niumiJg of Calif<mtra.
Division
Received. .....Jf.lL.Lz... ....... .
zj..
PRACTICAL SPEAKING,
AS 'TAUGHT IN
YALE COLLEGE
BY
E. D. NORTH, M. D.
" The art of speaking well, has, in most civilized countries, been a cherished mark
of distinction between the elevated and the humble conditions of life."
Dr. JAMES RUSH.
NEW HAVEN:
PUBLISHED BY T. H. PEASE.
1846.
97/1
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846,
by E. D. NORTH,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut.
PRINTED By B. L. HAMLEN,
Printer to Yale College.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Preface,
Introduction, 17
Plan of Instruction, 30
PART 1.
GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
Chap. 1. ATTITUDE AND GESTURE, 34
Attitude, 36
Gesture, 39
Chap. 2. VOICE, . 47
Dependence of Voice on Respiration, ... 51
Voice or Tone of Address, 54
Agreeable and Impressive Voice, .... 58
Refinement and Suavity of Voice, .... 60
Keys of the Speaking Voice, 64
Chap. 3. ANIMATED AND IMPRESSIVE UTTERANCE, ... 66
Animated Utterance, or Spirited Accent, ... 67
Impressive Utterance, or Prolonged Tones, . . 71
Chap. 4. ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION, .... 74
Articulation, 74
Vowels, 77
Consonants, ........ 80
Articulation of Polysyllabic Words, . ... 84
Pronunciation, 88
Chap. 5. CONTINUOUS DISCOURSE, 93
Accent of Construction, or Grouping of Words, . 94
Distinct Separation of Syllables, .... 100
Sustained Expression, 101
Chap. 6. EMPHATIC FORCE, 103
Continued Emphasis, 107
Emphatic Force on Single Words, .... 115
Contrasts of Force, 119
CONTENTS.
Page.
Deep Earnestness of Tone, 122
Consciousness of being Earnest and Interesting, . 126
Tone of Communicating Thought, .... 129
Chap. 7. RHYTHM AND CADENCE, 133
Rhythm, 134
Rhythm of Words, 137
Rhythm of Emphatic Words, 143
Rhythm produced by Quantity, .... 148
Familiar Rhythm, 157
Cadence, 162
Chap. 8. CIRCUMSTANCES, 168
Adaptation of Delivery to Size of Audience, . . 170
Adaptation to Echo of Rooms, 173
Adaptation to Restless Audiences, .... 176
Chap. 9. SELF-MANAGEMENT, 177
Self-Possession, 177
Manner of Beginning an Address, .... 179
Manner of Concluding an Address, . . . .1-1
Appendix to Part I. The Diatonic Melody of Speech, . . 183
PART II.
EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
Chap. 1. GROUPS AND PHRASES, 192
Principles of Grouping, 197
Phrases of Utterance, 204
Phrases of Subject and Predicate, .... 210
" of Suspending Clauses, .... 212
" of Circumstance, 213
" of Object of Active Verb, .... 215
" of Apposition, 217
" of Parallel Construction, . . . .219
Chap. 2. INFLEXIONS, 221
Falling Inflexions, 225
Rising Inflexions, 232
Contrast of Inflexions, 237
Questions, 238
Conditional Clauses, 241
Circumflex Inflexions, 243
Concluding Remarks on Inflexions, .... 249
CO NTE NTS . 5
Page.
Chap. 3. EMPHASIS, 252
Emphatic Grouping, 257
Grammatical Emphasis, 263
Logical Emphasis, 266
1. Pointed Affirmation or Designation, . . . 267
2. Negation contrasted with Affirmation, . . 274
3. Condition and Consequence, .... 275
4. Concession and Denial, 278
5. Question and Answer, 280
6. Antithetical Contrast, 280
7. Referential Emphasis, . " . . . . 285
8. Emphasis of Correspondence, .... 290
9. Intensive Emphasis, 295
10. Emphasis of Remonstrance, .... 302
Emphasis of Imagination, ..... 307
Emphasis of Emotion, 308
Chap. 4. TRANSITION BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS 324
PART III.
EXPRESSION.
Chap. 1. MOODS OF DELIVERY, 334
The Direct Mood of Delivery, 335
The Meditative Mood, 337
Chap. 2. STYLES OF ADDRESS, 341
1. Unimpassioned Affirmation, .... 347
1. a. Explanatory Affirmation, .... 351
2. Impassioned Affirmation, 355
2. a. Impassioned Explanatory Affirmation, . . 361
3. Contentious Affirmation, 364
3. a. Explanatory Contentious Affirmation, . . 367
Styles of Speaking characterized by Sentiment, . 369
1. Unimpassioned or Simple Sentiment, . . . 370
1. a. Unimpassioned Pathetic Sentiment, . . 377
2. Impassioned Sentiment, ..... 378
2. a. Impassioned Pathetic Sentiment, . . . 386
3. Hortatory Sentiment, 388
3. a. Hortatory Pathetic Sentiment, . . . 391
Mixed Styles . . 393
Style of Conviction, 395
Appendix to PartS. The Tremor of the Voice, . . .397
6 CONTE NTS.
PART IV.
LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS SELECTED BY THE STUDENT.
Page.
Established Customs, ..-.... 400
General Plan of Lessons, 402
Rules of Practice, 402
Sophomore Year, First Term, 494
Sophomore Year, Second Term, . . . 411
Sophomore Year, Third Term, 414
Junior Year, First Term, 417
Junior Year, Second Term, 421
Junior Year, Third Term, 40(5
Preparation for Junior Exhibitions and Commencements, . . 430
APPENDIX TO THE VOLUME.
Taste, 436
Extemporaneous Delivery, 437
Reading, 433
Poetry, 439
Continued Self-Cultivation in Delivery, 439
ERRATA.
P. 144, line 2d from bottom, for adventurer, read adventurer.
P. 161, line 2d from top, for extract, read extracts.
P. 222, line 15 from bottom, for effects, read efforts.
NOTATION OF THE EXAMPLES.
It is believed that in general, this will explain itself. But the follow-
ing references will be convenient. Each line constitutes a phrase of
utterance : vide p. 209. Phrases are subdivided into groups of utterance
by a wider space between words : vide pp. 95 to 97. When a hyphen is
inserted in the space between two groups, it indicates a compound group,
and that the pause may be omitted in rapid delivery : vide p. 204. For
the principles for placing the falling inflexion (\) vide p. 229. For those
of placing the rising inflexion (/) vide pp. 234 and 236. For the use of
circumflexes and waves, (\/) (/\) vide pp. 243 and 244. For the
use of italics, and of words with separated letters, vide pp. 143 and 310.
PREFACE.
THE following work, as will be perceived upon a
slight examination, is on a different plan from any which
has hitherto appeared on the subject of elocution. It is
the result of a laborious study begun jp parly yonth nnrl
continued for upwards of twenty years, of the physi-
ology of the voice and the accompanying instincts of the
bod ylrT gesture" The great work of Dr. James Rush,
of Philadelphia, and the able treatise of Dr. Porter, of
Andover, both of which appeared in 1827, were adopted
by the present author immediately on their first appear-
ance, and the truth of their doctrines subjected to the test
of practical and independent investigation. The latter
of these works was found to be an improvement upon
those of Walker, Sheridan, and others ; but the former
proved to be accurate and practically useful in proportion
to the genius, industry and acuteness of its author.
Probably a more difficult and subtle investigation was
never entered into in any branch of the sciences of ob-
servation, and the more it is submitted to the test of
comparison with nature, the more surprising will its
completeness and accuracy appear. Yet having been
for some time laboriously employed as a teacher of read-
ing and speaking before its appearance, and having con-
8 PREFACE.
tinued to be thus occupied for most of the time since,
the present writer has uniformly found that such philo-
sophical and strictly scientific modes of describing the
functions of the voice as those adopted by Dr. Rush, re-
quire too much time and study to be very useful to
those who wish merely to acquire practical skill in read-
ing and speaking, and that for the purpose of teaching
elocution, it is absolutely necessary to resort to a differ-
ent method.
The practical student needs to be informed of those
uses only of the voice in which he is liable to err, and
that these be described in such a way as corresponds
with his feelings of embarrassment and difficulty, when
in attempting to read or speak, he finds that his delivery
is not such as he wishes it to be. Those who feel their
own deficiencies in reading or speaking, have a concep-
tion more or less perfect of what they ought to exhibit,
but find on trial that their delivery is in fact strangely
inferior to the ideal standard in their minds. In this
state of disappointment, an elocutionist at his elbow,
should be able at once to inform such a one in the first
place what tones he is using, and in what they differ from
those of nature and cultivated power ; and in the next
place to explain the reason why his voice proceeds differ-
ently from what he wishes. This last is the most im-
portant service required of the teacher of elocution.
Such reasons will always be found to result from some
unfortunate habit of body or mind, with which the
teacher is familiar from study and experience. The
explanation of all such habits belongs to the science of
physiology, taken in its widest acceptation, as is done
PREFACE .
by Chalmers, in hisJBridgewater treatise, and^as it is fa-
miliarly understood by medical men and naturalists.
Elocution is properly a branch of physiology,, and no
more connected with Rhetoric, with which it is so com-
monly associated, than with music, painting and sculp-
ture, with which also it has considerable connection.
Every complete work on physiology treats of voice, ges-
ture, and of the alphabetic .etauents.,.
It seems to be commonly supposed that the unfortu-
nate habits above alluded to, which interfere with the free
expression of thought and sentiment in reading and
speaking, must necessarily result chiefly from mistakes,
or neglect in early education. This is a serious error
they proceed rather from that weakness of mental and
physical organization, which is shared in a greater or
less degree by all. The faults of delivery which a
teacher is called upon to correct, are not of very many
kinds. They are exhibited with little variation by all
who have not cultivated delivery by their own efforts,
with no exceptions, except occasionally in the case of
one whose organization peculiarly fits and predisposes
him for public speaking. To enlarge his sphere of ob-
servation, the author at one period welcomed every op-
portunity of instructing persons of both sexes ancl of all
ages, from six to forty years and upwards, and for a con-
siderable time gave individual instruction to about two
hundred persons a day. He soon found however, that the
varies difficulties among; so many wprfi r Pfl^'ly rpdnni-
ble to a few general classes, and that time spent in point-
ing out Taults, was in general, lost All have certain
fundamental requisites of delivery to learn ; all must ac-
' " 2
10
PREFACE.
a voice of *>reatp.r r.nmpag gj degth and flexibility,
than is developed in common conversation ; all must
learn to (regulate the breath, andjkeep the chest in that
condition which enables the speaker to emit the succes-
sive syllables of discourse with the steadiness and slow-
ness required for large rooms; fall must acquire the habit
of concentrating the mind on me ideas delivered, to such
a degree that no
shall prevent the natural impulses from which a good
delivery results, from acting with intensity and power ;
Jail must acquire that judgment of the ear by which a
speaker distinguishes for himself the actual sound of his
voice at a distance, and listens to it after it has issued
from him, as if he himself were one of the auditors as
well as the speaker Mall must acquire that discipline of
the mind, by which the words of a written or a memo-
rized discourse can be taken from the dead letter before
they are uttered, and transferred to the mind in the
shape of thoughts not yet completely clothed Jn_Jan-
guage, so that when actually spoken^jha^utterance shall
proceed from the same impulses as if he were extempo-
rizing, and the ideas thus have their living embodiment
of words with their inseparably associated tones ; and
finally,|ail must acquire those unfettered bodily habits,
in consequence of which attitude and gesture become as
varied and graceful as the impulses from which they
spring. From infancy onwards, the commerce of or-
dinary life teaches us to talk. We learn to read Jr ex-
pressing aloud the words which silently meet the eye,
but in reading merely for our own information, the mind
is in the condition of apprehending, not of communica-
PREFACE . 11
ting thoughts. Hence the tone of reading is at first ab-
stracted andjjiexpressive, and if it becomes otherwise^
the natural ^Yjirfigsi on js at first similar t.n rh^o/ snliin-
quizing, or, still more precise! y^t resembles that which
to himself words which have
just been addressed to him by another, in order to be
certain that he has caught them correctly. We next
attempt to utter them in living tones, to satisfy ourselves
that we understand them. But the regulax_siiccession
of written words and their natural rhythm, cause the
voice to proceed more or less in a monotonously regular
and a mechanically rhythmical manner. The mind
likewise is in a musing- state. From both these causes,
reading is at first naturally characterized by what is
called a tone. The tones with which children read are
universal, and are equally exhibited by uneducated men.
Among the Asiatic nations, indeed, where the people act
less from the impulses of the understanding and more
from those of the imagination and feelings, all reading
is in the style which we call chanting, and in their lan-
guages the same word signifies both to read and to sing.
Up to this point, we have nothing which can be called
delivery. This term implies the act of addressing ideas to
others. When children in school have once acquired the
ability to pronounce written words at sight, all instruction
in propriety of reading consists in teaching them to make
an effort to give the tones by which we communicate writ-
ten ideas to others. This act requires in general, the
modulations of the voice used in conversation. But as
the mind is in an entirely different state from that of con-
versation, it is by a long and slow process that the child
12 PREFACE.
learns to perform the double mental act, first to make
the ideas his own, and then to express them to others.
Neither is it necessary for ordinary purposes that these
two things be done in perfection. Enough of the latter
is merely required to give a reasonable degree of life and
interest to the reading.
Speaking however, requires a higher excitement and
a stronger effort of mind and body. A word of a single
syllable may be uttered in three tones : first in that of
talking, next in that, partly of apprehending the mean-
ing, partly of soliloquizing, and partly of talking, which
characterizes reading, and lastly in those tones of enforc-
ing or explaining ideas which we use in that higher ef-
fort to attract the attention of others, which characterizes
speaking. There is indeed still another modification
which distinguishes what is called recitation, as when a
performer recites a poem before an audience, and which
implies an intentional display of art and skill but of
recitation we do not propose to treat in the present
volume.
In regard to speaking, it is a curious and important
fact, that the power in the vocal organs of expressing
words in the tone which naturally belongs to it, is not
developed by the common intercourse of society. A
considerable proportion of those men whose public de-
livery is confined to compositions prepared beforehand
never use this tone and when they apply for instruc-
tion to teachers of elocution, are found to be incapable
of employing it at pleasure. They have never made
use of it, except that occasionally when strongly excited,
they have done so instinctively, but have not been after-
PREFACE. 13
wards aware that their vocal organs have been engaged
in an unwonted action which they cannot repeat at will.
In fact the peculiar open state of the fauces, the more
tense contraction of the vocalmuscles, and the more sud-
den and complete emission of the breath which produce
the tone of speaking, are natural indeed, but natural only
in that sort of excitement of mind which leads a person
to speak rather than to talk, and which is not needed
in ordinary life. It will be found on investigation that
every one who can at pleasure employ the tones of a
speaker, has learned to do so at some period subsequent
to that of early childhood. Some indeed of the employ-
ments of life, such as those of auctioneers, debaters and
lawyers, are certain to develope the habit of using the
speaking voice, yet those whose regular duties call
only for the deli vej^of compositions previously prepared,
are not in circumstances that necessarily elicit this
peculiar action of the vocal organs. Boys and young
men never exhibit it except after considerable practice ;
when once however it is established, from that time
they find no difficulty in speaking whenever they wish
to do so. They may indeed afterwards improve in de-
livery, but as soon as they practically understand how
to command the voice that distinguishes speaking from
talking or from reading, they feel a consciousness of
having acquired^ ne \v_facjjlty, and are ever after consent
of their ability to use it. It is indeed a kind of muscular
action, which like that of swimming or of skating, is
perhaps attained after a long continuance of repeated ef-
forts, but when in fact mastered, is often gained sud-
denly and at once. Like these acts likewise, that of
2*
14 PREFACE.
speaking when once learned, is never forgotten or lost
from want of practice. All the three may also be learned
either slowly, or suddenly and by an instantaneous and
felicitous effort. The author continually witnesses in-
stances of the latter kind as well as the former. He has
been in the habit of telling those who after a long con-
tinued repetition of failures, suddenly break into the
speaking tone, that from that time forwards, they will
be able to speak.
These facts upon which we have been dwelling so
long, lie at the foundation of all philosophical and prac-
tical elocution. Though they have been too much
overlooked by men of learning, yet the unlearned part
of the community have always felt that the very act of
speaking is a distinct and peculiar one. A sensible and
respectable man will say to a teacher, "In town meet-
ings I can talk but I cannot speak, and I wish my child
to be taught at school to speak, so that he may take a
higher stand than his father." The most ignorant class
of enthusiasts in religion indeed esteem the distinction
so fundamental, that they attach an obscure idea of in-
spiration to a suddenly acquired faculty of making reli-
gious harangues. President Dwight remarks of this
class r>f roiiorirmQ ing|p] 1 p i ^nrg | that they are generally supe-
rior to tHeiV hearers in nothing but^vpiuMity.* They
might also be described as differing from their hearers in
the power of using the speaking voice at pleasure.
It is the object of the present volume to assist in ac-
quiring the art of public speaking. The whole course
* Dwight's Travels.
PREFACE. 15
of instruction has for its fundamental idea that the ac-
quisition of tliTs^arrrelsults " m"fKe^case'6f all but a very
small number of men, from some course of mental or
bodily training. This may be acquired after entering
upon life, as is so often done by lawyers and debaters,
through practice before audiences ; but it is generally
considered desirable, that those who are gaining a liberal
education should be enabled to step forth from the seclu-
sion of a seminary of learning, adorned and equipped
with this addition to their other accpmplishmejjts.
This volume is prepared with an express adaptation to
the wants of the institution in which its author is em-
ployed, and is confined strictly to the, topics which he is
constantly called o" *<* diar^gy in the course of his in-
structions, and in answer to the numergjg_ enquiries of
intelligent young__men. The lengthened introduction
which follows is addressed exclusively to the students of
the institution, and is rendered necessary by there being
new classes to teach in each successive year.
As " The Philosophy of the Human Voice," by Dr.
Rush, is a large volume, and found difficult of compre-
hension by many, the writer would particularly recom-
mend to those who wish to become acquainted with that
gentleman's discoveries, a neat and elegant treatise by
Prof. Henry N. Day, of Western Reserve College, which
is an independent work on the same general plan.
New Haven, Dec. 31,1845.
PRACTICAL SPEAKING.
INTRODUCTION.
IT is the object of the following work, to exhibit the course
of instruction in elocution, which is at present pursued in Yale
College. Since the writer has had the responsibilities of his
present situation, the number of undergraduates in the institu-
tion has been on an average about four hundred. The three
younger classes receive systematic instruction in speaking
throughout the whole of the college year, and any member of
the Senior class is accommodated, without charge, with private
instruction as often as he wishes. The number to be taught is
consequently so great, as to oblige the instructor to resort to
short and hurried lessons. It is a necessary rule that each les-
son be confined to a single subject, and also that no subject be
introduced which is not proved by experience to be absolutely
essential in its importance. The problem has all along been, to
find out what difficulties most embarrass young men who are
preparing to speak in public, and what kind of instruction in
reference to these difficulties will be most willingly received.
In consequence of the failure of the writer's physical strength,
this volume has been prepared during the present college term,
in the midst of his labors as an instructor, and has for its object
merely to impart the information which he has hitherto given,
in the infhrmaLJe^turin^ and conversation which take place in
teaching. Not a page having been previously written, and
most of it having been composed in a state of severe suffering,
it exhibits many deficiencies, yet will enable him to perform
18 INTRODUCTION.
his duties with less labor, and, he hopes, with more success.
His only alternative is either to resign his situation or attempt
to continue by the assistance of a work like the present.
No subject has been omitted which the instructor in this in-
stitution is called on to teach. (Persevering efforts have in for-
mer years been made, to present somewhat of the philosophy
of English phonology and orthoepy ; the structure and rhythm
of English meters; the rhythm of ancient versification which
results from the systematic employment of quantity, considered
as distinct from accent ; the distinctions between public read-
ing in various styles, and public speaking; the difference be-
tween public and parlor reading ; and finally, the adaptation of
reading, especially in poetry, to the peculiar styles of thought,
sentiment and language which characterize our most original
writers so managing elocution as to assist the mind in en-
deavoring to sympathize with the peculiar genius of each.
None of these subjects, however, have any necessary connexion
with the main object of enabling each student to do justice in
future life to his talents and education when speaking his own
written or extemporaneous ideas. For some time likewise, an
effort was made to assist the younger students in acquiring a
fondness for the beauties of English literature. For this pur-
pose, use was made .of the means which are the province
strictly of elocution. The peculiar comment afforded by the
voice of a practised reader, and his interjectional remarks,
are sometimes valuable iiTawakening an interest in the beauties
of literature, and thus preparing the way for the more quiet,
but also more studied and learned commentary of the profes-
sional critic. The instructor in the present branch, however,
has been conscientiously careful never to appear to lend coun-
tenance to the opinion, that such accomplishments as he is
employed to teach, can be advantageously pursued while any of
the severer studies are neglected. All these efforts to teach
any thing more than public speaking, have failed, and have
INTRODUCTION. 19
been successively abandoned. Serious difficulties have attend-
ed efforts to introduce any of the subjects above mentioned, and
the attempt will not again be made unless by direction of the
governing faculty.
The topics discussed in the present volume, have all met
with the cordial approbation and sympathy of the students, and
notwithstanding the failure of success in respect to the others,
the instructor has had the satisfaction of knowing, that though
occupying a situation of no official rank or authority, and yet
one in which from the very nature of the subject taught, the
modest and diffident must be brought forward and protected,
and those whose example or conduct obstructs their own and
others' improvement must be checked, and if necessary sternly
rebuked, he has never to his knowledge made a personal ene-
my or caused the governing faculty any trouble. It has been
by the manifestations of kind respect on the part of the stu-
dents, that he has been encouraged in carrying into action the
principle that " faithful are the wounds of a friend." Young
men feel that among those whose example does not entice them
to immorality, they can have no worse enemy than he who de-
frauds them of that part which it is his duty to afford them, of
the highest of earthly blessings, education.
The instructor is careful to have it understood that speaking
is not to be learned by making him a model, and makes it an
important rule to endeavor to accommodate himself to the
natural tendencies in delivery of the student aiming so to
manage his corrections that they shall be received thankfully,
and assist instead of hinder him in his natural efforts to be ex-
pressive and interesting. As a result of this mode of proceed-
ing, no difficulties ever arise from differences of taste. It is
not indeed the province of a mere teacher to dictate upon such
points, but rather to assist the student towards a satisfactory ex-
ecution in the style which he prefers, or which is recommended
and enjoined by those placed in authority over him. The pres-
20 INTRODUCTION.
ent instructor at first rnet with difficulty in persuading some
that he taught, to make a hearty effort to be spirited and inter-
esting, in consequence of their supposing that his personal taste
was in favor of a disagreeable degree of loudness; but the fact
is now well understood in this institution, that loud speaking is
at first easier than that which is more subdued, and that the on-
ly infallible mode of practice by which a liability to disagreea-
ble loudness can be prevented, is for each one to discipline his
own voice until he knows its tendencies and capabilities, and
never falls into loudness by mistake. He prefers, more than
most persons, a subdued and mellow voice, and finds loud-
ness the most difficult of all faults to correct. It can be suc-
cessfully done only by means of gymnastic vocal exercises,
similar to those employed in the ablest schools of music, by
which the tone of the voice is made deep, mellow and clear.
k Throughout the whole course, the distinction is carefully kept
view between what can be taught in delivery, and what must
be original with the speaker. In a loose way, we may call
this distinction that between elocution and eloquence. The
latter must be original, arid will vary according to talents, tem-
perament and character."^ A teacher of elocution must con-
scientiously bear in mind that if the evil is not guarded against,
those who are receiving instruction from him will be apt to trust
too exclusively to rules, and thus become less individual and
consequently less interesting and effective in their several styles
of eloquence.
Those who from peculiar organization have a decidedly nat-
ural turn of mind for public speaking, seem not to be more in
number than two or three in a hundred. Such actually need
little or no instruction, and although, when young, they are of-
ten the most fond of receiving it, little more is necessary for
the teacher than to encourage them to trjjs|j:>oldly to their nat-
ural impulses. Experience, however, proves that there is no
serious difficulty for the rest, in learning to address a public
INTRODUCTION. 21
assembly in a digmfied, agreeable, and interesting manner.
These also, if their minds are matured and disciplined by a lib-
eral education, may readily make themselves prompt, fluent and
methodical, as extemporaneous speakers/ ^Tet it is not to be
expected that all will become eloquent. Those who attain to
this height, will reach it only by cajgful and persevering self-
cultivation of the imagination and character. An instructor
can Ho no more than encourage and sometimes assist. Tasks
cannot be imposed in eloquence, although elocution must be
learned by means of them.
It is the object, then, of the present treatise, to exhibit a set
of lessons which are to be practised as tasks, and which shall
make but little requisition on the knowledge or judgment of in-
experienced pupils. It is indispensable that these be neither
difficult nor extremely disagreeable to the student that they
be such that he can proceed in them with confidence and pleas-
ure, and with a consciousness of their utility. If well contri-
ved, their practice will ultimately secure good habits, in all the
requisites for being an acceptable and effective speaker. De-
livery will be audible, distinct, fluent, graceful, earnest, impres-
sive, and in consequence of the union of these qualities, will be
forcible and interesting.
The only efficient modes of giving instruction in elocution,
are similar in most respects to the methods pursued in the great
schools of vocal music. Such methods are generally adopted
in our colleges and higher schools. Not only elocutionists, but
professors of rhetoric employ them for pupils of every age.
Explanation is always accompanied by vocal illustration, and
by associated practice time is saved sufficiently to enable all the
learners to discipline their own organs thoroughly, instead of
waiting in tedious impatience for each one to take his turn.
Attempts at private instruction without the assistance of the
discipline of an institution, are generally attended with very
unsatisfactory success. It is seldom except by such help, that
3
22 INTRODUCTION.
a satisfactory grounding can be given in the elements of any
art or science. And in no branch of study is a stringent dis-
cipline more required than in this.
Time likewise is an important element among the requisites
for success. Superior ability in delivery can only result from
a gradual development of capabilities and the formation of hab-
its. Young men who are preparing to be public speakers,
sometimes express a wish that they could have it in their pow-
er for a while to devote themselves exclusively or principally to
this study, and thus finish it as a distinct branch of education.
Such wishes imply a serious mistake. To be ultimately suc-
cessful, the study of delivery must proceed part passu with that
development of mind which results from the whole course of
education. Mr. Russell, who is so extensively known as an
able teacher of elocution, has well explained, that delivery pro-
ceeds from the whole character. The speaking of a school-
boy must necessarily be boyish, and that of a college student,
in the early part of his course, will of course be inferior to
what he will be capable of exhibiting after his mind has been
strengthened by long application to severe studies. Habits al-
so cannot be formed at once, while rules, lessons and practice
are of little use except as they form habits of voice and gesture.
In penmanship, " a good hand" is formed by rules and lessons,
but graceful writing is executed without elaborate pains, and is
the result of habits previously established. To establish hab-
its, the lessons from which they are to proceed must not be in
too quick succession. Six lessons given in as many successive
hours, will have but little effect compared with what will result
if they are given in successive days or weeks. Slowness in
this respect is especially true in regard to the mind, and all hab-
its of delivery may be ultimately referred to the mind and char-
acter. A further illustration of these truths may be derived
from the practice of composition in our highest seminaries.
The maturity of style displayed in the magazines conducted by
INTRODUCTION. 23
their members, is certainly considerable, and yet it is the result,
so far as practice is concerned, not of very frequent trials in
composition, but of attempts made at considerable intervals
throughout the whole course of education.
For further explanation of the principles of the present work,
reference may be made to partJoujth^QJHtra^ljda Rhetoric, a
treatise which was composed when its author was at the head
of one of the colleges of Cambridge University. Not only
is the false mode of teaching elocution described by him, one
in which teachers are liable to proceed, but the injurious habits
described are still more often acquired by those who attempt
to improve their own delivery, by means of a set of rules, or by
imitating a favorite model.
As teachers of elocution often meet with those who are
strongly prejudiced against any cultivation of an improved de-
livery, and who feel a disgust at the very thought of attracting
popular applause as speakers, it may not be useless, and will
certainly promote a good understanding between instructor and
pupil, to give the subject of the true usefulness of elocution a
candid consideration.
C^ It is a popular notion, loosely entertained indeed, but often
\expressed, that a good delivery is the most important of all ac-
complishments for promoting the success in life of a man whose
profession requires him to be a speaker. This appeal to worldly
interest often excites aversion in the minds of young men, while
the more acute among them perceive the falsity of the assertion.
So far as mere success in life is concerned, impartial observa-
tion will prove that though a good delivery is often advanta-
geous, it not only is not imperatively called for by society, but
bad styles of speaking will often secure applause and patronage.
Even dullness of delivery is not without *** ! lsfts - Weakness
of thought and incorrectness of style are often concealed from
observation by obscurity of enunciation. A sort of dignified
mumbling is not unfrequently resorted to by men ambitious of
24 INTRODUCTION.
influence. So much easier is it to speak with force and fluency,
than to shew ability in writing ; so often is an animated delivery
the result merely of confidence and presumption, and so fre-
quently are successful arts of delivery used for selfish ends only,
that there exists in society a readiness to suspect a good speaker
of being insincere or shallow. Men are justly satisfied with
learning, talent and elevation of character, although their pos-
sessors may express valuable matter in a dull and tedious man-
ner. A superior delivery is not even necessary in all cases for
eloquence. Webster has stated a philosophical truth in saying
that " eloquence must exist in the man, in the subject and in
the occasion. "\ Had he been expressly treating the point, he
would probabjy have added, that of the three, " the occasion"
is the most influential. Indeed the appropriate occasions for
high eloquence are rare. * Accomplished oratory, of which de-
livery is a part, attracts admiration and may thus be injurious
to influence and usefulness. It is a critical remark of F.
Schlegel, that Bishop Bossuet, the most splendid of French ora-
tors, was too eloquent for a clergyman. There is no evidence
that the Apostle Paul was admired as an orator in Greece or
Rome. Had he been, his polished hearers might have excused
themselves from regarding him in any other light than merely
as an interesting speaker. In the most profoundly skillful piece
of oratory, perhaps in any language, Shakespeare makes Antony
say, " I am no orator, as Brutus is."
Still it is commonly acknowledged that there is to a greater
or less extent an obligation resting upon all who are pursuing a
course of liberal education, to acquire the accomplishment of a
good delivery, if circumstances put in their power to obtain it.
In the first place a man feels deficient without it, and experien-
ces a natural impulse in favor of its.cjiliiyalip.n. just. as he does
with respect to other branches of knowledge. Self-cultivation
is a universal law of reason arid conscience. On the same
ground, society also expects evidences of this accomplishment
from men of education. *
INTRODUCTION. 25
In the next place we owe it to our fellow men to endeavor to
make ourselves useful and agreeable. A good delivery is the
most powerful of all instruments for the purpose of communi-
cating our ideas at least to the ignorant and illiterate. For
this purpose it is far more valuable than mere literary correct-
ness or beauty of style. For uneducated minds, and the great
majority of miscellaneous audiences are of this description,
nothing will compensate for the want of clearness and force of
delivery, if the speaker is really desirous of instructing or even
ly to Tmpr n h n nd-him Delivery should
be especially cultivated by all who are called upon to teach. It
is often said that this accomplishment is most valuable to lawyers,
but this class of speakers have less need of cultivating it than
any other, because from the situation in which they speak, they
can scarcely avoid becoming, after a few trials, both fluent and
forcible. Some degree of coarseness in delivery is often favor-
able in its influence on juries, and a lawyer can never be so
absurd as to expect to influence a judge by means of elocution.
No situation is so easy for a man to speak in, as that of main-
taining one side only of a question before a judge or jury.
Lawyers do not succeed as well as clergymen when addressing
large audiences, and the debates on party questions in conven-
tions of clergymen are at least as eloquent as those in political
assemblies.
A man is bound also to be reasonably agreeable, as well as
useful. So great is the just reverence for intellect and learning,
that when listening to speakers whom they respect for their tal-
ents and attainments, audiences do not complain of faults in
delivery, which would be considered proof of want of good man-
ners in private intercourse. This however, is not a very good
excuse for such faults on the part of speakers themselves.
Avoidance of disagreeable attitudes and gestures, and a mani-
fest pains to be at least distinct and audible, are required by
common respect and courtesy, as much in a public meeting as
3*
26 INTRODUCTION.
in a private company. It is only such considerations as these,
in favor of the cultivation of elocution, that are of any real effi-
ciency towards inducing young men to apply themselves to its
study. Arguments founded in vulgar selfishness, disgust many
and cause them to despise the accomplishment; while on the
other hand, the same inducements rarely succeed in persuading
to useful application even those who apparently consent to them.
There is another recommendation to the study and practice
of delivery, which being a legitimate motive, it may be well to
mention. It is the pleasure which attends upon successful
efforts to free ourselves from feeling restrained and hampered in
the exercise of our natural faculties. Mind and body both be-
come unfettered, and the speaker enjoys his freedom and con-
sciousness of power.
But in reference to a College education, the strongest reason
for practising elocution is found in the fact, that for the last two
or three generations, there has been no other available counter-
active of certain injurious effects of college life. To say noth-
ing of vulgar tastes and coarse manners, the established course
of education for some time past has kept a young man occu-
pied from the years of childhood up to the period when he con-
cludes his professional studies, in such a way as directly and
powerfully to induce indolent andjiAvkwjyd habits of character.
Unmanly diffidence, absence of mind in common intercourse,
social cowardice, and bodily awkwardness and laziness, have
been felt extremely difficult to avoid, by serious and intellectual
young men, whose time has been spent principally at semina-
ries of learning. There have been no counteracting influences
from the practice of any accomplishment except that of compo-
sition, and this does not answer the purpose, as it is cultivated
m solitude. Extemporaneous debate has indeed been of some
little use, but the embarrassment which generally accompanies
its first practice, fully counteracts its benefits in respect to the
things now under consideration. At some former periods, the
INTRODUCTION, 27
case was different. Among the Greeks and Romans, the "in-
genuipmri" (young gentlemen,) during the whole course of
their literary education, practised gymnastic and warlike exer-
cises, which tended to keep the manly energies of the charac-
ter in equal development with intellectual discipline and refine-
ment. During the ages of chivalry, similar exercises were
practised by all but the monks. Even down to the middle of
the last century, some accomplishments continued to be culti-
vated which answered the same purpose to a considerable de-
gree. In Lord Chatham's letters to his son, the celebrated Wil-
liam Pitt, the latter is earnestly exhorted not to neglect his dan-
cing. Fencing and horsemanship were at that period univer-
sally cultivated by young men who expected to fill stations of
rank. Washington was distinguished as an elegant dancer and
an admirable horseman. Among the Greeks, and among the
English in the days of Elizabeth, instrumental music was care-
fully cultivated by the class corresponding to that which at the
present day claims a superior right to the appellation of gentle-
men. But in our present systems of education, nothing of this
kind finds place. Systematic gymnastic exercises have been
thoroughly tried, and universally abandoned, as failing to an-
swer their intended purpose. A military education, indeed,
such as that at West Point, has its appropria.te.jeniedifisJbr-the
evils of the other systems ; yet though the attempt has been
faithfully made to imitate in colleges this part of a military ed-
ucation, it has not succeeded. Numerous efforts have been
made to incorporate systems of manual labor, but the results of
such trials have been so unsatisfactory, that they seem not likely
to be repeated. To imitate the Greeks in making instrumen-
tal music a serious part of a liberal education, would at the pres-
ent day be manifestly absurd ; to resort seriously to dancing for
this great object, would be ridiciilftus^jrhe^cultivation of pu-
gilism, so earnestly pursued in England, is too brutish for this
country. The common athletic sports of young men are in-
28 INTRODUCTION.
valuable for purposes of exercise, but cannot take rank as ac-
complishments. Carriages, rail-cars and steamboats are super-
seding the necessity of horsemanship. Nothing seems to re-
main as a remedy for this great deficiency but the manly culti-
vation of practical oratory, and perhaps this accomplishment
will ultimately be found of more value for the purpose than any
thing else. \
To make/it thus available, however, it must not be cultiva-
ted, as has so often been done, in a mere spirit of emulating
theatrical performers. Even the highest and most natural elo-
cution for the stage, is not only totally different from, but dia-
metrically opposite to that of public speaking. The most seri-
ous mistake that can be made with reference to oratory, is to
suppose that even an absolutely perfect actor, if such could be
found, might be made a model for an orator. The situation of
an actor is in all respects different from that of a public speak-
er. In proof of this assertion, it will be sufficient simply to re-
fer to the totally different style of delivery adopted by an ac-
complished and favorite performer, when at the close of the
evening he advances to the front of the stage, and speaks
not as an actor, but in his own person to thank the audience
for their favoring regards. No progress began to be made in
improving the elocution of our colleges, until after the banish-
ment of serious theatrical performances. Common college col-
loquies do not strictly belong to the class of theatrical perform-
ances. They may, perhaps, be best described by the appella-
tion of intellectual frolics, and as such have a legitimate place
and value.
