and abridged. It is often also irregular in respect to the most logical arrangement of its words. But if speech be made per- fect, by supplying words for every idea, and relation of thought, the law which we have just described will be invariably ob- served. The more complete and regular the style of a written composition, the more simple are the laws of its elocution. In many cases however, this natural grouping is broken in upon, for no other reason than simple physical convenience of utterance. Take for instance such a phrase as, The weather is cloudy ; we have two groups of easy utterance. Lengthen the last group by a monosyllabic adverb, and it still will have but one strong accent, e. g. The weather is quite cloudy. But if the qualifying adverb is a polysyllabic word, and of consider- able length, it will require an accent on one of its syllables to give the word a unity, e. g. The weather is extraordinarily cloudy. Now if we utter this last sentence with particular care in reference to making ourselves understood, the accent which we shall give to the syllable or, will be less strong than that on the ou of cloudy, and by taking breath beforehand, the two words will be uttered at one impulse, and be closely connected. They will thus form no exception to the law of grouping. But if the mind is in a more careless state, and we suffer ourselves to be influenced by mere bodily convenience, the accent on the adverb extraordinarily, may become equally strong with that on the adjective cloudy, and the two words may be dissevered from each other by a pause for convenience of respiration, or for rest on the part of the organs of speech. So too, the adverb may be emphatic, in which case it will be uttered with peculiar force and energy. In the case however, 200 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. of emphatic force on the secondary parts of speech, it is not in fact the ordinary accent of nouns and verbs, by which they are made prominent. Instead of receiving this, they take on that higher energy, which on all words alike, distinguishes accent from emphasis. This will be considered in a subsequent chapter. It was also mentioned in part first, that these secondary words may be divided from those with which they group, by intervening words. E. g. The w&ailier is extraordinarily and disagree- ably cloudy. Or, The weather is to-day extraordinarily cloudy. It will readily however be perceived, that these cases form no true exceptions to the doctrines just stated, respecting the different strength of the two classes of accent. These last examples are likewise very instructive, in refer- ence to the way in which words are united into groups. In the latter, to-day interrupts the connexion between is and the sub- sequent words. This interruption causes is to be united with it, so that is to-dHy becomes in utterance, a polysyllabic word. The principle by which this takes place, is simply one of con- venience of enunciative effort, and has little reference to the meaning. Being unaccented, a pause cannot be made after it without causing it to receive an accent. But in the mean time, as to-day is an intervening circumstance, it is separated from the following words by a pause ; and a single pause answers the purpose as fully as if the circumstance were preceded as well as followed by one. So too, in the other example, the two ad- verbs extraordinarily and disagreeably are separated by a pause from each other, while the latter is separated from the adjective cloudy, by the same means. The result is, that both alike are shown to qualify the adjective, while at the same time one ad- verb does not qualify the other. Both these objects are effec- tually accomplished, although for convenience of utterance, is is inseparably united to the first adverb, while and is in equally close union with the second. PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING. 201 The law of grouping, then, is the following. Words are of two classes ; nouns and verbs, which are strongly accented ; and other parts of speech, which are weakly accented. Words with no accent, or with a weak one, are if pos- sible, united to accented words, according to their con- nexion in meaning. But if they are separated by intervening words, they are united to the first subsequent word that has an ac- cent. Articles and adjectives must be united to nouns ; ad- verbs to verbs; auxiliary verbs to their principals; pro- nouns to verbs, (as nominative or objective cases;) a preposition to a word which it connects ; and a con- junction to one of the two words which it connects, or to the first accented word of the phrase to which it be- longs. Adjectives generally receive an accent equally strong with that upon nouns. If but a single adjective quali- fies a noun, it cannot (unless for emphasis) be separated from it by a pause. When an adjective intervenes be- tween an unaccented word and the noun to which it belongs, the unaccented word groups with the adjective. In the latter case, they all form one group, so far as a pause of meaning is concerned. In rhythm, they often form two groups, because they have two strong accents. In the following examples, the parts of speech in each group are indicated by abbreviations placed over the words. pr. aux. v. v. ad. pr. n. con. n. prep. n. They have united every rank and description of men, prep. art. n. prep. adj. pr. n. by the pressure of this subject. 18 202 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. The next example is the same sentence, with the exception that the last group is divided into three, by the insertion of two adjectives. The separation of the two adjectives from, each other, shows that both belong to the same noun. They have united every rank and description of men, prep. adj. pr. ad. con. ad. n. by the pressure of this grand and momentous subject. We will continue the same passage, and divide the words into the smallest allowable groups. For convenience of print- ing, we shall be compelled to divide the second phrase into three parts, and the last into two. This division, however, will be made by the voice, if the speaking is very slow and strong. con. pr. v. pr. And I tell them, pr. aui. v. v. they will see ad. pr. ad. con. ad. n. every honest and independent man prep. n. in /reland, v. prep. pr. n. rally round her constitution, con. v. ad. pr. n. and merge every consideration, prep. pr. n. in his opposition prep. ad. pr. ad. con. ad. n. to this ungenerous and odious measure. These examples will be abundantly sufficient for illustrating the grammatical principles of grouping. We have taken pains to select such as admit of short groups, and such as have pauses of meaning between them. In some of the examples for prac- tice which we have already furnished, and in many of those PRINCIPLES OP GROUPING. 203 which we shall hereafter present, much longer groups will be found. Groups of extreme length are indeed always divided, in the slowest and strongest speaking, into such small portions as we have now presented. When we do not so divide them, it is because rapid or very glowing delivery would be injured by thus breaking the close connexion. It must be remembered, however, that when two groups are united, though no absolute pause, or total cessation of sound may perhaps occur, yet the regular articulating and rhythmical pauses must come in. For the description of these, the student is requested to turn back before leaving this section, to p. 138, in the chapter on rhythm. In this part of our treatise we shall indicate mere ar- ticulating and rhythmical pauses, by a hyphen placed in a wider space between the words. To the statement that nouns and verbs take the strong ac- cent, there are certain exceptions, which need to be noticed. Many monosyllabic verbs of the most common occurrence, in very frequent instances, and especially in familiar and rapid delivery, take the weak accent. The same is also true of a few which have two syllables. These verbs are such as see, know, come, go, make, bring, put, seem, think, deem, &c. also, be- come, suppose, appear, and others. A few nouns likewise are often used in the same way. The principal are man and men. The first two phrases of our last example afford instances of this principle in reference to the verb see, and the noun man. We will reprint them with the grouping of rapid delivery. And I tell them \ they will see every honest and independent man in Ireland, But when groups are made of such length, the speaker's ar- ticulation is apt to be indistinct, unless he has well established habits of accuracy in respect both of articulation and rhythm. If, on the other hand, his habits in these respects are of the 204 EXPOSITION OP THOUGHT. most perfect kind, the whole of this second phrase may be ut- tered with merely two articulating or rhythmical pauses and at one impulse of the voice. This may even be done without a hurried degree of rapidity. In impassioned argument or sen- timent, such fusing of the groups, when executed with perfect distinctness, often produces a glowing and captivating effect. As we shall explain, in a subsequent section, strong emphasis sometimes in glowing or vehement delivery, fuses groups to- gether and makes them very long. In the following example, the word defendant is used like a pronoun, and indeed the pron. he, might with propriety be sub- stituted for it. In the same example we have likewise the verbs forced and become, uttered with a weak accent, on account of the strong emphasis which follows each. \ Yes, gentlemen, \ the defendant has forced the PRESS, \ to become the disturber - of domestic QUIET. Groups that are grammatically subdivided by an articulating pause, we shall call compound groups. We shall distinguish them in the mode of printing, by employing a hyphen placed in a somewhat wider space. PHRASES OF UTTERANCE. We have seen that words are united into groups by two prin- ciples. First, they may be so essentially connected in gram- mar, that without such union each word of the group, except the accented one, would be destitute of meaning. Secondly, when such union is prevented by an intervening word or words, unaccented words are united to the first subsequent one that has an accent this union being not grammatical, but rhythmical. It has also been seen that groups may be compounded, so that a considerable number of words are uttered with one im- PHRASES. 205 pulse of the mind and voice, as if they were one extremely long word ; the whole collection having a unity given to it, by the ardor of the mind in setting forth the relations of thought. On principles precisely similar, the union of groups forms phrases of utterance. The former being so far as utterance is concerned the words of discourse, their union into grammat- ical clauses forms phrases, which being considered each as a whole, are uttered with one continuous act. The reason for using the term phrase, instead of giving them the same appel- lation which they receive in grammar, is, that although a clause is always a grammatical whole, yet in delivery it may often be divided into two or more parts, for the sake of dwelling on each with a more earnest enforcement of its importance. We apply the term phrase, then, to such a portion of a sen- tence as is delivered with one earnest look, attitude and ges- ture, and with that tone of continuity in the voice which ex- presses a short course of thought, and one of such a kind, that the mind prepares for its utterance beforehand, and rests mo- mentarily after it. If the style of a discourse be faultless, and the delivery not only rapid and familiar, but without force or earnestness, the phrases of utterance will invariably coincide with the grammat- ical clauses of the periods. No matter how long these may be, each will be uttered with one continued progress of the voice. An instinctive effort will likewise be made to utter each during a single expiration. If breath be taken in the course of one of them, it will be done so quickly, that the reader or speaker will be unconscious of the act. It is this natural effort to read a clause at a breath, for the sake of exhibiting the meaning, that causes unskillful persons to complain generally of long periods as being fatiguing to read. Coleridge, when ridiculing the fashion prevalent in the latter part of the last century, for writing in very short periods, speaks of such styles of composition as being calculated for short-wit- 18* 206 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. ted intellects and asthmatic lungs. Unpractised readers, for the same reason, incline to read long clauses and sentences faster than short ones. One of the earliest things to be learned in reading or speak- ing, is to acquire the power of keeping the unity of clauses clearly and steadily present to the mind, while at the same time the physical act of delivery is rendered deliberate and easy, by pauses of such length and frequency, as prevent any degree of hurry or fatigue, tt requires, however, considerable mental discipline, and at least some experience in delivery, to manage a composition written in a diffuse style and in periods of great length, in such a way that the sense shall be exhibited with perfect clearness, while at the same time the elocution shall be as deliberately slow and impressive as if the sentences were ve- ry short, and each with a full cadence at the end. Yet this skill must be acquired, and its acquisition is not so difficult as would at first be supposed. It is easy to acquire it, because nothing more is needed, than to practise in reference to written composition, what every one exhibits in conversation ; it being as essential to the very na- ture of language, as is the articulation of single words. The principles which form clauses are few and simple, and are ex- emplified by children as perfectly as by men of the most com- prehensive intellects. Each clause generally begins with some connecting word, which at once indicates the grammatical ar- rangement that is to follow. The mind of the reader sets out at the beginning of the clause, with a clear apprehension of what will be the subsequent construction ; which construction continues till the end of the clause. Independent of punctua- tion, the end is shown by the very fact, that not until arriving at it, do the words of the clause form a complete construction. The next clause then begins with a similar warning to the mind, and so on throughout the whole course of the period. In this way, there is no real necessity at leas't in the case of a well PHRASES. 207 arranged style for the moderns, any more than for the ancients, to depend on marks of punctuation. Neither is it necessary, as unpractised readers so often suppose, to read over the sen- tence beforehand, or to keep the eye several words in advance of those which the voice is actually uttering. The construc- tion of a sentence is always grossly incorrect, when in reading it, the mind is taken by surprise at the end, and finds the mark for a period when it had not anticipated one, or some grammat- ical arrangement different from what the previous part of the sentence had led the reader to expect. We have said that the mind is guided in anticipating the construction, by particular words (in most cases those which are called in grammar connectives, such as conjunctions and relatives) at the beginning of each clause. Often, however, it is not so much any particular word, as a very plain and obvious grammatical arrangement, which, even for the feeblest minds, needs no indicating word. This is the case with the great pri- mary division of all sentences into subject and predicate. The nominative independent with a participle, or case absolute, as it is more properly called, is also another instance, of perpetual occurrence. This general description of the manner in which the mind is infallibly guided in reading at sight, we have in most cases found sufficient for practical purposes, when perpetually illus- trated by the voice of the teacher. But in a work like the pre- sent, the most common and important, at least, of the gram- matical forms of chuses and phrases, ought to be enumerated and illustrated by examples. This we shall proceed to do. We must first, however, consider the question, what constitutes the distinction between a phrase and a group. Though as already mentioned, it is natural to endeavor to read the whole of any one clause, no matter what may be its length, with a single continuous effort of the mind and voice, yet convenience of utterance often requires them to be divided. 