It is obvious, however, that to derive these advantages from
the practice of elocution, as well as to make any useful attain-
ments in the art, the student must yield to use a fine expres-
sion of Burke " a liberal nhqdience" to the most thorough dis-
cipline. Military discipline soon succeeds in transforming the
most clownish and degraded individuals, even the very outcasts
INTRODUCTION. 29
of society, who enlist as common soldiers, into men distinguish-
ed for an erect, manly carriage and a dignified demsajior. and
infuses into them, not only feelings of honor, but of enthusias-
tic self-dcvotion_tcMhp flailfl p r>rthpir rn iiptry. The very object
of a liberal education is to qualify men for filling the most re-
sponsible situations in society. Responsible situations are al-
ways those of dicrnifry. and as such demand ^elevation of flliaix.
acter ; but it is an e s t a b I is h c<L a siom . that no man is capable of
commanding who has not first learned to obey. Such self-con-
trol as leads to promptitude of effort, punctuality, and a regular
distribution of time, is a primary object of all systems of edu-
cation. The writer has accordingly been gratified in his labors,
by finding that the more thorough the discipline he proposed,
the greater was the satisfaction of the students. They have
shown their approval of the principle, that to require of them
their highest manly energies, and to accept of nothing lower,
is not only to be most faithful to them as an instructor, but to
treat them with the truest respect.
30
PLAN OF INSTRUCTION.
THE essential principles o^he mode of instruction developed
in this work are the following :
First. At no time to require of the learner, that which it is
not reasonably natural and easy for him to do.
Secondly. Faults that experience has shown to be liable to
occur in speaking, are as far as possible to be anticipated and
prevented. But when faults actually occur, the learner is not
to be expected to improve by simply endeavoring to avoid them,
but on the contrary is to have set before him some method of
practice which cultivates a mode of delivery exactly the opposite
of the faults. It is likewise intended that such modes of speak-
ing shall each exemplify one of the various natural styles of de-
livery. Some natural style of speaking can always be found,
the practice of which will cure the faults that are liable to at-
tend attempts to speak in other styles.
Faults may indeed be corrected by simply endeavoring to
avoid them ; but this process is apt to produce at best but a nega-
tive merit. The effect is even worse. It chills and checks the
development of positive excellence, and thus becomes a serious
hindrance to bringing forth the natural capabilities for eloquence
in the speaker.
Thirdly. In all instruction and practice, to keep in mind
the distinction between a mere exhibition of adherence to rules
of elocution, and a genuine and living eloquence. The one is
to be so managed as to assist rather than obstruct the other.*
* Vide Whately's Rhetoric, part fourth.
PLAN OF INSTRUCTION. 31
Not to attempt to do more by rules than they are capable of
effecting. To depend on the student's own energy and enthu-
siasm for that degree of success that does full justice to his
powers. In delivery, as in composition, the most interesting
things will be original and not derived from a teacher.
The question will naturally arise in the mind of the student,
how great a proficiency in speaking he may be able to attain,
by attending faithfully to the tasks proposed in the following
course of instruction. The answer will be found in the schemes
of the lessons for the several terms of the Sophomore and Junior
years. Those lessons have been satisfactorily tried with differ-
ent classes, and require nothing more than experience has
shown to be within the power of the great majority of each suc-
cessive Sophomore and Junior class. The body of the work is
to be studied and practised by the Freshman class, and provides
for every difficulty that is met, in attempting the courses of
lessons.
Another question likewise requires an answer. How much
time should be taken from other studies, in order to acquire the
art of speaking 1 It is the sincere opinion of the writer, that no
diminution need be made in the amount of time devoted to any
other branch of a College course of study. Any such abstrac-
tion of time may even retard improvement in elocution. As an
instructor, the writer has uniformly found the best scholars and
the hardest students in the severer branches, to have the most
time at their command for receiving private instruction, and
that too in lessons not required as a part of the regular course.
The plan of giving half lessons to the Freshman class, on the
days when they attend to elocution, has been faithfully tried by
the Tutors, and found productive of as much injury as benefit.
Private practice without the company of an instructor, is in-
deed absolutely necessary, but it need not on an average, occupy
more than a few minutes each day and as this is one of the
most healthful and agreeable of bodily exercises, it may be re-
32
PLAN OF INSTRUCTION.
sorted to as a substitute for the dumb bells during ordinary short
intervals of relaxation from study. Those however, who wish to
acquire a powerful voice, smoothly pleasant in its tone, can only
succeed by occasionally resorting for exercise to a walk and
declaiming in the open air. In this kind of practice it will be
useful to spend from a quarter of an hour, to two or three hours
at a time.
Finally, for the sake of lightening the instructor's labor it
will be well to state, that the plan of the following course is dia-
metrically opposite to that alluded to in the well known lines of
Pope,
" True grace in writing comes from art, not chance,
As those move easiest, who have learned to dance."
In this maxim it is assumed that natural ease and grace of car-
riage, are best cultivated by practising the artificial movements of
dancing. Whether such doctrines be true or false we shall not
attempt to discuss nor consider to what extent and in what
mode this principle may be applied in education. It will be
sufficient to mention, that in the following course not a precept
or lesson is founded on any such doctrine. On the contrary, it
will be an invariable rule, to require nothing that shall not be
natural, practical, and, to a sensible person, agreeable.
33
PART I.
GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
THE chapters in this part of the work, contain that informa-
tion which the author, in his daily labors, finds necessary to give
at one time or another, to nearly every one whom he instructs.
Having entered upon an independent investigation of the ac-
tual conditions of the mind, and of the nervous and muscular
systems of the body, in all the varieties of delivery, he has
been in the habit of treasuring in his memory, and making use
in instruction, of every fact which he has observed. Incessant
employment of these facts has kept them fresh in his mind, and
enabled him to state them in conversation with pupils, with suf-
ficient precision to enable them to appreciate their value.
Whether he shall succeed in making them equally clear in print,
is doubtful. When giving instruction, however, his habit is to
state them briefly, and then immediately to exemplify them by
speaking a few words himself. The student is directed never
directly to imitate his instructor, but to notice the sort of exer-
tion that he makes in order to attain such a (Duality in delivery
as is under consideration. The student then makes the same
sort of exertion himself. In this way his delivery remains as
original and natural as if he had received no instruction. This
is a great point to gain. Though the writer has no natural
turijJorjiiimicry, and has never cultivated the elocution requi-
red for the theatre, yet he finds no difficulty in imitating a pu-
pil in a sufficient degree to exemplify a .fault, without causing
him any mortification. Such imitations are not of the nature
of mimicry. They are effected by means of intense sympathy
4
34 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
with the person imitated, and by putting one's self into the
same state of mind and feeling. It should never be forgotten,
that every good or^ bad quality of delivery results in its ultimate
cause, from some habitual or accidental state of mind. Often,
however, the immediate cause is some unfortunate bodily habit,
which prevents the inward impulses of the mind from produ-
cing a natural outward expression through the medium of voice
and gesture. On this account it would be not inappropriate to
call this first part of the present work, the physical part of elo-
cution.
The requisites of delivery treated in this part of the volume,
should be habitual. When the habits are once formed, the stu-
dent should give himself no further concern about them, but in
all his subsequent progress, yjpl^ frimsplf fearlessly to the ap-
propriate impulses of his subject, and of the time, place and oc-
casion. In fact when they are established, the student is from
that time during the rest of his life, a speaker. They are nev-
er lost, even when not called into use by the practice of speak-
ing. Indeed, most persons will even improve in them, simply
in conscience of that continued development of mind which
results from the influences of society.
CHAPTER I.
ATTITUDE AND GESTURE.
THE purposes of this work require that attitude and gesture
be treated of very briefly. A teacher can insure good habits
in these respects, in but one of two ways. First, he may de-
vote a very large amount of time to the subject, and not only
patierUly_w_atch and correct every fault that he observes, but al-
so drill those whom he instructs in a long series of exercises
ATTITUDE AND GESTURE. 35
for the purpose. Secondly, he may explain and illustrate the
general principles of both, and then leave good habits to be
formejjbyjhainfliiejice-of ihe ftatural impulses which prompt
the various attitudes and gestures, at times when the mind is in
a felicitous state of excitement from the delivery of eloquent
composition.
The latter is the mode adopted in this institution. The learn-
er is advised never to practice speaking without at the same time
standing in an easy and yet spirited and manly attitude, and
likewise indulging his natural propensity to make those gestures
which assist the voice in being earnest and expressive.
Instead of being, as some suppose, the most difficult, these
are the easiest parts of delivery. The directions which will
presently be given, are all that are found necessary for young
men who have passed the period of school instruction, and who
feel a natural interest in appearingjnanly and graceful.
If a few unimportant faults in attitude.gr gesture .accompany
the first efforts,in spjeaking, while at the same time the speaker
is in general correct in these respects, they commonly proceed
from the want of that perfect self-possession and ease, which
continued practice will be sufficient to secure. In this case if
the speaker's voice is constantly growing more natural and ex-
pressive, his attitudes and gestures will generally be found to
improve with equal rapidity, so that it will be unnecessary for
the teacher to make any corrections.
When a speaker is satisfied that he has undesirable faults of
awkwardness or formality of gesture, it is better for him to drill
himself privately in correcting them, than to ask an instructor
to do it for him. He can thus not only escape from the awk-
wardness of being drilled in such things by another, but will be
able to improve more rapidly. When entirely alone, he can
with ease and pleasure watch his internal feelings of spirit. en-
thusiasm and grace, in respect to these things. Such feelings
are not only the true cause of excellence in attitude and ges-
ture, but likewise are our on]y_trjie_uide and authority forjhem.
36 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
It will neither be necessary nor useful to practice before a
mirror. The cultivation of feelings of grace, freedom and un-
restrained earnestness, such as are easily indulged when prac-
tising entirely alone, may be made use of to far better purpose.
One fundamental principle, however, must never be
neglected, that attitude and gesture are inseparably con-
nected with respiration and the expression of the voice.
Those who study them separately, will be liable to be-
come theatrically awkward.
ATTITUDE.
As the varietieajoJLaUitude spring from the feelings that ao
company the words that are spoken, and if no bad habits in-
tervene, are always correct when the speaker's voice is suffi-
ciently natural and expressive, it will be unnecessary to study
them systematically. All that needs to be done is to correct or
prevent any important faults in the general habit of standing.
When the speaker is first commencing, let the attitude
express a composed and collected state of mind, and a
natural ease. The only effectual mode of securing this,
is by taking care to have a feeling of ease, steadiness
and composure.
' The feet must be so near each other, that the body
shall not lean to the one side or the other.
V The weight of the body must rest on one leg, with a
slight settling at the hip.
*> The knee of the limb on which the body is not rest-
ing, must be suffered to relax and bend.
M The breast is to be thrown forward, and the shoulders
drawn backward.
The head should be held erect and easy.
ATTITUDE. 37
An exact position of the feet should be avoided. In the at-
titudes of ease and composure, the heels will be two or three
inches, and the toes six or eight inches, apart. The figures of
attitude in the " Chironomia," a large quarto volume on this
subject by Austin, a teacher of elocution, about fifty years since,
in Dublin, give various positions of the feet according to diffi-
cult and artificial rules. These have been extensively copied
in books on elocution. Yet on inspection, we shall find the at-
titudes which they produce as unnatural as they are ungraceful.
The figures lean as if they were falling to one side or the other.
The only good authorities on this subject, are the works of the
great masters in painting and sculpture.
In earnest address, the body should generally lean for-
ward, for a time, on the right foot, while the left falls a
little behind. The very attitude thus expresses earae&U
ness and bespeaks sympathy.
The worst fault in attitude is observable in those who exhibit
a weak and bombastic delivery. Such lean backwards, i^feiead
of inflecting the body earnestly towards their audience. They
likewise throw back the head. One who in earnest address,
leans forward towards his audience, will not be liable to serious
faults of attitude.
Common propriety of manners requires that when a speaker
is about to make a formal address, (except in the ordinary ser-
vices of the pulpit,) he salute the audience, or the chairman of
the meeting, with such a bow as is customary in society. The
rules for this are the same as on ordinary occasions in private
life. If propriety requires that the chairman receive a saluta-
tion of reverence and ceremonious^ respect, let the bow be low.
But in other cases, it need be but slight. All the direction ne-
cessary to prevent awkwardness in bowing, is that the whole
body be flexible, and the shoulders be not kept back. If the
shoulders are suffered to relax, the arms will fall forward, ac-
4*
38 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
cording to the common rule. A bow should always be made
with a deliberate ease. Suddenness of bending, gives an as-
pect of timidity, and is apt to be accompanied with a quick re-
bound of the body, which has a bad effect. If a bow is very
low, the eyes are cast down ; but if slight, they are steadily fixed
on the person or persons saluted. In bowing moderately to a
large audience, the eyes look steadily towards the more distant
part of the assembly. When the person who salutes by a bow,
is so situated that his feet are visible, it is necessary to let the
heel of one foot meet the hollow of the other, at the time that
the body bends. This is done in two ways most formally, by
drawing the heel of one foot into the hollow of the other less
formally, by stepping slightly forwards with one foot, and then
suffering the hollow of the other to fall against the heel of the
foot in advance. The reason why in bowing according to these
common rules, the heel of one foot comes into the hollow of the
other, is that with this position the base upon which the weight
of the body rests is made so small, that the bending is natural
and almost unavoidable. There are, however, a few slight va-
riations from this position of the feet, which graceful persons
often exhibit ; and when such proceed from ease and compo-
sure, they produce no ill effect. Ceremonious and submissive
bows are also sometimes made by retreating instead of advancing.
EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE OF ATTITUDE AND SALUTATION.
Mr. President ! Mr. Chairman !
Gentlemen of the Jury ! Gentlemen !
Romans, countrymen and lovers! My countrymen !
My brave associates ! partners of my toil, my feelings
and my fame !
Friends, Romans, Countrymen ! lend me your ears.
Most potent, grave and reverend Seniors ! My very
noble and approved good masters !
GESTURE. 39
Sad, my fellow citizens ! are the recollections and fore-
bodings, which the present solemnities force upon the
mind !
In the above examples the common rule of punctuation has
been followed, which marks the nominative independent, of ad-
dress, by an exclamation point. When the tone of address is
grave and formal, and with a decided pause following, the fall-
ing inflexion of the voice is required at the end ; but when the
address is more familiar, or if it is with considerable excite-
ment, the rising inflexion is more commonly used.
GESTURE.
The most common as well as most important of all the ges-
tures that are used, is that of appeal and enforcement. This
should be carefully studied and practiced. When the habit is
once formed of using it with grace, spirit and variety, no awk-
wardness will be exhibited in the infinite variety of others that
spring from imagination and feeling.
It is necessary to consider this gesture with care. The plate
prefixed to this volume is intended to illustrate the attitude, and
the position of the arm and hand, of one who by his very aspect
bespeaks the attention of an audience, and is prepared to ex-
plain and enforce with spirit and grace what he is about to
utter. The erect yet easy attitude expresses composi""^ and a
mind collected and concentrated on the subject and audience.
The open and presented palm of the hand appeals to the minds
of those addressed, while the arm raised and brought forward
without relaxing the elbow, expresses freedom of impulse and
a confident appeal to sympathy.
The fundamental principle of every gesture is SIGNIFI-
CANCE. This may be either of some wish or effort con-
nected with the understanding, or of some state of im-
agination or feeling.
40 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
The gestures that spring from the latter source, are cultiva-
ted by abandoning one's self freely to every such impulse.
Those of feeling are a part of the natural language of emotion
or passion, and all rules for them are worse than useless. The
gestures of imagination either point to some image present to
the mind of the speaker, and thus direct and assist the imagina-
tions of the audience, or they slightly depict the visual outlines
of such images, and in this way render the auditors still greater
assistance. These likewise, are as various as the images to
which they direct attention, and the attempt to reduce them to
rule is evidently absurd.
The gestures that assist a speaker in explaining and enforcing
thought, can be reduced to a few general classes. Yet when
thus classified they will be found very numerous, and their ex-
planation intricate and tedious. But even if this be done, and a
student be patiently and perseveringly drilled in them, there
will be great danger of his becoming artificial and formal, and
of exhibiting what is one of the most disagreeable of all faults,
an appearance of having been long occupied in imitating a
model, or endeavoring to put in practice a set of rules.
All that is finally necessary after awkward habits, if any such
exist, have become corrected, is to make gestures significant;
first, of our wish to communicate and explain our ideas ; second-
ly, of an effort to appeal to the assent and sympathy of those we
address; and thirdly, of an intention to enforce occasionally the
truth or importance of what we assert.
But five rules are necessary for establishing good habits in
the common gesture of appeal and enforcement. (Vide the
plate.)
I. Let the open palm always be presented to the part
of the audience addressed.
To effect this, bend back the wrist as much as possi-
ble without a violent strain.
Open and bend back the thumb and forefinger.
GESTURE. 41
Let the other fingers remain slightly bent in a natural
and easy manner.
With some persons, these naturally remain nearly straight
and almost in the same plane with the forefinger. With others
they are more or less bent. No precise rule is needed in re-
spect to this point.
2. Raise the arm directly from the shoulder, without
bending the elbow.
The height to which the arm is raised, must correspond to
the distance of the persons to whom the voice is addressed and
to whom the eyes are directed. If they are towards the ex-
tremity of a large room, the hand must not be lower than the
shoulder or upper part of the breast. When we are speaking
to persons very near, it is somewhat lower, but in this case the
body also bends more or less forward.
3. Bring the arm well forward towards the persons
addressed.
Do not suffer it to extend laterally from the body. This
makes the gesture unmeaning, by taking away its expression of
appeal. It should be brought at least forty five degrees forward.
4. Let all the muscles of the arm be in a state of ten-
sion, corresponding to a spirited and animated state of
mind.
Graceful, to say nothing of forcible gestures, cannot possibly
be executed, when the muscles are slack. If these are not stiff-
ened and kept tense, the elbow will drop and the motions be ex-
tremely awkward. Even in an easy and animated attitude, the
principal muscles of the body are in the same state. The atti-
tude will otherwise express not ease but laziness.
The true guide for the state and position of the arm, is to
have in it a feeling of spirit and expression corresponding to
that given by the voice. This causes the motions of the arm
and wrist to be slow, graceful, significant, and expressive.
42 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
5. Let the stroke of gesture which falls on an em-
phatic word, be effected in most cases by a sudden stiff-
ening of the muscles of the whole arm without bending
the elbow.
The elbow will indeed be very slightly bent, but an effort
should be made to have the arm move exclusively from the
shoulder, rather than to bend at the elbow. This direction
prevents what is described by Hamlet, in the precept, "do
not saw the air too much with the hands." What is called by
audiences too much gesture, consists in indulging the arm in
motions that are at the same time frequent and extensive.
Those who gesture most gracefully, keep one or both arms ex-
tended a great part of the time, but make but few motions that
attract attention. In fact the finest style of giving attitudes and
gestures, consists in a series of positions of the body, arms and
hands, which remain unchanged for an appreciable period of
time, while each presents a fine study for a painter or sculptor.
There is an exception to the last rule, when there is
a peculiarly deliberate emphasis on a single word. In
this case the elbow is deliberately bent, the hand is
raised, (sometimes higher than the head,) and then
brought down in the stroke as low as the waist.
When the arm falls to the side after gesturing, let it
drop naturally and unconsciously.
Those who are first beginning to practice speaking, generally
make too many gestures It is useless to attempt to prevent
this fault by speaking several lines at a time with both arms
hanging at the sides as if withered. This custom is not only
unnatural as respects gesture, being one which is never exhib-
ited for a moment by an interesting extemporaneous speaker,
but makes it impossible for the speaker to employ varied and
impressive tones of voice. The fault under consideration pro-
ceeds always from want of self-command and steadiness, and
GESTURE. 43
can be prevented only by avoiding its cause. When however,
too many gestures are made, the speaker generally drops his
arm too often. He raises it for a single stroke on an emphatic
word and then immediately lets it fall. It is this frequent ris-
ing and falling of the arm that attracts and offends the eye.
It should be a rule, therefore, that when the arm is
once raised, it be kept for some short time in the air,
and with the hand in the position of appeal.
So likewise in a succession of gestures, the arm should not
drop when one has been given, and then be raised again for the
next. After making a stroke, the arm should remain in the
position of appeal, or in that in which it was left by the last
gesture, and then be transferred to the next.
In speaking passages not distinguished by force of
language or sentiment, the arm is often for a short time
at the side. But in this case those who are graceful and
interesting, always give such inflexions of the body
as continue the exhibitions of appeal and sympathy,
which the arm and hand express in more earnest pas-
sages.
So when the arm and hand are employed, the body assists
also in the gesture by its flexibility. It should never be stiffly
braced, so as to cause the whole expression of a gesture to pro-
ceed from the motion of the arm.
The question is often asked, What shall be done with the left
arm 1 When the right arm is expressively engaged, and the
body is kept flexible and suffered to assist, the left naturally
hangs passive at the side. It should not, except sometimes in
the most familiar and conversational debate, be suffered to rest
on the hips, with the elbow akimbo, nor, except in the same cir-
cumstances, be placed in the bosom. In earnest or grave de-
livery it naturally hangs passive. Any other position makes
the atttitude of the body stiff and inflexible, and prevents the
44 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
grace of varied bodily inflexions. On no occasion should it be
placed behind the back. To rest it thus, renders the attitude
awkward by stiffening the back in the worst manner. To raise
the skirts of the coat with the left arm, will be in the case of a
young man, not to treat the audience with respect, as it is the
sole purpose of that part of the dress, to cover a dishonorable
part of the body ! If in familiar and conversational speaking
the left hand be rested on the hip, let care be taken that the
elbow be carried back as much as possible, in order to diminish
the akimbo effect.
Should single gestures be made with the left arm and hand ?
It is not worth while to dispute this point, yet to use the left
hand in gesture seems scarcely more natural than to offer it in
salutation, or to strike a blow with it. The ancient Romans
rarely or never employed it on any occasion, in speaking.
They did not even use gestures with both hands. Yet the rea-
son commonly assigned for this total omission of its use is not
sufficient, for it could by no means be necessary for them to
keep it always occupied in supporting a part of their dress.
They must have had it in their power so to support the toga
that it should not fall, as well in this as in other situations.
When wearing the toga, they were not necessarily one-handed.
Gestures that are made with both arms are the same in kind
as those made with the right alone. When they are not in-
stinctively employed to express extent of space or the univer-
sality of an idea, they are generally used to assist in expressing
a climax of thought. After repeating several strokes of gesture
in enforcing a series of emphatic ideas, both arms are raised
towards the close to produce a climax of effect. The stroke is
made by both arms simultaneously, in the same way as by the
right alone.
Variety in the repetition of the common gesture of
appeal and enforcement, is effected by successively
changing the place of the hand in the air.
GESTURE. 45
To acquire the most graceful habits of gesture, the arm must
be practised in making a greater part of its motions in a side-
way direction, instead of directly up and down. In doing this,
especial attention must be paid to cultivating flexibility of side-
way motion in the wrist. The hand should be turned over so
as to bring the palm uppermost, and while it is well bent back,
and the thumb and forefinger fully opened, the wrist should be
fully practised in significant and expressive motions made later-
ally. The gesticulations thus made by the hand moving at the
wrist, are the same that we continually give in earnest conver-
sation. The only difference in their employment when we are
speaking, is that we execute them while the arm is extended ;
whereas in conversation the elbows remain at the sides, and the
hands are just in front of the body. Cultivating these expressive
motions in speaking, adds much to grace and interest of action.
In passages of argument and explanation, some speakers em-
ploy a style of gesture in which the arm is most of the time ex-
tended, but the elbows are near the sides, and frequent and va-
ried gesticulations are made by one or both hands in front of
the body. This is an excellent and agreeable style of action,
but is difficult to teach, and seems not to be natural to all.
Those who instinctively incline to employ it, will do well to
cultivate its habitual use.
EXAMPLES FOR PRACTISING GESTURE.
The following example requires a forcible delivery, and great
earnestness of action.
I MAKE THE ASSERTION (arm gradually rising) DELIBERATELY.
(stroke without bending the elbow then letting the arm re-
main in the position the stroke left it in.)
I REPEAT IT, (raising the arm, bending the elbow, and bringing
down a forcible stroke on the last syllable of repeat letting
the arm remain where it was left by the stroke.)
5
46 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
AND I CALL UPON ANY MAN WHO HEARS ME (sideway wave of
the whole arm, and with a flexible wrist the hand being
turned palm uppermost.)
\
TO TAKE DOWN MY WORDS, (arm brought forwards stroke of ges-
ture brought down low inflexion of the body, and an earnest
look the arm then drops suddenly and unconsciously.)
The next example requires also great earnestness of voice
and action.
SlR ! (look and erect attitude) THE DECLARATION (earnest look,
but no gesture.)
WILL INSPIRE THE PEOPLE (arm raised from the shoulder palm of
the hand making a strong appeal.)
\
WITH INCREASED COURAGE ; (inflexion of body, and ear-
nest stroke of the arm, made without much bending of the el-
bow arm remaining in the air.)
INSTEAD OF A LONG AND BLOODY WAR, (inflexion of body, and
sideway motion of the hand and arm a significant motion be-
ing made with the wrist the arm not dropped.)
/
FOR RESTORATION OF PRIVILEGES, (the arm brought forward,
and a forcible stroke made in a sideway and upward direction
the wrist being very flexible.)
/
FOR REDRESS OF GRIEVANCES, (the same gesture repeated
but the hand carried a little higher, for variety, and to give a
gradual climax.)
FOR CHARTERED IMMUNITIES (hand brought forward towards the
audience, to attract attention to the emphasis that is to follow.)
/
HELD UNDER A BRITISH KING, (earnest look stroke without
bending the elbow the arm carried sideways and upwards
the hand remaining high in the air.)
SET BEFORE THEM THE GLORIOUS OBJECT (hand brought down a
little, and stretched forward in earnest appeal.)
VOICE. 47
OF ENTIRE INDEPENDENCE, (hand slowly raised on the
word entire the elbow bending then a sudden stroke on the
accented syllable of independence the arm remaining in the
air.)
AND IT WILL BREATHE INTO THEM ANEW (attitude brought up
very erect the breast swelling out both arms and hands pre-
sented in earnest appeal.)
\
THE BREATH OF LIFE, (sudden stroke of both arms sideways
and downwards on the word life the elbows not bending
look of exultation the arms then drop unconsciously the
speaker pauses rests a moment, and begins with a transition
of manner on the next passage.)
Remarks on the above examples. These examples are given
as specimens of full and unrestrained earnestness of natural
gesture. It will be well carefully to study and practice them.
Those who have once mastered the gestures described above,
will need no more training in this subject, and will afterwards
be liable to no serious faults of action.
It must be remembered, that on the same passage no two
perfectly natural speakers will ever gesture precisely alike
neither will a single speaker speak the same passage with pre-
cisely the same action in different repetitions, if his manner is
in each case perfectly natural and graceful. It is necessary for
instructors however, to discipline themselves in the power of
repeating without variation.
CHAPTER II.
VOICE .
Every one knows that school-boy tones in reading, and the
dull and tedious manner of some speakers, give a sound to the
voice that has little resemblance to the tones of an eloquent ex-
48 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
temporaneous orator. It is well known likewise to be at first
difficult, and indeed it is too generally considered impossible, to
render a discourse that has been written but not committed to
memory, as interesting and eloquent as when a speaker is suc-
cessfully extemporizing ; and that even if the composition be
memorized, its delivery cannot readily be made as interesting,
as when the words as well as the tones proceed from a felicitous
impulse of the moment.
The explanation of these remarkable differences in the pre-
vailing sound of the voice, lies in the fact that speaking to an
assembly is a peculiar act of the mind and vocal organs. There
are three distinct ways of communicating thought, each of which
has its peculiar voice, as distinct from each other as they are
from singing. These are talking, speaking, and reading.
In the present chapter we shall consider the peculiarities of
the speaking voice.
It is perhaps the general opinion, that speaking differs
from conversation merely in loudness and force. This
is not true. We may talk with great force of emphasis,
with strong gestures and with an extreme degree of
loudness, and yet a person overhearing us in another
room would never mistake our tones for those of a person
speaking. On the other hand, we may speak with great
earnestness and force, and yet not be sufficiently loud to
be audible across an ordinary audience room. We may
also speak in a languid and uninteresting manner, one
which is characterized by want of emphatic force, and
at the same time those who hear without seeing us will
not be liable to suppose that we are either talking or
reading.
These facts prove conclusively that speaking differs
from talking or reading, in the peculiar quality of voice
which it employs. In additional confirmation we may
VOICE. 49
mention that this distinction is recognized by reporters
of legislative assemblies, inasmuch as they always dis-
criminate between what is spoken in debate and the
public conversation that frequently takes place among
the members on the subject under discussion.
As stated in the preface, the power of using the speak-
ing voice seems always to be learned at some period con-
siderably later than childhood. Those who begin to
practice elocution without having previously gained the
power of using this voice, by the practice of declamation
in schools or by being accustomed to extemporaneous
debate, often experience extreme difficulty in attempting
to employ it. There have been some who have prac-
tised declamation throughout their college course, with-
out ever making use of it throughout a whole sentence.
There is but one mode by which a person who is un-
accustomed to its use can at once break into it. This is
by suddenly speaking to persons at a great distance, with
an unhesitating abandonment of earnestness, and in a
tone almost as loud as a shout. When this experiment
is tried, it will be found that the voice strikes into the
upper part of the middle, or the lower part of the upper
key, and has a peculiar openness and fullness, together
with more or less smoothness of sound. There is also
some degree of an expulsive and explosive utterance.
The breath likewise issues more suddenly and rapidly,
and appears to leave the chest with less air remaining in
it, than after uttering the same number of words in loud
conversation. So too, when at a pause, breath is taken
again, it is done more suddenly and with deeper inspira-
tion.
5*
50 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
We hence see the reason why an oratorical delivery is more
rapidly acquired by those who address audiences in the open
air. The exertion that is necessary in such situations, naturally
brings a man into the use of the speaking voice. The excite-
ment likewise which prompts the utterance of auctioneers, law-
yers, and partisan debaters, as also the tumultuous zeal of ig-
norant enthusiasts, have the same effect in developing the voice
which we are considering.
Loud and vehement speaking is thus at first the easi-
est and most natural, and it is well known that in noth-
ing do speakers improve more by practice, than in the
power of being audible and forcible, without breaking
into a discordant loud ness.
It will be well however to remark, that at the present time a
fashion seems to prevail among the speakers in the northern and
eastern parts of the United States, of studying to subdue the
natural loudness of their voices in an extreme degree. By so
doing, they not only become often indistinct and inaudible to
those in not very distant parts of a room, but descend into a
husky and unmusical voice, such as is not only incapable of in-
teresting expression, but disagreeably aspirated and obscure.
By subduing the voice in this artificial way, they likewise ex-
hibit a mechanical monotony, which prevents the giving of va-
rious expressions, for which an increased degree of loudness is
natural and necessary. Cheerfulness, hope, joy, triumph, ad-
miration, and many other emotions, have considerable loudness
and openness of tone for their natural language, and cannot
be expressed without them.
When a speaker has thoroughly disciplined his voice and ear,
in reference to adaptation to larger or smaller audiences, it will
be neither necessary nor expedient for him to give himself any
concern in respect to the degree of loudness that he may hap-
pen to use. His voice will, as it were, instinctively accommo-
VOICE AND RESPIRATION. 51
date itself to the room, and be agreeably audible, without lia-
bility to offend the most sensitive nerves by excess of force,
while it will perpetually vary in the loudness required for ex-
pression, according to his feelings and the dictates of propriety.
Those therefore who wish to acquire command over their
vocal organs as rapidly as possible, must practise loud speaking
for a part of the time. Instead however, of depending merely
on the rude practice above described, in which the voice ap-
proximates to a shout, it will be better to consider the voice un-
der the different heads which follow, and to practise exercises
which cultivate those separate acts, the union of which produces
not only the speaking voice, but that cultivated and musical
tone which characterizes those speakers who are not only most
agreeable to a delicate and sensitive taste, but who likewise
have an effective power over the most obtuse and insensible
hearers.
DEPENDENCE OF VOICE ON RESPIRATION.
Even in the calmest and most familiar styles of pub-
lic address, the speaking voice is more dignified than in
ordinary conversation, and may also be rendered more
musical and expressive. This results from the fact that
in all public speaking, the mind of the speaker is more
or less in an elevated and excited state. This emotive
and elevated state of mind produces a corresponding con-
dition of body.
The principal effect on the body is a deeper breathing.
Reciprocally also, this deeper breathing enkindles the
mind and excites the feelings. In strong emotion the
thrill of the mind renders the breathing so deep, as to
heave up the breast, and send a nervous thrill" through-
out the entire frame. So too we may to some extent
increase the intensity of a feeling that is too languid,
by voluntarily strengthening its bodily expression.
52 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
The depressing emotions indeed, such as despondency, diffi-
dence, or shame, make the breathing weaker instead of strong-
er, and accordingly it is one of our most common instinctive
resources when endeavoring to shake them off, to take deep
breathings, and make sudden and vigorous muscular exertions.
From this connection of voice with respiration, we may de-
rive the most easy and successful of the various modes for culti-
vating an improved degree of vocal power, depth and flexibility.
On the same principle also depends the ability to speak with
ease. It is the habit of not taking breath with sufficient fre-
quency and fullness, that, so far as mere physical exertion is
concerned, causes those who address even the largest audien-
ces to become exhausted.
This deep breathing furnishes the reason why in an anima-
ted attitude the breast is heaved up and thrown forward, as was
described in the previous chapter.
Hence the first lesson for acquiring a commanding and ex-
pressive voice, should be as follows.
Stand in attitude for speaking as has been already de-
scribed.
Heave up the chest by taking a very deep breath, and
keep it in this state by taking breath very frequently
during the time of speaking a sentence.
Never attempt to speak as many words as possible at
a breath, but on the contrary catch breath suddenly and
frequently, as is done by players on wind instruments.
Assist the vocal effort by voluntarily taking on a state
of excited and strong emotion.
Aid the natural action of the breast, by strong ges-
tures of appeal with the right arm or with both arms.
At first students of elocution are liable to suppose that depth
of tone and dignity of voice are necessarily connected with a
VOICE AND RESPIRATION.
53
low pitch. For this reason it will be well to practise this lesson
on each of the three keys which will soon be described. In
the examples, the words will be divided into groups, after each
of which breath should be taken.
EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE.
(Low pitch)
(Higher pitch)
Sir!
\
I know
the uncertainty of human affairs.
\
But I see, I see clearly
through this day's business.
\
(A little lower pitch] You and/ may indeed rue it.
(Stia higher pitch)
\
We may not live
to see the time when this declaration
\
shall be made good.
\
(Lower pitch)
(Higher)
(Still higher)
(Lower)
(Still lower)
(Stitt lower)
(Quite high)
(Same pitch)
(Middle key $ loud)
We may die :
\
die colonists, die slaves ;
die, it may be, ignominiously ,
\
and on the sr.affnld.
\
Be it so.
\
Be it so.
If it is the pleasure of Heaven,
that my country shall require
the poor offering of my life,
\
the victim shall be ready,
54 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
/
(Less loud} at the appointed hour of sacrifice,
/ \
(Higher) come when that hour may.
/
(Low key fy rising) But while I do live,
\
(Middle key) let me have a country,
/
(Rising) or at least, the HOPE of a country,
\
(Descending) and that, a FREE country.
Remarks. The directions for the changes of pitch in the
above example, have been given with reference to solemnity
and climax. A very different set of directions might be given,
which would perhaps be equally appropriate. These, however,
will coincide with the tastes of all in a sufficient degree for the
purposes of practice. It is not indeed necessary for elementa-
ry training of the voice, to use extracts from speeches at all.
It is equally useful to practise upon tables of single words, such
as will be hereafter given under the head of articulation.
VOICE OR TONE OF ADDRESS.
It is often observable that the voice of a speaker does
not really address the audience. It is abstracted, and
has precisely the same tone as if there were no auditors.
Some likewise appear not to believe what they say.
Even a soliloquy should be given with expressive ear-
nestness, when an audience is present. Yet some speak-
ers not only have the tone of soliloquy when addressing
their fellow beings, but even that of merely repeating
words without interest in their meaning.
The practice of singing may be made highly useful in im-
proving the voice for reading and speaking ; yet it is often ob-
VOICE OR TONE OF ADDRESS. 55
servable that those who devote considerable time to the practice
of singing, have a singularly lifeless and inexpressive elocution.
IN ALL THESE CASES THE FAULT PROCEEDS FROM BAD
HABITS OF RESPIRATION.
In singing the breath is retained, and only suffered to issue
very slowly. A singer can execute more notes at a breath than
a speaker can utter syllables, with the same slowness, provided
the sound of the speaker's voice is EARNESTLY EXPRESSIVE.
Therefore practise sending out all the breath on each
word, and catching it quickly and deeply between the
words.
Assist this mechanical practice by imagining a few
persons before you, and making vigorous effort of the
MIND to speak directly and earnestly TO them.
The most advantageous style of speaking for early
practice, is that of lawyers. Imitate the hearty earnest-
ness and force with which they address juries. Defer
the study of refinement and beauty of delivery, until
after you have acquired force, and what people call a
whole-souled heartiness. Universally, in the common
criticisms of miscellaneous audiences, what is called in-
teresting in a speaker, is really little else than force and
vehement earnestness.
The taste of colleges sometimes degenerates so much, as to
favor what in the case of those who command no reverence by
their learning, the world at large would call dullness and even
stupidity. Remember that the object of speaking in college
is to qualify for speaking after graduating. Students must pre-
pare for dealing with the common sympathies of humanity.
Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. Either
speak with natural earnestness, or make up your mind that in
future life you will decline invitations to make public addresses.
56 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
It would be the most approved custom for a man who has pre-
pared a written address, but whose delivery of it in person will
certainly torture the patience of an audience, to offer his man-
uscript to an acceptable speaker to read or speak it for him.
This is the established practice of kings and chief magis-
trates, and would often in the case of others be as much more
dignified as more agreeable.
Some entertain an obscure opinion, that earnestness and en-
ergy will compromise their dignity. So indeed it will, if the
matter is weak and the style bombastic. But in all other ca-
ses, true dignity can only be exhibited by means of mental
power joined to self-command. A person is always dignified
who commands respect by an earnestness and an energy that
are perfectly under his own control, and all good delivery re-
quires an entire command over our own faculties. There is in-
deed a sham dignity which is purely negative. It is the dignity
of a tortoise drawing his head within his shell !
EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE.
Gentlemen of the Jury !
Suppose the prisoners, if the evidence were true,
\
DID conspire the king's death, \
\
what are you to found your VERDICT upon ?
\
Upon your OATHS.
\
What are THEY founded upon ?\
\
Upon the oath of the WITNESS.
\
And what is THAT founded upon?\
\ \
Upon this, and this ONLY,
\
that he believes there is a just and omnipotent GOD,
VOICE OR TONE OF ADDRESS. 57
\
an intelligent supreme EXISTENCE,
who will inflict eternal punishment for offences,
\/
or confer eternal rewards upon man,
after he has passed the boundary of the grave.
\
But the INFIDEL !
\
By what can you catch HIS soul ?
Or by what can you HOLD it 1
\ \/ /
You REPULSE HIM from giving evidence,
\
for he has NO CONSCIENCE !
/
no nope to cheer him
\
no punishment to dread. \
Gentlemen ! the case of my client is,
\
that the witness against him is PERJURED !
\
and you are appealed to,
in the name of that ever-living GOD whom you revere,
\/
but whom HE DESPISES,
/ \
to SAVE him from the baseness of such an accuser.
CURRAN.
If naturally spoken, the earnestness of the above plea will
cause most of the emphatic words to be given with the interval
of the fifth, as described by Dr. Rush and Professor Day. The
slide through this interval has been called the triple slide by
6
58 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
Professor Goodrich. With a few exceptions, it is the widest
range of the voice in practical speaking, and occurs oftener in
excited argumentation than in any other sort of delivery.
AGREEABLE AND IMPRESSIVE VOICE.
The PERFECT VOICE for reading or speaking, exhib-
its what the scientific musicians call a PURE TONE.
It is called by Dr. Rush the orotund. This new term seems
scarcely necessary, and misleads most students, by inducing
them to cultivate pomposity, or some sort of mouthing. The
readers of Dr. Rush's invaluable work are apt to understand
the orotund as being necessarily connected with a low pitch.
The PURE TONE depends on an open state of the
throat and back part of the mouth.
The whole mouth should indeed be opened as wide as possi-
ble in speaking, for unless this is done, the articulation will not
be perfectly clear. But the pure tone does not depend on the
opening of the teeth and lips.
In this country a prevalent fault of the voice is nasality of
tone.
When the pure tone is used, the breath does not pass
through the nose at all, except in uttering a few of the
consonants.
Let a person try the experiment of uttering the vowels a, e,
, o, u, y, in the pure tone, while the nostrils are closed by com-
pressing them with the thumb and finger. He will find this
closure of the nostrils makes no difference whatever in the sound.
A perfectly pure tone can be acquired only by very
long and careful cultivation. For practical purposes in
life, it is sufficient to acquire as much of this quality as
AGREEABLE AND IMPRESSIVE VOICE. 59
will give a degree of dignity, agreeableness and fluency
of voice sufficient to satisfy common audiences.
It is only by a considerable degree of the pure tone,
that a large room can be filled without disagreeable loud-
ness and a fatiguing exertion on the part of the speaker.
In disciplining the voice for the purpose of acquiring
the pure tone, it is necessary always to begin with ex-
plosion and the exhausting breath.
This is the sole dependence in the schools of vocal music,
and was introduced by Dr. Rush into the practice of elocution.
The next practice should be in prolongation, and es-
pecially prolongation with the median stress or swell.
In general, elementary practice in explosion and prolongation
should be on single words, such as are subsequently given in ta-
bles. The following example, however, may with equal pro-
priety be spoken in two different styles, in one of which the
principal words have an explosive utterance, and in the other,
exhibit prolongation and the swell. The former will be more
vehement and excited, while the latter will manifest a stronger
earnestness.
The very best mode of studying and cultivating the pure tone,
is to resort to the fields, and declaim such passages with a full
shout. Then noticing the smooth and musical sound that the
true shout exhibits, and the condition of the vocal organs that
produces it, let the student learn to command the same quali-
ties in a voice less and less loud, and on lower degrees of pitch,
while at the same time it is kept perfectly natural. The voices
of preachers who are accustomed to deliver sermons and exhor-
tations at camp-meetings, are remarkable for power and a mu-
sical quality, when used in a church. Neither are they neces-
sarily loud. As the custom of preaching with too much loud-
ness passes away, the improved vocal qualities acquired by such
preachers become strikingly manifest.
60 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE.
\
STRIKE! TILL THE LAST ARMED FOE EXPIRES!
/ \
STRIKE! FOR YOUR ALTARS AND YOUR FIRES!
\
STRIKE FOR THE GREEN GRAVES OF YOUR SIRES!
\
GOD! AND YOUR NATIVE LAND!
No inflexion has been marked on the first word of each of
the above lines, because either the rising or the falling may be
used. The former will be more eager, and the latter more com-
manding. The most decisive test of true skill in using the
pure tone, is the ability to give such a passage as the above in
the subdued loudness of parlor reading, and yet to make it
sound like a bold war-cry.
REFINEMENT AND SUAVITY OF VOICE.
The difference is very great between an utter coarseness of
tone, such as we hear from teamsters and hostlers, addressing
their cattle, and the agreeable and captivating sound of that
frank and gentlemanly address, which expresses mutual respect
between human beings.
That quality of voice which expresses refinement of
feeling, and cultivation of mind and manners, depends in
some degree upon the pure tone, but principally upon
the vanishing movement of the voice in the utterance of
each syllable.
Affectation of refinement and suavity, consists in the vanish
being carried to excess and unduly prolonged, either in a sing-
ing or in a whispering tone.
DRAWLING proceeds from prolonging vowels without the
slide. Drawling is an approximation to singing.
REFINEMENT AND SUAVITY OP VOICE. 61
To explain the vanishing movement of the voice, we may
take the vowel a. If this be uttered in a polite and pleasant
tone, yet at the same time with such a deliberate prolongation
that we can watch the movement of the voice, we shall find that
it commences with an opening fullness that indicates frankness,
and then tapers away into the sound of ee. This final sound
does not break offabruptly, but gradually vanishes into silence, so
that the precise ending is imperceptible. This vanishing move-
ment, when deliberately given, expresses considerateness or def-
erence, and hence, as above mentioned, an affectation or excess
of politeness prolongs it into a whisper, or prolongs the delicate
termination with an effeminate tone. On the other hand, the
coarse tone of hostlers, which has been alluded to, being ad-
dressed to brute animals, is destitute of the vanishing movement.
The vanish of the vowel o is into oo. That of i is into ee ;
that of ou into oo, and that of oy or oi into ee.
Every syllable however, whatever is its vowel, or whether it
ends with a vowel or a consonant, exhibits this vanishing move-
ment, unless the tone with which it is uttered is extremely
coarse.
For study and practice on the vanish, it is best at first
to take separate words of one syllable, and afterwards to
watch the voice, in respect to executing it well on the
more prominent syllables of a whole sentence or para-
graph. In the latter case none but the accented syllables
need be noticed.
If the above directions are not sufficient for enabling the stu-
dent to distinguish this movement, let him experiment upon the
word no. He will find that when uttered with politeness and
consideration, the sound of oo is very perceptible at the end,
while it is scarcely heard in the tone of rudeness or surliness.
We remarked above that the opening fullness which precedes
the vanish expresses frankness. It may likewise represent con-
6*
63 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
fidence and other such states of feeling. It will be found on
trial, that a sneaking or sniveling, or an extremely embarrassed
tone, begins otherwise.
As this quality of the speaking voice ought to be
habitually exhibited in all delivery whatever, no especial
example is required for its cultivation. Yet as the fol-
lowing extract from an address of Mr. Burke, on declin-
ing to stand a candidate for reelection from Bristol, ex-
hibits so strikingly that great orator's characteristic un-
ion of dignity and grace, it may be well to subjoin it.
EXTRACT FOR PRACTICE.
/
Gentlemen! I decline the election. \
/
It has ever been my rule through life,
to observe a proportion between my efforts and my objects. \
\/
I have not canvassed the whole of this city inform;
/
but I have taken such a view of it as satisfies my own mind,
that your choice will not ultimately fall upon me.\
Your city, gentlemen , is in a state of miserable distraction ; \
\
and I am resolved to withdraw whatever share my pretensions
/
[have had
in its unhappy divisions. \
\/
To say that I am no way concerned,
/ \
would be neither decent nor true.
The representation of Bristol
was an object on many accounts dear to me ;
REFINEMENT AND SUAVITY OF VOICE. 63
and I should certainly very far prefer it
to any other in the kingdom. \
\
My habits are made to it :
/
and it is in general
more unpleasant to be rejected after long trial
than not to be chosen at all.\
But, gentlemen, I will see nothing except your former
[kindness ,\
and I will give way > to no other sentiments
than those ofgratitude.\
/
From the bottom of my heart
I thank you for what you have done for me.\
You have given me a long term, which is now expired. \
/
I have performed the conditions
/
and enjoyed all the profits
to the full ;\
and I now surrender your estate into your hands
/
without being in a single tile or a singk stone
impaired or wasted by my use. \
I have served the public
for Jif teen years. \
\/
I have served you in particular
for six.\
64 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
/
What is passed is well stored. \
/
It is safe, and out of the power of fortune. \
\/
What is to come
\
is in wiser hands than ours ;
and HE, in whose hands it is,
/
best knows
/
whether it is best for you and me
/
that / should be in parliament
or even in the world.\
The above extract will also be found one of the best in the
language, for practising the student in those grave yet polite at-
titudes and bendings of the body, which are required in an ad-
dress so formal and yet so sincere. In the gestures, the hand
will often require to be brought quite low, to correspond with
the inflexions of the body and the low pitch of the cadences.
KEYS OF THE SPEAKING VOICE.
For practical purposes, it is best to recognize the old
distinction of three keys in every person's speaking voice.
These correspond somewhat to the registers, as they are
called, of the singing voice. If we make the supposition that
an absolutely perfect male voice for singing, would have three
registers, one for the bass, one for the tenor, and one for the
soprano, these would be analogous to the three keys of the
speaking voice.
These keys are the lower, the middle and the upper.
The middle is the most important, and is that which
KEYS OF THE SPEAKING VOICE. 65
should generally be used. The other two however,
ought to be carefully cultivated, since in varied and ani-
mated addresses, all three are used, though the middle
occurs in the largest proportion.
Students of elocution who are also musicians, should bear
carefully in mind the fact, that the range of pitch in speaking is
lower and less extensive than in singing. The pitch of the
middle key in most male voices is not much above the middle
of the bass in singing. The higher notes of the air are never
used in speaking, except occasionally in dramatic elocution.
On the other hand, the voice descends lower in the cadences of
speech than it ever does in music. Indeed, many good speak-
ers sometimes descend in their cadences into a whisper. But
this is a habit which is liable to appear affected, and is never
necessary or expedient.
The upper key of the voice is that which we instinc-
tively use in calling to a person at a great distance and
upon this fact is founded a natural and easy mode of cul-
tivating the voice in the different keys.
To cultivate the upper key, we may employ as one
mode of practice, the instinctive effort to make ourselves
audible when declaiming to persons at a very considera-
ble distance.
Then by imagining the hearers at no greater distance
than the length of a large church, our voices will natur-
ally fall into the middle key.
Finally, if we speak with a tone of deep earnestness
of feeling to persons very near, the voice proceeds in the
lower key.
It is highly important to cultivate power and a pure tone
throughout the whole range of each one's voice. In general,
there are two classes of voices in respect to range of pitch.
66 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
Some have their middle key on a high pitch and cannot readily
be made to descend to a low pitch, while others have their mid-
dle range very low and cannot readily strike into high and spirit-
stirring notes. Popular audiences generally prefer to hear
voices of high pitch. A majority of the most celebrated speak-
ers have had such. Pitt and Fox are instances. Still the very
best voices are capable of descending, with strength of tone, to
a very low pitch, and at other times rising very high without
loss of fullness and dignity. Each one should endeavor to im-
prove his voice most in that part of its range in which it is
naturally most inferior.
It will be impossible to acquire a practical command over a
particular key, merely by practising passages whose appropriate
expression compels us to use it. On the contrary, we must dis-
cipline ourselves in the power of speaking the same passage in
each of the keys. For this reason we furnish no examples for
the especial cultivation of the keys. Any extract or table of
words may be used for this purpose.
CHAPTER III.
ANIMATED AND IMPRESSIVE UTTERANCE.
IN the previous chapter we treated of those qualities of the
voice which are required in all speaking, whatever may be the
particular expression demanded by the passage. The present
will be devoted to two modes of utterance, without which even
the most plain and calm delivery will be lifeless and uninter-
esting.
For the sake of rendering the study of elocution as simple
and easy as possible, we shall not in this chapter consider the
forms of stress, and the different ways of managing the slide,
by which such kinds of expression are given as are classified in
ANIMATED UTTERANCE. 67
the third part of the work. Each will there be briefly describ-
ed under the style of delivery of which it is the characteristic.
ANIMATED UTTERANCE AND SPIRITED ACCENT.
Animation of voice and accent are here considered, in op-
position to the faults of sluggishness and languor of tone.
These faults proceed from want of what is called by Dr. Rush,
the " radical stress," i. e. stress at the very commencement of
each vowel. In lively rnoods of mind, the syllables of discourse
issue suddenly. This suddenness gives spirit and animation to
the voice. It is of course most striking on accented syllables.
Animation of voice thus depends on a quick and sud-
den impulse given to the enunciation of the vowel of
each syllable, and on the strong and decided accent
which naturally accompanies it.
At the moment of beginning the vowel of each syl-
lable, there takes place a slight check in the flow of the
breath, and a sudden and instantaneous action of the vo-
cal organs in the throat.
This description will enable any one to exemplify the quality
under consideration; but in practising according to it, care
must be taken to make the sounds perfectly natural, or else if
the utterance is quite loud, it will resemble the barking of a dog
rather than human speech.
The very highest degree of this quality is what is called ex-
ploding in speech, arid the explosive tone in singing. In rapid
speech, in which the syllables are not prolonged, this stress is
the same thing as what is called staccato stress in music. As
in music the staccato stress may be given to the commence-
ment of notes that are somewhat prolonged, so in speech the
utterance may be slow and the syllables not shortened, yet at
the same time each may be sent forth with a sudden and stri-
DO GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
king effect, that awakens attention and arouses the spirits of
the audience.
This is one of the principal qualities of delivery, in conse-
quence of which the mere sound of the voice, independently of
the ideas offered, secures attention from the hearers.
The very highest degrees of earnestness, however, as will
presently be described, cause the voice to proceed in prolonged
tones ; and in these, the swell of the voice often takes the place
of the suddenly expulsive accent now under consideration.
Great care likewise must be taken, that not only this, but all
other qualities of voice be so managed when we cultivate elo-
cution, as to be perfectly natural and agreeable. The sudden-
ness of utterance which has just been described, should be con-
joined with graceful ease and fluency.
A very high degree of the vocal action we are now consider-
ing, is exhibited in the natural utterance of various interjec-
tions which express surprise, alarm, caution, command, or cheer-
ful willingness. These interjections and imperative phrases
are such as, Ah ! Oh ! Take care ! Who ! (to horses,) Come,
come ! Look out ! Ay, ay !
EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE.
The following harangue from Shakespeare, requires an ex-
tremely high degree of this utterance. It will be useful to prac-
tise the declamation of such passages with great force, and even
with violence. It must be remembered, however, that in ordi-
nary delivery it should be impossible for common auditors to de-
tect this peculiar vocal action, even when it decidedly characteri-
zes the speaking. It must be so managed as to give spirit and
attractive interest to the whole run of the voice, and yet with such
ease and fluency, as to make the delivery even more graceful.
It is not for any one a new use of the voice. The reason why
it must be carefully cultivated, is that the necessary slowness of
ANIMATED UTTERANCE. b9
public speaking is apt to prevent its natural use, and substitute
for it some sort of drawl. After declaiming the following pas-
sage with the energy of a harangue, it will be well to practise
repeating it again in the more rapid and familiar manner of
reading or of conversation. By so doing, the student will be
able to distinguish that the same suddenly expulsive utterance
which in its highest degree represents the excitement of the mil-
itary harangue, in a less degree and with a subdued loudness
gives spirit and animation.
To secure the confidence and cordial cooperation of intellec-
tual young men, in such declamatory exercises as this which
follows, it will be well to remark that they are of no value ex-
cept for gymnastic vocal training. A man may excel in them,
and yet have neither skill, taste, nor judgment, in the ordinary
delivery of practical life. As an intellectual accomplishment,
the ability to execute them need not be considered of higher
rank than skill in playing ball. Many shrink from them in
consequence of supposing, that they are considered by a teach-
er as evidences of talent or mental cultivation ; whereas they
in fact task the body more than the mind. Sensitive young
men must however remember, that audiences cannot very well
discriminate between faults of delivery that proceed from the
mind, and those that result from natural weakness or infelici-
tous habits of the bodily organs. We have occasionally observed
that an auditor has accused a speaker of not having his feelings
interested in his subject, when the fact happened to be, that he
was both earnest and enthusiastic, but had merely a bad habit
of not taking breath with sufficient frequency and fullness to
render his voice flexible and significant. Such declamation as
the following confers also free habits of respiration in speaking,
as well as a voice habitually spirited.
70 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
HARANGUE OF HENRY FIFTH TO HIS TROOPS BEFORE HAR-
FLEUR.
\ ,. \
Once more unto the breach, dear friends ! once more ;
Or close the wall up with our English dead.
In peace there's nothing so becomes a man
\ f
As modest stillness and humility :
But when the blast of war blows in our ears,
\
Then imitate the action of the tiger :
\ \
Stiffen the sinews; summon up the blood;
Disguise fair nature with hard-favored rage :
\
Then lend the eye a terrible aspect;
Let it pry through the portage of the head,
\
Like the brass cannon ; let the brow overwhelm it,
\
As fearfully, as doth a gatted rock
O'erhang and jutty his confounded base,
\
Swill'd with the wild and wasteful ocean.
\ \
Now set the teeth and stretch the nostril wide.\
\
Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit
\
To ITS FULL HEIGHT!
/ / \
On, on, you NOBLE English,
Whose blood is fetch'd from fathers of war proof!
\
Fathers that like so many Alexanders t
IMPRESSIVE UTTERANCE. 71
Have, in these parts, from morn till even fought,
\
And sheathed their swords for lack of argument!
\
Be copy now to men of grosser blood,
\
And teach them HOW TO WAR !
\
And you t good YEOMEN !
\
Whose limbs were made in ENGLAND ! show us here
\
The mettle of your pasture !
I see you stand like greyhounds in the slips ,
\
Straining upon the start.
THE GAME'S AFOOT!
FOLLOW YOUR SPIRIT : and upon this charge t
Cry STRIKE FOR HARRY ! ENGLAND! and ST. GEORGE.
IMPRESSIVE UTTERANCE, OR PROLONGED
TONES.
Impressiveness depends principally upon prolongation. Be-
fore attempting the regular declamation of extracts, the voice
ought to be disciplined in the power of prolonging syllables and
words, for purposes of emphasis and expression. Prolongation
is the most universal form of emphasis, and characterizes all
earnest delivery.
It takes place however, only on syllables that have what is
called in prosody, long quantity.
The English language is remarkable for abounding in mono-
syllabic words, generally of Saxon origin, which have great
strength and energy, in consequence of their length.
GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
It will be useful to exhibit tables of these, arranging them ac-
cording to the nature of their constituent letters.
The first class consists of syllables that end with a
long vowel. Such admit of indefinite prolongation, ac-
cording to the strength and earnestness of the emotion
with which they are uttered.
true glow flee joy away straw bow sigh
stay strow stray destroy high thou high now
The next class consists of syllables in which a long
vowel is followed by a consonant that admits of being
lengthened. In prolonging these, both the vowel and
the consonant following it are lengthened. Such sylla-
bles also, may be prolonged to any extent required,
all fame join came zone spoil feel
wane roll time calm scowl prove fail
rule frail revile grave save move soothe
smooth breathe ire admire store jeer near
lure roar stare aware fall'n strong soar
The next have long vowels, and final consonants that
can be prolonged to some extent but not indefinitely.
made robe proud tide need
stride found mind mild rolled
road heed speed side sold
The next have long vowels, but end with a consonant
that cannot be lengthened. These words can be pro-
longed, but not indefinitely.
smite sweet state awake seek
sleep flight mute deep hope
partake mistake awoke light smote
flout daunt faint heart haste
float height harp shark short
IMPRESSIVE UTTERANCE. 73
The next have short vowels, but terminal consonants
that can be indefinitely lengthened.
swell dim on won shun pull
well loll film starve still span
hymn sum full thrill shall whelm
serve sing bring string wing sprung
wrung drum sung swing hung run
G and Z at the end of syllables admit of some pro-
longation.
age oblige amaze feels joins days
bridge edge muse fills joys ties
Whispering letters at the end are not prolonged,
leaf safe horse reach pelf
teeth ice beach rush self
Syllables with short vowels and only whispering let-
ters or mutes at the end, cannot be prolonged.
push hiss map clock shot
split mists cut knot rash
cliff struck ships pith insist
test butt such stretch rest
Many of this class however, are long for the purposes of me-
ter, on account of the number of consonants at the end. They
are long " by position," as it is called.
In respect to the last class of syllables, the question occurs,
in what way does the voice give those expressions that cause
other syllables to be prolonged? This is done by making pre-
cisely the same vigorous mental effort as upon those that can
be lengthened. This effort however, causes the voice first to ex-
ert itself with more force, and then, as the syllable does not length-
en, an unconscious pause succeeds, which makes the syllable,
7*
74 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
or at least the whole word, to occupy as much time, as if the
sound were continued by prolongation.
It will be unnecessary to furnish extracts for the practice of
prolongation, because this use of the voice is the universal re-
source of nature for all earnestness on emphatic passages, and
is always exhibited in a high degree whenever large rooms are
satisfactorily filled, or discourse rendered intelligible and inter-
esting to very large audiences. It is the natural and necessary
prolongation of seriousness and solemnity, which, if unaccom-
panied with spirit and energy, produces the drawling tone
which we sometimes hear in the pulpit. The faults of pulpit
elocution should be corrected, not by adopting an inappropriate
familiarity of manner, or the sort of energy that characterizes
the bar and the legislative assembly, but by superadding hearti-
ness and animation, to impressiveness.
A single caution must be given with respect to the practice
of such tables as we have given above. Instead of disciplining
the voice by prolonging the syllables in a merely mechanical
way, it is better always to imagine one's self to be speaking, and
thus give to each a natural expression of emphatic earnestness.
CHAPTER IV.
ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION.
WE place this chapter after those which treat of the general
qualities and habits of the voice, because if these are bad, it will
be difficult for articulation to be such as is desirable in reading
or speaking, or for pronunciation to be truly graceful and
elegant.
ARTIC ULATI ON.
In most cases a good articulation in conversation and famil-
iar reading, either results from natural organization, or is formed
ARTICULATION. 75
in early childhood by models afforded in the domestic circle.
The influences of schools however, are generally such as tend
to produce the very worst habits of enunciation. In most
schools, and sometimes in a college, lessons are recited in a
manner so hurried and yet so hesitating, that the enunciation is
like the following example. Suppose the rule to be repeated is,
" A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and
person." Tt will be recited thus : " Vub m'st 'gree w'ts nom-
'tuv case 'ri numbu 'n puss'n."
Those who cultivate propriety of manners in a high degree,
are remarkable for a pleasant and respectful distinctness of ar-
ticulation. Suppose a person passing along a dark street, stum-
bles against another ; if a mutual apology is not made, at least
some exclamation ensues. In such a case, the tone of voice,
and style of articulation, immediately indicates whether either
or both the persons are refined and gentlemanly. In nothing is
that cultivation of mind and character, from which cultivated
manners proceed, so much shown as by the voice. Every one
articulates distinctly, when addressing, with sincere respect, one
much above him in age and station. The tone of patient def-
erence indeed, is marked by little else than distinctness of enun-
ciation. So too, that of high self-respect, or of condescension to
presuming vulgarity, is remarkably elaborate and distinct. On
the other hand, the vulgarity of manners which proceeds from
an egotistical enthusiasm, such as forgets to accommodate itself
to others, causes words to be hurried in utterance, and makes it
difficult to catch them. Extreme and egotistical diffidence also
makes the voice guttural, or what is called snuffling, and pre-
vents the perfect formation of syllables.
These remarks are made with no purpose of inculcating
points of manners, but in direct and sole reference to public
speaking. When such causes of indistinct articulation as these
which we have just mentioned, are accurately explained, it be-
comes easy to avoid them in that more excited, yet more col-
76 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
lected state of mind, that distinguishes speaking from conversa-
tion. The influences which make a person articulate distinct-
ly, when respectfully addressing a superior, are similar to those
which promote a good enunciation in speaking. In both, the
importance of the occasion excites, intensifies, and steadies the
mind.
There is but one mode of practice by which we can
in a short time, acquire the habit of a good articulation
when addressing an audience.
This is by a vigorous and concentrated effort of the
mind, to explain or set forth to the auditors, the IDEA
conveyed by the word we are uttering.
This natural and distinctive effort tends to make the
organs of speech enunciate distinctly every letter of
every syllable : and this is what is meant by the very
term, a perfect articulation.
Experience proves that when students of elocution have done
nothing more than study the principles and practice of articula-
tion of single words, there is no certainty that they will exhibit
an accurate and clear enunciation during the flow of continu-
ous discourse. Yet the study of the analysis of syllables into
their constituent letters, and the consequent principles of a per-
fect articulation, should not be neglected.
It is difficult however, to find time and opportunity for this
study, in college instruction. There are but two ways in which
it can be carried on ; the one, linguistically, or as a part of the
science of languages, and the other by that patient and endless
iteration which constitutes the mode of instruction in schools.
For the latter there is not sufficient time in college, and it is
inconsistent with the style of instruction most appropriate for
intelligent young men. The former requires, on the other
hand, more maturity of mental discipline, than it is possible for
the younger classes in a college to possess.
VOWELS.
77
Audiences however, do not trouble themselves to distinguish
an elegant from a clumsy articulation, provided they are ena-
bled readily to catch the principal sound of every syllable. For
practical purposes of speaking, the refinement of phonology
and orthoepy are lost upon them. We shall presently devote a
section to the head of distinctness, considered as different from
articulation ; by which we mean the avoidance, either of omit-
ting syllables, or of huddling them together. If audiences can
distinctly catch the vowel of each syllable, they never complain
of the imperfect articulation of a speaker, unless he has a lisp
or some habit which is commonly referred to " impediment of
speech."
Training therefore, in what properly belongs to articulation,
is the duty of parents and school teachers ; and when their in-
struction or example has left bad habits, the teacher of elocution
generally has time and opportunity to do little more, than in-
form his pupil of the fact, and advise him to institute some course
of self-cultivation. But if the student learns to explain thought,
and give natural earnestness of expression, his articulation will
necessarily be sufficiently perfect for practical purposes in
speaking. Elegant reading and artistic recitation of poetry,
indeed, as also vocal music, require a careful analysis of letters
in the minutest points, and a patient and persevering discipline
of the vocal organs and the ear. But these subjects do not
come within the scope of the present treatise.
Yet as some directions are required for the management of
articulation in speaking, the following are given as the result of
experience in teaching.
VOWELS.
In studying articulation, it is not strictly necessary to inves-
tigate the different sounds of the vowels. Any errors in these,
will fall under the head of pronunciation.
78 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
Yet we must be careful that no vowel be omitted. A large
part of the faults of articulation, consist in omitting short vow-
els, and thus contracting words by huddling the consonants to-
gether.
E. g. p'rtic'lar for particular; Sample for example, &c.
The first practical rule, then, in articulation, is NEVER
TO OMIT A VOWEL.
It may happen, however, that the best custom in pronuncia-
tion drops it, in order to prevent what is called in Latin and
Greek a hiatus, as in the word extraordinary, which is to be
pronounced extrordinary .
A certain degree of easy and pleasant deliberation, such as
is heard from the citizens of Philadelphia, and in general from
the polished inhabitants of the southern states a deliberation
just sufficient to admit of room for every vowel even in the most
rapid and fluent utterance, is the most attractive beauty of ar-
ticulation.
It must be carefully borne in mind, that the more syl-
lables a word contains, the more time will be required
for its complete utterance.
The most common faults under this head, proceed from an
improper shortening of words, or clipping them, as it is called ;
or from what the French, when they describe the English pro-
nunciation of their own tongue, term the swallowing of vowels.
Still it is very common to observe, that those who have taken
considerable pains to acquire a good articulation, enunciate
with a pedantic slowness and stiffness, somewhat like a school
teacher putting out words to be spelled. Such do not accent
with sufficient spirit to make the utterance of the unaccented
syllables light and fluent.
A strong accent must be studiously cultivated by all
who would acquire a good articulation of the English
tongue.
VOWELS.
79
This causes the voice to glide lightly and gracefully
over the unaccented vowels, while at the same time
they are uttered with perfect distinctness.
It is a curious fact in regard to speech, that if in addressing
even a very large assembly, the accented syllables of words are
heard, the others will also be sufficiently audible. Tt will not
be necessary for the speaker to bestow attention upon the oth-
ers, further than not to skip them or huddle them together.
It is also an important fact, that by cultivating a vigorous ac-
cent, it becomes easy to avoid the most important of all the er-
rors which distinguish an elegant from a slovenly pronunciation.
And as a truly elegant pronunciation is inseparably connected
with a clear and graceful articulation, we shall mention under
the present head the following fault.
It is that of not sounding vowels distinctly and defi-
nitely when they occur in unaccented syllables, but on
the contrary, either dropping them or changing them in-
to short u.
It will be useful for many, to practise upon the left hand col-
umn of the following table.
believe, and not b'lieve or bulieve
opposite, opp'site or opposite
domestic, d'mestic or dumestic
monument, mon'miint or monumiint
commencement, c'mmencemunt or commencemunt
innocence, innVnce or innusiince
confidence, conf'd'nce or confiidunce
government, gov'm'nt or govunmunt
liberty, lib'ty or libutty
accident, ax'd'nt or axiidunt
opinion, 'pinion or iipinion
polite, 'plite or pulite
propose pr'pose or prupose
algebray permanent
permaynent
Canayday armament
, armayment
aymuse predicament
predicayment
aytone efficacy
efficaycy
ay bate delicacy
delicaycy
SO GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
On the other hand, many who aim to be distinct, mispro-
nounce words in their endeavors to become so. They often
change short a and short i, of unaccented syllables, into the
(shortened) long sounds of the same letters. Thus,
America becomes Americay ligament becomes ligayment
algebra
Canada
amuse
atone
abate
So too
civilization becomes civilization
colonization colonization
naturalization naturalization
organization ' organization
generalization generalization
We might furnish such tables in reference to the other vow-
els, but a and i are the most important. Let us again repeat
that it will be useless to attempt to correct such faults, without
cultivating a spirited accent. When they exist in a high de-
gree, the tone of voice is generally drawling.
CONSONANTS.
The English language is remarkably distinguished by a strong
enunciation of consonants at the ends of syllables. A large
number of its syllables are also characterized by ending with
clusters of consonants which are difficult to enunciate.
It is highly useful in reference merely to speaking, to disci-
pline the articulating organs in their enunciation. By so doing,
we characterize the general sound of our utterance by a manly
firmness and energy. Some consonants, however, are never,
even in the most careless utterance, enunciated indistinctly, ex-
cept by those who have what is called " an impediment of speech."
CONSONANTS. 81
Those that are liable to be imperfectly articulated, are
T and D, K and G, J, S and Z.
The care necessary to be taken with consonants is,
however, very much reduced by the fact, that those at
the beginning of syllables are not, as a general rule, to
be dwelt upon, or uttered with intentional energy. No
one fails in distinctness in reference to these.
It is only at the end of a syllable, that they are liable
to be enunciated too weakly to be heard, or if heard, to
give a feeble and effeminate character to the enunciation.
Observe, we say feeble and effeminate. Our language, when
correctly enunciated, is remarkable for the manly energy which
is bestowed upon it by our vigorous accent and strong enuncia-
tion of terminal consonants. On this account, it really seems
the most difficult of all European dialects to enunciate well.
Even the Polish and Russian are probably easier, by reason of
the less close sounds of their vowels, and the weaker and more
whispering utterance of their consonants.
The following practical directions, however, are found on tri-
al to be of so great assistance, as to remove most of this diffi-
culty in the case of clusters of consonants at the ends of sylla-
bles.
When several consonants follow a vowel, do not dwell
too long on the vowel, but expend the articulating effort
principally on the consonants that follow.
Pass on rather rapidly to the very last consonant of
the terminal cluster, and let that be dwelt upon.
For example, in uttering the word storm'dst, no pains should
be taken with the st preceding the vowel, neither must the vow-
el be much prolonged. But as r, m, d, s and t are all to be ut-
tered at one impulse, there still is danger of dwelling too long
on some one of them before the voice arrives at the t. There-
8
GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY
stretch'dst
prompt's!
hop'dst
stopp'dst
screech'dst
shrink'st
harp'dst
help'dst
stamp'dst
thrust'st
clutch'dst
splitt'st
fore if we pass rather rapidly over all but this, the organs will
be able to enunciate it firmly, and the syllable will yet have
been extremely long.
The following table will be both amusing and useful to prac-
tise. In doing so, it must be borne in mind that in many com-
binations d sounds'like t.
scorch'dst
splash'dst
thump'dst
loath'dst
To the above rule for dwelling on the last consonant, there
is one important exception.
The consonants s or sh should be sounded as short as
possible, to avoid a disagreeable hissing.
There is no danger that they will not be heard, as their sound
is so sharp. E. g.
hiss push life's scraps six
miss flush depths lengths sense
cross strifes scarfs shrinks sconce
Remember that after all consonants that are not strict mutes,
(P) *> ^) or tne whispering letters, f and sharp th t s sounds
like z. It will contribute to firmness of general enunciation,
to practise the following table, and discipline the organs in
sounding s like z.
flags
drubs
builds
steals
dulls
seethes
zones
spins
breeds
spreads
spends
rubs
steers
speeds
scuds
spills
dwells
drills
writhes
mouths
scorns
thrones
evens
stuns
drugs
ribs
guards
babes
flags
spoils
baths
slugs
swells
bathes
storms
heavens
spurns
sevens
strives
shelves
CONSONANTS. CO
starves lives lives moves saves
serves things strings thongs mouths
clothes throngs brings scares scores
flares stirs fires sires wears
There is a large number of words, in which the letters t and
d are apt to be dropped from a cluster.