208 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. Slowness and earnestness of delivery, likewise, will cause the mind to dwell upon the parts of a subdivided phrase, with a to- tal absorption for the time in the feeling of the importance of each such an absorption as causes it, momentarily at least, to forget every part of the discourse except the portion that it is uttering. In correspondence with this state of the mind, an entire and complete effort of voice, breath, attitude and gesture, will be expended solely on this shorter portion. A single group may thus become an entire phrase. We find therefore, that the laws according to which short grammatical collections of \vords are to be considered phrases rather than groups, are not definite and invariable; depending as they do, on the degree of slowness and earnestness of the whole delivery, which are qualities incapable of being reduced to precise rules. The distinction is a physiological and not a grammatical one.* In some of the examples hitherto given, phrases have been subdivided for no other reason than the necessity of accommo- dating them to the width of a duodecimo page. In the present chapter, whenever a grammatical clause, strictly makes one phrase, yet on account of its length requires to be subdivided, the several phrases will be inclosed by a bracket. As a con- clusion, from the above remarks, we may define a phrase of ut- terance as follows. A phrase of utterance is an entire grammatical clause of a sentence, or such a portion of a clause as is uttered in a single prolonged act of delivery. A phrase may consist of a single group of words, or be made up of two or more such groups. * The case is similar in regard to the question, what length is allowa- ble for an entire line or verse in poetry? Even Hermann, after all his immense labor to reduce the laws of meter to a science, has not been able, in answer to this question, to refer to any more exact standard than the natural length of an expiration in breathing. PHRASES. 209 The pauses and inflexions of the voice at the ends of phrases, separate them distinctly and definitely from each other. Each phrase has also throughout its whole course, its own appropriate and peculiar style of vocal modulation. When phrases are made up of distinct groups, the in- terruptions of vocal continuity which separate the groups from each other, are not as strongly marked as those which occur at .the end of phrases. The actual pauses, or total cessations of sound, which take place between groups, may always in rapid deliv- ery be omitted, or changed into mere articulating and rhythmical pauses. Subdivided clauses, may in the same way be united into a single phrase, by a change in the style of delivery. But as long as the delivery continues in the same style, phrases must never be united together, though it is al- lowable to do so in the case of groups. A correct delivery of phrases depends on care and in- tentional effort of the mind, at the time of uttering the phrase. But grouping is a general habit in delivery, which re- quires no particular care after the habit is formed. The mind of a reader or speaker, is guided in divid- ing sentences into phrases, by plain and obvious gram- matical constructions, the neglect to observe which, would prevent the sentence from conveying any mean- ing. At the beginning of most phrases, a warning is also given by the occurrence of some word, which indicates that a new phrase is coming, and likewise shows what will be its construction. Whenever no such warning 210 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. word occurs, the construction is always (if the style be correct) so obvious as to need none. We now proceed to describe and exemplify the most com- mon and important grammatical constructions which charac- terize clauses, and which guide readers and speakers, in pro- ceeding by successive steps of phrases of utterance. The first and most common, is the fundamental one of subject and predicate. This has been abundantly exemplified in the first part of the volume, for the purpose of simplifying the general explanation of Emphasis. Instead of furnishing additional examples in this place, it will be better to refer back to pp. 109 to 112, where the divisions are exclusively in accordance with this distinction. In most of those examples, each subject and each predicate forms a phrase by itself. Sometimes however, the subject is merely a pronoun, in which case it is grouped with the first ac- cented word of the predicate, and the whole forms a phrase. On p. 112, are examples of subj. and pred., being equally em- phatic, and when each is short, the sentence is printed in one line. Such lines however, are strictly composed of two phrases. Yet if the subject does not form a phrase by itself, it always constitutes a distinct group, unless it is a pronoun, or a repeated noun used as a pronoun. An example of the last case has been lately furnished in the section on grouping, at p. 204. The question whether the pause between the subject and predicate is sufficient to constitute them distinct phrases, of course depends on either the length or the importance of the one or the other. If the subject is very long, or is emphatic, it forms a distinct phrase. The same principle applies to the predicate. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE, 211 The first two lines on p. 110, will make one long phrase, or will be divided into two, according to the degree of deliberate force and earnestness of the delivery. The remainder of the extract furnishes two instances of short predicates, which will in a similar manner be uttered in the same phrase with their subjects, unless the delivery be very slow. In this way, the whole extract may be uttered in six phrases, as there presented, or, more rapidly, in three. The division between these two essential parts of every sen- tence may exist under forms of construction different from the common one to which we have just referred, and with various connecting words. Yet these differences are attended with no difficulty in regard to immediate apprehension. We will illus- trate the following cases. It frequently happens that the predicate clause of a sentence has the pronoun it for its immediate subject, while the true subject follows in a succeeding clause. In most such cases the second clause either begins with the conjunction that* or commences with an infinitive mood. In the following example, the second and third phrases are subjects commencing with that. may be one thing, < Let it be once understood, {that your government and their privileges another ; / [tion. < that these two things may exist - without any mutual rela- Ftion. * We call the word that a conjunction in this and other such cases, in jordance with ordinary school grammar. So throughout the whole >rk, we employ none but the most common grammatical terms. Pred- icate instead of attribute, is now established in schools. EXPOSITION OP THOUGHT. In the following example, the first phrase is a suspending clause ; the second is the predicate, and the third and fourth are subject clauses, commencing with the infinitive mood. / Had Cromwell's ambition I been of an impure, or selfish kind, | it would have been easy for him, {[large scale, to plunge his country into continental hostilities, on a f and to dazzle the restless factions - which he ruled, t by the splendor - of his victories. MACAULAY. [by crimes, < Does it become the duellist, whose life is measured out ( to be extreme to mark, and punctilious to resent, I whatever is amiss in others? Suspending clauses are among the most common forms of phrases. They take two forms ; either that of the case absolute with a participle ; or that of clauses be- ginning with suspending conjunctions or adverbs, such as if, although, when, while, notwithstanding, as long as, and numerous others. These clauses often require to be subdivided according to the distinctions of subject and predicate, circumstance, and other principles by which whole sentences are divided. When they are long, their very length often produces a rhetorical ef- fect of giving great animation and force; a striking instance of which may be observed in the extract on p. 46, beginning with " instead of a long and bloody war," &>c. CIRCUMSTANCE. 213 The following example exhibits a clause formed by the case absolute. Each of the phrases contains a subject and predicate of its own. The campaign being ended, the two - contending - armies retired - from the field. The next exhibits a clause introduced by a suspending ad- verb. It will be observed that the third phrase is the true sub- ject of the second, according to the principle we have last illus- trated. Until public opinion be propitiated, or satisfied, it is in vain for power, to talk either of triumphs or of repose. WEBSTER. A very common principle in the formation of separate phrases, is that of a clause expressing a circumstance. Such generally begin with a preposition. The following passage consists of three sentences, each be- ginning with a circumstance taken out of the predicate and placed first. The next example is of the same construction. The phrases which consist of a circumstance, will be marked by the letter c. c. Under what other auspices than Christianity, have the lost - and subverted - liberties - of mankind, in former ages, been reasserted 1 c. By what zeal, but the warm zeal - of devoted Christians, have English liberties been redeemed and consecrated ? 19 214 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. c. Under what other sanctions, c. even in our own days, have liberty - and happiness f been extending - and spreading, to the utmost corners of the earth ? ERSKINE. c. By doing - our several duties in our allotted stations, we are sure - that we are fulfilling the purposes - of our [existence. ERSKINE. The following sentence begins and ends with a phrase ex- pressing a circumstance. c. With such encouragement, how inexcusable is the negligence, which suffers - the most interesting - and important - truths, to seem heavy and dull, and fall ineffectual, to the ground, c. through mere sluggishness in their delivery. WARE. In the following passage, the clauses of circumstance are of such frequent occurrence, as seriously to clog the flow of the whole, c. From all these symptoms, Columbus was so confident of being near land, c. that, on the evening - of the eleventh - of October, c. after public prayers - for success, CIRCUMSTANCE. 215 he ordered the sails to be furled, and strict watch to be kept, lest the ship should be driven ashore, in the night, c. During this interval - of suspense - and expectation, no man shut his eyes;\ all kept upon deck, f gazing intently [the land, c. j towards that quarter where they expected - to discover - [ which had so long - been the object - of their wishes. c. About two hours - before midnight, Columbus, c. standing on the forecastle, observed a light, at a distance, and privately pointed it out to two of his people. DR. ROBERTSON. NOTE. In giving the above illustrations of phrases formed by a cir- cumstance, it has been thought inexpedient to carry the analysis farther. Upon strict grammatical principles, every clause of this kind, is a part either of the general subject or predicate. In the last example, two of them belong to the subject, and the remainder to the predicate. If how- ever, we distinguish with still more accuracy, the two which belong to the subject, beginning as they do with a participle, are not circumstan- ces, but are, in fact, qualifying clauses. Another grammatical principle of phrases, is that of clauses which express the object of an active verb. These mostly take two forms ; first, they begin with the con- junction that ; % secondly, they commence with an infinitive mood. The examples will illustrate both kinds. 216 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. In the following example, the second clause, beginning with the conj. that, is the object of the active adverb say, in the first clause. For myself, I can truly say, that, after my native land, I feel a tenderness and reverence for that of my fathers. In the next, the second, third and fourth clauses, beginning with the infinitive mood, are the objects of the active verb re- quest. < Let me request you < to rely on the plighted faith of your country, \ to pi ace a full confidence in the purity - and intentions - of [Congress, ' and to assure yourselves that they will adopt the most effectual measures - in their [power, to render ample justice to you, for your faithful and meritorious services. In this last example, the second line of the fourth phrase, be- ginning with that, is another instance of the same principle, being the object of assure in the preceding line. But without any different construction, long predicates are often subdivided into two phrases, on the principle of separating the object of the active verb. This must always be done when the objective case has a qualification appended to it by a relative ; as in the following : APPOSITION. 