The following table will afford specimens of words that are
liable to be pronounced alike.
finds pronounced like fines wilds pronounced like wiles
minds mines cents sense
faults false acts ax
mists miss masts mass
colds coals fields feels
chants chance drafts draffs
In the same way likewise,
boldly is often pronounced bolely
coldly colely
friendly frienly
kindly kinely
blindly blinely
worlds worls
yields yiels
softly sofly
drifts drifts
accepts acceps
adepts adeps
enactment enacment
Even when such tables as the two last are before them, many
find it difficult to make the requisite discrimination. The fol-
lowing direction will therefore be found useful, not only to such,
but to all who wish to unite distinctness with grace.
Articulate t or d, in connexion with the following, and not
with the preceding consonants. Enunciate the words as if
84 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
they were divided as follows, yet let the utterance be rapid and
without a break in the graceful smoothness that is necessary,
soun-dly roun-dly pos-ts coas-ta
direc-tly exac-tly drif-ts gif-ts
sof-tly sof-tness attemp-ts exemp-ts
swif-tly enac-tment dissen-ts has-tes
erec-tness frien-dly las-ts lis-ts
To show the correspondence of the above direction with the
effort which the articulating organs naturally make, we will
mention the well known fact, that the low Londoners, or cock-
neys, as they are called, make two syllables of words of one syl-
lable that end in sts. Thus, posts they pronounce postis ; Jists t
Jistis, &c.
ARTICULATION OF POLYSYLLABIC WORDS.
Upon the strong accent, which characterizes the English lan-
guage, depend as has before been suggested, many of the most
important points, both of its articulation and pronunciation.
The consonants indeed, of unaccented syllables, are
to be enunciated as perfectly as in those which are un-
der the accent ; but the vowels have a weak, and often
to some extent, an obscure sound.
It has been mentioned also, that it is only by means of a de-
cidedly strong and spirited accent, that a distinct articulation of
our language can be effected with rapidity and fluency.
It is a fact to which there are but few exceptions, that
in English, the accented syllable of a word is made long.
Hence it is one of the most important rules for easy and
graceful articulation, to dwell upon the principal accented
syllable.
After so doing, the voice is enabled to glide fluently over the
unaccented ones that follow. When likewise the accented syl-
POLYSYLLABIC WORDS.
85
lable is preceded by such as are unaccented, the voice passes
distinctly, yet lightly over them, and then breaks out into strong
utterance on that which receives the accent. Take such a
word as in-ac-CES-si-ble-ness. The voice glides lightly along
on the first two syllables, as if preparing itself for an effort on
the accent ; it then bursts out upon the syllable ces, and dwells
long enough on it to acquire an impetus, that carries it " trip-
pingly," (to use Shakespeare's expression,) over the remainder
of the word. In this progress of the voice, no conscious regard
is bestowed upon the secondary accents. These are quite
light, and it is only the primary one upon which any real exer-
tion is made. The following table will illustrate this principle.
irreconcilably
impenetra&iVity
undisfmguishable
characteristically
&/asphemously
magistracy
invariableness
inconszWerableness
ob/ectionableness
unpremea'itatedly
disciplinary
peremptorily
temporarily
secondarily
individuality
mediatorial
irremediably
phjlanMropically
etymo/ogically
unimaginable
mathematically
instantaneously
incommensurably
cwstomarily
arbitrarily
momentarily
/roZicsomeness
This is perhaps the most suitable place in which to introduce
an important principle in pronunciation, which depends entirely
upon the management of accent.
The principle is, that all syllables which follow the
primarily accented one, are to be uttered as lightly as is
consistent with rendering them barely audible.
8*
insurmowwtablenesg
circumstantially
inexcwsableness
physiognomical
unphilosopAically
vigilantly
infractableness
inlerminableness
supplicatory
trigonomefrically
extravagantly
perpendicularly
rapturously
lu ke warm ness
86
GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
When in such cases, the last syllables of the word contains a
long vowel, or a short one with two or more consonants, many
persons suffer it to issue with a semi-accent, or with an inelegant
drawl, either of which destroys the trippingness of the utterance.
The following table will furnish examples. In pronouncing such
words, the syllables that succeed the accented one should be
made as short and light as possible. For example, appetite
should not become appetyet.
telescope
microscope
substitute
vagabond
rarioloid
equipoise
crucify
turpentine
pharisee
scepticism
caricature
concentrate
investigate
The same principle explains a peculiarity of our American
pronunciation, which is often objected to by the English. Such
words as territory, we are apt to pronounce (to use an English
criticism) terri-tory : so likewise matrimony becomes matri-
mony. Walker directed to give the short u in these words, as,
territurry. But all that is required is an accent on the first syl-
lable, sufficiently strong to cause the voice to glide trippingly
over the others.
matrimony territory controversy
patrimony repertory presbytery
ceremony q/Fertory awditdry
testimony adversary tributary
appetite
contraband
persecute
countersign
prosecute
cataract
superfine
execute
sf^trahend
intercourse
ffz^nify
hypoMenuse
anecdote
s/wplify
sarcasm
renovate
gratify
paraphrase
reservoir
suftbcate
tomahawk
rampart
diphthong
arrogate
glorify
lukewarm
pecTigree
rAewmatism
monotone
mysticism
methodize
judicature
/emperature
economize
particularize
naturalize
remonstrate
conmunicate
intimidate
POLYSYLLABIC WORDS. 87
While it is commonly noticed that the English style of pro-
nunciation differs considerably from the American, few or none
have explained in what the difference consists. The former
however, will be found on observation, to use less nasality of
voice, and to employ a much stronger accent. The Americans
incline to drawl. In the English West Indies, the drawl is so
ludicrous, and is combined with so many other errors, that the
late Mr. Rafinesque, who was a Sicilian by birth, classified the
West Indian mode of pronouncing, as a distinct dialect of the
English language !
We mentioned lately, (page 81,) that it is only a part of the
consonants that are liable to be imperfectly articulated by those
who have no lisp or impediment of speech. Perhaps we ought
to devote a few words to explaining the point. Take such
words as back, bag, bed, hat, buzz, age. It is very common to
hear them uttered with a tendency to a drawl not amounting
however to a true drawl which proceeds from a feeble enun-
ciation of the terminal consonant. From their imperfect
strength of articulating organs, children always exhibit this pe-
culiarity. We will endeavor to illustrate it by the following
mode of spelling, ba-ag, ha-at, &c. Still farther to explain the
point, we will mention the fact, that all such words should be
pronounced with that shortening of the vowel, and force on the
final consonant, that is represented by the ancient mode of
spelling such words, viz. bagge, hatte, &c. That is, they
should have, when not followed by another word, the vocula, as
it is called, which is a whispering sound of short e or u after the
consonant. This vowel is represented in French by the mute, e
of that language. It will readily be perceived that there is a
connexion between this firm and strong enunciation, and the
habit of strongly accenting.
88 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
PRONUNCIATION.
As long as it is the main object of the instructor to qualify
students for practical speaking, he will hardly find time and op-
portunity for correcting many errors in pronunciation. During
the excitement of earnest delivery, the minds of unpractised
speakers can seldom be sufficiently at leisure, to allow of chang-
ing fixed habits in regard to this point.
It would also seem scarcely advisable to occupy the time of
the younger classes in a college, with lessons or lectures on
pronunciation. Coming from different districts of the country,
they often bring with them local peculiarities ; but these are
soon lost, and the average pronunciation in a large institu-
tion, corresponds sufficiently with that of men of education
throughout England and the United States. Those who may
wish to investigate the subject with peculiar care, can do this
by themselves with the aid of books, and in leisure moments.
For formal lessons or lectures on the subject, the Senior year
would seem to be most suitable. If however, formal and full
instruction on this point be deferred till that period, it ought to
be given in a linguistical, and if possible, in a learned manner.
The pronunciation which formerly prevailed in the New
England states, and which in the parent country still remains
among the uneducated classes, is ill adapted to the purposes of
delivery, and on this account more than from the influence of
fashion, has now been universally rejected by public speakers
in both countries. It is not only more guttural and nasal, but
more indefinite and obscure in the sounds of the vowels. It also
fails of conforming to that great law in English phonology,
which requires us to avoid all hiatus, and all difficult transi-
tions in the utterance of letters, by means of smooth and gliding
sounds. What is now cultivated as a genteel pronunciation, is
not only more fluent and facile, and consequently better suited
PRONUNCIATION. 89
to rapid utterance in familiar intercourse, but in public speak-
ing, is capable of being rendered more easily audible and intel-
ligible, without disagreeable loudness. This pronunciation is
as yet better exhibited in the middle and southern states, than
in New England. The writer once asked an educated Spanish
gentleman, in which part of our country he found it easiest to
understand our language when he listened to the conversation
of the people. He replied, in the southern.
It is remarkable that up to this time, Walker has been the
only author who has attempted to investigate systematically, the
laws of English pronunciation. No other writer has done more
than make detached and fragmentary examinations of the sub-
ject. Indeed, scarce any other writer in our tongue has appa-
rently had a clear conception that the tendencies to change of
pronunciation in any living dialect follow certain definite laws,
which laws are in accordance with the genius of the language,
and the intellectual and social habits of the people. Yet Walker
was as modest as he was industrious, and apparently never im-
agined it possible that an absurd effort might be made, to set up
his dictionary as an immutable standard by which to fix forever
the pronunciation of a living language spoken all over the world.
Those who declaim against Walker, often exhibit a surprising
ignorance of the principles which he has investigated in the in-
troduction to his dictionary, and always manifest a want of ac-
quaintance with the fact, that changes in pronunciation are
principally caused by the more or less unconscious efforts made
by persons of cultivated minds and manners, to be at once distinct
and fluent, as well as to conform to the peculiar analogies and
laws of their vernacular tongue. As the study of the present
subject is however, not very necessary to those for whom this
work is written, it does not conform to its plan and objects to
treat of it in detail. A discriminating and judicious classifica-
tion of the most prevalent errors in pronunciation, may be found
in the original and valuable work of Professor Goodrich, on elo-
cution,
90 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
It ought to be remarked, that old-fashioned modes of pro-
nunciation are not necessarily vulgar. Vulgarity in this re-
spect depends on vulgarity of articulation and tone of voice, or
on mere affectation of refinement and fashion. The most vulgar
pronunciation heard in our country, is that of those who affect
what are called Walkerianisms. They who do this, violate
Walker's own principles more than those of any other writer.
His taste was manly and truly English ; and it is strange
that merely fashionable and " Frenchified" affectations, should
be charged to the account of the very man who was instant and
earnest in opposing them.
Walker was a man of education, and was accustomed to the
most learned and refined society of his day. His dictionary was
suggested by the request of one of the universities of England,
that he should deliver a course of lectures on the laws of English
orthoepy. Yet the pronunciation of our tongue has become
more regular since his day, and the changes that have taken
place may be found in the work of Jameson.
For common reference, the student of this subject needs noth-
ing more than the table prefixed to the abridged octavo edition
of Webster's dictionary. In this table, he will find the modes
of pronunciation, adopted by different orthoepists, arranged in
the order of the times in which they wrote. If he carefully ex-
amines it, he will feel inclined to be guided in general by Walk-
er and Jameson, and when these differ, generally by the latter.
There is a strange mistake prevalent respecting the late honored
and venerated Dr. Webster, that he made it one of the objects
of his great work, to give a full exhibition of the pronunciation
of our language. Such was neither one of his real nor pro-
fessed objects. In none of his various and numerous works,
has the present writer been able to find any thing from which
he could even conjecture what sound Dr. Webster thought
ought to be given to the letter M, in such words as nature and
feature. In his " Elementary spelling book," indeed, he fur-
PRONUNCIATION. 91
nishes a table of a few such words, bat gives no intimation of
the manner in which they ought to be pronounced, and merely
mentions that the best public speakers in England and this
country do pronounce them in a certain way, viz. with the short
M preceded by y. It should be observed however, that in this
statement the learned author is unquestionably mistaken, as it
is the long and not the short u that is required by distinctness,
euphony and analogy, and such is undoubtedly the custom of
speakers of the highest cultivation. In his " American spelling
book," Dr. Webster in too many cases, directed to pronounce
different unaccented vowels alike, giving as an example, that
rural andjitfuj, were pronounced with the same vowel sound in
their last syllables. In a " table of words different in meaning,
but alike in pronunciation," he gives the two words chronical
and chronicle, as being the same in sound.
No one who has hitherto written on this subject seems to
have been aware, that the ultimate test of the true sound of un-
accented vowels, is only to be found by trying words, with a
perfectly clear and open tone of voice, in the deliberate articu-
lation required for elevated delivery before large audiences in
the artistical recitation of poetry, or in vocal music. In these
circumstances or at least in the two latter every unaccented
vowel must have a definite sound. In vocal music, especially,
no indefinite vowel sounds are ever admissible. If the unac-
cented vowels are tried by these tests, Walker will be found to
have investigated the subject with remarkable accuracy.
Some however object, that in the rapid utterance of conver-
sation, such perfection of articulation is unattainable. In the
case of many of the thick and husky voices of men, this ob-
jection is undoubtedly well founded. But let those who make
it, listen to the articulation of unaffected and elegant women,
who are distinguished for beauty of conversation, and they will
find that the minutest refinements directed by Walker, though
unconsciously, are yet habitually exhibited.
92 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
The plan and object of this work, require no other directions
to be given for pronunciation than the following.
In general, avoid pronouncing in any way that will
attract attention, either by its erroneousness or its singu-
larity. If your audience are led to take any particular
notice of your mode of pronouncing, their attention will
be distracted for a time from the main object of the
speaker.
Dr. Rush observes, that " for every word mispronounced, the
audience will miss at least ten words that follow."
If you are a man of education, pronounce in such a style as
the audience are accustomed to expect from well educated gen-
tlemen.
Remember that it is not one of the necessary duties of a
public speaker, to teach new modes of pronunciation to those
whom he addresses. For example, though in some parts of
our country the English pronunciation of the word deaf (def )
is now established, and will be expected from a speaker of ed-
ucation and refinement, yet it would be more useful to avoid it
when delivering an address in a part of the country in which it
had never been heard.
Remember that your pronunciation can never be refi-
ned and graceful, as long as your articulation remains
slovenly and obscure.
Some of the most important errors in pronunciation, have
already been pointed out in the preceding chapter on articula-
tion. Before dismissing the subject, reference ought to be made
to the valuable labors of the Rev. A. B. Chapin, in regard to
the laws of correspondence between the orthoepy and the or-
thography of our language. They are exhibited in his " Spell-
ing Book."
CONTINUOUS DISCOURSE.
CHAPTER V.
CONTINUOUS DISCOURSE.
IN the previous chapters we have considered, first, the gene-
ral qualities and habits of the voice ; next, those requisites of
expression which are common to all delivery ; and in the last,
the management of the voice in articulating and pronouncing
single words.
The present chapter will be devoted to the practical difficul-
ties which every one experiences to a greater or less extent,
when he first attempts to exhibit these requisites during the flow
of continuous discourse.
The facts which we shall proceed to explain, may readily be
observed when we investigate the natural action of the organs
of speech in conversation, and are still more striking in the ut-
terance of accomplished orators. Those however who have
never practised public speaking, experience more difficulty in
making their delivery natural in these requisites than in any
others. If the room to be filled is quite small, the delivery ap-
proximates in some respects to conversation, and the difficulties
alluded to are less felt. But when it is large, it is only in con-
sequence of practice in large rooms or in the open air, that a
speaker readily learns to use his voice in a manner so natu-
ral and easy, as to be entirely free from vociferation or rant on
the one hand, or a tedious monotony on the other. It must be
confessed that teachers of elocution have hitherto failed, in
most cases, of accomplishing for their pupils what has been ex-
pected from them. There are probably but two principal rea-
sons for this failure one, the habit of dwelling chiefly on mi-
nute and comparatively uninfluential points of enunciation ;
and the other and more essential one, that of generally giving
9
94 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
their instruction in small rooms, and neglecting to investigate
the principles upon which depends the adaptation of delivery
to large ones.
Though a chapter will hereafter be devoted to the subject
last mentioned, yet the above remarks have been thought ne-
cessary in this place, because the importance of the topics
which we are now to discuss is more readily perceived when
reference is made to large assemblies. It may be well still farther
to anticipate, by mentioning that those who can readily accommo-
date their reading or speaking to very large audiences, find no
difficulty whatever in contracting and reducing it sufficiently
for small ones. On the other hand, those whose whole experi-
ence has been in speaking to a small number, have a new art
to learn when they first attempt to address several hundreds or
thousands. The truth of this last assertion is sometimes deci-
dedly manifest, when an opportunity is afforded of comparing
lawyers with clergymen, in addresses before popular assemblies.
ACCENT OF CONSTRUCTION, OR GROUPING OF WORDS.
This is one of the most important principles in the phonolo-
gy of any language, and it is surprising that it has not hitherto
received more attention. It seems to have been first described
by Walker, and no longer ago than the time of Dr. Johnson.
The Greek and Roman grammarians recognized it in the case
of some words to which they gave the name of enclitics, but
failed to discover the extent of the principle upon which de-
pended the character of the few words which they thus named.
Walker gave the principle no name, and indeed appears not
fully to have comprehended it, since he notices it only in rela-
tion to emphasis. The first who gave it a name was Guest, in
his great work on English Rhythms, published a few years
since. From him we have adopted that of accent of construc-
tion, which appears at the head of this section. The other ap-
ACCENT OF CONSTRUCTION. 95
pellation, that of the grouping of words, we have generally em-
ployed in familiar teaching, because it so readily explains itself,
and corresponds so well with the action of the mind when we
read or speak from a written or printed page.
The Latin word signifying to read is legere, which properly
means to gather. As the eye runs along the uniform lines of
a printed page, the mind gathers the words not separately,
however, but into short groups. In a corresponding manner,
the vocal organs do not attempt to utter each word by itself, but
on the contrary, enunciate a group of several words with a sin-
gle impulse of the voice. The mind connects the words in
groups, so that each group shall express an idea. The groups
are then individualized in the vocal effort, by means of a strong
accent on the principal syllable of each. For example, in the
sentence, "In the beginning was the word," there are two
groups, viz. in the beginning and was the word. Each of these
has but one primary accent, thus : in the beginning was
the word. Each is uttered with precisely the same vocal ac-
tion as if it were a polysyllabic word. In the same way as in
the word articulate the exclusive accent on the i gives a unity
to the group of syllables, and thus individualizes the word, so
it is with the exclusive stress on the accented vowel of the above
groups of words.
We repeat again, that this great law of language is of funda-
mental importance in reference to learning to read or speak.
In fact, but two things are required to make any one who
has a cultivated mind, a speaker ; and it is curious likewise that
these two are closely and almost inseparably connected in our
natural impulses. These are, first, the habitual command of
the speaking voice ; and secondly, the habit of applying it to
words taken in groups.
In the second part of this work, we shall again resume this
subject, and show how the groups are often lengthened by the
still stronger accentual and individualizing power of emphasis.
96 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
At present we must confine ourselves to the most elementary
form of the principle.
The formation of the groups depends on the following facts
in regard to language.
First, certain words denote complete ideas by them-
selves. These are verbs and nouns. Adjectives also
are a class of nouns, and receive in general the same
decided stress.
Secondly, all other parts of speech, viz. articles, pro-
nouns, auxiliary verbs, adverbs, prepositions and con-
junctions, are used only in subordination to those of the
first class, and are connected with them in utterance.
Those of the first class receive a strong accent on one
syllable, and it is upon this syllable only that a decided
effort of the mind and voice is made.
Those of the second class are unaccented^ (as they
generally have but one syllable,) and are connected in
utterance with the others.
No strong and voluntary effort is made on them. Being
grouped with the others, they are uttered with precisely the
same weak and unconscious exertion as is made on the unac-
cented syllables of polysyllabic words. If indeed an adverb,
or other word of this class, is itself a polysyllabic word, one of
its syllables receives an accent ; but even in this case, the ac-
cent is generally less strong, and the word likewise requires to
be closely connected with one of the first class. The only ex-
ceptions are, in cases of emphasis or of separation by interven-
ing words.
The forcible efforts made in speaking, are thus confyied prin-
cipally to nouns, adjectives and verbs. With all other words,
(if they are not emphatic,) no effort is necessary, except to ar-
ticulate them distinctly.
ACCENT OF CONSTRUCTION. 97
It deserves also to be again mentioned, that even on the most
important words, all voluntary effort is restricted to the ACCENT-
ED SYLLABLE of each. (Vide the preceding chapter.)
We thus find a wonderful provision of nature for diminishing
the labor necessary for speech. A strong action of the vocal
muscles alternates regularly with a weaker one ; and the alter-
nation is between fatiguing excitement and effort, and compar-
ative rest.
Take for example the following sentence.
" True eloquence must exist in the man, in the subject, and
in the occasion."
When divided according to the natural grouping of words in
deliberate speaking, and also according to what in the second
part we shall term the phrases in delivery, it will stand thus :
True efoquence
must exz's* in the man,
in the subject,
and in the occasion.
We thus perceive that although there are twenty syllables in
the sentence, but six of them are accented, while it is upon
these alone that strong vocal efforts are made.
One more example will be sufficient for our present purpose,
as most of our extracts for practice will hereafter be divided.
We remarked above, that adverbs and other dependent words
are naturally connected with more important words, and that
their accent, when they have one, is weaker. Yet when deliv-
ery is slow and deliberately emphatic, the principle, though it
still holds true, is less observable. In the following example,
we shall not attempt to exhibit this slight distinction.
"The injustice of England has driven us to arms; and
blinded to her own interest for our good, she has obstinately
persisted, till independence is now within our grasp."
9*
93
GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
Arranged according to the grouping and phrasing of earnest
speaking, this will stand as follows :
The in/Mstice of E?ig\znd
has driven us to ARMS ;
and, blinded to her own interest
she has obstinately persisted,
till inde/^wdence
is now within our GRASP.
for our good,
It must not be inferred from our remarks, that this part of de-
livery is necessarily to be learned by inspecting a passage
which we are preparing to speak, and dividing the words into
two classes according to their grammatical nature. In practice,
the subject is attended with no difficulty. The act of group-
ing being a natural one, is readily made habitual by efforts to
speak deliberately and with natural ease. We shall proceed to
explain its connection with audibility and the easy play of the
breath in speaking. It will also be seen how the principle re-
moves all the difficulty that has formerly been felt in deter-
mining where to make pauses, when, as so often happens, they
are required for the sake of taking breath, and in situations
where there is no mark of punctuation.
In the preceding chapter, the remarkable fact has been
stated, that provided the articulation is reasonably per-
fect, and the key of the voice is sustained, the unac-
cented syllables of polysyllabic words will be heard by
the largest audiences, provided the speaker makes suffi-
cient effort to render the accented ones audible. The
same is true of groups of words. Even when these are
rendered very long by strong emphasis, the same pro-
vision is made by nature.
From ignorance of this fact, speakers sometimes fatigue
themselves unnecessarily. In the case of those who contract
ACCENT OF CONSTRUCTION. 99
a disease of the throat or lungs from the mere act of speaking,
the immediate cause is liable to be some unnecessary exertion,
or the habit of not taking breath, with that frequency which
the grouping of the words permits.
In strong delivery before a large audience, a natural and easy
speaker will sometimes take breath before every group. This
taking breath is more or less unconscious on his part, and not
readily perceptible to spectators ; but if from bad habits he
omits this natural act, he will either be feeble and inexpressive,
or will speak with great and painful labor.
In rapid utterance, breath is not taken so often, but only at
the end of phrases of a sentence, instead of between the groups
of words. Yet even in this case, the issuing flow of the breath
is momentarily CHECKED after each group, and a new impulse
given to it upon the succeeding one. Unless this be done, we
cannot even individualize words by accent, or exhibit any nat-
ural speech. Persons who are constitutionally deficient in phys-
ical strength or animation, or who are in feeble health, must
pay careful attention to free respiration in speaking. By cul-
tivating a habit of taking breath deeply and frequently, and at
the same time checking the issue of it after every group, the
chest will be kept always full, and the feeblest voice will fill the
largest room.
It is between the groups of words, that rhetorical and
emphatic PAUSES occur ; and it will be found on trial,
that pauses of the greatest length may be made after
any group of words, (except between an adjective and
substantive,) without injury to the sense of the sentence.
It is important to notice, that pauses between the
groups are not ordinarily for the sake of rest after the
effort which has just been made, but in the way of pre-
paration for the distinct and expressive utterance of the
next group.
100 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
It is solely by regulating the succession of the groups of
words, that a speaker adapts his voice to the extent of his au-
dience or the size of a room, in SLOWNESS.
In the same way likewise, is a voice adapted to the ECHO of
a room.
Finally, a harmonious or a varied RHYTHM depends on the
management of the groups.
When we come, in the second part of our work, to treat of
Emphasis, and of Rhetorical Groups and Phrases, we shall find
that the groups of words actually uttered with one impulse of
the voice, are frequently very long. Those of great length,
however, receive an impulse of the voice on an emphatic word,
which is proportioned to the length of the group, and which
makes them as fluent and facile in enunciation as shorter ones.
Before leaving this subject, a very important caution
must be given, not to suffer the above or any subsequent
directions to be so put in practice, as to interfere with
the smooth and graceful flow of words in discourse.
Those who practise articulation and other requisites of dis-
tinct enunciation, are liable to acquire a broken and irregular
flow of utterance. On the contrary, great care must always be
exercised to give to the slowest speaking, and that which most
abounds in rhetorical pauses, a tone of continuity , that carries
the minds of the hearers constantly onwards. (Vide the con-
clusion of the subsequent section, on Continued Emphasis.)
DISTINCT SEPARATION OF SYLLABLES.
SUSTAINED EXPRESSION. 101
In very slow speaking, this complete separation is necessary,
to keep the rate of delivery equable and easy.
In most cases, a speaker will be sufficiently distinct to be in-
telligible, if he keep the groups well separated from each oth-
er ; but in slow delivery, grace or beauty, and often pointed ex-
pression, require that he separate also the words of the groups,
and even to some extent the syllables of words from each other.
EXAMPLE.
/
HEAVEN AND EARTH
WILL WIT-NESS, \
/
IF ROME MUST FALL,
/
THAT WE
ARE IN-NO-CENT.\
Some of the faults of articulation which have been already
mentioned, should in strict propriety be placed under this head.
They are those in which vowels are omitted, and words short-
ened by dropping them; e.g. hist'ry for history, cons'quence
for consequence.
SUSTAINED EXPRESSION.
When first beginning to practise speaking, some experi-
ence great difficulty in keeping the requisite expression uniform
and consistent as long as is necessary. The voice is apt to flag
after the utterance of a few sentences, or even after a few
words. The speaker begins with natural animation and a suit-
able expression, as also with a key and force adapted to the
room, but soon loses this propriety of manner. When the
: voice flags, so likewise does the gesture, in respect to earnest-
! ness and significancy.
102 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
Hence, practice in speaking should be at first on very
short passages.
It is best indeed to begin with the appropriate utterance of
single words, and to proceed successively to groups, phrases,
sentences, paragraphs, and entire discourses. It often happens,
that one who has had no practice whatever, can speak a single
word or group with propriety, but cannot follow it with another,
without a falling off in the appropriate tone with which he began.
It should be a rule, not to persevere in practising at
any one time, longer than while the mind continues
fresh and clear, and the perceptions of the ear remain
u neon fused.
Longer continuance will be useful merely in strengthening
the voice. When this is the principal object, two or three
hours at a time may be spent with advantage.
The first practice for learning to sustain the voice,
should be with reference to keeping it uniformly adapt-
ed to the size of a large room, or to the extent of ground
occupied by an audience imagined to be present in the
open air. This will be judged of by the ear, and will
fatigue the mind but little.
When after a few trials, considerable difficulty remains
in sustaining the voice, the fault will probably in every
case, be found to result from habits of not taking breath
with sufficient fullness and frequency between the groups.
When the voice is adequately sustained for a large room, or
when in a small one a consistent elevation of delivery is main-
tained, the chest is kept always full and heaved up. It never
entirely relaxes, except at long pauses which occur in passing
from one sentence or paragraph to another.
I
EMPHATIC FORCE. 103
CHAPTER VI.
EMPHATIC FORCE.
IN the preceding chapters we have designedly omitted such
general habits in delivery, as render reading or speaking pow-
erful and intensely interesting. The present will be devoted
to those which are necessary for force and expression. In the
second part of the work, we shall treat briefly of the principles
which render particular words emphatic ; while in the third we
shall classify and describe the general styles into which all ex-
pression may be divided.
We are now to consider those mental and physical efforts
which are common alike to all the modes of emphasis and en-
forcement, and to all the varieties of expression.
Before practising any of the examples furnished in this chap-
ter, it will be well first to read over the remarks in its last sec-
tion, on the Tone of Communicating Thought.
EMPHATIC FORCE is given to those parts of discourse
which excite the mind of the speaker to peculiar earnest-
ness, and cause him to make a special effort to awaken
the same feelings in those whom he addresses.
It may be thought that no one can be liable to experience
difficulty in making the mental and physical exertion required
for this purpose. Yet such is not the fact. In no part of delivery
do unpractised speakers so much fail, as in this; and in no part
do teachers of elocution find it so difficult to develope the capa-
bilities of those whom they instruct. Indeed, it is found on trial
that not only are students of elocution unable to give natural
and expressive emphasis, so long as they have no command
over the speaking voice, but even after this point has been mas-
tered, the delivery will still remain unnatural in regard to em-
phasis, unless especial attention be directed to the subject.
104 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
As continuous speech consists of a succession of repeated
efforts on groups of words, it is at first most natural and easy to
proceed with uniform regularity, and utter each group with the
same force and with no variation in slowness. The strength of
voice on all the accents is thus the same, while the pauses do not
differ from one another in length, or in the modulation of the
voice which precedes them. The proclamations of criers, and
the enthusiastic harangues of men entirely destitute of educa-
tion, afford examples of this sort of delivery. But even in the
elocution of speakers of a far higher order, we often witness
more or less approximation to this rude mode, whenever their
energies are tasked to fill very large rooms. In proportion to
the difficulty of making themselves heard, their emphatic words
differ less from the others in tone, and the general sound of the
voice is more monotonous.
In reading, or in speaking written composition without hav-
ing first committed it to memory, the difficulty of giving a per-
petually varying force, is rendered still greater by the confine-
ment of the eye to the unbroken uniformity of the written or
printed lines. These tend to carry the mind and voice me-
chanically along, and to cause all the words to be uttered with
the same force. They likewise make it more difficult for the
mind to stop in its onward progress, and exhibit the pauses that
are so frequent and important in a natural delivery. The new
mode adopted in this treatise, for exhibiting the necessary
pauses, will be found of great service, inasmuch as it assists the
mind as well as the eye.
It follows from these facts, that in learning to empha-
size with natural force, attention must first be given to
pausing.
Before the utterance of an emphatic expression, the
mind must pause, in order to collect and concentrate its
energies, preparatory to the more earnest effort about to
be made.
EMPHATIC FORCE. 105
Sometimes the pause will occur immediately before the precise
syllable upon which the emphatic force is to be given. This will
happen when an emphatic single word is the first of a group,
and is one which begins with an accented syllable. For it must
be remembered, that when the emphasis is on a single word, it
is its accented syllable only that receives the peculiar tone and
force that mark the emphasis. But generally, the pause for
collecting the requisite mental energy is made before some
group, in the middle of which occurs the accented and emphatic
syllable.
In the same manner as a pause before emphasizing is
required for the mind, so is it for the breath, and for col-
lecting vocal energy in the organs of utterance.
In the first stages of learning to speak, it continually happens
that the speaker pauses and fully intends to give a strong em-
phasis, but finds to his great surprise, that his efforts fail. His
voice does not in fact vary at all, or instead of a stronger ex-
pression, it even gives a weaker one. The writer recollects an
instance of a man of a thoughtful and reflecting turn of mind,
who devoted considerable time to preparing himself for deliver-
ing a course of written lectures. He evidently took pains in
regard to delivery, yet all his emphases were marked by a hesi-
tating feebleness of utterance. Such difficulties result from a
want of the habit of talcing breath before emphasizing.
The mental and vocal effort, then, by which emphasis is
effected, is the following.
Before attempting to utter the group of words which
contains the emphatic word, a pause is made, breath is
quickly taken, the mind concentrated, and the vocal or-
gans made ready for a new effort.
Emphatic words are generally accompanied also by some va-
riety of the stroke in gesture. If the arm has been hanging at
the side, it is during the pause that it is raised.
10
106 GENERAL HABTTS IN DELIVERY.
Yet even when the speaker fails in none of the requisites just
described, it sometimes happens that he does not succeed in
giving a natural and expressive tone of voice, and a truly sig-
nificant gesture. His voice and gesture may be forcible, yet
mechanical and unmeaning. The remedy for this is in the
management of the mind. Speakers are at first liable to utter
words without thinking of their meaning. Or if they fix
their attention on the meaning, they may still forget that all
speaking supposes an audience. Emphasis especially, requires
to be directed by its tone and gesture, towards the hearers, and
if none are present to be addressed, they must be imagined.
To succeed perfectly, then, in emphasizing
The effort of the mind must be to enforce thoughts
and not mere words. The emphatic force must also be
earnestly directed towards an audience.
It will be useful to mention, that this vigorous effort to set
forth and enforce ideas rather than words, is at first inconsist-
ent with that more leisurely state of mind required for articula-
tion, pronunciation, and in general, the more mechanical parts
of delivery. When first studying emphasis and expression, it is
best to neglect every other quality of speaking. After a time,
skill and self-command will be acquired, by which such qualities
as at first require different and opposite states of mind, can be
exhibited in natural conjunction.
Since emphasis results from earnestness, it follows that
not only are emphatic syllables uttered with more ener-
gy, but the voice dwells upon them longer than on those
of less importance. Emphatic words take up more time
in utterance.
In fact, as will be explained in the section on rhythm, an
emphatic word occupies just twice as much time in its delivery,
(including the pauses,) as an unemphatic one of the same num-
ber of syllables.
EMPHATIC FORCE.
107
The pause which precedes an effort to emphasize, is
not the only one which is made. Another occurs after
the utterance of the group. Daring its continuance, the
mind of the speaker continues in the same excited state
which produced the earnest and significant tone. The
countenance keeps the same expression. The eye and
the hand continue their appeal to the audience. Thus
the hearers also, are made to feel and reflect upon the
full importance of what has just been urged.
This subsequent pause is necessary likewise for the breath
and voice. As the mind remains stationary for a moment, and
then prepares for the next passage, so the vocal organs remain
in statu quo. The attitude and gesture remaining fixed, the
breath likewise is not suffered wholly to escape. Additional
breath is then taken, and the vocal organs prepare themselves
for the effort required by the next group.
It should be carefully noticed, that during the pause that fol-
lows an emphasis, the mind does not really relax or rest, but
continues excited and vivid. So likewise the body continues in
a state of tension and energy. The chest is not suffered to
flatten, and no time is allowed for a slow and calm mode of
breathing. The very act of breathing is indeed suspended for
a time. In this way no flagging of the voice, or relaxation of the
exciting interest of the delivery takes place, even in rhetorical
pauses of extreme length. Though forcible delivery ought to
be easy, yet it admits of no actual rest, either of mind or body,
except at the end of a paragraph.
CONTINUED EMPHASIS.
Emphatic force is still to be considered in reference to the
number of words which receive it during a single impulse of the
voice.
108 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
In regard to this point, writers distinguish emphasis into two
kinds, according as it is given on a single word, or is equally
distributed over several. The latter they call continued empha-
sis, or an emphatic phrase. This we shall first consider, as it is
of more common occurrence than the other, and produces more
important effects. It has also been too much neglected by
most writers.
The mental and physical efforts by which this is executed,
are the same as have just been described in reference to em-
phasis in general. It was stated above, that emphatic earnest-
ness renders the utterance of a word slow.
Hence when this earnestness is continued on several
words in succession, the entire emphatic passage is given
with strikingly prolonged as well as forcible tones.
The continuity of the forcible tone must be kept uniform, and
if more words are to receive it than can be uttered at a single
breath, the lungs must be filled quickly, as is done by a flute
player, so that the connexion of the words shall not be inter-
rupted.
Although the consideration of the theory of emphasis is re-
served for the second part of this treatise, yet it will be well to
mention under the present head, the following general facts.
Most of the sentences in a discourse are introduced on
account of the importance of one of its sections only.
The remaining sections serve principally the purpose, of con-
necting the important one with the other sections of the dis-
course.
This most important section must always receive, in
some degree at least, that slower and more earnest effort
of the voice, which is called continued emphasis.
It is upon this part of the sentence, that the countenance and
attitude are most earnest. So likewise, if gestures are made at
EMPHATIC FORCE. 109
all, they will be made as accompaniments to the continued em-
phasis of the voice.
When the style of a passage is in sentences of the
very simplest construction, the emphatic portions will
generally be the whole or a part of each predicate.
EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE.
(Subj.') A great part of the mission of every man on earth,
(Pred.) is to contend with EVIL in some of its FORMS.
(Subj.) The great end of society
(Pred.) is to givefree scope to the exertions of ALL,.
(Subj.) Persecution for opinion
(Pred.) is the BASEST instrument of DESPOTISM.
(Subj.) The capacity for acquiring truth
(Pred.) is one of the NOBLEST attributes of our NATURE.
(Subj.) The eulogium pronounced on the character
of the state of South Carolina,
for her revolutionary and other merits,
(Pred.) meets my hearty CONCURRENCE.
(Subj.) The citizens of America [ERTIES.
(Pred.) celebrate THAT DAY which gave birth to their LIB-
(Subj.) The recollection of this event
replete with consequences so beneficial to mankind,
(Pred.) swells every HEART with joy
and Jills every tongue with praise.
(Subj.) When public bodies
(Pred.) are to be addressed on momentous occasions,
Yet in a well constructed style, it perhaps happens
quite as often that the subject is the emphatic portion of
the sentence. E. g.
10*
110 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
When public bodies
(Fred.) are to be addressed on momentous occasions,
(Subj.) when great interests
(Fred.) are at stake,
(Subj.) and strong passions
(Fred.) excited, &C. &C.
It often happens also, that the subject and predicate
ar^both emphatic. This will be seen in continuing the
last example still farther.
(Subj.) nothing (Fred.) is valuable in speech,
(Contin. Fred.} farther
(Sub -jprAt) *" than it is connected
(Remain. Fred.) with high intellectual and moral endowments.
In most of the following example the emphasis falls
on the subjects.
\
(Subj.) Clearness , force, and earnestness,
(Fred.) are the qualities that produce conviction.
(Subj.) Labor and learning
(Fred.) may toil for it,
(Pred.subj. ispron. they) but they will toil in vain.
(Subj.) Words and phrases
(Fred.) may be marshalled in every way,
(Subj. ispron. they) but they cannot compass it.
(Subj.) Affected passion,
(Subj.) intense expression,
(Subj.) the pomp of declamation,
(Subj. and Fred.) all may aspire after it
(Subj. they) they cannot reach it.
(Subj.) Then patriotism
(Fred.) is eloquent;
EMPHATIC FORCE. Ill
(Subj.) then self-devotion
(Pred.) is eloquent.
\
(Subj.) The dear conception,
outrunning the deductions of logic,
\
(Subj.) the high purpose,
\ >
(Subj.) thejirm resolve,
\
(Subj.) the dauntless spirit,
\
speaking on the tongue,
\
beaming from the eye,
\
informing every feature,
\
and urging the whole man onward,
\ t
right onward to his object
(Subj.) this, THIS
(Pred.) is eloquence.
Further examples of emphatic subject.
(Subj.) Has the stability of the government,
or that of the country,
(Pred.) been weakened ?
\
(Subj.) The ve ry existence of the noftofi i
(Pred.) is endangered.
\
(Subj.) A great and solemn crisis
(Pred.) is evidently approaching.
In the mean time these paroxysms of his
(Pred.) decline ;\ [moral nature,
112 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
\
(Subj.) and a. fearful apathy,
the harbinger of spiritual death,
(Pred.) comes on.
\
(Subj. and Pred.) His resolution fails ;
and his mental energy, and his vigorous en-
\ [terprise ;
and nervous irritation and depression
(Pred.) ensue.
(Subj.) All that was once lovely and of good report
(Pred.) retires.
Sometimes both subject and predicate are equally em-
phatic, and the whole sentence is spoken with continued
emphasis. A long pause however, must generally inter-
vene between the two members.
(Subj.) Our chains (Pred.) are forged.
(Subj.) Their clanking (Pred.) may be heard on the
[plains of Boston.
(Subj.) The war (Pred.) is inevitable ;
(Subj. and Pred.) and LET IT COME ! /
[matter.
(Pred.) It is in vain Sir, (Subj.) to extenuate the
(Subj.) The war (Pred.) is actually begun !
(Subj.) The next gale that sweeps from the north
(Pred.) may bring to our ears
the clash of resounding arms.
Let not the student suppose that he is expected to carry along
in his mind, a grammatical analysis of sentences during the
glowing excitement of eloquent reading or speaking. Far from
it. He is scarcely to think of words, much less of grammar.
For it is with ideas, images and feelings, that he is to be in-
EMPHATIC FORCE. 113
tensely occupied. Still a few such analyses as the above will
be found of great advantage. They divest the subject of much
of the strangeness which it presents in many books of elocution,
and form those appropriate habits by which a reader emphasizes
with instantaneous correctness, the moment his eye glances on
a passage. Unless a person can emphasize at sight, and with-
out the necessity of previously studying a passage, he has little
practical or even useful knowledge either of reading or speaking.
Indeed, emphasis that is the result of ingenious study, is gen-
erally wrong. It corresponds neither with the grammar, the
logic, nor the general scope of the composition. The " new
readings" by which actors so often aim at notoriety, are apt to
be as incorrect as they are far-fetched.
Every reader however, instinctively makes some sort of analy-
sis of passages, as he proceeds, and in the following examples
we shall present one of that extremely simple kind, which cor-
responds with the most common action of a reader's mind. In
the second part of the work, the subject will be resumed.
Without then going into a grammatical, or a logical
analysis, the mind of a reader generally notices that the
most important, and consequently the emphatic portion
of a sentence, is either at the beginning, in the middle,
or at the end. The same habit is followed likewise, in
regard to sections or phrases of a sentence.
We should have preferred to present the following example
in the ordinary form of continuous discourse, but the page
would have become confused. As we give it, each line is not
always a strict rhetorical phrase.
EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE.
Emphasis at be- ( Gentlemen, we are at the point of a century
ginning. j f rom the birth O f Washington ;
Emphasis at bo- ( and what a century
ginning. H has been ,
114
GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
CDuring its course,
Emphasis at end.<| the human mind has seemed to proceed
[with a sort of geometric velocity,
f accomplishing more
I for human intelligence and human freedom,
Emphasis at end J
I than had been done
Ltn Jives or tens of centuries preceding.
fWashington
Emphasis at endJ stands at the commencement
[of a new era,
Unemphatic. $ as well as at the head of a new world.
It is the spirit
Emphasis at be-
ginning.
\
of human freedom,
\
the new elevation of individual man
in his moral, social and political character,
leading the whole long train
of other improvements,
which has most remarkably distinguished
the era of Washington.
!Our existing institutions,
raised on these foundations,
have conferred on us
almost unmixed happiness.
There are two principles, gentlemen,
\
Emphatic clause
in the middle.
Emphatic clause ^
in the middle.
strictly and purely American,
which are now
likely to overrun the civilized world.
r Indeed, they seem
\
the necessary result
of the progress of civilization and knowledge.
We wish to direct the attention of the student to the fact,
that in the latter part of the last example, some of the emphatic
EMPHATIC FORCE. 115
clauses occurring in the middle of a sentence are somewhat
parenthetical in their structure. It is singular that for upwards
of a hundred years it should have been the standing rule in
books, that parentheses or parenthetical clauses universally re-
quire to be read in "a quicker and weaker tone of voice,"
while it is commonly directed likewise to read them on a lower
pitch. So far are these rules from being true universally, that
such clauses are as often emphatic as any others, and as often
require to be read on a higher as on a lower key. Extempora-
neous style and that of conversation, frequently abound in pa-
rentheses, which are delivered with more instead of less ear-
nestness, from the fact that the speaker is afraid of forgetting
the ideas that they present, or puts them in by way of caution
to prevent misapprehension. In written styles likewise, parti-
cipial clauses, coming in parenthetically, contribute to conden-
sation, and are often strongly emphatic.
At the end of the section on Grouping or the Accent
of Construction, we cautioned against injuring the tone
of continuity which is required in a discourse. The
same caution is needed in reference to the above exam-
ples. If it be asked, upon what does the tone of con-
tinuity depend ? we answer, upon that sustained ear-
nestness of tone, at the end of groups, which proceeds
from the suspension of the respiration, and the fixed at-
titude, look, and appeal of the hand, which we have de-
scribed above as accompanying rhetorical pauses.
EMPHATIC FORCE ON SINGLE WORDS.
A strong and exclusive emphasis on a single word, is found
quite difficult in early practice.
The faults which result from not being accustomed to the
strong mental and physical effort required for such emphasis,
116 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
are, first, want of force; and secondly, want of complete and
unreserved earnestness of expression.
1. In order to ensure sufficient force, breath must be
taken the mind must be made ready and then the
emphatic word must be sent forth, with a more fearless
energy than is natural to timid and unpractised speakers.
The force and energy of the voice on an emphatic word,
must be sufficient to produce a strong and frequently a striking
and even startling effect on the auditors.
2. Unpractised speakers often emphasize with suffi-
cient loudness and force, and yet do not seem to be re-
ally in earnest.
To use a familiar expression, they do not appear to be whole-
souled in their earnestness. This fault proceeds from three
causes.
First, the mind, as it were, partly holds back, and
does not completely surrender itself up to the required,
expression.
There should be for the time a total abandonment, and espe-
cially a fearless indifference as to personal peculiarities of man-
ner. These are seldom of serious importance, so long as they
do not hinder the expression of earnestness. Apprehensiveness
and self-criticism will surely prevent perfect heartiness and sin-
cerity of emphatic expression.
Secondly, the more earnest the emphasis, the more
heartily must the breath be sent out.
In the most powerfully emphatic utterance, this is done so
heartily, that the lungs seem at first to be completely emptied.
Such is not however the fact, although the breath does indeed
issue violently during the utterance of the accented syllable of
the emphatic word.
EMPHATIC FORCE. 117
Thirdly, when the emphasis fails of sufficient earnest-
ness, the accompanying stroke of gesture is not general-
ly made with a sufficient degree of muscular energy.
The energy of the arm must be, as it were, spasmodic; while
immediately after the stroke, the muscles of the arm must be
kept tense, and not suffered to relax.
We have dwelt at some length on the general effort required
for emphasis, on account of the importance of the subject. In
nothing are orators of great power distinguished from inferior
and yet equally natural speakers, more than in the boldness,
energy and heartiness of their emphasis. Indeed it is solely
by means of emphasis, that the very highest effects of oratory
are produced.
EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE.
Extract from the supposed speech of John Adams, on the
vote for independence.
/
SINK
\
or SWIM,
/
LIVE
\
or DIE,
/
SURVIVE
\/
or PERISH,
I
\
give my hand and my HEART
to this vote.
\
If we FAIL,
11
118 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
it can be no WORSE for us.
But we shall NOT fail.
\
The CAUSE
/
will raise up ARMIES ;
the cause will create NAVIES.
\
The people,
\
the PEOPLE,
/
if we are true to them,
/
will carry us,
\
and will carry THEMSELVES,
\
GLORIOUSLY through this struggle. \
\
Send this declaration to the public HALLS ;
\
proclaim it THERE ;
/
let THEM hear it,
\
who heard the first roar of the enemy's CANNON ;
/
let THEM see it,
/ /
who saw their brothers and their sons
fall on the Jield of BUNKER HILL,
/ \
and in the streets of LEXINGTON and CONCORD,
\
and the very WALLS
will cry out in its support.
CONTRASTS OP FORCE. 119
CONTRASTS OF FORCE.
In nothing is the progress of those who are learning to speak
more slow, than in acquiring the power of perpetually varying
the force of their delivery. The difficulty is increased by the
unavoidable necessity of confining their practice principally to
extracts, instead of being accustomed to speak discourses which
occupy towards half an hour, at least, in their delivery.
The necessary amount of force and slowness required for
large audiences, is another serious obstacle to giving varied de-
grees of force on different passages. There is no need, how-
ever, of discouragement in reference to this difficulty. Those
who have been thoroughly practised in giving an unreserved
and yet natural and agreeable energy on the most exciting pas-
sages of a long discourse, will in the end find no difficulty in
speaking, when necessary, with moderation and calmness.
The chief reason why unpractised speakers are apt to fail of
occasionally moderating their energy, is that of not having at-
tained complete self-possession. Yet the only effectual mode
of acquiring this indispensable habit of mind, is by being ac-
customed to speak with that force and power which results
from an intentional effort to control an audience. It must be
remembered that although there can be no eloquence without
intense excitement, yet that mere excitement is not of itself
sufficient to produce a good delivery. Excitement without self-
control, is indeed little different from insanity. If the hearers
perceive that a speaker is borne on by the ardor of his feelings
to such an extent that he has no power of checking himself,
they simply commiserate him. Nothing is easier than to be-
come excited in speaking ; but to encourage our own strong
impulses, and then intentionally and with judgment make use
of them for the sake of accomplishing a useful end this is the
very definition of oratory.
For such reasons, a practical delivery can never be learned by
the process of speaking in those circumstances only which are ab-
120
GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
solutely favorable to the speaker such as when he speaks what
is in the highest degree interesting to himself, and has every
assistance that can be afforded by the audience, the time, the
place and the occasion. Practical speaking consequently, as
was stated in the introduction, can only be learned by means
of such task-work as compels the speaker to rely mainly on his
own energies.
It is obvious that no rules can be given as to when
we must moderate our delivery, and likewise that none
are needed.
It will however be useful to furnish a single extract for prac-
tice.
EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE.
fBut youth
Earnest.
\
Significant
yet moder-
ate.
Tone of in-
difference.
Moderation,
approach-
ing to care-
lessness.
\
I is not my only crime.
I 1 have been accused of acting a theatrical part !
A theatrical part
may either imply some peculiarities of gesture,
\
or a dissimulation of my real sentiments,
and the adoption of the opinions and language
\
of another man.
In the Jirst sense,
the charge is too trifling to be confuted;
and deserves only to be mentioned
\
that it may be despised.
I am at liberty like every other man
\
.to use my own language:
CONTRASTS OF FORCE.
121
Sarcasm.
Concession. an( j t nou g n i may, perhaps, have some ambition,
yet to please THIS gentleman,
I shall not lay myself under any restraint,
or very solicitously
/ \
copy his diction or his mien ;
however matured by age
\
or modelled by experience.
If any man
shall, by charging me with theatrical behavior,
imply
\/
that I utter any sentiments but my own,
Bold.
Threatening.
I shall treat him
\
and a villain :
\
as a calumniator
\
nor shall any protection
shelter him from the treatment
\
which he deserves.
/
I shall, on such an occasion,
\
without scruple,
\/
trample upon all those forms /
[selves,
with which wealth and dignity intrench them-
\y
nor shall any thing but age
\
{.restrain my resentment :
11*
Lower key &
less loud,
but sarcas- *
tic.
122 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
r\/
age,
which always brings with it
\
one privilege
\/ \/
t hat of being insolent and supercilious
\
without punishment.
DEEP EARNESTNESS OF TONE.
Familiar earnestness, such as we hear in conversation, tends
to make the voice run on a high key, and with more or less of
loudness or of shrillness. Coarse earnestness causes it to be
noisy, and deficient in suavity of tone.
On the other hand, the earnestness of intense thought and
deep emotion, excites a peculiar effort of the breast, which
causes such emphatic words as are naturally uttered in lower
notes, to be strengthened in their enunciation. It may be given
as a general rule, that deep emotion sinks the key of emphatic
words, while familiar excitement raises it. But when earnest-
ness is expressed on a relatively lower pitch, a vigorous effort must
be made to strengthen the utterance, or it will sound either faint
or dull. There is no danger of undignified loudness when we
exert the utmost energies of the voice on low notes. It is only
by strength on high notes that a noisy loudness is ever produced.
This style of earnestness causes the voice to become
deep, grave, and broad. The expression which it con-
veys is hearty, and seems (as persons say) whole-souled.
Although this tone is most strikingly exhibited on the
lower notes, it will yet be manifest throughout the entire
range of the voice. The higher notes will be less shrill
and familiar.
DEEP EARNESTNESS. 123
Those who are not accustomed to making accurate distinc-
tions in reference to such points, are apt to think the voice
considerably lowered in pitch. Though it does indeed, often
range somewhat lower, yet it appears to many to be more so
than it really is.
It is of great importance to cultivate this quality of delivery,
and the tone may readily be acquired by attending to the phys-
ical effort by which it is produced.
To gain it, we must practice expelling the breath with
the most exhausting heartiness, while we make at the
same time a strong and even convulsive effort at the
very bottom of the breast, and indeed, apparently at the
pit of the stomach.
It is this natural effort which gives rise to various forms of
language, which are used to express earnestness, such as that
of Burke, in a previous extract, " from the bottom of my heart,
I thank you." The very expression " deep emotion," has the
same origin, and we might mention numerous others.
Those who endeavor to become eloquent by mere imitation of
some celebrated model an actor for instance often attempt
to gain this quality by altering their voice in an unnatural man-
ner. Such a process never produces any thing but mouthing.
To succeed in imitating another in this excellence, it is neces-
sary to watch the sort of effort that he makes. Let the same
effort of mind and body be exerted with an extreme degree of
energy, and the voice will be changed from the familiar tone of
conversation to the one under consideration. To avoid mouth-
ing, we must be sure to exert sufficient energy. All mouthing
and affectation imply weakness of feeling and effort.
The term orotund, invented by Dr. Rush, seems to refer to
this quality, when used in connexion with the pure tone.
Though every cultivated voice will exhibit this depth and full-
ness of tone in a considerable degree, and that too, indepen-
124 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
dently of the character of the composition delivered, yet it will be
well to furnish a single extract for practising it, in this part of
the course. No better example indeed, is needed, than the ex-
tract furnished in the second chapter, on p. 53 ; and the earnest
delivery of that passage will have already cultivated the present
quality of voice. The passage which we now furnish is from
the same speech, and is selected with especial reference to the
fact, that its appropriate delivery requires the voice sometimes
to rise very high, as well as to descend very low.
EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE.
(Middle key) But whatever may be our fate,
be assured,
(Higher) be assured,
\
(Lower) that this declaration will stand.
(Low and rising) It may cost treasure,
\
and it may cost blood;
\
but it will stand,
/ \
(Descending) and will richly compensate for both.
(Middle key) Through the thick gloom of the present
\
I see the brightness of the future,
(Rising) as the sun in heaven. \
\
(High and full) We shall make this a glorious,
\
an immortal day.\
(Middle key) When we, are in our graves,
DEEP EARNESTNESS.
125
our children
\
will honor it.
\
They will celebrate it with thanksgiving,
(Rising)
(MiddkJcey)
(Rising)
(High and full)
\
with festivity,
\
with bonfires, and illuminations.
/
On its annual return,
\
they will shed tears,
\
copious,
\
gushing tears,
not of subjection and slavery,
/
not of agony and distress,
\
but of exultation,
\
of gratitude,
\
and of joy.
(Low and strong) Sir, before God,
I believe the hour
\
is come.
(Rising)
(Rising)
(Descending}
My judgment approves this measure,
\
and my whole heart is in it.
\
All that I have,
\
and all that lam,
\ /
and all that /HOPE in this life,
I am now ready here to stake upon it ;
126 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
/ \
(Lowandfutt) and I leave off as I begun,
/ \
that, live or die,
/ /
(Rising) survive or perish,
/
(Middle and loud) I am for the declaration. \
/
(High) It is my living sentiment \
[dying sentiment ;
(Descending} and, by the blessing of God, it shall be my
(Middle) independence NOW ;
(Low and strong) and independence FOREVER.\
WEBSTER.
CONSCIOUSNESS OF BEING EARNEST AND INTERESTING.
This seems the most suitable place for considering the ques-
tion, how a speaker can judge for himself, whether he is suffi-
ciently earnest and expressive.
No one is willing to yield himself to such excitement as will
appear extravagant, and the want of any guide for determining
the degree of danger of being so, is perhaps the most common
cause of dull delivery among those who really wish to speak well.
Men of mature age and talents, and of sufficient experience,
need no information on this point, as they have already learned
to be guided by the manifestations of interest exhibited by an
audience. Students of delivery however, often feel entirely at
a loss to determine how much exertion to make, and how much
excitement to indulge. Such have always appeared to be grati-
fied with information like the following.
First, always make a distinction between practice for
disciplining the voice and gesture, and that for cultiva-
ting propriety of manner.
CONSCIOUSNESS OF EARNESTNESS. 127
The former should be managed exactly like any other
athletic exercise ; its real object being to strengthen the
muscles of voice, respiration and gesture ; and (as a
general rule,) the more heartily and even violently these
are exercised, the greater will be the benefit.
It is important to enter upon such exercises with a willing,
hearty, and cheerful spirit, just as in practising some active
sport. They constitute some of the most useful forms of exer-
cise in reference to health, and there is good reason for thinking
them more directly preventive of the torturing malady, dyspep-
sia, than any other gymnastic resource. A resort to the cele-
brated vocal gymnasium in Philadelphia, conducted by Dr.
Comstock, has been found by comparative trial, much more
beneficial to health, than following the modes of exercise in one
of the common gymnasia in the same city. No modes of exer-
cise quicken the circulation of the blood, and promote a health-
ful flow of spirits, more than vocal gymnastics.
Secondly, when learning to judge of his own expres-
siveness, let the student keep in mind, that his voice
will generally sound more earnest and interesting to him-
self than to his auditors.
This is a demonstrable fact. Upon private enquiry it will be
ascertained, that in most cases, when men of considerable force
of character fail in animation as speakers, they themselves are
afraid of being too much excited, and have hardly a suspicion
that they are not animated enough. Even when candidly in-
formed to the contrary, they find it difficult to believe the fact,
and incline to think that the fault is in the hearers. It is not
often from conceit or vanity that they make this mistake.
They are conscious, and indeed know with certainty, that their
internal feelings have been glowing, and that they have intended
to express them. The error results from the habit of subjec-
128 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
tively watching their own feelings, instead of objectively notic-
ing what is the actual sound of their voices in the room. We
first became acquainted with this fact, in the case of men of
mature age, and not in that of the young and inexperienced.
But when the ear has been well cultivated, and the speaker
can accurately judge of the degree of loudness and distinctness
required in a given situation, many who have a delicate sensi-
bility, still fail of being eloquent from fear of indulging in too
much excitement. This is particularly the case with college
students, inasmuch as severe study is more powerful than all
other influences in superinducing delicacy and modesty of
character. The Scotch call a professor of Latin, a professor of
humanity using this word in its Latin sense as equivalent to
refinement. Bulwer, the novelist, has made an interesting ap-
plication of the same fact, in regard to the influence of studious
habits.
Such being the difficulties in regard to the present subject,
we have found the following additional information of great
service.
A speaker may know when his voice sounds truly
expressive, and when he himself seems to others to be
really in earnest, by the fact of his being conscious of a
convulsive or at least a hearty effort at the bottom of the
breast of a thrill throughout the entire bodily frame
and especially of a sensation of tingling or bunting in
the cheeks.
This sensation in the cheeks will not manifest itself to the
eyes of the spectators. The face will not flush. If any altera-
tion takes place in its color, it will be rather that of a tendency
to paleness. A decided flush would be disagreeable to the spec-
tators, and embarrassing to the speaker. Indeed, a sufficient
reason for even refusing to be eloquent, if flushing efface were
necessary for it, would be, that mere theatrical ranters some-
COMMUNICATING THOUGHT. 129
times practise a trick of sending the blood into their faces, and
thus pretending to be in a " torrent, tempest, and whirlwind of
passion."
In giving the above directions for judging of one's own exhi-
bition of eloquent feeling, we have no reference to tragedy, nor
exclusively to oratory that is highly impassioned. Careful ob-
servation for many years, of audiences as well as speakers, in
court rooms, and popular meetings of various sorts, and the op-
portunity of testing the truth of our conclusions, by prevailing
on young men to try them in the way of experiment, enable us
to say without hesitation, that nothing short of the physical ex-
citement just described, will produce an expression that will
even be called simply animated, and that too, by the most intel-
lectual audiences.
Under the present head we have written strongly in favor of
the healthfulness of vocal gymnastics. This will perhaps seem
strange, in view of the fact that so many, especially clergymen,
lose their health from speaking. Some considerations in ex-
planation of this evil, will be found in the third part of this trea-
tise, under the head of Impassioned Sentiment, while still fur-
ther attention will be bestowed on the same subject, in the sec-
tion in the Appendix, on the Health of Speakers.
TONE OF COMMUNICATING THOUGHT.
Before concluding this chapter, it is necessary to caution the
student in respect to that management of the voice by which all
speaking, whether calm or impassioned, is characterized by
that tone which indicates an especial effort to inculcate or ex-
plain our ideas to others.
The most universal deficiency in the delivery of those who
read or speak what they have previously written, is the absence
of that appearance of a direct dealing with the minds of the au-
dience, which commonly accompanies an extemporaneous ad-
12
130 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
dress. So considerable indeed, is the difference between these
two modes of making addresses, that it is commonly supposed
impossible to give to the former as much freshness of interest as
is expected from the latter.
In opposition however, to this opinion, let it be borne in mind,
that but few speakers have hitherto fairly tried the experiment,
of endeavoring so to manage the delivery of written composition,
that their elocution shall be precisely the same as that of ex-
temporaneous language. If the attempt be faithfully made, it
will certainly be followed by a satisfactory degree of success.
The address may not have an entire appearance of being extem-
poraneous, but if not, the difference will be in the more method-
ical style of the composition, rather than in the elocution.
In managing elocution with reference to this important point,
it will be necessary, indeed, to bring into use all the general
habits of delivery which we have hitherto described, yet even
these may not ensure this result. The primary object of all
language is to express thought. Even in composition, which is
principally addressed to the imagination and feelings such as
the most fanciful or sentimental poetry there must always be
a course of thought running through the whole.
It is the want of the tone of communicating or ex-
plaining thought, then, that constitutes the principal
deficiency when the delivery of compositions formally
prepared, is less interesting than the freshness of extem-
poraneous address.
In the present treatise, reading and recitation being design-
edly omitted, and practical speaking being its exclusive sub-
ject, there will be no liability to error in saying, that a speaker
must always have, as a sort of foundation for his elocution, the
tones of explanation. These may indeed be referred in general
to the doctrines of inflexion and emphasis, but it is found by
experience, that sometimes when such doctrines have been
COMMUNICATING THOUGHT. 131
thoroughly mastered, there still remains a deficiency in respect
to our present subject. A strictly scientific explanation of this
deficiency can be given only by methods similar to those em-
ployed in the great work of Dr. Rush. But as it would be in-
consistent with the character and objects of the present volume,
to enter into such minuteness and intricacy of detail, it is hoped
that, as a substitute for such methods of treating the subject, the
following directions will be found sufficiently available.
As will be again mentioned in the third part of this work, a
tone of strongly marked explanation causes the voice to proceed
with a waving slide on each syllable, or at least on those which
admit of long quantity. The more strongly marked emphases are
also made by decided changes of pitch. The emphatic falling
inflexions are either given with waves of the third, or of a still
greater interval, or with a sudden change in key through the same
distance, while the emphatic rising ones begin below the cur-
rent pitch and slide up. Such descriptions however, will not be
very intelligible, except to the readers of Dr. Rush's work, or
the students of that of Prof. Day, or Dr. Comstock or perhaps
of some others which have lately been published, but have not
yet fallen within our observation and it will be better not to
continue this sort of description further. In general then,
In the tones of explanation, the vanishing terminations
of words and of accented syllables, are significantly pro-
longed. The voice is managed with an especial effort
at significant flexibility, and has a waving or circumflex
tone,
A pointed expression is especially given to the ends
of words, and particularly to the very last syllable that
precedes a rhetorical pause.
As a consequence of these efforts, the articulation be-
comes peculiarly definite, and assists also in the signifi-
cant expression.
132 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
The fixed look of the eye, the sympathizing attitude >,
and the significant presentation of the open palm, like-
wise contribute to the effect. So also do the free and
yet steady stretching forward of the right arm-, and the
significant gesticulations, which, while it is thus ex-
tended, are made by the wrist.
Accompanying these instinctive movements of voice
and gesture, the speaker feels in his mind a certain con-
sciousness of a natural power of holding the attention of
his fellow beings. He leads their understandings along,
step by step and word by word, so as to make it impos-
sible for them not to understand the ideas he presents to
them in the precise way that he wishes.
Especially does he feel confident, that the lively and
yet deliberate flexibility, and significant precision, which
he intentionally gives to his enunciation, cannot fail of
accomplishing the same object.
These efforts are such as we instinctively make in deliberate
conversation, when we make a definite effort to prevent any pos-
sible misapprehension of our meaning. It is therefore extremely
easy to apply them in public speaking. Nothing more is neces-
sary to enable even juvenile speakers to do so, than an intelli-
gent conception of the object to be attained, and a sufficient
degree of steadiness and collectedness of mind. ,
On some occasions in public speaking, it is scarcely possible
to employ them too strongly. On others, grace and propriety
require more or less relaxation in reference to them, lest the de-
livery become too precise and not sufficiently sentimental. But
let it be again enjoined, that no composition that is addressed to
others, either by reading or speaking, should be entirely desti-
tute of the peculiar significance bestowed upon delivery by the
efforts just described.
RHYTHM AND CADENCE. 133
The tones employed for clothing words with emphatic
force and significance, must likewise be expressed with
sharply defined outlines. When the voice skips up or
down, the change must be bold and striking, and the
tone prolonged with such steadiness as prevents all un-
certainty and indefiniteness. Emphatic tones must
have a clear and precise meaning^ which no one can
possibly mistake.
Though instinct and impulse furnish us with the weapons of
oratory, these alone are never sufficient. The higher powers of
the speaker's mind must make an intentional use of them, as
instruments for effect. It is neither blind impulse nor deliber-
ate intention, that singly and by itself will produce a good de-
livery. Much less will artifice or cunning. Nor can hypocrisy
be made successfully effective. For the time at least, a really
good speaker puts forth those efforts which characterize a sin-
cere and earnest man. He may indeed be morally a hypocrite,
but if he is so as a successful orator, he is a profound one. His
hypocrisy is of that deep kind, that in moral actions makes use
of his own good and honest impulses, for a selfish or a wicked
end. The ancients said that an orator must be a good man.
They probably meant that mere art or cunning could never by
imitation of external acts, succeed in employing those weapons
which are furnished only by sincere feeling.
CHAPTER VII.
RHYTHM AND CADENCE.
THE subjects to be considered in this chapter, need to be
studied, not so much with reference to significance, force and
earnestness of delivery, as to ease, beauty and agreeable effect.
12*
134 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
The qualities of delivery which we are now to describe, are in-
deed equally natural with those which we have considered in
previous chapters, and in this respect equally important ; for in
nature, grace and strength, significance and agreeableness, can-
not be wholly separated from each other. Yet in different cir-
cumstances, one set of qualities may be more important than
another, and hence require a more peculiar attention.
The rhythm of prose is easier to practise than to explain ;
and most treatises on elocution wholly omit the consideration
of it. In other works, on the contrary, it has been made the
foundation of all elocution. We shall employ our best efforts
to give an intelligible and useful account of it, so far as this
can be done by pursuing the same plan of treatment as in the
rest of the work. A strictly scientific description can be given
only by means of the notation of music. Even the doctrines
of modern music, however, would not be sufficient to explain
thoroughly the subject of the rhythm of speech. It would be
necessary, in addition, to adopt the distinctions recognized by
the ancients in their metrical systems. They considered the
subject of far greater importance than the moderns, and carried
their investigations of its principles to an extent that the latter
find it difficult not only to adopt, but even to understand. In
fact, much of the knowledge of rhythm which was familiar to
the ancients, has been lost, and is not yet rediscovered.
RHYTHM.
Speech consists of a flowing series of words, express-
ed by successive efforts of the vocal organs. These ef-
forts are of two kinds first, the primary and stronger
ones, which take place upon accented syllables ; and
secondly, the weaker ones upon the unaccented syllables.
There is also a third and intermediate kind of effort, by
which we utter syllables that have what is called secondary ac-
RHYTHM. 135
cents. In practice, however, it is not in most cases necessary
to pay particular attention to these. When suitable exertions
are made on the primary accents, the secondary ones will not
often fail of being correctly given.
It is a law of our mental and physical organization,
that any series of repeated efforts inclines to be made
with uniform regularity. This regularity of succession
is called rhythm.
Its necessary existence in speech, as in other bodily efforts
to say nothing of it as a law of the mind has been strangely
overlooked by a considerable proportion of the writers on phys-
iology, on language, and on elocution. It is interesting to
watch the rhythmical succession of the strokes made by a
blacksmith, carpenter, or other mechanic. The bells on a
horse keep as correct time (i. e. rhythm) as is beat by the con-
ductor of a concert or leader of a choir. If we watch any
muscular labor or exercise whatever, we shall observe that those
who are most skillful and can endure it the longest, are the
most regular and uniform, or in other words, the most rhythmi-
cal in their movements. Stammering consists in a total want
of rhythm in speech, and is cured almost solely by means of
rhythmical exercises. Stammerers find no more difficulty than
others in singing, because music is distinguished by a rhythm
so definite and invariable as to be instantly apprehended, and
at the same time so strongly marked, as to lead the mind on-
wards with uniform regularity.
The rhythm of poetry is the same as that of music,
and is determined by meter. That of prose is perpetu-
ally changing, and proceeds according to no unvarying
law.
The latter differs from the former, in the same way as the
varied motions of running and leaping in some active sport, do
136 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
from the regulated and definite movements of dancing. In ut-
tering prose, the rhythm must be regular for short passages at
a time, but will perpetually vary as the discourse proceeds.
A fluent, easy and varied rhythm is indispensable for
a speaker, in reference to keeping up an animated deliv-
ery, without incurring unreasonable fatigue. If his
rhythm is bad, he must either discontinue his endeavor
to be animated, or speedily become exhausted.
It is of equal importance for the audience. They re-
ceive a greater amount of quiet satisfaction from this,
than from any other quality of good reading or speak-
ing. Nothing else will prevent their becoming weary
and restless under the very excitement of earnest ad-
dress.
Rhythm is measured by time. When it is perfectly regular,
the efforts which produce the accents succeed each other at
equal intervals. In music and dancing, the observance of reg-
ular time is carefully studied ; but it is not generally known,
that if we watch a fluent and graceful extemporaneous speaker,
we can readily beat time to his accents, during the continuance
of short passages unbroken by a pause. It is the frequency
and irregular occurrence of pauses in the delivery of prose, that
prevents its rhythm from being as noticeable as in poetry. In
the latter, however, still greater regularity results from the uni-
form number of syllables.
It is well known that the varieties of style in composition,
differ from each other as much in their harmony, that is, in
their rhythm, as in any other quality, and that this is an impor-
tant subject of attention for those who wish to write well.
Though this quality of style belongs rather to rhetoric than to
elocution, yet as the more rhythmical the style, the easier is the
exhibition of rhythm in delivery, we shall select our examples
RHYTHM OF WORDS. 137
from passages thus distinguished. The finest examples of the
rhythm of our tongue, may be found in our common translation
of the Bible, and in the liturgy of the English Church; but in
a work like the present, it would be scarcely decorous to extract
examples for practice from these sources.
We shall distinguish the rhythm of prose into two kinds
that produced by the succession of the principal accents, and
that resulting from the emphatic words of clauses.
RHYTHM OF WORDS.
It is exceedingly difficult to describe this to the eye. A sys-
tem has indeed been invented for the purpose, which borrows
from music a notation by means of bars and rests ; but students
of elocution find it extremely perplexing, while it is at the same
time of itself very deficient in accuracy. In reference to this
subject, as well as in regard to emphasis and inflexion, we have
concluded to use a notation of a very simple kind, and to aim
at pointing out the variations of the voice to the eye, by merely
a few general indications. The more minute discriminations
must be learned from the vocal illustrations of the teacher, or
be suggested by the natural instincts of the student. The dif-
ficulty of describing prose rhythm is still further increased by
the fact, that while in general secondary accents are to be neg-
lected, yet when words or groups have a considerable number
of syllables, such accents often become nearly of equal impor-
tance with primary ones. In poetry, both are reckoned alike.
In the following short examples, the words will be divided
into the groups formed by the accents. Each group will be
separated from its adjoining ones, although in some cases a sep-
aration will take place between words so connected in gram-
mar, that no absolute pause is strictly admissible between them.
Even in such situations, however, there occurs what may be
called an articulating pause one in which there is a marked
138 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
relaxation of vocal effort, closely approaching to the total ces-
sation that takes place at a true pause.
We must improve the present opportunity to complete our
account designedly left imperfect of the grouping of words.
Every principal accent gives a unity to a group , and a
group can strictly have but one such accent. All groups
are separated from each other by pauses. But these
pauses are of two kinds , grammatical and articulating.
The former have a total cessation of sound. The lat-
ter have a relaxation of sound and a prolongation of
time, which are closely similar in effect.
In reference to these pauses the law of rhythm is,
that all groups are of the same length, during the con-
tinuance of a single phrase of delivery.