217 This reasoning exposes to scorn, every argument which would confound - indictments - with [civil actions. In the following sentence, there is an inversion of the com- mon order of arrangement ; the first compound phrase, begin- ning with how, being the object of the active verbs of the two last phrases. It will be observed also, that in subdividing the compound phrase, the second line is the object of vindicate in the preced- ing one. The three lines within an inner bracket, are a com- pound circumstance, having the division of subj. and pred. for the last two lines. How - any man can rationally - vindicate the publication - of such a book - as Paine's Age of Reason, in a country where the Christian religion, is the very foundation - of the law of the land, j I am totally - at a loss to conceive, j and have no wish - to discuss. ERSKINE. Another common principle is that of opposition. This also will often be indicated by that as a conjunction. In the second phrase of the following example, we have the word affidavit as an object of the verb made. In apposition with it, we find the third, fourth and fifth compound phrases each beginning with that. 19* L 218 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. -j Three of the jurors made solemn affidavit, in court, that liquor had been conveyed - into their box;\ that they had been brutally threatened, by some of their [fellow jurors, with capital prosecution, if they did not find the prisoner guilty ; and that, under the impression of those threats, and worn down by watching and intoxication, they had given a verdict of guilty against him, though they believed him in their conscience, to be innocent. CURRAN. In a rhetorical style, however, one of the most common modes of putting clauses in apposition, is that of repeating the same word and following it with a similar construction ; as is exempli- fied by the repetition of all in the first two phrases of the follow- ing passage. The second phrase is subdivided by the two qualifications of the noun minds. The third, fourth and fifth phrases are quali- fications of all, &c., in the first phrase. The last two lines make separate phrases, for the sake of impressiveness in winding off the period. Thus you find all that is great, or wise, or splendid, or il- [lustrious, amongst created beings, !all the minds gifted beyond ordinary nature, if not inspired, by their Universal Author, for the advance- [ment - and dignity of the world, PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION. 219 {though divided by distant ages, and by the clashing opinions distinguishing them - from [one another, yet joining, - as it were, in one sublime chorus, to celebrate - the truths - of Christianity ;\ and laying - upon its holy altars, the never fading offerings of their immortal wisdom. ERSKINE. A parallel construction, which is generally indicated in punctuation by a dash, is occasionally a principle of phrases. The grammatical arrangement may be that of apposition, either of subject or object ; or it may exhibit an ellipsis. Vide pp. 56, 57. The following shows an ellipsis in the last two phrases. The infidel has no conscience no hope to cheer him no punishment to dread. The next illustrates apposition. Upon this, and this only, that he believes there is a just and omnipotent God an intelligent supreme Existence. In this example, the second phrase is in apposition with the first, and the third with the second. Vide pp. 56, 57. It will be noticed that many of our examples are from Ers- kine, the most magnificent orator of the English bar. His style is an admirable illustration of the most natural construction of periods, in glowing extemporaneous delivery. It is a total 220 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. mistake to imagine that free extemporaneous speaking naturally runs in short periods. We will conclude the chapter with a splendid passage, which consists of a single sentence built up by successive phrases perpetually varying in length, and united by the simplest and most obvious constructions. At a time when the charges - against Mr. Hastings were, by the implied consent - of the Commons, in every hand, and on every table ; when, by their managers, the lightning - of eloquence was incessantly consuming him, and flashing - in the eyes - of the public; when every man was, with perfect impunity, saying, and writing, and publishing, just what he pleased, of the supposed plunderer - and devastator - of nations; r \ 4< would it have been criminal in Mr. Hastings - himself? 5 1 to have reminded - the public r \ 6< that he was a native - of this free land, \ 7< entitled - to the common protection - of her justice, 6 \ and that he had a defence, in his turn, to offer to them,\ ' the outlines - of which 9^ . he implored them, in the meantime, to receive, INFLE XIONS. 221 as an antidote to the unlimited and unpunished poison in circulation - against him. ERSKINE. In the above, the commencement of each of the first three phrases is indicated by the word when at the beginning of the fourth, we instantly notice the discontinuance of the repetition of when, and commence the interrogation the relation of the fifth clause to the fourth is indicated by the infinitive mood the relation of the sixth is shown by the conj. that the seventh is in a construction of parallelism with the sixth ; entitled agree- ing with native the relation of the eighth is indicated by its two conjunctions the ninth is connected by a relative the tenth by a conjunction. Guided by such connecting words and constructions at the beginning of each clause, the mind of a reader instinctively di- vides periods of every description into their constituent phrases of utterance. CHAPTER II. INFLEXIONS. IN analyzing the mental acts which take place in utterance, we have found that after conceiving words, and employing them in groups, the next step is to proceed by phrases; each of which forms the whole, or a constituent division of a grammatical clause. These phrases are the actual weapons, so to speak, by which, in delivery, we operate on the minds of auditors. Each con- veys a combination of ideas, or a brief course of thought, which possesses a true unity, and makes but a single impression on the mind. EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. Grammatically considered, their relations to each other are indicated by connecting words, and by constructions which are essential to the very existence of language. But in addition to these, spoken language has certain modifications of the voice, which still farther explain the mutual relations of thought. Such modifications are called inflexions. This term has been understood to designate certain upward and downward turns of the voice in pitch. But when first in- troduced as a technical term, the actual changes of pitch which take place in utterance, had been but imperfectly analyzed; consequently its application has been, even to the present pe- riod, so vague and uncertain, that in a scientific analysis, like that of Dr. Rush, it deserves to be wholly rejected. The ear- lier writers did not know that each syllable of a word has a sep- arate and independent pitch. They supposed that an entire polysyllabic word slides up or down by a continuous progress. For a detailed refutation of this fundamental error, we must refer to the works of Dr. Rush, or Professor Day. The plan of the present treatise being chiefly to explain the natural impulses and effects of the mind, in communicating thought, a complete vocal analysis is unnecessary. In continuing to proceed on this plan, it will be convenient to retain the use of the establish- ed term inflexion. Our present subject is very extensive, comprehending no less than all the turns of voice, which may be employed to express the relations between ideas contained in different clauses of the same sentence. The methods by which ideas may, by inflex- ions, be connected, contrasted and stated in reference to each other, are even more numerous, than the variations in these re- spects, which may be effected by employing different connecting words and grammatical constructions, great as is the number of these. In very many cases, it is not by changing its grammatical construction, that the wording of a sentence can be made to INFLEXIONS. 223 supersede the necessity of inflexions. To accomplish this ob- ject, additional and explanatory words must be introduced. If these are carefully selected and are sufficiently numerous, it is indeed possible to supersede all necessity of explanatory inflex- ions ; but the style of composition will by this process, be liable to become too diffuse and full. What the celebrated critic Jef- frey calls a written style, is distinguished chiefly by having less necessity for inflexions than the more elliptical and irregular construction of extemporaneous oratory, of conversation, and of the drama. It is obvious that a discussion which should undertake to ex- haust the subject of inflexions, would require an entire vol- ume, rather than a single chapter. Rules for invariably appropriating* particular inflexions to certain grammatical combinations, are worse than useless. Not an example can be found in any of the older books of elocution, which may riot with propriety be read in a manner opposite to that which is directed. All that is necessary for so doing, is for the reader to present the idea conveyed by the example, in a different light from that contemplated by the constructor of the rule. It would seem at first sight, as if rules for inflexions ought no more to be needed in reading or speaking, than in conversation. If we understand passages aright, and make instinctive efforts to convey our apprehension of them to others, our voices (if not fettered by previous bad habits) will as infallibly make use of the required inflexions, as our articulating organs will enunciate the words. Still farther, it is no more necessary for us to know what pre- cise changes of pitch our voices exhibit in any one inflexion, than in the case of articulation, to watch the minute changes of position made by the lips, teeth and tongue. But as the same objections are applicable, in a greater or less degree, to giving information in regard to other instinctive acts 224 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. which occur in delivery, and as without some analysis of these, there can be no study of elocution, it will be necessary to pre- sent a general account of inflexions, upon the plan of treatment pursued throughout the volume. Still we shall avoid laying down precise and invariable rules. In our examples for practice, we have from the first employ- ed the marks commonly used for indicating inflexions, because some guide is necessary for purposes of practice, and to enable the student to go along readily with the teacher. Many how- ever have been inserted, rather in accordance with the custom of other books of elocution, and to prevent possible mistakes, than because they are strictly necessary. Experience in using the volume may hereafter lead to an omission of a considerable number. When a mark of inflexion is put over a word, it indicates the general effort of the mind and voice upon the word, or upon the phrase in which it occurs, rather than the exact degree of rise or fall in pitch. The latter cannot be exhibited to the eye, ex- cept by a notation, which like that of music, exhibits the pitch of each separate syllable, while even this will not of itself be sufficient. In music, notes do not often slide up or down, to an extent that is deserving of regard. But in speech, each syl- lable not only begins with a distinct and independent pitch, but after having thus begun, has always a slide. The slide may be either simply up or down, or may be first in one direction and then in another. Still farther, the distance to which the slide may rise or fall, is of several distinct degrees, each of which conveys a separate meaning or expression. In short, an inflexion is a change in pitch, in which the voice first skips up or down, and then slides up or down. The skip may be to several different distances, and so may the subsequent slide. FALLING INFLEXIONS. 225 The slide may likewise be first in one direction, and then in the other ; thus producing what are called waves or circumflexes. This waving course may even be continued through several repetitions of upward or downward progress. Thus the actual number of inflexions employed by the voice, is very great. Instead of three, as formerly supposed, there can scarcely be less than three hundred. It will be easy however, to reduce them for practical purpos- es, to three classes, and it is to a class, rather than to any one of the variations of pitch, that we apply the term inflexion. Inflexions, then, are of three kinds : 1. rising ; 2. fall- ing ; 3. falling and rising, or circumflex. This old classification, does in truth correspond to the dis- tinctions which we recognize in our minds, and to the instinctive vocal efforts which we make to set forth the relations of ideas. The explanation of them will be rendered more readily in- telligible, if we begin with the falling inflexions. FALLING INFLEXIONS. As a principle is often best illustrated by an extreme case, we will commence explaining the general class of falling inflex- ions, by a description of Cadences. Every one knows that a cadence at the end of a sentence, in- dicates a close of the course of thought ; and that after it there is always a pause, and an interruption for the time, of the on- ward progress of the mind. This interruption or check, is the true principle of every fall- ing inflexion. For the present, however, we shall speak only of cadences, and of inflexions at the ends of phrases. In every case of a falling inflexion on a strongly emphatic word, there is at least a mental pause ; and if the delivery is very 20 226 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. slow and forcible, a vocal pause will also become strikingly manifest. If the vocal pause does not come in immediately at the end of the word which receives the inflexion, it will still occur at the end of the group, or at farthest, of the phrase. When a falling inflexion is used, the mind ceases for the time being to look forward, and to employ ideas solely in refer- ence to subsequent ones. Either a simple close or termination of a course of thought, and its independence of what is to follow, is indicated ; or the truth and importance of an idea, is affirmed and particularly pointed out. In the latter case, the voice always leaps up to a higher pitch on the accented syllable, so as to make the falling inflexion be- gin from a higher point. We have thus, at the ends of phrases, two kinds of falling inflexions ; one, moderate and quiet, and which conveys no impression but that of simple termination of thought ; the other, striking, and calculated particularly to attract the attention of the listener. This will be best illustrated by a single example, read or spo- ken in different styles. Let us take the first sentence in our first extract, (p. 45.) "I make the assertion deliberately. "\ Here the mark for the falling inflexion, placed after the word, indicates a mere cadence, such as any one will naturally make when the full stop occurs in punctuation. If the delivery is impressive or solemn, and the word " deliberately" is uttered with great earnestness, yet without a striking and peculiarly animated tone, it will still keep the same pitch, but will be dwelt upon in such a way as to prolong the syllables and make the articulation particularly distinct. The tone of voice will be strong and heavy. For our immediate purpose, we may in- dicate this by the following mode of printing: FALLING INFLEXIONS. 227 I make the assertion deliberately.\ But if the same word be uttered with striking animation, and especially if with lively earnestness, the accented syllable will begin on a higher pitch. The falling inflexion will start from a higher point. Thus : \ I make the assertion de * erately. This style of utterance may also be united with emphatic force that is, with a sudden loudness and an expulsive utter- ance, such as we have already explained in part first, chap. 6. This we may represent by printing the word in italics, but with the same arrangement of its syllables. \ I make the assertion de l erately. This mode represents the course of the voice in emphatic fall- ing inflexions. But as it would be inconvenient and unsightly to print whole examples with such a displacement of the sylla- bles, we indicate such forms of emphasis simply as follows : \ I make the assertion deliberately. That is, the word is printed in italics, to indicate emphatic force, while the mark for the falling inflexion is placed over the word, and (as nearly as convenient) over its accented syllable. If capitals are employed instead of italics, they indicate a still higher degree of force, earnestness and slowness. Some examples however, have the falling inflexion placed over a word which is not in italics or capitals. This indicates, that although the word is not distinguished by any considerable degree of force or loudness, yet it is uttered with a lively, or peculiarly pointed expression, by beginning its accented sylla- ble on a higher pitch, as we have just explained. So far, then, we have two extremes of the falling inflexion; one, that of a common cadence -either impressive and earnest, 228 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. or quiet and moderate, which we indicate by placing the mark of inflexion after the word ; the other, either simply striking, or striking and with emphatic force, which has the mark placed over the accented syllable. These are the most common and important uses of the falling inflexion. There is however, still another modification, which expresses an important distinction, and which is easily represented in printing. It is when a short and yet lively and animated ca- dence is to be made at the end of a clause, but before the en- tire sentence is finished. In such situations, a cadence of some sort is demanded, yet if the voice is suffered to descend as low as in a full cadence at the end of a complete period or para- graph, the effect will be to divide the whole into two separate sentences. This error will not indeed affect the meaning, yet it will injure the expression and seriously detract from the cor- rectness of the composition, so far as this is judged by the ear. The following example consists of two separate sentences, united by the conjunction and, and with a semicolon between them. It is to the genius - of James Watt, that all the benefits - of the steam engine \ are mainly owing ; and certainly no man ever before, bestowed such a gift on his kind.