For an account of the principle which determines the length
of such phrases, we must still refer to the second part of the
present treatise. We shall presently show likewise that em-
phatic words occupy just twice as much time in utterance as
they would if unemphatic.
For our first extract, in default of examples from the Bible
or Liturgy, the following passage, which is considered one of
the finest in McPherson's Ossian, will perhaps be as useful
as any we can furnish. McPherson's rhythm is in general so
spondaic and monotonous, that it soon palls upon the ear, We
select one of his finest passages, yet, like the rest of the poem,
it exhibits a species of meter.
We shall endeavor to indicate the rhythm by the following
mode of printing. The words will be divided into their groups
of articulation, that is, into such as have but one primary ac-
cent to each. This primary accent will be indicated by print-
ing all the letters of the accented syllable in italics. Secondary
accents will be marked only when they are of importance in
the rhythm ; but if so, will be indicated by printing merely the
RHYTHM OF WORDS.
139
vowel in an italic character. When a word, like ocean, has
only a single vowel for its accented syllable, such vowel will
often be printed with an italic capital, to distinguish it from a
secondary accent.
The whole is to be read smoothly, and with natural emphasis
and inflexion. To prevent confusion, however, no marks of
emphasis or inflexion will be given. It will be well sometimes
to practise beating time to the reading A strictly accurate
notation of any rhythm should indicate all the pauses. As the
result of considerable experience in teaching, we have conclu-
ded to indicate these by the mark (||) which is used for the cae-
sural pause in poetry.
EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE.
Whence are thy beams, \\ O sun !
thy everlasting light 1
Thou comest forth, || in thy awful beauty,
and the stars \\ hide themselves in the sky;
the moon, || cold and pale,
sinks || in the western wave.
But thou thyself \\ movest a/one ;
who || can be a companion || of thy course?
The oaks of the mountains || fall;
the mountains themsete || decay with years;
j the Ocean || shrinks and grows again;
the moon herself \\ is lost in heaven;
but thou || art former the same,
140 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
rejoicing \\ in the brightness of thy course.
When the world \\ is dark with tempests,
when thujider rolls, \\ and lightning flies,
thou lookest, || in thy beauty, \\ from the clouds,
and laughest \\ at the storm.
We next select a passage from Sir Walter Scott, which is a
direct and especial imitation of the glowing rhythm employed by
our translators, in their versions of the poetical parts of the
Bible. Subsequent translators of the sacred volume have been
grievously deficient in respect of an ear for a truly animated
and yet unaffected English rhythm. Though this imitation by
Scott is striking, it is yet inferior to his models. Among mod-
ern writers, perhaps Edmund Burke and Daniel Webster have
the highest merit in respect of rhythm, as well as various other
requisites of rhetorical splendor. The extracts from the speeches
of the latter, that are commonly selected by young men, are
among the finest in respect to rhythm, throughout the whole
range of our literature.
In the following extract we shall mark some of the inflexions
which contribute to the tune of the passage.
FROM A SERMON AFTER A VICTORY.
Your garments || are dyed,
\
but not || with the juice of the wine-press ;
/
your swords \\ are jilted with blood,
\
bin not || with the blood of goafs or of lambs;
the dust of the desert || on whzch ye stand,
RHYTHM OF WORDS.
141
is made fat || with gore,
\
but not || with the blood of few/locks;
for the Lord \\ hath a sacrifice j| in .Bozrah,
and a great slaughter \\ in the land ofldumea.
Heaven \\ has been with you,
and has oroken || the bow of the mighty -,
then, || let every man's heart,
\
be as the heart \\ of the variant Macca&eus;
every man's hand,
\
as the hand of the mighty Sampson ;
\
every man's sword \\ as that of Gideon,
which turned not back H from the slaughter.
\
For the banner || of Reformation
is spread abroad on the mowntains || in its Jirst loveliness,
and theses || of hell
shall not \\ prevail against it.
Having expressed so much admiration of the taste and judg-
ment exhibited by the translators of our English Bible, it seems
incumbent to extract a single passage by way of comparison
not expecting it however, to be used like the others, for purposes
of common drilling and instruction. The following is not se_
lected in consequence of any search in the Scriptures for the
finest passages in respect of rhythm.
13
142 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
FROM THE SONG OF MOSES.
Thy right hand, \\ O Lord,
is became ^forious || in power :\
Thy right hand, \\ O Lord,
hath dash-ed in pieces the enemy. \
And in the greenness H of thine excellency,
thott hast oveithroum jj them that rose t/p against thee : \
thou sentest forth \\ thy wrath,
which consumed them || as stubble.
And with the blast of thy nostrils,
the waters || were g other ed together, \
thejloods || stood upright as a heap,
[sea.
and the depths || were con gealed \\ intheAearf of the
The enemy said,
\ \
I will purswe, || I will overtake,
I will d'u'idc the spoil ;\
my lust shall be satisfied upon them :\
I will draw my sword,
my hand shall destroy them.
/
Thou H didst How with thy wind,
the sea || covered them,
RHYTHM OF EMPHASIS. 143
they sank \\ as lead
in the mighty waters.
Who || ish'ke uutothee \\ O Lord \\ among the gods ? \
Who || ish'ke thee;
glorious || in holiness,
/earful || in praises,
doing wonders ?\
RHYTHM OF EMPHATIC WORDS.
This rhythm is formed by the succession of phrases, each of
which has a unity given to it by a strongly emphatic word. The
principle is precisely the same as that by which an accented
syllable gives unity to a group. As in the rhythm of groups,
the voice proceeds from one accented syllable to another, and
these succeed each other at equal or nearly equal distances in
time, so in the rhythm of phrases, the progress is from one
strong emphasis to another, and with what seems to the ear
like a uniformity of progress.
These facts and principles are substantially the same in elo-
cution as in music. The rhythm of polysyllabic words, and of
groups of shorter ones, corresponds to that of the measures in
music, as marked by their bars ; while the regulated succession
of phrases, each having a single prominent emphasis, is the
same as that of the strains of a tune. It is well known to sci-
entific musicians, that generally each strain of a tune has an em-
phatic portion, which, in the best style of performance, makes
the strongest impression, while the succession of strains is
marked by the emphasis in the middle, as well as by the cadences
at the close of each. The same things are true of meters in
poetry.
144 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
A rhetorical style is as much distinguished by a striking
rhythm of emphasis and phrase, as by any other characteristic.
What is called poetical prose, generally has a rhythm so very
striking and uniform, as to amount to a species of meter, and
on this as well as other accounts, is always considered as not
being in the very best taste. What is called a balanced style,
is one in which the successive phrases are too uniformly of the
same length, while the emphatic words recur too nearly in the
same part of each. As exemplifications of the extreme of a prin-
ciple are most readily understood, we shall first select an ex-
tract from a composition in which the phrases are exactly bal-
anced the general character of the style being also that of
poetical prose. Such passages are favorite ones with juvenile
speakers, and are useful in exciting rhetorical enthusiasm, yet
on the other hand, their too musical rhythm naturally leads to a
tone in reading or speaking.
We ought however to remark, that the extracts which we fur-
nished in the previous section, illustrate in some respect our
present subject, as well as that for which they were selected.
It is impossible to find striking passages of any length, whose
rhythm shall be exclusively that of unemphatic words.
We shall continue the same scheme of notation, but in addi-
tion shall generally mark the most emphatic words by inflex-
ions. We shall also endeavor so to arrange the lines as to show
the parallelism, both of the phrases and of the emphases. To
simplify the notation still farther, we shall not as was done in
the last section separate all the accentual groups from each
other.
FROM "ROLLA TO THE PERUVIANS."
\ /
They || follow an adventurer || whom they fear,
/ \
and obey a power \\ which they hate.
RHYTHM OF EMPHASIS.
145
We || serve a monarch
SL God
whom we love,
\
whom we adore.
Whenever they move in anger,
\
desolation
tracks their progress. \
Wherever they pat/se in amity,
affliction \\ mourns their/Kena'ship. \
Such composition, as will readily be perceived, is in fact met-
rical. It would be a useful exercise for the student to arrange,
in similar modes, the whole speech, which may be found in most
books of extracts for reading and speaking. To make further
extracts in this place, from compositions written in a style so
vicious, would be superfluous.
Let us rather substitute a magnificent passage from Plunket,
which probably approaches as near in its rhythm to the inva-
riableness of poetry, as can be permitted in prose. Plunket was
an Irish orator, and while equal to any of his countrymen in
splendor, was perhaps superior in manliness of taste.
I shall 6ear in my heart,
the consciousness || of having done my duty,\
and in the hour of death,
I shall not || be haunted by the rejection
of having oasely sold,
or meanly a&andoned,
the liberties j| of my native land.\
13*
146 GENERAL H A. B I T S IN DELIVERY.
/
Can every man,
/
who gives his vote, || on the other side,
/
this night,
/
lay his hand \\ upon his heart,
/
and make the same \\ declaration?
\/
I hope so
it will be well \\ for his own peace ;\
/
the indignation || and abAorrence || of his countrymen,
/
will not accompany him || through life,
/
and the cwrses || of his cAtYdren
will not follow him || tohisgrave.\
Our subject being of the highest practical importance, we
shall extract another passage from the same speech of Plunket's,
which will illustrate the compatibility of uniting the most mag-
nificent rhythm, with the most powerful argumentation. We
shall mark a few inflexions, and print some words in capitals to
show their importance in the rhythm as well as the reasoning.
. \
Sir, I THANK H the administration
for Ziitempting \\ this measure. \
They are, || without intending it,
pwtting an end \\ to our dissensions. \
Through this \\ black cloud,
RHYTHM OP EMPHASIS. 147
which they have collected over us,
\
I see || the LIGHT
breaking in \\ upon this unfortunate country. \
They have composed
our dissensions ;\
NOT || by fomenting the embers
/
of a lingering || and subdued \\ rebellion,
/
NOT || byhalfooing the Protestant [| agmnst the Catholic,
/
and the Catholic || against the Protestant,
NOT || by inconsistent appeals
/
to local || or party prejudices,
N'O!
\
but || by the avowal
/ /
of this atrocious conspiracy 1 1 against the /Gerties of Ireland ;
\
they have subdued
every petty \\ and subordinate distinction. \
\
They have um'ted H every rank and description of men,
by the pressure 1 1 of this grand and momentous sw&ject ; \
/
And I tell them, \
[Ireland,
they will see H every Aonest and independent man || in
RALLY il rownd her constitution, \
148 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
and merge \\ every consideration
in his opposition
to this ungenerous || and odious measure.
For my own part,
7 will rests/ it || to the last gasp of my existence,
and with the last drop || of my 6/000* ;\
and when I feel || the hour of my dissolution approaching,
\
J will || like the /other of //annibal,
\
take my children \\ to the a/tar,
\
and swear \\ THEM
to eternal hostility
against the invaders !| of my country 's freedom.
RHYTHM PRODUCED BY QUANTITY.
The italic character which we have hitherto employed to in-
dicate the accents of rhythm, suggests to the mind of the reader,
stress or force rather than prolongation. The examples we
have thus far given, will exhibit fine rhythms, even if quantity
be to some extent neglected. The most natural mode of read-
ing or speaking them, will indeed be characterized by frequent
prolongation, as well as by stress, but it has been deemed ad-
visable to simplify the notation, by omitting all marks of quantity.
In the two passages which we next present, the rhythm de-
pends more on prolongation, than on accentual or emphatic
stress. We shall therefore print them in such a way as particu-
RHYTHM OF QUANTITY
149
larly to attract attention to this prolonged dwelling of the voice
on certain words and groups. The mode which we adopt, is
that of separating the letters of a word, from each other. This
is the German fashion of indicating the importance of words, in
situations in which the English and Americans are accustomed
to substitute italic for roman characters. When a word is em-
phatic by stress alone, without being at the same time strikingly
prolonged, we shall indicate its emphasis by italics or capitals,
as in our other examples.
The rhythm which we are now considering, has not, so far
as we know, been hitherto described, in books of rhetoric and
elocution. Quantity has indeed, been generally recognized as
an important quality of syllables, and the fact that it is most
conspicuous in the utterance of those which are accented and
emphatic, is now universally known. But the fact that not only
the accented syllables of polysyllabic words, but entire emphatic
words and groups, are often extremely prolonged in the time of
their utterance, has not, we believe, been mentioned. If our
memory is inaccurate in this respect, and such prolongation has
been previously described, still its importance and the frequency
of its occurrence in either impressive or graceful delivery, has
certainly not received a due appreciation.
Not only accented and emphatic syllables, but long
words and complete groups and phrases, are often given
with a total change in the rate of utterance. The time
of the tune (to use musical language) is changed at once,
from a quick movement to a slow one.
By resorting to accurate observation and experiment,
it may be demonstrated with absolute certainty, that
these emphatic words, groups, or phrases, are exactly
twice as slow each accentual group occupying two
beats instead of one.
150 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
This change of time is common in impressive sacred music.
We may sometimes observe at the close of an anthem, that for
two or three measures, the time changes to notes of twice the
length. The movement being the same, crotchets are changed
to minims, minims to semibreves, and so with other notes.
The effect of the change is precisely the same in music as in
elocution. The same principle, however, is exemplified in va-
rious other passages of music besides those we have just men-
tioned. Whenever for the sake of emphasis, either in vocal or
instrumental music, a succession of long notes is substituted
for short ones in the same movement, it is for the same reason.
It was not theoretically, or merely in parlor reading, that we
first ascertained the practical importance of this principle. We
have for many years found it extremely difficult to teach com-
plete heartiness of expression on emphatic words and clauses.
No matter how powerful and earnest the example set by the
teacher, the student would often fall short of expressing real
earnestness. Though apparently exerting himself to the ut-
most, his voice yet gave no expression but that of an unmean-
ing force ; or it seemed to fall short of earnestness, from diffi-
dence or want of breath. In reference to such cases we final-
ly ascertained, after resorting to various modes of teaching,
that the information we have just communicated was precisely
that which the student most needed. This knowledge, joined
to the directions in our early chapters for practising a thorough
expulsion of the breath, enables every student of delivery to
give a true emphatic earnestness.
It is philosophically interesting in a high degree, to notice
the operation of this principle in enabling a person to speak
with ease in the style required for the open air. In this situa-
tion, speaking is necessarily so slow, that it is easy to estimate
accurately the time that elapses between the successive accents.
Emphatic words will be noticed as occupying just twice as much
time as others.
RHYTHM OF QUANTITY.
151
The following extract from Burke, is a surprising instance of
the power of language and style, when managed by a man of
genius, in elevating the most unpromising subject into rhetori-
cal dignity and splendor.
NEW ENGLAND WHALE FISHERY.
As to the wealth, || Mr. Speaker, /
[fisheries,
which the colonies || have drawn from the sea, || by their
\
you had all that matter
fu 1 1 y explained || by Dr. F ranklin.
And pray, sir, || what in the world
\
is equal to it ?
P a s s b y || the other parts,
and look at the manner || in which the people of New England
have, of late, || carried on the whale fishery. /
[ice,
Whilst we follow them || among the tumbling mountains of
and behold them || penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses
/
of Hudson's Bay, || and Davis's Straits,
whilst we are looking for them || beneath the Arctic circle,
we hear that they have pierced || into the op posi te region of po-
\ [lar cold ;
that they are at the Antipodes;
and engaged under the Frozen Serpent || oftheSouth.\
Falkland Island,
which seemed too remote \\ and romantic an object
for the grasp || of nationa 1 ambition,
152 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
is but a stage,
and resting place,
in the progress || of their || victorious industry.
Js or is the equinoctial heat
/
more discouraging to them,
than the accumulated winter || of both the poles.
We know || that whilst some of them
draw the line, |j and strike the harpoon,
/
on the c o a s t of Africa,
others
run the longitude,
and pursue their gigantic game
along the coast of Brazil.
\
No sea
/
but what is vexed || by their fisheries,
no climate
that is not witness j| to their toils. \
/
Neither the perseverance || of H o 1 1 a n d ,
nor the activity || of F r a n c e ,
nor the dexterous || and firm sagacity
of English enterprise,
ever carried
this most perilous mode || of hardy industry
to the extent || to which it has been pushed
by this recent peoplej\
RHYTHM OF QUANTITY. 153
a people
who are still, as it were, l| but in the gristle,
and not yet || hardened into the bone
of manhood.
When I contemplate || these things;
when I know || that the colonies, || in general,
/
owe little or nothing || to any care of ours;
/
and that they are not |{ squeezed into this happy form,
/
by the constraints || of a watchful || and suspicious go vern me nt;
but that through a w i s e |j and salutary n eglec t,
\
a gen erous nature
\ /
has been suffered || to take her own way |j to perfection ;
when I reflect || upon these effects,
/
when I see ~~|| how pro fi table they have been to us,
I feel a 1 1 the pride of power || sink,\
/
and all presumption || in the wisdom of human contrivances
melt || and die away within me.\
My rigor || relents. \
I pardon |{ something
to the s p i r i t || of 1 i b e r t y .
Our next extract is likewise from Burke, and is commonly
called his Apostrophe to the Queen of France. We do not,
however, quite perceive the propriety of styling it an apostro-
phe. It may be considered as carrying the peculiar style of
composition in which it is written, to the utmost allowable ex-
treme. We feel bound to apologize for making any rhetorical
14
154 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
criticisms in our work, because we consider it a most injurious
mistake for teachers of elocution to suppose themselves, as some
seem to do, to be really employed in teaching oratory. Unless
elocution is distinctly separated from oratory, no useful attain-
ments will be made in either. Delivery will become bombastic
and ranting, while composition will substitute sound for sense,
and theatrical clap-trap for clear exposition and eloquent appeal.
Still we do not think the time has yet arrived for attempting to
teach all the legitimate resources of powerful and interesting
elocution, exclusively on compositions no more rhetorical than
students will find strictly appropriate in future dealings with their
fellow men. A rhetorical structure of style, for a long time
renders great assistance in awakening the imagination and feel-
ings, during the practice of speaking. This is the only excuse
for tolerating the absurdity of declaiming, instead of reading or
reciting poetry in public. We suggest these hints at present,
but shall remark further on such matters when we come to de-
scribe the lessons and subjects of study for the Junior and Se-
nior classes.
QUEEN ANTOINETTE.
It is now j| sixteen or seventeen years, \
since I saw the Queen of France, \\ then the Dauphiness,
at Versailles ;\
and surely || never lighted on this orb,
which she hardly || seemed to touch,
a more delight f u 1 vision.
I saw her || just above the horizon , \
prorating and cheering || the elevated sphere
she just began to move in;\
glittering || like the morning star;
RHYTHM OP QUANTITY. 155
full || of life
and splendor
and joy.
Oh ! || whatarevolution!\
and what a h ear t || must I have,
to contemplate || without emotion ,
that I) elevation,
and that || fall.\
Little || didl dream, \
that, when she added || titles of vene ration ,
to those of enthusiastic, || distant, l| respectful love,
that she should ever || be obliged to carry
the sharp antidote || against disgrace
concealed || in that bosom;
little || did I dream
that I should have lived || to see such disasters || fallen upon her
in a nation || of gallant men;\
in a nation of men of honor,
and of cavaliers.
I thought || ten thousand swords
must have leaped || from their scabbards,
to avenge || even a look
that threatened her || with insult.
But the age || of chivalry
is gone.
156 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
That of sophisters, \\ economists || and coZculators,
has succeeded,
and the glory of Europe
is extinguished jj forever.
Never, || nevermore
shall we behold
that generous loyalty || to rank and sex,\
that proud || submission, \
that dignified || obedience, \
that subordination || of the heart,
which kept alive |j even in servitude || itself
the spirit || of an exalted freedom.\
The un bought grace )| of life,
the cheap defe nee jj of nations,
[prise,
the nurse || of manly sentiment || and heroic enter-
is gone.
It is gone, || that sensibility || of principle, \
that chastity || of honor, \
/
which felt a stain,
like a wo und ; \
which inspired courage,
whilst it mitigated || ferocity;\
which ennobled
whatever it touched; \
and under which j| vice itself, \
lost half || its e v i 1 ,
by losing all j| its gross ness .
FAMILIAR RHYTHM. 157
FAMILIAR RHYTHM.
We have hitherto furnished such examples only, as exhibit
rhythms of the most striking kinds. Even the dullest ear feels
the charms of such composition. But all prose is clothed with
an agreeable rhythm, when issuihg from the lips of an accom-
plished reader or speaker. It has been said of the celebrated
Lord Mansfield, that his elocution gave even to the driest legal
documents a charm as of poetry or song. Even in unpremed-
itated conversation, those who have agreeable voices often su-
peradd to the other graces of their manner, the fascination of
rhythm ever varying, yet always musical. Strong excitement
of the imagination and feelings, while it makes poets break
into unpremeditated song, exerts a similar influence on men of
every variety of character. Outpourings of love, friendship, or
sympathy, are uttered by all persons alike in rhythmical modu-
lations of voice, as well as in language more or less imaginative
and poetical. Indignation and the harsher or sterner feelings,
have likewise a strong and abrupt rhythm of their own. The
profound emotion and the concentrated meditation of earnest
extemporaneous prayer freeing, as they do, the higher faculties
from the restraining and disturbing influences of egotism*-
have an astonishing effect; prompting even in unlettered minds,
a copious flow of elevated language, poured out in a rhythm
like that of a grand voluntary on an organ.
The perpetually varied rhythm which may be made to con-
stitute the highest charm of familiar delivery, cannot be ade-
quately represented to the eye, unless we resort to the notation
of music; while even this would need to be enriched with q,
still larger number of discriminating marks. Even when illus-
trated by the voice of a captivating speaker, it is not always
fully appreciated by an auditory, until after long cultivation of
the ear. Not only the varying length and slovyness of the
14*
158 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY,
phrases, together with the rhythm of the emphatic words, but
the secondary accents and the separate syllables of words, con-
tribute to the whole effect. As the syllables fall trippingly from
the tongue, each has its place in the tune, like the rapid notes
of spirited instrumental music.
To assist therefore still farther in forming the ear for the mu-
sic of style, we shall extract a passage from a lecture delivered
by Mr. Webster before a Mechanics' Institute. For the pur-
pose of exhibiting the peculiar grace and beauty of the tripping
flow of speech with which such compositions should be read or
spoken, we shall divide the words into their constituent sylla-
bles, and mark the secondary as well as the primary accents.
We have divided the words into the smallest practicable groups,
but in reading each line, care must be exercised that in many
cases, none but articulating pauses are made during the course
of a phrase. The utterance must proceed with a smooth flu-
ency. The most graceful delivery of such passages, is with
such tripping distinctness on the unaccented syllables, that the
reading or speaking will often appear to some as if much more
rapid than it really is.
Ma-cAi-ner-y || is made to per-form
what has /or-mer-ly || been the toil of Au-man hands,
to an ex-tent \\ that as-ton-ish-es the most san-guine,
with a de-gree of pow-er
to which no nuwi-ber of Au-man arms \\ 'is -qual,
and with such pre-cz>-ion || and ex-act-ness,
as al-most to sug-gest
the no-tion || of rea-son and in-teMi-gence,
in the ma-cAines them-selves.
Ev-e-ry nat-u-ral .4-gent
is put un-re-Zeai-ing-lj || to the task.
FAMILIAR RHTfTHM. 159
The winds \\ work,
the w>a-ters || work,
the e-las-to'-ci-ty of met-a\s \\ works;
grav-i-ly \\ is so-Zi-ci-ted in-to a thou-aand new forms ofac-tion;
Ze-vers || are muZ-ti-plied up-on Ze-vers ;
wheels \\ re-volve up-on the per-ipA-er-ies of o*A-er wheels ;
the saw and the plane
are tor-tured || in-to an ac-com-mo-da-tion to new U-sea ;
and last of all \\ with in-iwi-i-ta-ble pow-er,
and with whirl-wind sound,
comes the yo-tent ^3-gen-cy || of steam.
In com-j>ar-i-son with the past,
what cen-tu-ries || of im-prove-ment
has this sin-gle ^-gent
corn-prised \\ in the short corn-pass offif~iy years!
JSp-er-y where || yrac-ti-ca-ble,
et>-er-y where ef^-cient,
[cu-les,
it has an arm \\ a thou-s&nd times strong-er \\ than that of Her-
and to which /m-man in-ge-nw-i-ty
is ca-pa-ble || of ^-ling a ^ou-sand times as ma-ny hands,
as be-Zon^ea* to Bri-a-reus.
Steam \\ \sfound in tri-uw-phant op-er-a-tion || on the seas;
and wn-der the in-flu-ence of its
160 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
the gal-lanl ship
"A.~gainst the wind, [ ^-gainst the tide,
Still stead-ies with an up-right keel."
It is on the riv-ers,
and the boat-man may re-pose on his oars ;
it is in Ai^A-ways,
[ance ;
and be-gins to ex-erf it-sc//" || a-long the cor-ses of land con-vey-
it is at the ooMom of mines,
a fAou-sand feet \\ be-low the earth's sur-face ;
it is in the mill, \\ and in the worfc-shops of the trades.
It row?*, it pumps, it ez-ca-vates, j] it car-ries, it draws, it lifts,
it Aam-mers, it spins, it weaves, it prints.
It seems to say to men,
at Zeoft || to the class of ar-ti-sans,
a Leave off \\ your man-u-al Za-bor,
^ire 0-ver || your &od-i-ly toil;
be-stow but your skill and rea-son
to the di-recf-ing of my pow-eT,
and / l| will bear the toil t
with no 7?iM5-cle || to grow wea-ry,
no nerve \\ to re-lax,
no breast \\ to feel /ai7^-ness."
Before leaving the subject of rhythm, we ought to caution
against supposing that we think prose compositions of the high-
FAMILIAR RHYTHM. 161
est beauty of style must necessarily possess rhythms similar to
those of the extract which we have furnished. So difficult is
it to illustrate this subject by description merely, or even by vo-
cal exemplifications unaccompanied with a minute and tedious
commentary, that we have designedly chosen passages in which
the rhythms are of the kind most readily appreciated by those
who have devoted little or no attention to the beauties of style.
The rhythms of some of our finest writers Southey, Coleridge
and Paley, for instance exhibit less approximation to meter ;
and while for this reason they make less impression on an un-
cultivated ear, they are yet pronounced by the best critics to be
on this very account superior in agreeable effect. We believe
the best judges consider the most difficult attainment in the
management of prose style, to be the exhibition of harmony,
i. e. rhythm, without at the same time repeating any one tune
so often, that the ear gets accustomed to and anticipates it.
It will be noticed that we place rhythm among the General
Habits of Delivery. As the subject is so difficult of explana-
tion, and understood and appreciated by so small a proportion
of teachers and students of elocution, this location may excite
surprise. It may seem like expecting too much from the young-
er students, that they shall acquire habits of varied and agree-
able rhythm during the introductory and elementary part of the
study of practical speaking.
Our readers may smile when they find us again insisting up-
on practice in very large rooms, and in the open air. Yet for
the acquisition of rhythmical habits, as of so many other requi-
sites of an agreeable delivery, practice in such situations is in-
dispensable. When external circumstances interpose no check
to the flow of free and hearty efforts, rhythm is as certain to be
developed, as prolongation of quantity or a full and melodious
voice. It becomes an unfailing accompaniment of natural en-
thusiasm, and of that glow of onward progress in the succes-
sion of ideas, which was called by the ancients the " torrent"
162 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
of delivery. Let a speaker abandon himself unreservedly to
all the influences that produce eloquence, and he will exhibit a
striking rhythm, as certainly as he will display a free and cap-
tivating series of attitudes and gestures.
CADENCE.
This word, (derived from cado, to fall,) means the descent of
the voice which marks the close of a period or paragraph. It is
strictly appropriate only when the close is made by an actual
fall of the voice in pitch. Yet many sentences and many long
periods and paragraphs do not in fact, end on a lower pitch.
It may happen that sentences expressing questions and emo-
tions of admiration, as well as various forms of enthusiasm,
will terminate most naturally on a high key. In such cases
however, the voice is generally softened in loudness during its
rise in pitch ; and there thus occurs a falling off in force, which
still renders the word cadence not inappropriate.
The word cadence is very often used also in another sense,
by writers on criticism, who apply the term to the sort of tune
which is produced either in prose or poetry, by the rhythm of
balanced phrases. This subject we have just considered under
the head of Rhythm of Phrases.
Cadences are among the most striking portions of the tune of
a reader's or a speaker's voice. According as they are harmo-
nious or otherwise, will the delivery produce in the minds of the
hearers, that impression of repose and satisfaction, which is so
essential to agreeable effect.
The elocution of uncultivated speakers, whose voices are in-
flexible and whose minds proceed mechanically in delivery, is
often strikingly faulty in their cadences. Not only do their
periods and paragraphs fail of exhibiting the great variety at the
end of each, which is required by the grammatical and rhetorical
structure, but even the simplest and most common forms of ca-
CADENCE. 163
dence such as all use in ordinary conversation are not al-
ways given in a natural manner. Sometimes the voice pro-
ceeds to the very last syllable in an unvarying monotony. In
other cases it leaves off, at the close of a sentence, with what is
called a tone. Others again, conclude with an awkward fall in
pitch, which produces the effect of a false note in music.
Short and simple sentences, which end with a period and are
unconnected with others, form their cadences on no more than
one or two of the last syllables. There are several variations
however, even in these the simplest forms of cadence ; for a de-
scription of which, those who are curious in regard to such sub-
jects, may refer to the work of Dr. Rush, or that of Prof. Day.
It is inconsistent with the plan of the present treatise, to enter
into details so minute. Yet as some directions are required, the
following are given as having been found most useful.
In the first place, follow no rule whatever, in regard
to ending a short sentence with a cadence. Very fre-
quently, a decided rising inflection is required at a period,
and the sentence is to be read as if it were either incom-
plete, or inseparably connected with what follows.
If rules are constructed for this purpose, (as may readily be
done,) they become so intricate and various as to be worse than
useless. The natural instincts of the mind and voice will infal-
libly direct a reader or speaker aright, precisely as in common
conversation. All that is required is a flexible voice, and the
habit of entering fully into the spirit of a paragraph, so as to ex-
hibit the connexions and relations of thought.
Secondly, when a true and proper cadence is to be
made, suffer the voice to follow its own instincts, and do
not interrupt the flow of delivery, by an awkward pause,
made merely in the way of preparation for a cadence.
This is a very common fault of those who study elocution by
themselves. Every time their eye observes a period in punctu-
164 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
ation, they are apt to stop and deliberately prepare themselves
for a downward drop of the voice. By so doing, instead of se-
curing their object of executing cadences correctly, they merely
substitute an artificial and labored awkwardness, for the natural
yet less disagreeable infelicity of some kind of tone.
Thirdly, all cadences require some degree at least, of
an easy and graceful deliberation.
Let the mind, as it approaches towards the close of a
sentence (at least of one of any length) be kept collected
and composed. Let the rate of utterance generally be-
come a little slower. Then suffer the voice to proceed
steadily, and with the tones suggested by natural in-
stinct.
In speaking, and sometimes in public reading, let the
eye look steadily and calmly at the faces of the hearers.
Then if the mind is composed and collected, the voice
will not fail of being correct.
The question whether gestures are to be made upon ca-
dences, depends on whether they contain strikingly emphatic
words. If they do not, it is generally better to let the arm drop,
before the close, and in place of a gesture, to substitute a col-
lected look, and a sympathizing inflexion of the body.
The above directions apply to the ordinary cadences, that are
of perpetual occurrence, during the progress of continuous dis-
course. It remains to consider the management of the voice
in what is one of the most striking parts of a well constructed
composition, viz. the winding up or winding off, of the course
of thought which runs through an entire discourse, or an im-
portant division. In these places, there are but two general
modes in which the voice proceeds.
Most commonly, there should be exhibited at the end
of a discourse or of a long paragraph, a gradual descent
in pitch, not only during the utterance of several words,
CADENCE. 165
but of several phrases, or even sentences. The ear of
the hearer will thus be warned, that the course of thought
is coming to a close.
Occasionally however, the enthusiastic feeling prompted by
the composition, should cause the voice to rise towards the end.
This rising progress of the voice needs no cultivation. It is less
common, and less important; while at the same time it is at-
tended with no difficulty in execution. We need not illustrate
it even by a single example.
The gradual descent of pitch which marks the winding offof
a course of thought, requires for its successful execution, that
the voice shall have been previously cultivated. If this has not
been done by the habit of actually dealing with audiences, few
will be found successful in this part of delivery, unless after care-
ful training. Uncultivated voices fail in strength and steadiness
on the lower notes, and when earnestness is to be expressed,
generally rise in pitch. The effect is to diminish, or actually
destroy, all grace, dignity and repose, in this part of delivery.
In preparing, then, for the close of a strain of thought,
care must be taken gradually to lower the voice in pitch,
and at the same time to increase the force and energy of
utterance.
Unless the voice be deliberately strengthened as it
descends to its lower notes, the delivery will fail not
only of impressiveness, but of grace and composure.
The lower notes will be feeble and languid, or even
husky and inarticulate.
As we have before remarked, all noisy loudness proceeds from
the union of loud force and high pitch of voice. On the lower
notes, it is absolutely impossible to make a voice sound disa-
greeably loud. The same exertion which produces loud tones
on high notes, makes the lowest ones simply musical. Some
15
166 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
who have voices of a low key, occasionally shrink from the en-
ergy of utterance which we are directing, because it seems to
them to make their voices disagreeably harsh. Such are mis-
taken as to the actual quality of sound that they exhibit. What
appears like harshness, is merely the agreeable roughness which
strong male voices exhibit on the lower notes of the bass. The
quality is the same as that which is so much admired in the
brass instrument of music called the trombone.
In respect to that gradual winding off of delivery, which is
now under consideration, there are still two other points which
require attention.
First, the actual descent of the voice is not from one
word or syllable to another, but by successively lower
keys of pitch at the beginning of each phrase.
The change of key is at the beginning of each phrase. As
the phrase proceeds, the voice may rise again.
Secondly, if the descent is through several phrases, the
downward progress from one to another will not generally
be invariable. One or more phrases will begin on a
much higher key than that which immediately precedes
or follows it.
The final phrase, however, will be lower than any that has
preceded.
All this will be made clear by the mode of printing adopted
in the following examples, which resembles the concluding salu-
tations and subscriptions of a formal epistle. When the suc-
cessive phrases begin on a lower key, they are placed farther to
the right on the page. When, after a fall of key on one or
more preceding phrases, the next begins on a higher key, it
will be brought back farther to the left again. If a phrase af-
ter beginning on a lower key, rises as it proceeds, the rise will
be indicated by placing the words on a higher line.
C A D t ; N C E .
167
EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE.
Sir,
so
neither the human
nor the human ""^standing ,
w jU bear a perversion
monstrous,
and absurd >'
re _ volting
to the soul -
shocking
so
to reason.
And then >
as now,\
may the sun >
in his course,
more/'
more happy,
more
than
our
this,
own,\
country.
WIRT.
WEBSTER.
168 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
And now -
the vortex || roars ;\
and the struggling victim
buffets the fiery wave,
whh feebler stroke,
i warning supplication,
until de- s P air ' X
flashes u Pn hi* soul,
and with an outcry || that pierces the heavens,
he ceases
to strive >
and
disappears.
BEECHER.
CHAPTER VIII.
CIRCUMSTANCES.
THE present chapter will be devoted to those general habits,
by which a speaker, or a public reader, adapts his delivery to the
circumstances of his situation and audience.
It is singular that such subjects should so often have been
omitted in treatises on elocution, inasmuch as it is obvious that
CIRCUMSTANCES. 169
a careful study of them must be fundamentally important in
reference to public efforts. Would it not have been more use-
ful to devote to such topics, the space which so many have occu-
pied in recommending what audiences consider as disagreeable
affectations such as artificial and awkward positions of the feet
pronouncing the adjective pronoun my, like the substantive
pronoun me giving the Irish pronunciation of the letter r and
other peculiarities which a sensible man would dislike to display
in private society '?
It has already been incidentally remarked, that a principal
reason of the imperfect success which has hitherto attended the
efforts of elocutionists to teach a truly useful delivery, is the
habit of giving instruction in small rooms. It ought to be still
further enjoined, that the careful practice of speaking in a small
room, will in the great majority of cases, produce habits abso-
lutely fatal to success in large ones. When a room at least as
large as a church capable of seating six or eight hundred people
cannot be occupied for this purpose, there is no resource except
to resort to the open air. Mere boys may indeed be profitably
taught in a room sufficiently large for an ordinary public school ;
but young men who are preparing to be clergymen, debaters, or
lecturers, must be accustomed to speak in rooms certainly as
large as those which they will occupy in future life. Omitting
for the present all consideration of the necessity of strength of
voice, of slowness combined with conversational inflexion, and
of the expulsive accent required for large audiences, all elevated
delivery, and also all familiar reading or speaking that is ad-
dressed to several hundreds not to speak of thousands of per-
sons, requires what is called in the language of art, BREADTH op
STYLE. Without the more enlarged outlines (so to speak)
which give what artists describe by this term in painting and
sculpture, delivery before large audiences must necessarily ap-
pear petty and meagre, and can have neither dignity nor inter*
15*
170 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
est. In vocal music, the same principle is thoroughly under-
stood and exemplified by all great public performers; while it is
the want of such knowledge that causes amateur singers gener-
ally to fail of success when they appear in public concerts.