\ JEFFREY. In this example, it is obvious that the cadence at the semi- colon, ought not to be as low as that at the full stop. In fact, the word owing ought to be a little higher than the preceding word. This cadence on a higher key is indicated by placing the mark of inflexion over the tcord, yet not over its accented syllable. FALLING INFLEXIONS. 229 Thus at the ends of phrases or sentences, the mind ex- presses the close of a course of thought, and its inde- pendence of what follows, by falling inflexions, either high and animated, or low and quiet or impressive. High and animated cadences are represented by pla- cing the mark for the falling inflexion over the accented syllable of the final word or group. Those that are low, and quiet or impressive, have the mark after the last word. Cadences on a high pitch, and occurring in the middle of a sentence, have the mark over the word, but not over its accented syllable. This sort of cadence is often required also at the end of a very short sentence, when although pointed with a full stop, it has a close connexion in thought, with the succeeding sentence. If the word on which the cadence falls is emphatic, the emphasis is indicated by italics or capitals. But in a large proportion of cases, it happens that a falling inflexion is required on a word that does not stand last in the grammatical clause, or even in the phrase. In such cases however, the principle is precisely the same. The mind points out the word so particularly to the attention of the hearer, that its onward progress is at least checked, if not altogether interrupted. This is done, although the actual pause may not occur until the end of the group, or perhaps of the phrase. ^\\i falling inflexions not at the end of a phrase, are never given, except upon emphatic ivords. This impor- tant fact makes their theory easy of apprehension. Almost every case of a falling inflexion on an emphatic word may be referred to the principle of pointed designation. The 20* 230 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. reader or speaker affirms the truth of what is uttered, and par- ticularly points out the most important word in the whole series. . Hence, answers to questions are given with falling inflexions. In argument, the same inflexion is given on what is affirmed. So likewise, in narrative, all the most important circumstances are pointed out by the same means. Emphatic words with the falling inflexion, are naturally ac- companied, in gesture, by the downward stroke of the arm. If we reflect a little on that sort of mental pause, and that stopping momentarily, to dwell on the truth and importance of an idea which we enforce with this gesture, such reflection will contrib- ute still farther, to make the true significance and intention of the falling slide of the voice clearly intelligible. The truth and completeness of the above short theory of the falling inflexion on emphatic words, will be exemplified by the following extracts, especially if they are supposed to be spoken rather than read, and each emphasis to be accompanied by its appropriate gesture. They tell us, Sir, \ that we are weak, \ unable to cope with so formidable an enemy. \ I know there is not a man here, \ who would not rather see a general conflagration sweep over \ [the land,\ or an earthquake sink it,\ \ than one jot - or tittle of that plighted faith, fall to the ground. \ FALLING INFLEXIONS. 231 \ I hear much said of patriotism, \ appeals to patriotism, \ transports of patriotism. \ Gentlemen, \ why prostitute this noble word ?\ There are some cases, however, of falling inflexions, which may seem not so readily explicable by the above simple, yet comprehensive account; such as when they are employed to express command, exhortation, rebuke and contempt. The following are examples. \ \ Come ; let us go. \ This fellow had a Volscian for his mother ; \ \ \ his wife is in Corioli ; \ and this child, \ like him by chance. SHAKESPEARE. Astonishment, surprise, wonder and admiration, express themselves also by strong falling inflexions. E. g. \ I am astonished! \ shocked, to hear such principles confessed. \ \ How wonderful, that a nation should be thus deluded !\ 232 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. But a little reflection will enable us readily to perceive, that in uttering such emotions, the mind pauses and stops to con- template the ideas which excite them. The expression how- ever, of emotion and passion, is never given by inflexions mere- ly. Additional variations of the voice in stress and quality of lone are required, and these must, in general, be left to the promptings of feeling. RISING INFLEXIONS. In these the voice slides upwards; and as the direction of their slide is precisely opposite to that of falling inflexions, so their significancy, and the use which the mind makes of them, are of a contrary nature. As falling inflexions either express the termination of a course of thought, or an interruption of the mental act of looking for- ward to other ideas, so the rising imply that no complete sense has yet been made, or that the mind does not stop to contem- plate an idea independently of some other. A rising inflexion, then, expresses a continuation of thought, and gives warning that something more is to follow. Or, if given emphatically on a single word in the middle of a phrase, it indicates that the idea is contemplated not by itself, but in reference to something else. Inflexions of this class are thus of much more frequent oc- currence than the others. At the far greater part of the pauses in discourse, the interruption of continuity is principally for mental and physical convenience. As the mind proceeds in building up the structure of a long sentence, it rests after short portions of its work, and when about to pause, leaves off with an upward turn of voice, to indicate that the sense is still sus- pended, and that more ideas are to follow. In illustration of this suspensive expression at a pause, take the following two clauses, which are connected into a single sentence by the conjunctions as and so. RISING INFLEXIONS. 233 / As face answereth to face in water, so the heart of man to man.\ The moment a reader begins this sentence, the conjunction as warns him that the clause which it introduces, will make no complete sense of itself, but will require to be followed by an- other one beginning with so. He will therefore avoid making a cadence at the end, and will leave the sense suspended by a rising inflexion.* Since, then, rising inflexions of some sort occur at every pause in which no complete sense is made, and these pauses are by far the most numerous, it is obvious that to mark them all would create unnecessary confusion to the eye. Yet this error is quite prevalent in books for instruction in reading. As already observed, we have probably marked too many in our vol- ume. Yet when not required for expression, most of them have been placed in situations In which unpractised readers might be liable to make mistakes. Sometimes also they have been inserted to show the antithetical balance of one phrase with an- other, and to assist in apprehending the rhetorical structure of the style. The directions sometimes given in books for schools, which imply that the common marks of punctuation are guides for in- flexion, are extremely injurious. In accordance with habits * We have uniformly avoided laying down any rules of reading, as absolutely invariable. Falling inflexions may in almost every case be substituted for rising ones, when particular styles of expression require it to be done. In the above example, suppose the mind wishes to point out in a manner calculated to attract particular attention, the illustration efface answering to face in water, the reading will then be with a Hilling inflexion on water, but with an upward skip on the accented syllable. This upward skip, in such a case, answers the purpose of the upward slide of a rising inflexion, at the same lime that the downward slide de- signates the importance of the word water. 234 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. thus formed, ihe reading proceeds with an upward turn of the voice at every comma. Thus most of the sentences, in every variety of style, will be read in violation of their real meaning, and if the listener understands them at all, he does so by a pro- cess of correcting the reader's errors and explaining the sense to himself. He either substitutes inflexions different from those which he hears used, or, more commonly, imagines that he sees the words before him, and thus gathers the meaning, as it were, by the eye. Though many errors result from making the marks of punctuation exclusive guides for pauses, yet such are few, compared with what proceed from using them as direc- tions, not only for these but for inflexions. It is obvious that there can be no necessity for entering into a detailed examination of the various forms and degrees of con- nection which demand rising inflexions. No farther directions are needed for practical purposes, than the following. In reading let the mind l>e on the watrh for places in. which a falling inflexion is demanded. These will be required, first, to direct the attention of the hearer to the completion of a short course of thought ; secondly, to point out particular words, the assertion or inculcation of which is of especial importance. In all other cases, let rising inflexions occur naturally and unconsciously. Even when a prolonged rising in- flexion is demanded on a single emphatic word, it will be natural for the voice to slide upwards rather than downwards, unless care be taken to the contrary. To use familiar language, rising inflexions will take care of themselves. The employment of falling ones, results always from intelli- gence on the part of the reader or speaker, and from an inten- tional effort to affirm and explain ideas to others. RISING INFLEXIONS. 235 In the early attempts of children to read, and in their decla- mation of passages committed to memory, all their inflexions are rising, and it is with extreme slowness that they learn to explain and designate ideas to others by means of affirmative falling slides. In teaching a child to read or speak, exclusive attention should be given to such falling inflexions as designate the meaning. In some form or other, and at some previous period, a prac- tical skill in reading must have been gained, even by the oldest students of delivery, before attempting to speak what has been committed to memory. If this order of study be not observed, declamation will proceed with an unvarying succession of ri- sing inflexions, which convey no other impression than that of a mere recollection by the declaimer, of the successive words and clauses of his speech. Yet there is an important class of cases in which, although period is the appropriate mark of punctuation, arising inflex- ion ought to be used at the end of the sentence. These are when the sentence requires to be uttered in refer- ence to something else, either expressed or understood. Let us take for exemplification, the following conversational sentence : It is not very probable, / that so fair an offer will be rejected. If this be uttered as a simple declaration, it will end with a cadence. But if spoken in a lively manner, and with reference to a contrary opinion or idea, viz. that it is supposed that "so fair an offer" will be rejected, or if regard be had to rejecting instead of accepting so fair an offer, the inflexion at the end will be a rising one. The reference in cases of this class, is always to something j opposite or different, which the mind is looking forward to, or at least thinking of, at the time. Very often it is some contra- iry opinion which is generally prevalent. At other times, refer- 236 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. ence is made to something which either has been said, or which it is intended shall immediately follow. In some instances al- so, a succession of several very short sentences is rendered more lively and more closely connected in meaning, by ending one or more with a rising inflexion, and thus uniting them as much as possible into one train of thought. For such reasons common conversation, unless very grave and formal, is remarkably distinguished from reading and speak- ing, by a less frequent occurrence of cadences. Civility, social sympathy, and a constant reference to the thoughts and feelings of others, lead to the avoidance of positiveness, and of assertions terminated by a cadence. Hesitancy, by preventing the mind from coming to positive conclusions, or by interrupting its pro- gress towards a complete arrangement of thought, exhibits lit- tle other peculiarity of utterance than a constant interruption of the continuity of discourse by pauses with a rising inflexion; the same inflexion occurring even at the end, from a continu- ance of the uncertainty to the last. The system which we follow in regard to the part of a word over which the mark for a rising inflexion is placed, is this : When a phrase ends with a slight rising inflexion, to indicate suspension of sense, or a rhetorical contrast with another phrase, the mark is placed over the end of the last word. When an emphatic final word has a rising inflexion, and the rise of the voice is very striking and expressive, the mark is placed over its accented syllable. The mark for a rising inflexion placed over an em- phatic word in the middle of a phrase, is generally over its accented syllable, or over the vowel, in a word of one syllable. In many of the last cases, we think that the inflexion actual- ly required in natural utterance, is some variety of the circum- CONTRAST OF INFLEXIONS. 