Perhaps it is the same reason, which has prevented several suc-
cessful elocutionists from becoming acceptable actors. Without
breadth of manner, no performance in any art will be approved
of by the great mass of mankind. It seems to be superiority
in this respect which causes men destitute of a liberal educa-
tion, so often to succeed better as speakers, than those who
have prepared themselves in the seclusion of a learned retreat.
Their broader and heartier manner, more than compensates for
their frequently inferior refinement and correctness in regard to
minor details. Hitherto indeed, a considerable portion of most
treatises on delivery, has been occupied with subjects of no more
fundamental importance in reference to making a useful im-
pression on an audience, than in a treatise on politeness, would
be the question whether a man should take off his hat, in saluta-
tion, with his right or his left hand. In most cases indeed, the
right hand will be more convenient, but the essential requisites
of a polite salutation depend not at all on which is used.
ADAPTATION OF DELIVERY TO SIZE OF AUDIENCE.
It is an obvious dictate of common sense, that speakers should
wish their audiences to hear them. They are apt, however, to
forget that it is a duty incumbent on themselves, to take pains
that all may do so. As the countenances of those only who
are nearer to them, attract attention and assist by their sympa-
thy, the more distant hearers are often neglected. In the case
of very large audiences, a speaker cannot determine by sight,
whether those most distant are able easily to follow him. His
ear however, should be an infallible guide in determining this
point, and nature provides him the means for deciding it.
SIZE OF AUDIENCE. 171
By reflecting a little, we can recall to mind the fact, that when
we address a person at a considerable distance, (suppose for in-
stance in asking a question,) we not only speak louder, but raise
the pitch of the voice. If the distance is extreme, we use the
highest pilch of which the voice is capable. The sound is
shrill, and the more shrill it is, the farther is it heard.
Hence the appropriate key for large audiences is gov-
erned, in the first place and principally, by the distance of
the most remote portion.
But sound travels rather slowly through the air. It requires
an appreciable period of time, for a syllable to reach the ex-
tremity of the largest audiences. Greater force, must therefore
be given to the impulse, or the sound-waves of the air will die
away before reaching the required distance. Now the greater
the force, the more fatiguing the exertion, and consequently the
slower the repetition of the effort. Hence the more distant the
auditor, the slower is the utterance.
In hallooing to a person at the distance of a quarter of a mile
or more, the utterance becomes a slow and prolonged cry. It
may seem surprising that we speak of making ourselves intelli-
gible for more than a quarter of a mile, but the strongest voices
may be distinctly understood for more than half a. mile. Irving,
in his Astoria, mentions that this fact has been observed among
our western Indians.
In addressing the largest audiences, then, each syllable
is prolonged, and their succession is slow.
A speech that requires an hour for delivery in the open air,
may be deliberately read aloud to a parlor audience in fifteen
minutes. Sermons that require half an hour for delivery from
the pulpit, may be read to a family in half that time.
A natural delivery will therefore require, both a higher
key and a slower utterance, in proportion to the size of
the audience.
172 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
An unnaturally low key as the prevailing pitch, may indeed
be made audible over a large space, by increased exertion, or by
a monotonous drawl, but the effect will be as disagreeable as the
effort is strained and unnatural.
There is an apparent exception to this statement, in that de-
livery which is characterized by great depth of emotion and im-
pressiveness of manner. In such cases, however, it is the great
energy and extreme slowness of the utterance, that compensate
for the absence of a high pitch ; these are never exhibited ex-
cept when the speaker is deeply interested, and makes a strongly
impassioned appeal. If his delivery is simply didactic or famil-
iar, his voice naturally rises.
The question however will occur, how is it that some men
speak with great rapidity, and yet succeed in making themselves
intelligible to large audiences? This is effected principally by
means of that familiar energy which owes its liveliness and spirit
to a very strong accent. Accent in such cases, is given by radi-
cal stress upon all, and especially upon the principal syllables.
This sudden and expulsive effort of the vocal organs gives an
impulse to the sound-waves of the air, which makes them move
more rapidly, and causes the sounds to reach the required dis-
tance in less time. We shall find however, that even such
speakers do not utter as many words in the same period of
time, when addressing large assemblies, as when speaking to
smaller ones. Their delivery, being characterized by more of the
tone of conversation, is in fact less rapid than it appears to be.
The rule, then, for adapting the voice to the size of
an audience, is to trust confidently to the natural instinct
which enables a person to adapt his voice to different
distances in conversation.
If an unpractised speaker fails at any time of being heard,
let him take more pains in his next effort, and afterwards in-
quire of a friend how he has succeeded. After one or two
ECHO OF ROOMS. 173
such inquiries, it will need but little experience to enable him
to place full confidence in his own judgment.
Attitude and Gesture should also be adapted to the
size of the audience. The rules for this are simple.
The farther off the more distant part of the hearers, the
more erect will be the speaker's natural attitude, in or-
der that the countenance and eye may easily address
them. The higher also will the arm be raised, that the
palm of the hand may appeal to them in gesture. When
the audience is small and very near the speaker, his bo-
dy, in earnest address, bends forward at the hips, that he
may look them full in the face, while for a similar rea-
son, the arm in gesture is somewhat lowered. See p. 41.
ADAPTATION TO ECHO OF ROOMS.
It is universally known that some rooms are more favorable
than others for both speaker and hearer.
Any room, however, is better than the open air. The walls
and ceiling even of the worst, assist the speaker by rendering
his voice more musical, and therefore more expressive in its
tone. They produce an effect similar to that of the sounding
board of a piano, not only in this respect, but also in causing
less strength to be required for mere audibility. Even music
will sound tame and spiritless in the open air, unless the instru-
ments are of great power and played with energy. This is one
of the principal reasons why military bands at the present day
make almost exclusive use of brass instruments.
A well constructed room assists the voice by its reverberation,
and an artist in delivery may be considered as one who makes
joint use of two instruments for operating on his audience, viz.
his voice and an echoing room. Such a room gives a reverbe-
ration strong and distinct, but not so rapid as to make one echo
mingle with another, and thus produce a confusion of sounds.
174 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
Rooms which are difficult or disagreeable to speak in, are of
two kinds.
1st. The reverberation may be too feeble. In this case the
voice sounds more or less as in the open air. It seems dead
and inexpressive, and the speaker is apt instinctively to exert
himself more than is necessary, even when he is only aiming
to be distinctly and easily heard. Clergymen for this reason
complain of such rooms, that they are hard and fatiguing to
speak in, and say they find it difficult to fill them. If the room
be small, this complaint proceeds from a mistake made by the
speaker's ear he being accustomed to hear a reverberation,
by which he is guided in judging whether his voice is audible.
But if large, he is really required to fatigue himself by great
exertions, to attain his object.
In such a case, if the speaker wishes his voice to sound ex~
pressive and interesting, it is absolutely necessary that he use
far greater stress of voice and enunciation, than in a room of
the same size, which has a stronger reverberation. He must
be guided by the actual sound of his voice in the room, and if
speaking in one very unfavorable, sometimes needs to make ex-
hausting efforts to produce a satisfactory effect.
On the other hand, the echo in some rooms is rapid and mul-
tiplying. Being several times repeated, great confusion of
sounds results. Not only are there several reverberations of a
single syllable, or of a note in music, but each is so quick, that
one does not die away before the next syllable or note succeeds,
causing both sounds to be mingled together. Such rooms
make a speaker appear to have a very indistinct articulation,
and when so situated, he must proceed with a careful slowness,
and a studied regularity of rhythm. By adapting his voice ac-
curately in these respects, his articulation will sound distinct
and clear, instead of confused and obscure. He must also
guard against being too loud. Too great strength of voice will
produce a reverberation too powerful.
ECHO OF ROOMS. 175
Tt is by means of the echo, that a practised speaker knows
when his voice tills the room. Many persons, who think they
have been speaking with great loudness, are surprised when
told that they were not readily heard. This mistake proceeds
from their attention having been occupied by the physical ex-
ertion they were making in the throat, instead of listening to
the sound of their voices in the room, and the consequent re-
verberation. This habit of doing nothing more than watch
one's own internal efforts, is fatal to success, and indeed to mere
ease of speaking.
In strong delivery there is, likewise, a ringing or crash of
the speaker's voice about his own ears, which in fact proceeds
from a vibration of the bones in his head, and which is rather
disagreeable if he suffers his attention to be occupied with it.
This also causes some to mistake as to the degree of loudness
which they actually employ. Let the speaker turn his atten-
tion wholly away from such bodily sensations, and listen, as it
were, to his voice after it has issued from him, observing how
it sounds in the distance. By attending to this point, he will
soon learn to judge how it actually sounds to others, and espe-
cially to those at some distance from him. If he adapts his
voice well to a room that is large yet favorable, it is pleasanter
for an auditor to be at some distance from him ; and the com-
mon habit of preferring the nearest seats, is owing to the pre-
vailing carelessness of speakers in regulating their voices.
Young men when practising elocution, often complain of the
disagreeable sound of their voices in an empty room. Perhaps
some of their companions may be present, and declare their
speaking not to be loud enough, while on the other hand, they
either assert that their voices sound too loud to themselves, or
complain of the echo. The above considerations explain both
these mistakes. When the voice is accurately adapted to a
room, there will be no confusion of echo, even if the loudness
is absurdly great. The presence or absence of an audience,
176 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
makes no difference in this respect. The only difference re-
sulting from the presence of numerous auditors, is that the re-
verberation is less strong, and that generally there is more or
less of a rustling noise from an assembly both which circum-
stances deaden the sound of the speaker's voice, and make the
reverberation less perceptible. The greatest difficulty that
speakers have to encounter from an audience, results from the
carelessness of those who enter the room with a loud tread.
The strength of even the weakest human voices, is greater
than seems to be generally known. It was necessary for a
Greek actor to be able to make himself distinctly audible to thir-
ty thousand people, and that too in a theatre without a roof.
We have never met with a voice, where there has been no dis-
ease of the throat or lungs, which was not capable, after a little
cultivation, of filling the largest audience rooms, and that too
without a disagreeable effort.
ADAPTATION TO RESTLESS AUDIENCES,
The most common difficulty in this respect, proceeds from
the entrance of a number of persons after the speaker has com-
menced his address. The only remedy is to employ such a de-
gree of deliberate force and distinctness, as shall reach to the
very extremity of the room, and immediately attract the atten-
tion of those who are just entering.
When an audience is noisy from restlessness or inattention,
the chief means for stilling it will be, to alternate passages of
force, power and energy of delivery, with those of low, distinct
and impressive tones. In such a situation, the most important
quality for a speaker is steadiness and deliberate self-possession.
If he exhibits a sort of nervous excitement, the audience will
grow more noisy from sympathy. A marked and pointed style
of address, likewise, and especially a striking emphasis, are of-
ten necessary. At the same time, a forcible and very distinct
articulation should be invariably used in such circumstances.
SELF POSSESSION. 177
A speaker ought always to consider his delivery in fault, if
his audience are not still and attentive, no matter how uninter-
esting to them may be his ideas or language.
The nervous systems both of men and brute animals, are
constructed with an express adaptation to the influences of the
human voice. The striking force and earnestness which we
instinctively employ to command animals, children and servants,
and which in a less degree we use in conversation, when we
are determined to be attended to, are familiar instances.
Skillful speakers feel conscious of the same power over audien-
ces, whatever style of address be most appropriate for the sub-
ject and occasion.
CHAPTER IX.
SELF MANAGEMENT.
THE subjects to be considered in the present chapter, must
be ranked among the General Habits of Delivery, yet cannot
conveniently be classed with any of the previous topics. With
a partial exception in reference to the Melody of Speech, they
depend not so much on natural and uncultivated instincts of
utterance, as on that self consciousness and power of intention-
ally regulating and directing our natural impulses, which is the
most distinguishing characteristic of cultivated and disciplined
minds. The topics of the chapter are self control and stead-
iness in speaking ; the manner of beginning an address ; the
manner of concluding ; and what is called by Dr. Rush, the
melody of speech.
SELF POSSESSION.
Self control in speaking ought not to be considered as exclu-
sively dependent on natural organization and turn of charac-
16
178 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
ter. Those who are constitutionally bold on ordinary occasions,
are often most liable to embarrassment and confusion in public
speaking; while retiring and diffident, but thoughtful minds,
are more frequently prompted to enthusiasm by the presence of
an audience. The self possession of a speaker is, in fact, pro-
portioned to the inward activity of his mind. Those who are
habitually the sport of external impulses, have nothing to steady
them when these are new and embarrassing ; but the more re-
flecting and meditative, become outwardly calm by means of in-
tense mental activity within.
Though practical delivery requires a sympathy with the audi-
ence, yet this is but a secondary rather than a primary object
of attention. Even merely ad captandum speaking is no ex-
ception. True enthusiasm either of thought or imagination,
is self excited and self encouraged. Without such indepen-
dence of external impulses, there cannot indeed be any de-
livery that shall be either worthy of applause, or of sufficient
interest even to excite disapprobation. Though actors are sup-
posed (probably falsely) to be more dependent on approbation
than speakers, yet even their principal reliance is on genial im-
pulses and inward consciousness of power.
But the very practice of speaking cultivates habits of self
possession. Improvement in this requisite, keeps pace uni-
formly with progress in all the other qualities of a good delivery.
Not only the mental but the bodily habits acquired, contribute
to this desirable result.
No separate lessons or rules are needed, for attaining
self possession, farther than the general direction to prac-
tise intense thought, and give free play to the imagina-
tion and feelings.
If the constitutionally nervous still wish for further
directions, let them, when in danger of becoming con-
fused, always resort to deliberate force and energy.
MODE OF BEGINNING. 179
Though direct acts of self command may not be in
their power, yet they will experience no difficulty in
making strong and energetic efforts, a short perseverance
in which will soon bring their faculties under their own
control.
When lawyers are hindered by embarrassing interruptions,
they commonly resort to loud tones or strong declamation.
From the instinctive effort which they thus make to free them-
selves from embarrassment, and facilitate their onward progress,
we may derive a useful hint for students of elocution.
At the close of the volume, additional suggestions will be of-
fered, under the head of Extemporaneous Speaking.
MANNER OF BEGINNING AN ADDRESS.
This part of delivery often occasions needless apprehensions.
Practical extemporaneous speakers also, when beginning to
speak, sometimes exhibit either an apparently affected slowness
and hesitancy, or an obscure mumbling, which seems equally
unnecessary. Many of them indulge themselves, when first
commencing, in awkward and lounging attitudes, and various
little acts which serve the purpose of occupying time until their
voices have grown clear and their articulation firm.
There is no actual necessity, however, for exhibiting impro-
prieties of delivery at the beginning, more than during any sub-
sequent part of a discourse. The very first word that is spo-
ken, ought to be accurately adapted to the room, in reference
to the necessary degree of audibility, distinct articulation, and
an appropriate style of address.
It is a mistake to suppose, that the commencement of an ad-
dress must in all cases be with a subdued loudness. Though
this is generally required, yet if the sentiments and language
in the first part of the address be bold and abrupt, the delivery
ought to correspond. It is also a very prevalent fault, even
180 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
among able speakers, to waste unnecessary time in exordiums,
which are made more for their own gratification, than that of
the hearers.
As however in most cases the tone with which a good speak-
er begins, should be different for a short time, some directions
may be useful in reference to acquiring suitable habits.
All that is really necessary for this purpose, is to cul-
tivate the habit of withdrawing the mind in some de-
gree from the audience, when beginning to speak, and
concentrating it on the train of thought that the speak-
er intends to follow.
This act puts the mind more or less into a musing
state a state which produces a tone of thoughtfulness.
The tone thus will be less loud and exciting than that
which will soon follow.
As the mind is occupied (at least in part) with the
train of thought, rather than merely with the few first
words of the address, the voice exhibits a tone of prepa-
ration, which is in fact the only essential requisite for
this part of delivery.
It is not difficult to analyze this preparatory tone, and show
what modifications of voice unite to produce it. It will how-
ever be more useful for the student, to secure the habit of ex-
hibiting it, by practising the mental acts from which it proceeds,
than to endeavor to master such subtle distinctions, by efforts
that are merely vocal.
Still farther, while actually uttering the first two or
three words, the mind of the speaker should be as it
were scarcely conscious of them, but on the contrary,
should look forward to words of more force and empha-
sis, which are soon to succeed.
MODE OF CONCLUDING. 181
Such more important words may occur very soon, or not till
after several phrases or even sentences.
For unpractised speakers, the more abrupt the commence-
ment, and the sooner an emphatic word occurs, the easier, in
the first part of a discourse, is the speaking.
Though by following the above directions, the speaker will
exhibit an appropriate moderation, thoughtfulness and tone of
preparation, yet care must be taken that the voice be not ab-
stract and inexpressive.
The tone of address should be decidedly manifest,
while the delivery, as just stated, must be accurately
adapted to the size of the audience.
At the commencement of an address, it is improper to ex-
tend the arm in gesture at the moment of uttering the very first
words. Yet if this be done, it is rather a violation of English
and American custom, than a fault in natural action. A more
appropriate habit, however, for students of elocution, is to sub-
stitute graceful inflexions of the body in place of gestures with
the hand.
One more caution. Let the student be careful not to begin
in a hurried manner. If a bow precedes, let it be, as already
directed, deliberate, and not succeeded by the voice until after
a slight pause. As extreme nervousness is apt to produce a
confused haste, such as are subject to it will do well to endeav-
or to occupy as much time as possible, while speaking the in-
troductory portion of a discourse.
MANNER OF CONCLUDING AN ADDRESS.
This subject has been in part anticipated by our remarks and
examples under the head of cadence.
To be able to wind off gradually and with grace or impres-
siveness, requires that the voice shall have been practised in de-
scending with steady firmness from its middle to its lowest notes,
16*
18*2 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
and that habits of self control and collectedness of mind in
speaking, shall have become thoroughly established.
As there is a tone of preparation for subsequent force
and power, which characterizes an appropriate mode of
beginning, so there is a marked modification of manner
which warns the hearers that the speaker is drawing to
a close.
The mental act from which it results, is that of look-
ing forwards, and accurately calculating one's approxi-
mation to the actual close, while at the same time there
is a sense of the propriety of giving a corresponding
warning to the hearers.
It is not advisable to enter into a complete and scientific anal-
ysis of all the modifications of the voice which result. The
most important to be known are the following.
The rate of utterance is more slow. The syllables
are more prolonged. The voice descends by successive
stages from phrase to phrase. The phrases also become
shorter, and are separated by longer pauses.
Though just before the end, there generally oc-
curs a phrase on which the voice must suddenly rise
again, yet the rise will not be so high as it would be if a
new paragraph were to be introduced. After such a rise,
the final sentence or phrase is very low lower than that
which immediately preceded the higher phrase.
The delivery is generally less pointed and explanatory,
and inclines more to the meditative mood. As the voice
descends lower and lower in pitch, its tone must be
made firm and strong, or the delivery will become faint
and inefficient.
The worst fault that can be exhibited in concluding an ad-
dress, is that of suffering the voice, after the tone of winding
DIATONIC MELODY. 183
off has been entered upon, to rise too high in pitch, and at the
same time proceed in that more lively and familiar manner,
which causes the hearers to suppose that the speaker is not in
fact near the close, but is proceeding to add still further re-
marks. This disappointment is extremely disagreeable, and if,
as is sometimes done, the fault is repeated two or three times,
the hearers may lose patience, and cease to give further atten-
tion. In very many instances, when a discourse is complained
of for being too long, the complaint originates, not in the actu-
al length, but in this repeated expectation of a close, and sub-
sequent disappointment.
THE DIATONIC MELODY OP SPEECH.
This was first described by Dr. Rush, to whose work, or to
the briefer treatise of Prof. Day, we must refer for a full and sci-
entific account of it. With respect however, to the examples
given in the latter work, in illustration of different varieties of
melody, those who consult it must bear in mind, that its author
has intentionally avoided deciding positively, as to the strict ap-
propriateness of one melody rather than another, for various
passages in respect to which there may exist differences of taste.
A general description of the diatonic melody may be
given as follows. Take any one phrase, clause or sen-
tence, in which there occurs no sudden change of the
course of thought or expression, and the voice either
continues on the same line of pitch, or rises and falls
gradually and by very small distances between succes-
sive syllables.
A sudden and wide transition of pitch is made only
when it is necessary to give a marked and distinctive
emphasis, or a sudden change of expression.
184 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
If a course of thought flows evenly along, with fullness of lan-
guage, and in a style destitute of striking and pointedly emphatic
words, an agreeable delivery will run in the diatonic melody.
In such a case, to make wide changes of pitch on words which
require no emphatic inflexion, will have the effect of introducing
an emphasis or a change of expression where none is wanted.
Hence no direction is required for enabling a reader or
speaker to exhibit this natural quality of speech, farther than
never to make a sudden change of pitch on a word, unless for
some definite reason in reference to emphasis or expression on
that particular word. As this melody is one of the natural habits
of the voice, it ought to be exhibited independently of study and
practice particularly directed to its acquisition.
Yet its description has justly been considered one of the most
valuable of the contributions made by Dr. Rush to elocution.
Before the publication of his work, it was very common to ob-
serve that those who took especial pains to read with an agree-
able animation, were in the habit of arbitrarily skipping up and
down in pitch, without reference to appropriate emphasis, and
thus not only injuring materially the grace and dignity of their
reading, but obscuring the sense and natural expression of the
language.
Some writers seem to suppose that this plain melody is not
heard in lively and familiar conversation. We think their opin-
ion unfounded. The error results from not distinguishing the
unemphatic from the emphatic portions of sentences uttered in
such conversation. The more frequent and striking the em-
phatic changes of pitch, the more indeed is the plain diatonic
melody broken in upon, yet still all but a few of the syllables
proceed as above described. There is indeed, a certain vul-
gar liveliness of manner sometimes heard in conversation, which
constitutes a true exception to the general fact which we assert.
This is not however exhibited by those who converse in an
agreeable style.
DIATONIC MELODY. 185
An instance occasionally, though rarely occurs, in which it is
the natural tendency of a person's voice to proceed in a melody
of wider intervals, and thus have a tone of banter or mockery,
even on the most serious occasions. A speaker who is so un-
fortunate as to have a voice of this sort, is liable to appear
strangely undignified and incapable of serious earnestness.
The tone of the Irish peasantry, which seems to us in this coun-
try so unnatural, and to have an expression of so much confus-
edriess of feeling, is owing to the fact that it runs in a melody of
thirds instead of seconds, and exhibits the vanishing instead of
the radical stress. We have no provincial tones in the United
States as strongly marked as those of Great Britain and Ireland,
in which countries they are often characterized by oddity of
melody.
Those who wish to study the voice in a strictly scientific man-
ner, must acquire a knowledge of music sufficient to enable
them to investigate the diatonic melody in its theory and accu-
rate analysis. For the purposes of the present treatise, it will
be most useful, simply to mention that a liability to violate its
principles in practical reading and speaking, will certainly be
prevented by the course of lessons which we have prescribed.
When the speaker has been sufficiently accustomed
to hearty and sincere efforts in the open air, and in large
rooms, his voice habitually proceeds in this melody, in
precisely the same degree as it becomes capable of ex-
pulsive energy, slowness, prolongation, a grave, full tone,
and a bold and commanding emphasis and expression.
By the same practice also, the odd voices which we have just
described, lose their unfortunate peculiarity, and become digni-
fied and graceful.
Before dismissing this subject, it should be stated that there
are two important exceptions to the universality of the diatonic
melody in natural speech. First, interrogative and conditional
186 GENERAL HABITS IN DELIVERY.
sentences, as will be explained in part second of this treatise,
run in a melody of thirds or fifths. Secondly, the tones of
irony, sarcasm, sneering, mockery, and other such expressions,
are always in a melody strongly marked by wide intervals. In
this we see the explanation of the peculiar impression made by
the above mentioned odd voices. Let the student try the utter-
ing of sentences with either of these expressions, and he will be
able to distinguish that his voice skips by wide intervals up and
down in pitch, and proceeds, as it were in waving, curling and
twisting tones. The general run indeed, (to use technical lan-
guage,) is in waves of thirds and fifths.
187
PART II.
EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
GREAT injustice would be done to elocution, if its principles
should not be more fully explained than has been done in the
preceding part of this treatise. All may indeed become prac-
tical speakers, by means of the explanation there given of the
general facts in regard to the natural action of the mind and
body in public delivery, but cultivated minds can never rest sat-
isfied, without a knowledge of a set of principles founded more
on laws of thought and language.
We must endeavor to furnish at least an outline of the physi-
ology of speech, in reference to the principles by which words
are united into groups and phrases, and receive different inflex-
ions and varying degrees of force, for the purpose of exhibiting
the exact meaning of sentences.
It is obvious that Articulation and Pronunciation, ought not
to be classed with these topics. They concern words taken
singly, and are not affected by the various relations of sentences,
or parts of sentences, to each other.
The Grouping of Words, we have indeed partially described,
as a physiological law producing one of the general habits of
all utterance, but have reserved its more scientific and accurate
description for this part of our volume. There will be no prac-
tical inconvenience however, from the slight repetition which
thus becomes unavoidable.
Emphasis has been considered merely in reference to the
general mental and physical exertion by which it is effected. It
remains to point out the principal relations of thought which
make it necessary.
188 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
Rhythm is one of those general habits of utterance which
are entirely independent of the meaning of the language; it
has therefore been appropriately placed in the preceding part.
Yet as it varies somewhat, according to the peculiar sentiment
and expression of what is read or spoken, some further notice
will be taken of it in part third.
Cadences, which have been already treated of, have a few
variations, which produce a greater or less completeness of
separation between the end of one sentence and the beginning
of the next, and accordingly will receive some further consider-
ation in respect to this point, under the head of Inflexion.
The topics, then, which properly belong to this part of our
treatise, are
1st. Grouping, which is of two kinds; one, that of single
words into Groups of Words; the other, that of Groups of
Words into Phrases of Utterance.
2. Inflexions.
3. Emphasis.
4. Transition between paragraphs.
But before proceeding to treat specifically of these subjects, it
is necessary to premise some observations on the connexion be-
tween elocution, and the established sciences of grammar and
rhetoric, as well as the laws of reasoning.
The laws which it is now our province to investigate, are
like those in the first part of our treatise, physiological; and
though they have a general connection with those of grammar,
rhetoric and logic, they cannot entirely coincide with them.
Unless the reader or speaker is actuated, either consciously or un-
consciously, by a part at least of the laws of these three sciences,
there can be no delivery that is any thing more than a mere un-
meaning articulation of words. Yet though these sciences treat
of the relations of language and of thought, neither of them makes
any provision for the pauses, and the various modulations of
voice, by which the distinctions which they recognize are to be
EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. 189
exhibited to the ear. When we examine a written or printed
sentence by the eye, in reference to its grammatical or rhet-
orical structure, and to the logical relations of its ideas, we
mentally place words in juxtaposition, which are separated from
each other by intervening ones. In doing this, we are guided
by principles of language and reasoning, and are assisted also
by marks of punctuation. So likewise, if we listen to the same
composition, delivered with an unvarying drawl, like that of a
street crier, we are not able to understand its meaning, except
by the same process carried on in our minds as we listen. But
if the tones of the delivery are those of free and animated con-
versation, nature has provided modifications of the voice, which
explain to the listener, with infallible certainty, all the grammat-
ical, rhetorical and logical distinctions which he must himself
make, when he endeavors to understand the meaning of sen-
tences, either in silent reading, or while listening to a senseless
style of utterance. The description of these provisions of na-
ture, is the province of elocution.
Every scientific explanatory distinction, is not however neces-
sary for intelligibility in ordinary circumstances ; and though
we believe it will be found, on thorough investigation, that they
are all provided for in the laws of utterance, yet the mind re-
lieves both itself and the body of unnecessary labor, by employ-
ing no more resources of the voice than are necessary and con-
venient in particular circumstances. The same abridgment
and carelessness are tolerated in regard to language. No good
style employs every word that is grammatically and logically
admissible in reference to the ideas and feelings which the
writer intends to convey.
Accordingly it is not our plan to exhaust the subject of the
variations of the voice by enumerating and describing them all.
On the contrary, we shall endeavor to confine ourselves within
the limits of practical utility. At the same time, while we shall
aim to consider elocution in its natural connection with establish-
17
190 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
ed sciences, especially that of grammar, let not the student appre-
hend that it will thus be rendered more abstruse and difficult.
Instead of becoming more difficult, it will be rendered easier.
The grammatical principles which habitually guide our
minds in correct reading or speaking, are likewise our instinc-
tive guides in conversation. They are natural laws of mental
action, which prompt the utterance of the child and the man,
the educated and the illiterate. So far as the mind is concern-
ed, the very act of reading or speaking consists, as has been
mentioned in the preface, in transferring to itself written or
printed words, or those which have been laboriously selected for
extemporaneous delivery, in the condition of ideas not completely
clothed in language, so that their utterance shall spring from
those natural impulses by which we express ideas in articulate
words and inseparably associated tones. In fewer words, the
mind is to be brought into the same situation, so far as the re-
lations of thought are concerned, as that of conversation. If,
however, the style of a composition is more complicated and
intricate than that which the reader or speaker would himself
employ, the difficulties of delivery are really those of readily
apprehending the grammar, rhetoric and logic, of all but the
simplest passages. A teacher of reading in a school, is in fact
occupied principally in familiarizing immature and feeble minds,
with such uncommon and difficult forms of construction, as are
employed by none but men of superior depth and range of mind,
and which are never heard in the domestic circle. This is in-
deed the most important of the benefits which result from this
branch of instruction in schools. By means of it, that cultiva-
tion of mind is attained, which qualifies for understanding and
appreciating the most elevated compositions, and which can oth-
erwise be acquired, only by a laborious study of language, or by
a long and varied course of reading.
The writer requests permission to insert an account of the
following experiment. Believing that the minds even of young
EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT. 191
children, may readily be taught to apprehend the most unac-
customed forms of construction, if familiarized with them
through the medium of their appropriate tones of utterance, he
took a class of about twelve little boys in a common school, whose
average age was not far from ten years, and drilled them for some
time, in reading the whole of the epistles to the Ephesians and
Philippians ; books which are more difficult of comprehension, so
far as their style is concerned, than any others of the sacred vol-
ume. He then requested a scholar distinguished for the ability
with which he had commented on a volume of Greek literature, to
hear the boys read. The gentleman was deeply interested, and
himself entered upon a similar course of mental discipline. When
listening to these children, it was easy to perceive the reasons of
the occasional mistakes which they made. Such errors gener-
ally resulted from connected ideas being separated by interven-
ing passages of such length, that the mind of the child forgot
what at so considerable a distance had preceded, and read ideas
as separate, which required to be joined together. Many of the
examples which we shall insert in this part of the present vol-
ume, are passages written in periods of extreme length, and re-
quire some degree of mental cultivation for their successful
management in delivery. This cultivation in reference to ap-
prehending the meaning and force of difficult passages, can be
infallibly acquired, by no other means than the study of lan-
guage in some one of the customary modes. Although children
must be taught by mere example and through the medium of
sympathy with the mind of the teacher, yet a work for acade-
mies and colleges ought to proceed on higher grounds. We
shall therefore lay down no principle founded on the mere taste
and judgment of an elocutionist, but shall state all the laws of
reading in coincidence with knowledge derived from established
branches of study. This plan will, as we have just said, be
found as much more easy and agreeable, as it is more philo-
sophical, and in accordance with regular scholarship.
192 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
CHAPTER I.
GROUPS AND PHRASES.
IN this chapter we shall present a general account of the
principles upon which sentences are divided, in reading, into
portions which are separated by pauses. The principles of
pauses for the exposition of thought, are evidently the same as
those for dividing sentences into groups and phrases. It will
be necessary likewise, to make some remarks upon punctuation.
The common directions in books of elocution, for subdivi-
ding sentences by pauses, are so loose, and yet so difficult of
ready application, that teachers, we believe, generally recom-
mend their pupils to guide themselves solely by the instincts of
the ear. Yet as even young children find it natural and easy
to read sentences in small portions with appropriate pauses, it
would seem that the principles by which their minds are actu-
ally guided must necessarily be simple. The real difficulty in
the common directions, seems to arise, not from the fact that
they are founded on grammar, but from their application re-
quiring that sort of grammatical analysis which is called pars-
ing. It is difficult, and indeed almost impossible, for one to
carry on a process of parsing, during the glowing progress of
the mind which is necessary for animated delivery. Still, much
of the instinctive analysis made by a reader, is in accordance
with common grammatical principles. The most necessary
of these we shall endeavor to explain. We hope the occa-
sional employment of a few familiar terms of grammar, will
not give a repulsive aspect to the following pages, especially as
the examples will be intelligible without any description, and
their practice will of itself, and without accompanying com-
ment, form the desired habits of mind in delivery. In the pres-
ent, as in the previous part of the volume, all that is absolutely
PUNCTUATION. 193
necessary in the way of precept, will be printed in a larger
type, while such portions will be still fewer than heretofore.
It will be noticed, that although we refer to grammatical
principles for the purpose of explaining the formation of groups
and phrases, yet we never describe them as invariably coinci-
ding with particular grammatical combinations. In fact the
connexions and separations which are made among words in nat-
ural utterance, need not be wholly of the same kind throughout
a sentence, as those which are made by grammar. When we
analyze a sentence of any length, on grammatical principles,
we are continually obliged to consider the relations and con-
nexions of words that are separated often to a considerable
distance from each other, by intervening words. But in ut-
tering the sentence, we must take the words in the order in
which they occur.
Neither can we be guided exclusively by marks of punctua-
tion, however often, or with whatever accuracy, these may be
inserted. As we shall immediately proceed to explain, these
marks are used according to no fixed and invariable rule. It
is impossible that they should be, inasmuch as their use is partly
to indicate pauses for the voice, and partly to assist in explain-
ing the grammatical connexion of words, in situations where
no pauses are made in natural and conversational utterance.
Even when inserted with the greatest admissible frequency,
they never indicate all the divisions in sentences where pauses
are naturally made. The frequency and length of vocal pauses
also, can never be reduced to fixed and uniform principles, be-
cause they are always influenced in a greater or less degree, by
the style of delivery, in respect to calm deliberation or eager
excitement in pursuing a course of thought.
Yet as it is a very prevalent mistake in school instruction, to
regard the common marks of punctuation as intended solely
for marking pauses of the voice, it will be well to devote a few
words to a consideration of our modern system of such marks.
17*
194 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
The ancients employed no marks corresponding to ours of
punctuation, and since their introduction by the moderns, the
fashion for inserting them has been constantly fluctuating.
Authors generally leave the business to the printers, who ex-
hibit a better tact in using them ; yet no two of the latter follow
precisely the same rules. A hundred years ago, semicolons,
and especially colons, were much oftener employed than at pre-
sent. The dash is of later adoption than the other marks, and
has not yet been introduced to any great extent, in punctuating
the sacred Scriptures, or editions of the ancient classics.
Some editors and printers, however, make an extremely frequent
use of it, as a substitute for all the others. It seems to be the
great difference in construction and arrangement between mod-
ern and ancient style, that has led to the adoption of the dash in
addition to the comma, semicolon, colon and period. These
regular marks were first employed for the Latin language, and
have never been used for the Greek, for which a different set
was invented. They may be inserted on pretty definite and in-
variable principles in the former tongue, and likewise in com-
positions in modern languages, when their style is arranged af-
ter the classic models.
But whatever plan be adopted for their use, they are less
necessary for the assistance of the reader, than is generally
imagined. The ancients did without them, and the moderns
make but little use of them in manuscript. A letter of friend-
ship, carefully pointed as if for the press, would appear pedan-
tic and in bad taste. It is laid down as an important rule of
composition by Blair, never to suffer the construction of a sen-
tence to depend on the absence or insertion of a mark of punc-
tuation. The fashion of the present day, inclines to use as few
of them in books as possible, and to insert commas more than
formerly, in place of semicolons. The colon, as employed a
hundred or a hundred and fifty years ago, is now generally su-
perseded by the period. In short, the whole set of marks is in-
PUNCTUATION.
195
tended to indicate a part only of the grammatical divisions, and
in very many cases, commas are inserted in situations where a
pause is never made in the utterance of ordinary conversation.