237 flex in most cases, a wave of the second, after an upward skip. Yet it is commonly considered as nothing more than a strongly marked rising slide. In numerous cases, words which we mark by a rising inflex- ion placed over the word, ought to have it placed under, and passing up beyond it, if such a position could be arranged in printing. The actual slide on the accented syllable, must often begin on a lower key than that of the preceding word or syllable. Beginning thus after a downward skip, the slide ex- tends to a key still higher than that immediately preceding. CONTRAST OF INFLEXIONS. One of the most important uses of inflexions, is to express contrasts between ideas. The idea which the mind affirms, not simply, but in reference to another, takes a rising, and that which completes the contrast, has a falling inflexion. This will be made clear by examples : 1. One of two things may be affirmed, and the other denied. In such a case, what is affirmed, is asserted as true of itself, and its truth or falsehood will hold good, whether the idea which is denied be mentioned or not. The mind may stop and con- template the truth of the affirmative for any length of time. E.g. It will not snow. \ It will rain. It will make no difference which idea be first mentioned ; the inflexions will still remain the same. E. g. \ It will rain. / It will not snow. Neither, in earnest or lively utterance, will the grammatical construction affect the inflexions. E. g. 21 238 EXPOSITION OP THOUGHT. \ / It will rain ; and not snow* If both ideas are affirmed in contrast with each other, that which is mentioned jirst, has a rising, and the last mentioned, which completes the contrast, has a falling inflexion. E. g. It will either snow \ or rain. Or ' It will either rain \ or snow. QUESTIONS. In general, the contrast between a question and its answer, is expressed, like other contrasts, by the one having a rising, and the other a falling inflexion. More precisely, however, when a direct question is asked, to which the answer will be yes or no, the mind of the person who puts the question remains, after asking it, in a state of suspense, and does not rest satisfied till an answer has been re- turned. The answer is necessary, to complete or teminate the course of thought which the mind has entered upon. Or, the condition of the mind at the close of a question, may be stated as one of the cases before mentioned, in which the course of thought ends with a reference to something that is to follow. * This sentence may indeed be read with precisely opposite inflex- ions, e. g. it will rain, and not snow. This, however, as will readily be perceived, does not set off the contrast in so striking a manner. It is in fact a case of that substitution of one inflexion for another, which we shall explain at the end of this chapter. QUESTIONS. 239 Direct questions, then, which require yes or no for an answer, end with a rising inflexion, according to the common rule of school-books. But there is another class of questions, which begin with an interrogative pronoun or adverb, such as who, which, what ; or when, why, wherefore. These in fact take the form of a com- mand, or injunction. For example: When do you go? is the same in meaning as, Tell me, when are you going ? This class of questions take a falling inflexion on their em- phatic word. E. g. When do you go?\ \ or, When do you go 1 \ or, When do you go ? \ or, When do you go 1 \ Indeed, any question may be put in the form of a command ; just as we may say, I ask you to tell me, or, I demand that you tell me.* E. g. \ Are you going ? or, Are you going ?\ \ or, Are you going ? \ or, Are you going 1 Very often also, when an interrogative sentence is very long, the rising tones of interrogation ought not to be continued to the end, but falling ones should be substituted, and the whole be made to end with a cadence. Yet in punctuation, the mark of interrogation must be deferred to the end of the sentence. * Our word demand is the same word as the French demande; but in French, demande means simply to ask or inquire. 240 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. When likewise two questions are contrasted with each other, the contrast is exhibited by a falling inflexion on the last ; as, / \ Do you go, or stay 1 / Is Caesar dead, \ or is he living? Other variations from the most common modes of giving in- flexions on questions, might be stated ; as when the words of a question are repeated, by the person of whom it is asked, in order to be certain that he understands the inquiry. E. g. / / When am I going 1 do you say ? But it is needless to pursue the subject of questions farther. No practical direction, for interrogative inflexions, is needed,^ except to avoid following uniformly any of the common rules, and to trust implicitly to natural instinct in reading questions, just as is done in extemporaneous speaking. What makes the common rules still more injurious, is, that by directing attention exclusively to the inflexion at the end, they divert attention from the INTERROGATIVE TONE which characterizes every word of the question. This interrogative tone running through the whole, is the only essential requisite in uttering a question. Every question that is not asked in a tone like that of a com- mand or a requisition, is uttered with a peculiar interrogative turn of the voice, on every syllable. This is of course most conspicuous on the accented and emphatic syllables. The in- terrogative tone consists in the upward slides and skips being carried farther than ordinary. Instead of being simple seconds, they are thirds, fifths, or octaves. This wider reach of the skips and slides, causes the voice to be apparently on a higher key than it really is. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 241 From the very moment, then, of beginning an inter- rogative clause, a natural tone of asking a question must be made strikingly manifest, and kept up on every word. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. These begin with conditional or hypothetical conjunctions, such as if, though, although, unless. They are also introduced by such words as suppose. The peculiarity of tone with which they are uttered, was first discovered by Dr. Rush, who thus made a valuable contri- bution to elocution. Conditional clauses have a tone running through them similar to that of questions. Dr. Rush describes it as being precisely the same. To us it seems clearly demonstrable that, while in questions the slides of thirds, fifths or octaves are exhibited upon every syllable, conditional clauses exhibit them only on the accented syllables. In teaching, we have had our attention perpetually called to the injurious effect of the common rules in school-books, which direct to depend solely on the inflexion at the end of a question, for exhibiting its interrogative turn ; such effect being to prevent the natural tone of interrogation from being given throughout the whole. Of equal importance has been the very common fault of reading or speaking conditional clauses without their natural and appropriate tone. The following example contains two conditional clauses, the first beginning with if, and the second with though. Each of them is inclosed within a bracket. If the driver - of a public carriage maliciously overturn another upon the road, whilst the proprietor is asleep - in his bed at a hundred [miles distance, 21* 242 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. the proprietor \ must unquestionably - pay the damages to a farthing; but though the malicious servant might also be indicted, and suffer punishment - for a crime, still, his master could not be prosecuted for a crime. The following example consists of a condition or supposition followed by a question. The question at the end being asked emphatically, the interrogative tone is stronger than the condi- tional ; but if the two be carefully compared, it will be per- ceived, that they have considerable resemblance to each other. So, if one of two partners - in trade commits a fraud, by forgery, or false indorsements, so as to subject himself to death, or other punishment, by indictment, could the oilier party be indicted - for a crime ? - Common geometrical demonstrations abound in conditional clauses ; e. g. If A be to B as C is to D, then, &c. Such are of- ten introduced by the word let; e. g. Let A be to B as C to D, then E will be to F, &c. Further examples of conditional clauses, will be given in the subsequent chapter on Emphasis. CIRCUMFLEX INFLEXIONS. 243 CIRCUMFLEX INFLEXIONS. These begin with a falling, and end with a rising inflexion. We indicate them by placing the marks for each close together, and over the accented syllable of an emphatic word. The falling part has the same significance as if it were used alone. It is this first portion which gives circumflex inflexions their logical force and use. By a slight alteration in the con- struction of the sentence, every circumflex may be superseded by a falling inflexion. In many cases also, it is merely a mat- ter of taste which of these two to employ. What then is the office of the last or rising slide of the cir- cumflex ? In most cases, this is called for simply by the grammatical construction, which is such as to suspend the sense at the end of the clause. Sometimes also the rising part is required to exhibit a con- trast with another word which has a falling inflexion. It is a general rule of good taste in reading or speaking, to emphasize by circumflexes as little as possible, and to substi- tute simple falling inflexions. The incessant employment of the former, produces a disagreeable style of animation in the reading of some, who in other respects possess great merit. It is going to an extreme, however, to endeavor wholly to avoid them. Circumflexes are as easy of execution as either rising or fall- ing inflexions. Indeed in no sort of delivery do they so much abound, as in conversation. No practical direction is required for their management, further than the following : In emphasizing with a circumflex, endeavor to ex- press the logical turn of the idea, by means of a falling inflexion : then suffer the voice to end with a suspensive tone, in reference to the connexion with what follows, or for the purpose of expressing a contrast. 244 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. When a circumflex occurs on an emphatic word, which con- sists but of a single syllable, it is always what is called a wave. That is, the voice slides first in one direction, and then in an- other, without any break in the continuity of sound. A wave may be either downwards and upwards, or upwards and downwards. The first is of most importance, and is that which we take care occasionally to mark. The second may mostly be dispensed with, so far as the sense is concerned, and in place of it the simple downward inflexion employed. It is used to prolong a syllable arid give it a more -earnest expres- sion. In very powerful delivery, especially of argumentative composition, the increase of power given to falling slides, by sliding instead of skipping up to the point where they com- mence, is of perpetual occurrence. But as this mode of man- aging downward inflexions, depends not on the logic and gram- mar of a passage, but on the degree of earnestness in the read- ing or speaking, we frequently dispense with marking it. One of the most common uses of the circumflex, is the fol- lowing. In statement or argument, a \vord is emphasized in the way of pointed designation. The speaker by his tone and gesture, insists that his hearers shall take especial notice of that particular word. This pointing out is effected by means of a falling slide of the voice. But on the other hand, the word on which this is done is so situated, that it must ^hd with a rising inflexion, on account of a contrast, or of a suspension of the sense. Thus it happens that two different objects are to be ac- complished ; and it is done by a circumflex. EXTRACT FOR PRACTICE. In the following glowing extract from Burke, the descending part of every circumflex proceeds from this principle. It keeps up throughout the extract, the tone of pointedly and strongly inculcating the leading doctrines. Without the circumflexes which we have marked, the argument will be delivered with di- CIRCUMFLEX INFLEXIONS. 245 minished force and point. Although we have introduced a con- siderable number of circumflexes, we might have inserted still more. Each reader may increase or diminish the number, to suit his own taste and judgment. In a few instances, as will be observed, we have marked the upward and downward wave. It will be perceived that by means of it, a speaker will be enabled to set off the contrasts with more force and power. As this is one of the most magnificent passages of argument ever written, we shall not only mark the emphatic words and inflexions, but the emphatic slowness of rhythm which occa- sionally occurs, and which is so striking a characteristic of Burke's wonderful mastery of style. The whole will illustrate the most important uses of all the inflexions. The clauses included in brackets are conditional, and each must exhibit the conditional tone in a striking and spirited manner. The clause beginning with " As long as you have the wis- dom," &,c. is also included in a bracket, although the introduc- tory words, " As long as," do not in strict propriety introduce a condition. The clause ought not therefore, by the laws of language, to be read with the conditional tone. Yet if such a tone be given, it will be an allowable license. BURKE ON CONCILIATING AMERICA. Let the colonies \/ always keep this idea of their civil rights / associated - with your government, \ they will ding and grapple to you ; \ and no force - under heaven, 246 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. \ * will be of power to tear them - from their allegiance. But let it be once understood, that your government may be one thing, \/ . and their privileges another ; \ / [lotion; that these two things may exist - without any mutual re- \ the cement is gone; \ the cohesion is loosened ; and every thing hastens - to decay and dissolution. As long as you have the wisdom to keep the sovereign authority - of this country, \/ as the sanctuary - of liberty, the sacred temple consecrated - to our common faith, \ wherever the chosen race - and sons - of liberty worship freedom, /\ they will turn their faces towards you. The more they multiply, /\ the more friends you will have. The more ardently they love liberty, \ the more perfect will be their obedience. \/ Slavery , \ they can have any where. CIRCUMFLEX INFLEXIONS. 247 They may have it from Spain, \ they may have it - from Prussia. \/ But until you become lost to all feeling of your true interest, and your national dignity, \/ freedom they can have from none but you. \/ This is the commodity of price, of which you have the monopoly . This is the true - act of navigation, which binds to you the commerce - of the colonies, and through them, \ secures to you the wealth of the world. f ^ / I Deny them this participation - of freedom, and you break that sole bond, which originally made, \ and must still preserve, the unity - of the empire. Do not entertain so weak an imagination, as that your registers, and your bonds, 248 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. \/ your affi davits , and your s uffe ra?ices, \/ your cockets and your clearances, / are what form - the great securities - of your commerce. \/ Do not dream that your Utters of office, \/ and your instructions , \/ and your suspending clauses, / [this mysterious whole, are the things that hold together - the great contexture - of \/ / These things do not make your government, / dead instruments, / passive tools as they are ; \ it is the spirit - of the English constitution, \/ / that gives all their life and efficacy - to them. \ It is the spirit of the English constitution, / which infused through the mighty mass, /\ pervades, ferts, /\ unites, invigorates, \ vivifies, every part of the empire, \ even down to the minutest member. INFLEXIONS. Before dismissing the subject of inflexions, it is important to furnish some further illustration of the modes in which almost every example that can be produced, for illustrating the propriety of a rising or a falling inflexion on any one word, may be read in an opposite manner the contrary inflexion being substituted for that directed. Every such change, however, of one inflexion for its opposite, is but an apparent, and not a real exception. By such changes, the idea is presented in a different light, or, to speak more pre- cisely, with a different relation to other ideas. It readily follows, then, that rules and directions for invaria- bly appropriating one class of inflexions to any particular com- bination of words, must be erroneous. This having been done in so many of the books on elocution, the error has undoubtedly contributed to the general neglect of such books by accurate scholars, on the one hand, and by those who have a natural turn for delivery, on the other. It will be well to take some of the examples which we have already used, and explain the circumstances of connexion with other ideas which may require inflexions contrary to those which we have already given them. Take even such strong cases as those of the emphatic falling inflexion, by which we express positiveness, strong affirmation, or earnest and pointed designation of such ideas as we wish to receive particular attention ; even in these, if we employ a dif- ferent style of expression, or have a different object in view, the downward slide is changed into a rising one. E. g. " I make the assertion deliberately" As much as to say I appeal to you, and ask you if I am not perfectly cool and collected, in making the assertion. " They tell us, Sir, that we are weak, unable to cope with so formidable an enemy." 22 250 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. That is, I concede I allow that the opposers of war meas- ures, consider us weak, &c. We thus see, that Concession, or appeal, or a fair and candid submitting of an opinion or assertion, to the consideration and pos- sible objections of others, will change affirmative falling inflexions to rising slides. So too, any rising slide may have a downward one substituted for it, whenever we choose to interrupt the grammatical or logical continuity of languge or thought, for the sake of stopping and pointing out a particular idea, as we pass along. In most cases however, if this be done, the upward skip with which the falling inflexion commences, will be high and striking. The upward skip will indeed serve to a considerable extent, the office of an upward slide. Let us take for an example of this, the first conditional clause of the extract from Burke; its inflexions may even be as fol- lows, provided we state the condition in the utmost extreme of pointedly and even dogmatically inculcating a doctrine. \ Let the col onies \ \ always keep the i de a of their civil rlghts \ \ as^ciated with your ernment. Some notice ought also to be taken of the change which of- ten takes place at the close of a series of several falling inflex- ions. At the close of our extract from Burke, we have the fol- lowing series of emphatic particulars : \ \ \ / \ " which pervades, feeds, unites, invigorates, vivifies, every part of the empire." INFLEXIONS. 251 Here it will be observed, that on the last member but one of the series, the inflexion is changed. The object of doing this, is simply to show that we are within one particular of the end of the enumeration. If the conjunction and intervened be- tween the two last members of the series, the change to the rising inflexion would be on the last particular, instead of on the last but one. There are several ways of varying the inflexions, for the pur- pose of showing that we are near the end of the series. The last may be varied, or the last but one ; or the two or three last. No more precise rule is necessary, than the following : At or near the end of a series of particulars, we should generally vary the inflexion, to show that the series is nearly or quite ended. The gestures that naturally accompany inflexions, curiously correspond with them in regard to upward or downward di- rection. We have before mentioned, that emphatic falling in- flexions are accompanied with the downward stroke of gesture. Rising inflexions, if of moderate extent, are accompanied, sim- ply with a suspension of the hand in the air. The arm does not naturally incline to descend or fall, until the sense is com- pleted, and the voice employs an emphatic downward slide, or a cadence. Emphatic rising inflexions, incline to carry the hand in an oblique direction, upwards and outwards. But in the most flexible, graceful and significant styles of natural ges- ture, the motions made more or less in an upward dirction, are executed rather at the wrist than from the shoulder. Circum- flexes especially, tend to make the gesticulations of the hand and forefinger extremely significant. A waving course through the air is made by the hand, similar to the downward and up- ward progress of the voice, 252 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. CHAPTER III. EMPHASIS. THIS important subject will be considered in the same physi- ological light, as those of pause and inflexion. But before pro- ceeding to treat of it in detail, it is essential that we make a few remarks, in order to explain more definitely than any one has hitherto done, what is the peculiar province of one who acts as a teacher, not of oratory, but of elocution. Delivery, as a subject of study on the part of a reader or speaker, or of criticism on that of an auditor, must be regarded under one of two aspects. Viewed in one light, it is a natural and instinctive act, by which we give an adequate expression of the thoughts and feelings suggested by our subject, and by the time, place and occasion. This is the light in which it is re- garded throughout the whole of this treatise. Elocution thus limited, becomes a branch of physiology. In the other aspect, reading or speaking is viewed as an art, and therefore as dependent solely on judgment and taste. The art of delivery is a part of the art of oratory. Acting, which makes a distinct branch, is also in the legitimate sense of the word an art ; as much so as poetry or painting. It is an art of a high order. Delivery thus exercised, makes use of the physiological laws of utterance, as instruments. A speaker who deserves to be called an orator, does much more than merely give an adequate expression of his impulses and feelings. His reason, or as we more commonly say, his taste and judgment, are all the while superior to these, and, as it were, look down upon them from a higher position; determining which he shall encourage and which he shall check. In doing this, however, he must never violate any law of nature. His pauses and inflexions, for in- EMPHASIS. 253 stance, are all determined by laws of reason and grammar. In short, all the principles which we have as yet investigated, are fixed and definite. They are capable of being reduced to sci- entific laws. If we apply these considerations to our present subject, the distinction between the natural laws of utterance in regard to emphasis, and the artistical taste and judgment of the orator, is as follows. Nature has provided certain modes of rendering words em- phatic. We are so constituted, that in the language of our defi- nition, (p. 103,) " Emphatic force is given to those parts of dis- course which excite the mind of a speaker to peculiar earnest- ness, and cause him to make a special effort to awaken the same feelings in those whom he addresses." In a merely in- stinctive delivery, every word that peculiarly excites the speaker, must be uttered in precise correspondence with the impulse. But in so doing, he is liable to misjudge. He feels, for instance, impulses leading him to enforce with great vehemence, all the explanatory inflexions on the principal words of his course of reasoning. His audience, however, may be so familiar with the subject, or so quick of apprehension, that they do not need this assistance, and feel it to be disagreeable. So too, of ap- peals to the imagination and emotions : the speaker may per- petually misjudge. In all such cases, a knowledge of elocution, considered as a mere account of the natural laws of utterance, can render him no assistance, and he must be guided by prin- ciples belonging to the art of oratory. Such principles, like those of poetry, painting and sculpture, are not properly of a scientific nature. There may be a science of elocution, as there is of natural history. No one however, speaks of a science of poetry or oratory. Science does not, like the arts, appeal to taste and the decisions of the imagination and feelings. Asa clear apprehension of these distinctions is essential in reference to practical speaking, as well as to an artistical man- 22* 254 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. agement of elocution, it will be useful to dwell upon the distinc- tion between emphasis and inflexion. In speaking of the latter, we have generally been careful to avoid confounding it with the tone that results from its union with the former. An em- phatic inflexion is a compound of inflexion with emphatic force. Emphatic force results from feeling. The inflexions repre- sent acts of the intellect, and are continually employed, with or without that excitement of feeling which produces emphatic force. Let us illustrate this assertion by a familiar example : \ I said yes, / and not no. Here the contrast between what is affirmed and what is de- nied, is expressed by opposite inflexions. These must be of a marked degree, or there will be no tone of explanation. They must be at least thirds and not seconds ; and the extent of the change of pitch, by skip and slide, will represent the degree of explanatory tone. If we employ but a slight degree, the voice will skip and slide a third; if we are more explanatory, these changes will either be through a fifth, or the simple slides will be- come waves. But suppose the person addressed, is inattentive, or incredulous, and we wish to arouse his mind to perceive the truth or importance of what we say ; then it is, and only then, that we employ emphatic force. This may be given in differ- ent ways, but it is always something superadded to the inflexion. Emphasis, then, is some kind of emphatic force, and may exist with or without inflexion. It represents the feeling of the importance of an idea ; and if accompanying an inflexion, it superadds force and energy to the simply explanatory act of the intellect. Emphasis or emphatic force, is simply an instrument for awakening attention, and consequent sympathy, in other minds. EMPHASIS. 255 A familiar exemplification of its essential nature, is afforded by the sharp, loud, or harsh utterance, which we employ to command brute animals. There is an apparent exception to the truth of the above proposition, in the fact that we employ emphasis when talking to ourselves. But in all such cases, we are either in imagina- tion addressing others, or we actually address ourselves, in the same way as when one person speaks to another. E. g. " I say to myself." If we may be permitted to use a mode of expres- sion that is now growing familiar to all, we may say that, subjec- tively, we address ourselves viewed as objective. We, at any rate, make an objective representation of our own discourse. If then, the various forms of emphasis are nothing more or less than instruments for arousing attention and sympathy in others, when should we employ these instruments'? It is obvious that we may feel the importance of directing the attention of others, to the grammatical construction ; to the logical relations of ideas; to particular images before the imagin- ation; or to particular emotions or passions. Accordingly, we have the following classification : 1. Grammatical Emphasis. 2. Logical Emphasis. 3. Emphasis of the Imagination. 4. Emphasis enforcing particular emotions. The words to be selected for receiving emphatic force, must evidently be the most important ones in reference to each of these heads. Errors occurring under the first two classes, imply that the reader or speaker misapprehends the meaning of a passage. In respect to these, no license is admissible, except to avoid giving force to more words than will be necessary for intelligibility. In respect to emphatic enforcement of words that appeal to the imagination, or to the emotions, the principles of grammar and logic are not without influence, yet imagination is also ne- 256 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. cessary, and taste and judgment must be exercised. The call for these is similar to that made in writing an essay or oration. The grammatical and logical arrangement of the composition, will indeed, in ordinary cases, be a sufficient direction, but a reader or speaker of skill and cultivated power, will often be much superior to those who depend on these alone. No com- position is found less interesting in ordinary delivery, than de- scription or narration ; while none is more so, when read or spoken by one who makes use of a poetical imagination. We thus find that even the selection of words for receiving emphatic force, is liable to depend on taste and judgment; while the degree of the force must be determined solely by the same guides. But as artistic principles are never very neces- sary for enabling one to do justice to his own sentiments ; noth- ing more is necessary for qualifying us to become practical speakers, than to acquire the power of giving a free and bold expression to natural impulses. Let a speaker emphasize such words as most excite his own understanding, imagination and feelings; and let the degree of force be such as to produce on his au- dience the impression he wishes. In respect to determining the latter point, considerable assist- ance may be derived from the section (p. 126) on the Con- sciousness of being earnest and interesting. By the very act of endeavoring to speak with earnestness, one's whole mind is aroused to activity ; and improvement in respect to propriety of emphasis, keeps pace with that in the more mechanical and physical requisites of delivery. Yet though the mind of the speaker is in fact actuated by principles of thought, he is not often distinctly conscious of them at the time of speaking. The following general directions, however, seem to us to be such as actually influence the choice of emphatic words, and will undoubtedly be found useful. EMPHATIC GROUPING. 257 In following a train of thought, we find that each suc- cessive sentence adds a new idea to those which have been given in preceding sentences. The new idea must always receive an emphasis. We also meet continually with ideas that have been expressed or implied in previous sentences. These are to be passed over without emphasis. Sometimes however an idea is repeated by the wri- ter, for the sake of again inculcating its importance. In such cases it must be emphasized again, and with still greater force. The rhetorical principle of climax, is also of constant recur~ rence in animated composition, requiring the most important of two or more ideas to be placed last. Hence, if we meet with a series of emphatic ideas, which all stand in the same or a similar relation, the emphatic force increases as we proceed, and is most striking on the last of the climax. Therefore, When we meet with a series of ideas requiring em- phasis, let the climax of force correspond to that of the thoughts. Before proceeding to explain and illustrate by examples for practice, the several kinds of emphasis, according to the classi- fication lately given, we will furnish examples in which the above rules will guide every one aright. But it is first necessary to explain a principle which we have before alluded to, viz. the effect of strong emphatic force in fu- sing groups together, so as sometimes to make the actual words of utterance extremely long. EMPHATIC . GROUPING. Emphatic force is a still higher degree of accentual force. This higher degree may unite several groups, and even two or 258 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. more phrases, into a whole, which is uttered with a single men- tal and vocal effort. In familiar delivery, such fusing of groups and phrases causes the rate of utterance to be rapid. Experi- enced speakers, however, learn to exhibit this process of ma- king a single whole out of several parts, without any relaxation of a suitable slowness and deliberation. They acquire the power of keeping a clear and unwavering conception of the intimate clustering of subordinate ideas around the emphatic one, and of maintaining, at the same time, a perfect command over the voice. Yet it must be remembered, that in all such cases, the words which cluster to the emphatic one, and make, as it were, one extremely long group, are such as express ideas with which both the speaker and the auditor are so familiar, that there is no necessity for enforcing them. They are words which have either been employed before, or would be readily understood if they should be omitted. It is not even necessary to the mere intelligibility of a discourse, that they be distinctly caught by the ear. In addresses to very large assemblies, it often hap- pens that they are not distinctly heard by a considerable pro- portion of the auditors. Except in very deliberate and distinct speaking, their natural utterance is in a sort of under tone, and with an obscure sound of the voice, like that of words spoken aside in a dialogue. They likewise run on a monotone, and in a key at least as low, or as high, as that of the termination of the slide or skip of the emphatic word. When on a low key, as is always the case after an emphatic falling inflexion, it is difficult to determine their exact pitch in so obscure a tone of voice. Some English writers on elocution, have to some extent, but very imperfectly, apprehended this principle, and distinguished the words which in this manner follow an emphatic falling in- flexion, by the name of a slur, or a slurred passage. We will first quote in exemplification, a sentence which we have already employed to illustrate the lowest degree of the EMPHATIC GROUPING. 259 principle; one in which a noun which has been before em- ployed, is repeated again, without its natural strong accent, and in short, is uttered precisely like a pronoun. Vide p. 204. Yes! Gentlemen, \ the defendant has forced the press. In vehement argumentation, such a phrase is uttered like one long word which has two secondary accents preceding the pri- mary one at the end. In the following example, all the words that follow the vehe- ment emphasis on competency, are uttered with accents which, in relation to that on com, are but secondary, and, the same be- ing the case with the words before the emphasis, the whole phrase becomes, in utterance, but a single word. I deny the COMpetency of Parliament, to do this act. We may even lengthen this example, and if the speaking be sufficiently vehement, the whole will still be fused into a group uttered as a single word. I give an unqualified denial to the assertion of the COMpetency of Par- [liament, to abolish the legislature of Ireland. The following is from Wirt's celebrated report of the speech of Patrick Henry in favor of war measures. Sir, we have done every thing that COULD be done to avert the storm [that is now coming on. These examples will be abundantly sufficient to illustrate the principle, which is one of very frequent occurrence, and indis- pensable in practice whenever a glowing animation, and what the ancients called the " torrent" of delivery, is called for. No principle is more perpetually exemplified in conversation, and in fluent extemporaneous speaking. There is no danger that the lawyer will fail of instinctively practising it. Yet those 260 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. whose sole vocation, in speaking, is to deliver formal discourses in very large rooms, are apt to acquire habits of monotonous uniformity of force and accent, which entirely prevent this nat- ural subordination of several words to a single one. An exclu- sive cultivation of articulation, while other parts of delivery are neglected, may produce the same ill effect. It is important to be known, in reference to the mere intelligibility of a discourse, that it is not at all necessary that every syllable, or even every word, be distinctly caught by the auditors. Articulation is of less importance to the meaning of the whole of a passage, than natural emphasis, and the due subordination of a part of the words to the rest. In reference to this principle, the following will suffice for practical directions. When a phrase has a single strong emphatic word, let this be uttered with such force, that the others shall be kept subordinate to it. If pauses are made for convenience of respiration, let them be so managed, as not to interfere with the unity of the phrase, and especially with the subordination of all the words to the emphatic one. It is the better observance of the relative subordination of ideas, which chiefly constitutes the superiority of conversational, or of glowing extemporaneous delivery. The principle is of equal importance, in reference to clauses and phrases which come in parenthetically, and interrupt the connexion of others. The practical direction, however, for managing these, should not be, to deliver them in an obscure and hurried manner, but as follows : Exhibit the subordination of phrases which interrupt the connexion between emphatic words, principally by means of striking force on the emphases which precede and follow them. EMPHATIC GROUPING. 261 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. The following extract illustrates such principles of emphasis as we have hitherto furnished. It likewise abounds in contrasts of opposite emphatic inflexions. The primary principle of the emphasis is very simple ; being that of a succession of new ap- peals to the minds of the assembly. These grow stronger also, in the way of climax. \ They tell us that we are weak, \ unable - to cope - with so formidable an adversary. \ But when - shall we be stronger? / Will it be the next week, \ or the next year ? / Will it be - when we are totally disarmed, / and when a British GUARD shall be stationed in every house ? Shall we gather strength by irresolution - and inaction 1 Shall we acquire the means of effectual resistance, / by lying supinely on our backs, / and hugging - the delusive phantom of HOPE, / until our enemies shall have bound us, / hand and FOOT? \ Sir, we are not weak, if we make a proper use \ [power. of those means which the God of nature hath placed in our 23 262 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. Three millions - of people, armed - in the holy cause of liberty , / and in such a COUNTRY - as that which we possess, are invincible by any force which our enemies - can send against us. PATRICK HENRY. The following illustrates the same principles, and especially that of repetition for the sake of increased emphasis. With a step steady as time, / and an appetite keen as DEATH, the defendant - has been seen waging against the plaintiff, / a warfare not - of conquest, \ but Of EXTERMINATION. He has been seen - opening on the plaintiff, \ the batteries of the press. \ Yes, gentlemen, \ the defendant - has forced the PRESS \ to become the disturber - of domestic quiet, the assassin - of private reputation.\ Our press, gentlemen, \ was destined - for other purposes. / It was destined not - to violate, \ but to PROTECT the sanctity of private rights. GRAMMATICAL EMPHASIS. It was kindly ordained - by a beneficent Providence, \ to inform, \ expand, \ and DIGNIFY the public mind. \ It is for THESE - high purposes our press was ordained ; but the defendant \ has rendered it the degraded vehicle - of foul defamation. \ Of THIS I complain, / not - merely - as counsel for the plaintiff, \ but as the humble - advocate of my country. GRIFFIN. GRAMMATICAL EMPHASIS. This enunciates some words more strikingly than others, to assist in apprehending, or remembering, an extended grammat- ical construction. It is occasionally needed, when the style is diffuse, and a particular sentence is long. It often happens that the nominative noun of the subject, has appended to it several words, which make the whole subject very long. This appended portion will separate the nominative from the verb, by a considerable interval. In such a case, it will be uttered with more force ; and thus will not only have its importance in the subject indicated, but will be remembered, when the mind, both of the speaker and listener, arrives at the predicate. There will also be a corresponding emphasis, on the verb, adjective, or noun, of the predicate. E. g. Every thing in the city - of our residence - on earth, reminds us, 264 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. that we are never - stationary - in it, [parture. but are always advancing towards the period - of our final de- In this example, the emphatic force on every thing, and re- minds, shows the relation of nominative and verb. The subse- quent emphases are not only grammatical, but logical ; since they indicate the most important idea in each phrase, as well as the construction of the sentence. Grammatical emphasis is always needed, when the subject and predicate are separated by intervening clauses. E. g. The aggregate of days that have passed by us, the yearly seasons, the scenes of Ufe y and periods of age, since we came into possession - of our privileges, since we first - knew our dwellings, walked - our streets, and entered - our sanctuaries, and heard the words of God, are so many advances towards eternity j\ and tell, as they thicken - on the path - we leave, how soon we reach the close - of our pilgrimage, and enter - upon unknown worlds. Prof. FITCH. The emphases in the last two phrases of the above, show the grammatical relation to tell, from which they are separated by an intervening clause. These cases, like the last emphases in the preceding example, and numerous others, are instances of the coincidence of grammatical with logical emphasis. GRAMMATICAL EMPHASIS. In general, when a composition proceeds in a flowing style, and with long periods, grammatical, in addition to logical em- phasis, is needed. Yet to a great extent, the two will coincide. The following beautiful period from the same sermon which furnished our two preceding examples, will be found, on analy- sis, an instructive exemplification of the present subject. We mark its emphases as follows. The phrases which are wholly in italics, are the subject phrases of the whole period. The second and fourth from the end, have entire words in italics, to show their common grammatical relation. In the others, the words in corresponding grammatical relations, are indicated by italicising the accented vowel of each. To prevent confusion, we have omitted to mark the emphasis required on the word " first," in the second phrase, which is purely an emphasis of thought. He has beheld us, in the first stages - of our being - here, engaged - in unrighteous rebellion - against his authority, and bent - on neglect of his glories ; and, moved with pity, sent his everlasting Son, to atone - for our guzlt and to call us - to repentance, and his Holy Spirit, to indzte - his will,, and influence us - to obedience. One of the most common uses of this kind of emphasis, is to connect an antecedent and its relative. If the antecedent be a pronoun, it will thus, though naturally unaccented, receive a strong and emphatic accent. E. g. Nor could I regard him as a safe counsellor, 23* 266 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. in the affairs - of this government, whose thoughts should be mainly bent - on considering, &,c. From the above examples, our readers will readily infer, that grammatical emphasis is common and important. Yet it must be remembered, that while, in general, sentences are so con- structed, that the most important word in each clause or phrase will require some degree of emphasis in reference to setting forth thought, the same emphasis will also assist in displaying the grammatical relation. LOGICAL EMPHASIS. The emphasis of thought, coinciding with that of grammar, will in general cause the most important words in a phrase to be uttered more forcibly than others. There is a great deal of such emphasis, which is too obvious to need rules or description. Upon it, to a great extent, depends the rhythm of discourse, and the balance of phrases in style. But the most important part of the present subject, and that to which the term logical emphasis is most applicable, is that of emphatic inflexions. These designate various relations between single words, or between whole clauses, sentences, and even paragraphs, and may be arranged under the following heads. 1. Simple pointed Affirmation and Designation. 2. Negation; often used in contrast with affirmation. 3. Condition and Consequence ; as contrasted relations, 4. Concession and Denial ; also contrasted. 5. Question and Answer ; generally contrasted. 6. Contrast; or one thing compared with another. 7. Reference; which is a variety of the preceding. 8. Correspondence; another variety of contrast : e.g. \ " I told him to do so ; he did so." LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 267 9. Intensive Emphasis; which may be upon affirmation, ne- gation, or contrast. 10. Emphasis of Remonstrance, which resembles that of Ref- erence. The inflexions, by which these relations are pointed out, having been sufficiently noticed in the preceding chapter, we shall proceed to furnish a series of extracts for practice, each of which will be characterized by a prevalence of one sort of em- phasis. The passages which we extract, will sometimes be found among the most admirable in the language, as regards rhetorical structure. 1. POINTED AFFIRMATION, The following is from a vehement argument against the un- ion of Ireland with England. The latter part illustrates, also, the contrast of affirmation and negation. " Sir, in the most express terms, \ [gislature of Ireland. I deny - the COMPETENCY - of Parliament - to abolish the le \ I warn you, \ do not DARE \ to lay your hands on the constitution. I tell you, that if, circumstanced - as you are, \ you PASS this act, \ it will be a nullity, and that no man in Ireland \ will be bound to obey it. 263 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. \ V \ I make the assertion deliberately : \ I repeat it, and I call on any man who hears me t \ to take down my words. \ You have not been ELECTED - for this purpose ; \ you are appointed to make LAWS, / and not legislatures : \ you are appointed to act UNDER the constitution, / not - to alter it : you are appointed - to EXERCISE - the functions of legislators, \ / and not to transfer them : / and if you do so, \ your act is a dissolution of the government : you resolve society into its original elements, and no man in the land, is bound to obey you. PLUNKET. The following illustrates the emphasis of pointed affirmation and designation, as it is used in the statement of a case. Gentlemen - of the Jury.\ \ My case is as follows : William Orr was indicted, LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 269 \ for having administered the oath - of a United Irishman. After remaining - upwards of a year in jail, \ Mr. Orr was brought to his trial; \ was prosecuted by the state ; \ [Wheatly, was sworn against by a common informer - by the name of \/ who himself had taken the same oath, and was convicted under the insurrection act, . , . . / which makes the administering - such an oath, / \ felony, or death. The Jury \ recommended Mr. Orr to mercy. The Judge, with a humanity - becoming his character, \/ transmitted - the recommendation \ to the noble prosecutor - in this case. Three of the jurors made solemn affidavit, in court, \ that liquor had been conveyed into their box ; \ that they were brutally threatened, by some of their fellow jurors, \ with capital prosecution, 270 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. if they did not find their prisoner - guilty; and that under the impression - of those threats, and worn down by watching - and intoxication, they had given a verdict - of guilty - against him, though they believed him, in their conscience, to be innocent. \ Further inquiries - were made, which ended - in a discovery, j ^fam k ->>..-,*! of the infamous - life and character \ of the informer. \ A respite - was therefore sent, \ once, and twice, and thrice, \ to give time, / as the Attorney General has already stated, \ for his Excellency - to consider, / whether mercy - could be extended to him, \ or not ; \ and with a knowledge - of all these circumstances, his Excellency - didjinatty determine, \ that mercy should NOT be extended to him ! / He was accordingly - executed, - upon that verdict, and died with a prayer - for the welfare of his country. \ LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 271 \ It is upon the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, then, gentlemen, tion ;\ that the attack has been made, by the author of this publica- / and against him, \ the charge is made, \ [express it, as strongly, I suppose, as the writer could find words to "that the Viceroy of Ireland \ has cruelly abused the prerogative of royal mercy, in suffering a man, under such circumstances, \/ to perish like a common malef actor "\ \/ For this, the Attorney General calls upon you, to pronounce the publication, \ a false - and scandalous libel. CURRAN. . The following indignant burst in the British parliament, ex- emplifies the emphasis of pointed affirmation, in a statement in reply. It also exhibits contrast and climax. / " They planted - by YOUR care ?" \ No; \ your oppressions - planted them in America. 272 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. \ \ \ They fled - from your tyranny, to a then - uncultivated - and inhospitable country, where they exposed themselves, to almost all the hardships - to which human nature is liable ; and among others, to the cruelties of a savage foe, the most subtle, and I will take it upon me to say, \ \ the most formidable, \ of any people - upon the face of the earth; \ and yet, actuated - by principles - of true English liberty, \ they met all these hardships with pleasure, compared with those - they suffered in their own country, \/ from the hands of those - who should have been \ their friends. -/->: They nourished up - by YOUR indulgence? \ They grew - by your neglect of them. / As soon as you began to care about them, that care was exercised in sending persons to rule them, LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 273 in one department and another, \ [bers of this house ; who were, perhaps, the deputies of deputies to some mem- \ sent - to spy out their liberties, \ to misrepresent their actions, \ and to prey upon them ; men, - whose behavior, on many occasions, has caused the blood of those sons of liberty, \ to recoil within them ; men - promoted to the highest seats of justice, some of whom, \ to my knowledge, were glad, / by going to a foreign country, \/ to escape being brought to the bar of a court of justice, \ in their own. / They "protected - by YOUR ARMS? \ They have nobly taken up arms - in your defense ; they have exerted their valor, amidst their constant and laborious industry, for the defense of a country, / whose frontier was drenched in blood, 24 274 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. while its interior parts, yielded all its little savings, V to your emoluments. \ And, believe me; \ remember I this day - told you so ; that the same spirit of freedom, / which actuated that people, at fast, \ will accompany them - stiH Col. BARRE. 2. NEGATION CONTRASTED WITH AFFIRMATION. Almost the whole of the following vigorous passage, illus- trates this contrast. It concludes with a condition and its con- sequence. / Parliament is not a congress - of ambassadors, / from different - and hostile - interests, / which interests each must maintain, / as an agent - and advocate, / against other agents and advocates ; but Parliament is a deliberative assembly - of one nation, \ with one interest, \ that of the whole ; / where, not - local purposes, LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 275 / not - local prejudices, ought to guide, \ but the general good, \ resulting from the general reason - of the whole. / You choose a member, indeed, but when you have chosen him, / he is not a member of Bristol, \ but he is a member of Parliament. If the local constituent should have an interest, or should form a hasty opinion, / evidently opposite to the real good - of the rest of the com- / [munity, the member for that place, \ ought to be as far as any other, from any endeavor - to give it effect. BURKE. 3. CONDITION AND CONSEQUENCE. The following is a remarkable passage. The first paragraph is made up of a lengthened condition, followed by its conse- quence. In the second paragraph, both the condition and the consequence, are in the form of questions. If it be true, that Mr. Hastings was directed to make the safety andprosper- / [ity of Bengal, the first object of his attention, 276 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. / [perous ; and that, under his administration, it has been safe and pros- / [sions and revenues in Asia, if it be true that the security and preservation - ofourposses- / [government, were marked out to him as the great leading principles of his and that those possessions and revenues, / amidst unexampled dangers, / 'have, been secured and preserved ; \/ then a question may be mixed with your consideration, \ much beyond the consequence of the present prosecution t involving, perhaps, \ the merit of the impeachment itself t \ which gave it birth. If England, / from a lust of ambition and dominion, / mil - insist / on maintaining despotic rule over distant and hostile nations, [herself, beyond all comparison, more numerous and extended than and give commission to her viceroys - to govern them, / with no other instructions - than to preserve them, LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 277 and to secure permanently their revenues ; with what color of consistency or reason, \ can she place herself - in the moral chair, \/ and affect to be shocked \ at the execution - of her own orders, \ [necessary to their execution adverting to the exact measure - of wickedness and injustice - \ and complaining only of the excess, as the immorality / considering her authority, as a dispensation for breaking the commands of God, \/ and the breach of these, as only punishable \ when contrary to the ordinances - of man? \/ . Such a proceeding, Gentlemen, \ begets serious reflections. It would be better, perhaps, \ for the masters and - the servants, of all such governments, to join in supplication, that the great Author - of violated humanity, may not confound them together, in one common judgment. ERSKINE. 24* 273 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. 4. CONCESSION AND DENIAL. In the latter part of the following extract, we have marked several of the emphases, with the wave, or inverted circumflex. Throughout the whole passage, the contrasts will be obvious. The appropriate inflexions will be successfully given by the speaker, if he enters earnestly into the argument. / It ought to be the happiness - and glory - of a representative, / to live - in the strictest union, / the closest correspondence, \> and the most unreserved communication \ with his constituents. Their wishes / ought to have great weight with him ; / their opinion, high respect, / their business, \ unr emitted attention. / It is his duty, to sacrifice his repose, / his pleasures, / his satisfactions, \ to theirs ; / and, above all, / ever, and in all cases, \/ to prefer their interests LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 279 \ to his own. \/ But, his unbiassed opinion, \/ his mature judgment, \/ his enlightened conscience, /\ he ought not - to sacrifice to you, \ to any man, or to any set of men living. X\ These he does not derive / from your pleasure \ "'' nor from the law - and the constitution. /\ They are a trust from Providence, / for the abuse of which, \ he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, / not his industry only, \ but his judgment ; \ and he betrays, / instead of serving you, / if he sacrifices it \ to your opinion. BURKE. 280 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. 5. QUESTION AND ANSWER. The following is a continuation of the extract, in a previous chapter, on " Conciliating America." Vide p. 245. Do you imagine, then, that it is the land tax which raises your revenue ? that it is the annual vote in the committee of supply, which gives you your army ? or that it is the mutiny bill which inspires it with bravery and discipline ? \ No! \ surely no ! It is the love of the people : it is their attachment to their government, \ [ous institution, \ from the sense of the deep stake - they have, in such a glori- which gives you your army and your navy, and infuses into both, that liberal obedience, without which, .\ your army would be a base rabbk, \ and your navy nothing but rotten timber. BURKE. 6. ANTITHETICAL CONTRAST. The following passage is the conclusion of the last extract. The first two periods are in contrast with each other. In each LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 281 of the three concluding sentences, we have an antithetical con- trast of ideas. MAGNANIMITY IN POLITICS. / All this, I know well enough, /\ will sound wild, /\ and chimerical, / / [cians, to the profane herd of those vulgar and mechanical - politi- / who have no place - among us, a sort of people who think that nothing - exists, / but what is gross and material, and who, therefore, far from being qualified to be directors / of the great movement - of empire, /\ are not fit - to turn a wheel - in the machine. \/ But to men - truly initiated, \/ and rightly taught, these ruling and master principles, which, in the opinion of such men as I have mentioned, / have no substantial existence, \ are, in truth, every thing, \ and all in all. 282 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. / Magnanimity, in politics, \ is, not seldom, the truest wisdom ; \/ and a great empire, and little minds, \ go itt together. / Let us get an American revenue, as we have got an American empire. English privileges / have made it all that it is ; English privileges, alone, \/ will make it, /\ all that it can be. BURKE. CROMWELL AND NAPOLEON. The following extract from Macaulay, exhibits the utmost degree of his peculiar antithetical style. Considerable skill and judgment may be exercised in its delivery, by occasionally di- minishing the emphatic force, and thus making the whole run smoothly. In the general spirit - and character - of his administration, / we think Cromwell \ far superior to Napoleon. Reason and philosophy did not teach the conqueror of Europe, LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 283 to command his passions, or to pursue, as a first object, \ the happiness of his people. They did not prevent him from risking his fame and his power, in a frantic contest against the principles - of human nature, \ and the laws - of the physical world; against the rage of the winter, \ and the liberty of the sea. [nicious of superstitions, They did not exempt him from the influence of that most per- \ a presumptuous fatalism. They did not preserve him from the inebriation of prosperity, or restrain him from indecent querulousness - and violence, \ in adversity. On the other hand, the fanaticism - of Cromwell never urged him on impracticable undertakings, \ or confused his perception - of the public good. Inferior to Bonaparte, in invention. \ he was far superior to him, in wisdom. The French Emperor is, among conquerors, what Voltaire is, among writers, 284 EXPOSITION OP THOUGHT. \ a miraculous child. His splendid genius was frequently clouded by Jits of humor, as absurdly perverse, \ as those of the pet of the nursery, / who quarrels with his food. \ and dashes his playthings - to pieces. \/ Cromwell /\ was, emphatically, a man. He possessed, in an eminent degree, \ that masculine and full grown - robustness of mind, \ that equally diffused intellectual health, which, if our national partiality does not mislead us, has peculiarly characterized \ the great men of England. Never was any ruler \ so conspicuously born for sovereignty. / The cup which has intoxicated almost all others, \/ /\ sobered him. / His spirit, restkss from its buoyancy, in a lower sphere, reposed - in majestic placidity, \ as soon as it had reached the level - congenial to it. LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 285 He had nothing in common - with that large class of men, / who distinguish themselves in lower posts, and whose incapacity becomes obvious, \ as soon as the public voice summons them to take the lead. Rapidly as his fortunes grew, \/ his mind \ expanded more rapidly still. / Insignificant as a private citizen, he was a great - general; he was a still greater prince. MACAULAY. 7. REFERENTIAL EMPHASIS. This emphasis is a variety of that of Contrast. Some ac- count of it has been given under the head of Rising Inflexions, at p. 235. But as it often characterizes long passages, or even an entire discourse, it requires some further notice. When a speaker advances assertions or doctrines in opposi- tion to an adversary, or contrary to a prevalent opinion, his tone is characterized by a peculiar modulation, which indicates a pointed reference. The same tone is likewise heard, when he is liable to a suspicion of holding opinions contrary to what he expresses. Though it runs through the whole of his delivery, yet it is of course most striking on emphatic words. Rising inflexions are the most prevalent and characteristic; and, as was mentioned in the previous chapter, often take the place of cadences at the ends of sentences. There is a ten- dency, likewise, to use waves and circumflexes. When falling 25 286 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. inflexions are actually necessary, they begin on a high key, and are often such as we mark by the wave. In gesture, the rise of the hand corresponds in a general way to that of the voice. Instead of downward strokes of gesture, one or both hands are oftener extended towards the audience with the expression of appeal. We find it impossible to mark this emphasis, so as to distin- guish it from other forms of contrast, except by indicating the upward skip which so strikingly characterizes it. This we effect by placing the accented syllable higher than the rest of the phrase. No difficulty will be experienced in executing this very striking and significant turn of the voice, provided the reader trusts boldly to his natural impulses. It is one of very frequent use in conversation. THE UNION. I prof' Sir, in my career - hitherto, to have kept steadily in view, the honor - and prosperity of the u