As the latter fact is not generally known, it may be useful to
insert a single example, although scarcely an extract is intro-
duced into our volume, which does not afford instances. E. g.
" The latest foreign news by the steamer is, that war has been
declared in England." In this example the comma, by the in-
variable rule of printing, is placed between the copula is, and
the conjunction that. The rule admits of no exceptions. Yet
in conversation, the pause is invariably before is, instead of af-
ter it. The two words is and that are unaccented, and are
grouped with whatever words immediately follow. If we pause
after is, the word becomes accented, contrary to the genius of
our tongue. In Latin, this would not perhaps be the case.
The rhythm of that language, like that of the French, would
suffer est to receive an accent. In English, the division of
the sentence is thus : " The latest foreign news by the steam-
er is that war has been declared in England." We have
mentioned the comma after is, as the only one in accordance
with common custom. It is a vague rule, however, to insert
one after the nominative, (i. e. the subject,) when this is long,
though how long it must be, no one attempts to decide. Ac-
cording to this precept, another comma might be introduced
in the above sentence, viz. before is, as well as after it. By
rule, also, there may be still an additional one after news; e. g.
" The latest foreign news, by the steamer, is, that war has been
declared in England." Conversational utterance, however,
will always group is with that, leaving a pause at the end of
the subject; and if the circumstance " by the steamer" is made
important, will separate it from the preceding member likewise
by a pause : e. g. " The latest foreign news by the steam-
er is that war has been declared in England."
196 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
The mind of a reader, then, may notice all the marks of
punctuation, and use their assistance in reference to a quick
apprehension of the grammatical structure of sentences; or
what is the same thing may employ them as aids in catching
the meaning of a passage, at an instantaneous glance of the
eye. No reader must however take them as invariable guides
for vocal pausing.
Dismissing therefore all further consideration of the common
marks of punctuation, it remains for us to investigate the actu-
al connexions and separations of words that take place in utter-
ance, and the consequent pauses that are needed. This sub-
ject will be considered under the heads of Groups of Utterance,
and Phrases of Utterance.
The kngths of the different pauses that separate groups and
phrases, can be reduced to no unvarying principles, except
when they are determined by the rhythm. Neither does any
difficulty ever occur in reference to this point. Phrases are
naturally separated by longer pauses than groups. Groups of
more than one accent, or compound groups, as they will be
called, are often subdivided for mere convenience of breath.
The absolute length of any particular pause, perpetually varies
in accordance with the slowness of the delivery, or the demands
of the rhythm ; and in respect to these, the natural instincts of
the ear and voice are infallible guides.
The significance of a pause does not often depend on the
degree of its length, but is determined by the inflexion and
prolongation of tone on the word that immediately precedes it.
In speaking, the attitude, look and gesture, likewise, are es-
sential to the significance of a pause.
The management of the breath, though connected with the
length of pauses, is not absolutely dependent on them, as has
been already mentioned on page 52. Vide also, pp. 99, 101,
105, 107, 108.
PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING. 197
PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING.
Among our practical directions, we enjoin as the most impor-
tant precept for managing the mind in delivery, " to think in-
tensely while speaking." It will be necessary therefore, to in-
vestigate in this place so much of the action of the mind in
thinking, as immediately influences the voice in utterance. It
belongs to elocution as a branch of physiology, to describe the
joint action of the mental as well as the vocal impulses, which
produce the varying modifications of the voice that occur in the
utterance of thought and feeling.
Though the first impulses from which thought and reasoning
spring, do not exist in the form of words, yet these immediately
follow ; and whatever may in some cases be possible, it is un-
questionable that we ordinarily think by means of words.
Words however, take in the mind the forms, not of written but
of spoken language.* Even in silent thought, the words which
we employ are imagined as sounds. More especially in uttered
thought, words are sounds expressed by articulation, and have
as necessary accompaniments the various modifications of the
voice which we are investigating.
From the account given in the second chapter of Genesis,
and from the earliest efforts of children in learning to talk, it
would seem that the first act of speech is to articulate names of
things ; that is, to employ nouns as the first elements of lan-
guage. Some, however, have supposed that verbs must, in the
history of language, be of earlier origin than nouns. It will not
* When we learn a language, without studying the pronunciation, we
still associate some sort of sound with the written characters. If, as in
the case of Chinese characters or Egyptian hieroglyphics, we know
nothing about their sound, we still associate with them words or
phrases which express their meaning in our own tongue. We pro-
nounce the written characters by means of our own language.
198 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
be necessary for our purpose to adopt either opinion to the ex-
clusion of the other. It is certainly the earliest effort in all
speech, to make use of words, which by themselves convey
ideas. These words are nouns (including adjectives) and verbs
If a noun or verb consists of several syllables, the unity with
which the mind regards them collectively, is vocally expressed
by means of a strong accent on one of the syllables, as described
in the first part of this treatise. This strong effort on one syl-
lable, causes the others, by the laws of muscular action, to have
a weaker utterance.
The mind being more strongly interested in these words of
primary importance, they are uttered with more force than those
which convey no ideas by themselves, but which are merely
subservient to the others. On account of this subserviency,
secondary words of speech are united, in the view which the
mind takes of them, to the primary ones. This union is repre-
sented by the voice, through the medium of such a close junc-
tion as admits of no pause between them. The actual words of
utterance are what we have called groups, and are often com-
pounded of a primary word, and one or more of these secondary
ones which have no meaning except in union with the primary.
The law of repeated muscular action also, being that of an
alternation of stronger and weaker efforts, secondary words are
uttered in the weaker action. Thus, as they are weaker, and
also united to the stronger primary ones, we have a succession
of groups, each of which has a single strongly accented syllable,
and is separated from those which precede and follow, by some
degree of pause, i. e. by a break in the continuity of articula-
tion.
We have thus, by a strictly scientific investigation, demon-
strated the doctrine of the grouping of speech, which we had
before explained and illustrated in a general and popular way.
We formerly mentioned however, that numerous exceptions oc-
cur to the law, by which the secondary parts of speech are either
PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING. 199
monosyllabic and unaccented words, or, if polysyllabic, are ac-
cented with less force, and inseparably connected, by grouping,
with nouns or verbs. It is necessary to notice these exceptions
more carefully.
Ordinary speech is always in a considerable degree elliptical
and abridged. It is often also irregular in respect to the most
logical arrangement of its words. But if speech be made per-
fect, by supplying words for every idea, and relation of thought,
the law which we have just described will be invariably ob-
served. The more complete and regular the style of a written
composition, the more simple are the laws of its elocution.
In many cases however, this natural grouping is broken in
upon, for no other reason than simple physical convenience of
utterance. Take for instance such a phrase as, The weather
is cloudy ; we have two groups of easy utterance. Lengthen
the last group by a monosyllabic adverb, and it still will have
but one strong accent, e. g. The weather is quite cloudy. But
if the qualifying adverb is a polysyllabic word, and of consider-
able length, it will require an accent on one of its syllables to
give the word a unity, e. g. The weather is extraordinarily
cloudy. Now if we utter this last sentence with particular care
in reference to making ourselves understood, the accent which
we shall give to the syllable or, will be less strong than that on
the ou of cloudy, and by taking breath beforehand, the two
words will be uttered at one impulse, and be closely connected.
They will thus form no exception to the law of grouping. But
if the mind is in a more careless state, and we suffer ourselves
to be influenced by mere bodily convenience, the accent on the
adverb extraordinarily, may become equally strong with that
on the adjective cloudy, and the two words may be dissevered
from each other by a pause for convenience of respiration, or for
rest on the part of the organs of speech.
So too, the adverb may be emphatic, in which case it will be
uttered with peculiar force and energy. In the case however,
200 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
of emphatic force on the secondary parts of speech, it is not in
fact the ordinary accent of nouns and verbs, by which they are
made prominent. Instead of receiving this, they take on that
higher energy, which on all words alike, distinguishes accent
from emphasis. This will be considered in a subsequent
chapter.
It was also mentioned in part first, that these secondary words
may be divided from those with which they group, by intervening
words. E. g. The w&ailier is extraordinarily and disagree-
ably cloudy. Or, The weather is to-day extraordinarily
cloudy. It will readily however be perceived, that these cases
form no true exceptions to the doctrines just stated, respecting
the different strength of the two classes of accent.
These last examples are likewise very instructive, in refer-
ence to the way in which words are united into groups. In the
latter, to-day interrupts the connexion between is and the sub-
sequent words. This interruption causes is to be united with
it, so that is to-dHy becomes in utterance, a polysyllabic word.
The principle by which this takes place, is simply one of con-
venience of enunciative effort, and has little reference to the
meaning. Being unaccented, a pause cannot be made after it
without causing it to receive an accent. But in the mean time,
as to-day is an intervening circumstance, it is separated from
the following words by a pause ; and a single pause answers the
purpose as fully as if the circumstance were preceded as well
as followed by one. So too, in the other example, the two ad-
verbs extraordinarily and disagreeably are separated by a pause
from each other, while the latter is separated from the adjective
cloudy, by the same means. The result is, that both alike are
shown to qualify the adjective, while at the same time one ad-
verb does not qualify the other. Both these objects are effec-
tually accomplished, although for convenience of utterance, is
is inseparably united to the first adverb, while and is in equally
close union with the second.
PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING. 201
The law of grouping, then, is the following.
Words are of two classes ; nouns and verbs, which
are strongly accented ; and other parts of speech, which
are weakly accented.
Words with no accent, or with a weak one, are if pos-
sible, united to accented words, according to their con-
nexion in meaning.
But if they are separated by intervening words, they
are united to the first subsequent word that has an ac-
cent.
Articles and adjectives must be united to nouns ; ad-
verbs to verbs; auxiliary verbs to their principals; pro-
nouns to verbs, (as nominative or objective cases;) a
preposition to a word which it connects ; and a con-
junction to one of the two words which it connects, or
to the first accented word of the phrase to which it be-
longs.
Adjectives generally receive an accent equally strong
with that upon nouns. If but a single adjective quali-
fies a noun, it cannot (unless for emphasis) be separated
from it by a pause. When an adjective intervenes be-
tween an unaccented word and the noun to which it
belongs, the unaccented word groups with the adjective.
In the latter case, they all form one group, so far as a pause
of meaning is concerned. In rhythm, they often form two
groups, because they have two strong accents.
In the following examples, the parts of speech in each group
are indicated by abbreviations placed over the words.
pr. aux. v. v. ad. pr. n. con. n. prep. n.
They have united every rank and description of men,
prep. art. n. prep. adj. pr. n.
by the pressure of this subject.
18
202 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
The next example is the same sentence, with the exception
that the last group is divided into three, by the insertion of two
adjectives. The separation of the two adjectives from, each
other, shows that both belong to the same noun.
They have united every rank and description of men,
prep. adj. pr. ad. con. ad. n.
by the pressure of this grand and momentous subject.
We will continue the same passage, and divide the words
into the smallest allowable groups. For convenience of print-
ing, we shall be compelled to divide the second phrase into
three parts, and the last into two. This division, however, will
be made by the voice, if the speaking is very slow and strong.
con. pr. v. pr.
And I tell them,
pr. aui. v. v.
they will see
ad. pr. ad. con. ad. n.
every honest and independent man
prep. n.
in /reland,
v. prep. pr. n.
rally round her constitution,
con. v. ad. pr. n.
and merge every consideration,
prep. pr. n.
in his opposition
prep. ad. pr. ad. con. ad. n.
to this ungenerous and odious measure.
These examples will be abundantly sufficient for illustrating
the grammatical principles of grouping. We have taken pains
to select such as admit of short groups, and such as have pauses
of meaning between them. In some of the examples for prac-
tice which we have already furnished, and in many of those
PRINCIPLES OP GROUPING. 203
which we shall hereafter present, much longer groups will be
found. Groups of extreme length are indeed always divided,
in the slowest and strongest speaking, into such small portions
as we have now presented. When we do not so divide them,
it is because rapid or very glowing delivery would be injured
by thus breaking the close connexion. It must be remembered,
however, that when two groups are united, though no absolute
pause, or total cessation of sound may perhaps occur, yet the
regular articulating and rhythmical pauses must come in.
For the description of these, the student is requested to turn
back before leaving this section, to p. 138, in the chapter on
rhythm. In this part of our treatise we shall indicate mere ar-
ticulating and rhythmical pauses, by a hyphen placed in a
wider space between the words.
To the statement that nouns and verbs take the strong ac-
cent, there are certain exceptions, which need to be noticed.
Many monosyllabic verbs of the most common occurrence, in
very frequent instances, and especially in familiar and rapid
delivery, take the weak accent. The same is also true of a few
which have two syllables. These verbs are such as see, know,
come, go, make, bring, put, seem, think, deem, &c. also, be-
come, suppose, appear, and others. A few nouns likewise are
often used in the same way. The principal are man and men.
The first two phrases of our last example afford instances of this
principle in reference to the verb see, and the noun man. We
will reprint them with the grouping of rapid delivery.
And I tell them
\
they will see every honest and independent man in Ireland,
But when groups are made of such length, the speaker's ar-
ticulation is apt to be indistinct, unless he has well established
habits of accuracy in respect both of articulation and rhythm.
If, on the other hand, his habits in these respects are of the
204 EXPOSITION OP THOUGHT.
most perfect kind, the whole of this second phrase may be ut-
tered with merely two articulating or rhythmical pauses and
at one impulse of the voice. This may even be done without a
hurried degree of rapidity. In impassioned argument or sen-
timent, such fusing of the groups, when executed with perfect
distinctness, often produces a glowing and captivating effect.
As we shall explain, in a subsequent section, strong emphasis
sometimes in glowing or vehement delivery, fuses groups to-
gether and makes them very long.
In the following example, the word defendant is used like a
pronoun, and indeed the pron. he, might with propriety be sub-
stituted for it. In the same example we have likewise the verbs
forced and become, uttered with a weak accent, on account of
the strong emphasis which follows each.
\
Yes, gentlemen,
\
the defendant has forced the PRESS,
\
to become the disturber - of domestic QUIET.
Groups that are grammatically subdivided by an articulating
pause, we shall call compound groups. We shall distinguish
them in the mode of printing, by employing a hyphen placed in
a somewhat wider space.
PHRASES OF UTTERANCE.
We have seen that words are united into groups by two prin-
ciples. First, they may be so essentially connected in gram-
mar, that without such union each word of the group, except
the accented one, would be destitute of meaning. Secondly,
when such union is prevented by an intervening word or words,
unaccented words are united to the first subsequent one that has
an accent this union being not grammatical, but rhythmical.
It has also been seen that groups may be compounded, so
that a considerable number of words are uttered with one im-
PHRASES.
205
pulse of the mind and voice, as if they were one extremely
long word ; the whole collection having a unity given to it, by
the ardor of the mind in setting forth the relations of thought.
On principles precisely similar, the union of groups forms
phrases of utterance. The former being so far as utterance
is concerned the words of discourse, their union into grammat-
ical clauses forms phrases, which being considered each as a
whole, are uttered with one continuous act. The reason for
using the term phrase, instead of giving them the same appel-
lation which they receive in grammar, is, that although a clause
is always a grammatical whole, yet in delivery it may often be
divided into two or more parts, for the sake of dwelling on each
with a more earnest enforcement of its importance.
We apply the term phrase, then, to such a portion of a sen-
tence as is delivered with one earnest look, attitude and ges-
ture, and with that tone of continuity in the voice which ex-
presses a short course of thought, and one of such a kind, that
the mind prepares for its utterance beforehand, and rests mo-
mentarily after it.
If the style of a discourse be faultless, and the delivery not
only rapid and familiar, but without force or earnestness, the
phrases of utterance will invariably coincide with the grammat-
ical clauses of the periods. No matter how long these may be,
each will be uttered with one continued progress of the voice.
An instinctive effort will likewise be made to utter each during
a single expiration. If breath be taken in the course of one
of them, it will be done so quickly, that the reader or speaker
will be unconscious of the act.
It is this natural effort to read a clause at a breath, for the
sake of exhibiting the meaning, that causes unskillful persons to
complain generally of long periods as being fatiguing to read.
Coleridge, when ridiculing the fashion prevalent in the latter
part of the last century, for writing in very short periods, speaks
of such styles of composition as being calculated for short-wit-
18*
206 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
ted intellects and asthmatic lungs. Unpractised readers, for
the same reason, incline to read long clauses and sentences
faster than short ones.
One of the earliest things to be learned in reading or speak-
ing, is to acquire the power of keeping the unity of clauses
clearly and steadily present to the mind, while at the same time
the physical act of delivery is rendered deliberate and easy, by
pauses of such length and frequency, as prevent any degree of
hurry or fatigue, tt requires, however, considerable mental
discipline, and at least some experience in delivery, to manage
a composition written in a diffuse style and in periods of great
length, in such a way that the sense shall be exhibited with
perfect clearness, while at the same time the elocution shall be
as deliberately slow and impressive as if the sentences were ve-
ry short, and each with a full cadence at the end. Yet this
skill must be acquired, and its acquisition is not so difficult as
would at first be supposed.
It is easy to acquire it, because nothing more is needed, than
to practise in reference to written composition, what every one
exhibits in conversation ; it being as essential to the very na-
ture of language, as is the articulation of single words. The
principles which form clauses are few and simple, and are ex-
emplified by children as perfectly as by men of the most com-
prehensive intellects. Each clause generally begins with some
connecting word, which at once indicates the grammatical ar-
rangement that is to follow. The mind of the reader sets out
at the beginning of the clause, with a clear apprehension of
what will be the subsequent construction ; which construction
continues till the end of the clause. Independent of punctua-
tion, the end is shown by the very fact, that not until arriving
at it, do the words of the clause form a complete construction.
The next clause then begins with a similar warning to the mind,
and so on throughout the whole course of the period. In this
way, there is no real necessity at leas't in the case of a well
PHRASES.
207
arranged style for the moderns, any more than for the ancients,
to depend on marks of punctuation. Neither is it necessary,
as unpractised readers so often suppose, to read over the sen-
tence beforehand, or to keep the eye several words in advance
of those which the voice is actually uttering. The construc-
tion of a sentence is always grossly incorrect, when in reading
it, the mind is taken by surprise at the end, and finds the mark
for a period when it had not anticipated one, or some grammat-
ical arrangement different from what the previous part of the
sentence had led the reader to expect.
We have said that the mind is guided in anticipating the
construction, by particular words (in most cases those which
are called in grammar connectives, such as conjunctions and
relatives) at the beginning of each clause. Often, however, it
is not so much any particular word, as a very plain and obvious
grammatical arrangement, which, even for the feeblest minds,
needs no indicating word. This is the case with the great pri-
mary division of all sentences into subject and predicate. The
nominative independent with a participle, or case absolute, as
it is more properly called, is also another instance, of perpetual
occurrence.
This general description of the manner in which the mind
is infallibly guided in reading at sight, we have in most cases
found sufficient for practical purposes, when perpetually illus-
trated by the voice of the teacher. But in a work like the pre-
sent, the most common and important, at least, of the gram-
matical forms of chuses and phrases, ought to be enumerated
and illustrated by examples. This we shall proceed to do.
We must first, however, consider the question, what constitutes
the distinction between a phrase and a group.
Though as already mentioned, it is natural to endeavor to
read the whole of any one clause, no matter what may be its
length, with a single continuous effort of the mind and voice,
yet convenience of utterance often requires them to be divided.
208 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
Slowness and earnestness of delivery, likewise, will cause the
mind to dwell upon the parts of a subdivided phrase, with a to-
tal absorption for the time in the feeling of the importance of
each such an absorption as causes it, momentarily at least, to
forget every part of the discourse except the portion that it is
uttering. In correspondence with this state of the mind, an
entire and complete effort of voice, breath, attitude and gesture,
will be expended solely on this shorter portion. A single group
may thus become an entire phrase.
We find therefore, that the laws according to which short
grammatical collections of \vords are to be considered phrases
rather than groups, are not definite and invariable; depending
as they do, on the degree of slowness and earnestness of the
whole delivery, which are qualities incapable of being reduced
to precise rules. The distinction is a physiological and not a
grammatical one.*
In some of the examples hitherto given, phrases have been
subdivided for no other reason than the necessity of accommo-
dating them to the width of a duodecimo page. In the present
chapter, whenever a grammatical clause, strictly makes one
phrase, yet on account of its length requires to be subdivided,
the several phrases will be inclosed by a bracket. As a con-
clusion, from the above remarks, we may define a phrase of ut-
terance as follows.
A phrase of utterance is an entire grammatical clause
of a sentence, or such a portion of a clause as is uttered
in a single prolonged act of delivery.
A phrase may consist of a single group of words, or
be made up of two or more such groups.
* The case is similar in regard to the question, what length is allowa-
ble for an entire line or verse in poetry? Even Hermann, after all his
immense labor to reduce the laws of meter to a science, has not been
able, in answer to this question, to refer to any more exact standard
than the natural length of an expiration in breathing.
PHRASES. 209
The pauses and inflexions of the voice at the ends of
phrases, separate them distinctly and definitely from
each other.
Each phrase has also throughout its whole course, its
own appropriate and peculiar style of vocal modulation.
When phrases are made up of distinct groups, the in-
terruptions of vocal continuity which separate the groups
from each other, are not as strongly marked as those
which occur at .the end of phrases.
The actual pauses, or total cessations of sound, which
take place between groups, may always in rapid deliv-
ery be omitted, or changed into mere articulating and
rhythmical pauses.
Subdivided clauses, may in the same way be united
into a single phrase, by a change in the style of delivery.
But as long as the delivery continues in the same style,
phrases must never be united together, though it is al-
lowable to do so in the case of groups.
A correct delivery of phrases depends on care and in-
tentional effort of the mind, at the time of uttering the
phrase.
But grouping is a general habit in delivery, which re-
quires no particular care after the habit is formed.
The mind of a reader or speaker, is guided in divid-
ing sentences into phrases, by plain and obvious gram-
matical constructions, the neglect to observe which,
would prevent the sentence from conveying any mean-
ing.
At the beginning of most phrases, a warning is also
given by the occurrence of some word, which indicates
that a new phrase is coming, and likewise shows what
will be its construction. Whenever no such warning
210 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
word occurs, the construction is always (if the style be
correct) so obvious as to need none.
We now proceed to describe and exemplify the most com-
mon and important grammatical constructions which charac-
terize clauses, and which guide readers and speakers, in pro-
ceeding by successive steps of phrases of utterance.
The first and most common, is the fundamental one
of subject and predicate.
This has been abundantly exemplified in the first part of the
volume, for the purpose of simplifying the general explanation
of Emphasis. Instead of furnishing additional examples in this
place, it will be better to refer back to pp. 109 to 112, where
the divisions are exclusively in accordance with this distinction.
In most of those examples, each subject and each predicate
forms a phrase by itself. Sometimes however, the subject is
merely a pronoun, in which case it is grouped with the first ac-
cented word of the predicate, and the whole forms a phrase.
On p. 112, are examples of subj. and pred., being equally em-
phatic, and when each is short, the sentence is printed in one
line. Such lines however, are strictly composed of two phrases.
Yet if the subject does not form a phrase by itself, it always
constitutes a distinct group, unless it is a pronoun, or a repeated
noun used as a pronoun. An example of the last case has been
lately furnished in the section on grouping, at p. 204.
The question whether the pause between the subject
and predicate is sufficient to constitute them distinct
phrases, of course depends on either the length or the
importance of the one or the other.
If the subject is very long, or is emphatic, it forms a
distinct phrase. The same principle applies to the
predicate.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE,
211
The first two lines on p. 110, will make one long phrase, or
will be divided into two, according to the degree of deliberate
force and earnestness of the delivery. The remainder of the
extract furnishes two instances of short predicates, which will
in a similar manner be uttered in the same phrase with their
subjects, unless the delivery be very slow. In this way, the
whole extract may be uttered in six phrases, as there presented,
or, more rapidly, in three.
The division between these two essential parts of every sen-
tence may exist under forms of construction different from the
common one to which we have just referred, and with various
connecting words. Yet these differences are attended with no
difficulty in regard to immediate apprehension. We will illus-
trate the following cases.
It frequently happens that the predicate clause of a
sentence has the pronoun it for its immediate subject,
while the true subject follows in a succeeding clause.
In most such cases the second clause either begins with the
conjunction that* or commences with an infinitive mood. In
the following example, the second and third phrases are subjects
commencing with that.
may be one thing,
< Let it be once understood,
{that your government
and their privileges another ;
/ [tion.
< that these two things may exist - without any mutual rela-
Ftion.
* We call the word that a conjunction in this and other such cases, in
jordance with ordinary school grammar. So throughout the whole
>rk, we employ none but the most common grammatical terms. Pred-
icate instead of attribute, is now established in schools.
EXPOSITION OP THOUGHT.
In the following example, the first phrase is a suspending
clause ; the second is the predicate, and the third and fourth
are subject clauses, commencing with the infinitive mood.
/ Had Cromwell's ambition
I been of an impure, or selfish kind,
| it would have been easy for him,
{[large scale,
to plunge his country into continental hostilities, on a
f and to dazzle the restless factions - which he ruled,
t by the splendor - of his victories.
MACAULAY.
[by crimes,
< Does it become the duellist, whose life is measured out
( to be extreme to mark, and punctilious to resent,
I whatever is amiss in others?
Suspending clauses are among the most common
forms of phrases. They take two forms ; either that of
the case absolute with a participle ; or that of clauses be-
ginning with suspending conjunctions or adverbs, such
as if, although, when, while, notwithstanding, as long as,
and numerous others.
These clauses often require to be subdivided according to
the distinctions of subject and predicate, circumstance, and
other principles by which whole sentences are divided. When
they are long, their very length often produces a rhetorical ef-
fect of giving great animation and force; a striking instance of
which may be observed in the extract on p. 46, beginning with
" instead of a long and bloody war," &>c.
CIRCUMSTANCE. 213
The following example exhibits a clause formed by the case
absolute. Each of the phrases contains a subject and predicate
of its own.
The campaign being ended,
the two - contending - armies retired - from the field.
The next exhibits a clause introduced by a suspending ad-
verb. It will be observed that the third phrase is the true sub-
ject of the second, according to the principle we have last illus-
trated.
Until public opinion be propitiated, or satisfied,
it is in vain for power,
to talk either of triumphs or of repose.
WEBSTER.
A very common principle in the formation of separate
phrases, is that of a clause expressing a circumstance.
Such generally begin with a preposition.
The following passage consists of three sentences, each be-
ginning with a circumstance taken out of the predicate and
placed first. The next example is of the same construction.
The phrases which consist of a circumstance, will be marked
by the letter c.
c. Under what other auspices than Christianity,
have the lost - and subverted - liberties - of mankind,
in former ages, been reasserted 1
c. By what zeal, but the warm zeal - of devoted Christians,
have English liberties
been redeemed and consecrated ?
19
214 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
c. Under what other sanctions,
c. even in our own days,
have liberty - and happiness
f been extending - and spreading,
to the utmost corners of the earth ?
ERSKINE.
c. By doing - our several duties in our allotted stations,
we are sure - that we are fulfilling the purposes - of our
[existence.
ERSKINE.
The following sentence begins and ends with a phrase ex-
pressing a circumstance.
c. With such encouragement,
how inexcusable is the negligence,
which suffers - the most interesting - and important - truths,
to seem heavy and dull,
and fall ineffectual, to the ground,
c. through mere sluggishness in their delivery.
WARE.
In the following passage, the clauses of circumstance are of
such frequent occurrence, as seriously to clog the flow of the
whole,
c. From all these symptoms,
Columbus was so confident of being near land,
c. that, on the evening - of the eleventh - of October,
c. after public prayers - for success,
CIRCUMSTANCE. 215
he ordered the sails to be furled,
and strict watch to be kept,
lest the ship should be driven ashore, in the night,
c. During this interval - of suspense - and expectation,
no man shut his eyes;\
all kept upon deck,
f gazing intently
[the land,
c. j towards that quarter where they expected - to discover -
[ which had so long - been the object - of their wishes.
c. About two hours - before midnight,
Columbus,
c. standing on the forecastle,
observed a light, at a distance,
and privately pointed it out to two of his people.
DR. ROBERTSON.
NOTE. In giving the above illustrations of phrases formed by a cir-
cumstance, it has been thought inexpedient to carry the analysis farther.
Upon strict grammatical principles, every clause of this kind, is a part
either of the general subject or predicate. In the last example, two of
them belong to the subject, and the remainder to the predicate. If how-
ever, we distinguish with still more accuracy, the two which belong to
the subject, beginning as they do with a participle, are not circumstan-
ces, but are, in fact, qualifying clauses.
Another grammatical principle of phrases, is that of
clauses which express the object of an active verb.
These mostly take two forms ; first, they begin with the con-
junction that ; % secondly, they commence with an infinitive
mood. The examples will illustrate both kinds.
216 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
In the following example, the second clause, beginning with
the conj. that, is the object of the active adverb say, in the first
clause.
For myself, I can truly say,
that, after my native land,
I feel a tenderness and reverence
for that of my fathers.
In the next, the second, third and fourth clauses, beginning
with the infinitive mood, are the objects of the active verb re-
quest.
< Let me request you
< to rely on the plighted faith of your country,
\ to pi ace a full confidence in the purity - and intentions - of
[Congress,
' and to assure yourselves
that they will adopt the most effectual measures - in their
[power,
to render ample justice to you,
for your faithful and meritorious services.
In this last example, the second line of the fourth phrase, be-
ginning with that, is another instance of the same principle,
being the object of assure in the preceding line.
But without any different construction, long predicates are
often subdivided into two phrases, on the principle of separating
the object of the active verb.
This must always be done when the objective case has a
qualification appended to it by a relative ; as in the following :
APPOSITION. 217
This reasoning exposes to scorn,
every argument which would confound - indictments - with
[civil actions.
In the following sentence, there is an inversion of the com-
mon order of arrangement ; the first compound phrase, begin-
ning with how, being the object of the active verbs of the two
last phrases.
It will be observed also, that in subdividing the compound
phrase, the second line is the object of vindicate in the preced-
ing one. The three lines within an inner bracket, are a com-
pound circumstance, having the division of subj. and pred. for
the last two lines.
How - any man can rationally - vindicate
the publication - of such a book - as Paine's Age of Reason,
in a country
where the Christian religion,
is the very foundation - of the law of the land,
j I am totally - at a loss to conceive,
j and have no wish - to discuss.
ERSKINE.
Another common principle is that of opposition. This
also will often be indicated by that as a conjunction.
In the second phrase of the following example, we have the
word affidavit as an object of the verb made. In apposition
with it, we find the third, fourth and fifth compound phrases
each beginning with that.
19*
L
218 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
-j Three of the jurors
made solemn affidavit, in court,
that liquor had been conveyed - into their box;\
that they had been brutally threatened, by some of their
[fellow jurors,
with capital prosecution,
if they did not find the prisoner guilty ;
and that, under the impression of those threats,
and worn down by watching and intoxication,
they had given a verdict of guilty against him,
though they believed him in their conscience,
to be innocent.
CURRAN.
In a rhetorical style, however, one of the most common modes
of putting clauses in apposition, is that of repeating the same
word and following it with a similar construction ; as is exempli-
fied by the repetition of all in the first two phrases of the follow-
ing passage.
The second phrase is subdivided by the two qualifications of
the noun minds. The third, fourth and fifth phrases are quali-
fications of all, &c., in the first phrase. The last two lines
make separate phrases, for the sake of impressiveness in winding
off the period.
Thus you find all that is great, or wise, or splendid, or il-
[lustrious, amongst created beings,
!all the minds gifted beyond ordinary nature,
if not inspired, by their Universal Author, for the advance-
[ment - and dignity of the world,
PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION. 219
{though divided by distant ages,
and by the clashing opinions distinguishing them - from
[one another,
yet joining, - as it were, in one sublime chorus,
to celebrate - the truths - of Christianity ;\
and laying - upon its holy altars,
the never fading offerings of their immortal wisdom.
ERSKINE.
A parallel construction, which is generally indicated
in punctuation by a dash, is occasionally a principle of
phrases.
The grammatical arrangement may be that of apposition,
either of subject or object ; or it may exhibit an ellipsis. Vide
pp. 56, 57.
The following shows an ellipsis in the last two phrases.
The infidel has no conscience
no hope to cheer him
no punishment to dread.
The next illustrates apposition.
Upon this, and this only,
that he believes there is a just and omnipotent God
an intelligent supreme Existence.
In this example, the second phrase is in apposition with the
first, and the third with the second. Vide pp. 56, 57.
It will be noticed that many of our examples are from Ers-
kine, the most magnificent orator of the English bar. His
style is an admirable illustration of the most natural construction
of periods, in glowing extemporaneous delivery. It is a total
220 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
mistake to imagine that free extemporaneous speaking naturally
runs in short periods. We will conclude the chapter with a
splendid passage, which consists of a single sentence built up by
successive phrases perpetually varying in length, and united by
the simplest and most obvious constructions.
At a time when the charges - against Mr. Hastings
were, by the implied consent - of the Commons,
in every hand, and on every table ;
when, by their managers, the lightning - of eloquence
was incessantly consuming him,
and flashing - in the eyes - of the public;
when every man was, with perfect impunity,
saying, and writing, and publishing,
just what he pleased,
of the supposed plunderer - and devastator - of nations;
r \
4< would it have been criminal in Mr. Hastings - himself?
5 1 to have reminded - the public
r \
6< that he was a native - of this free land,
\
7< entitled - to the common protection - of her justice,
6
\
and that he had a defence, in his turn, to offer to them,\
' the outlines - of which
9^
. he implored them, in the meantime, to receive,
INFLE XIONS. 221
as an antidote to the unlimited and unpunished poison
in circulation - against him.
ERSKINE.
In the above, the commencement of each of the first three
phrases is indicated by the word when at the beginning of the
fourth, we instantly notice the discontinuance of the repetition
of when, and commence the interrogation the relation of the
fifth clause to the fourth is indicated by the infinitive mood
the relation of the sixth is shown by the conj. that the seventh
is in a construction of parallelism with the sixth ; entitled agree-
ing with native the relation of the eighth is indicated by its
two conjunctions the ninth is connected by a relative the
tenth by a conjunction.
Guided by such connecting words and constructions at the
beginning of each clause, the mind of a reader instinctively di-
vides periods of every description into their constituent phrases
of utterance.
CHAPTER II.
INFLEXIONS.
IN analyzing the mental acts which take place in utterance,
we have found that after conceiving words, and employing them
in groups, the next step is to proceed by phrases; each of which
forms the whole, or a constituent division of a grammatical
clause.
These phrases are the actual weapons, so to speak, by which,
in delivery, we operate on the minds of auditors. Each con-
veys a combination of ideas, or a brief course of thought, which
possesses a true unity, and makes but a single impression on
the mind.
EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
Grammatically considered, their relations to each other are
indicated by connecting words, and by constructions which are
essential to the very existence of language. But in addition to
these, spoken language has certain modifications of the voice,
which still farther explain the mutual relations of thought.
Such modifications are called inflexions.
This term has been understood to designate certain upward
and downward turns of the voice in pitch. But when first in-
troduced as a technical term, the actual changes of pitch which
take place in utterance, had been but imperfectly analyzed;
consequently its application has been, even to the present pe-
riod, so vague and uncertain, that in a scientific analysis, like
that of Dr. Rush, it deserves to be wholly rejected. The ear-
lier writers did not know that each syllable of a word has a sep-
arate and independent pitch. They supposed that an entire
polysyllabic word slides up or down by a continuous progress.
For a detailed refutation of this fundamental error, we must
refer to the works of Dr. Rush, or Professor Day. The plan of
the present treatise being chiefly to explain the natural impulses
and effects of the mind, in communicating thought, a complete
vocal analysis is unnecessary. In continuing to proceed on
this plan, it will be convenient to retain the use of the establish-
ed term inflexion.
Our present subject is very extensive, comprehending no less
than all the turns of voice, which may be employed to express
the relations between ideas contained in different clauses of the
same sentence. The methods by which ideas may, by inflex-
ions, be connected, contrasted and stated in reference to each
other, are even more numerous, than the variations in these re-
spects, which may be effected by employing different connecting
words and grammatical constructions, great as is the number of
these.
In very many cases, it is not by changing its grammatical
construction, that the wording of a sentence can be made to
INFLEXIONS. 223
supersede the necessity of inflexions. To accomplish this ob-
ject, additional and explanatory words must be introduced. If
these are carefully selected and are sufficiently numerous, it is
indeed possible to supersede all necessity of explanatory inflex-
ions ; but the style of composition will by this process, be liable
to become too diffuse and full. What the celebrated critic Jef-
frey calls a written style, is distinguished chiefly by having less
necessity for inflexions than the more elliptical and irregular
construction of extemporaneous oratory, of conversation, and of
the drama.
It is obvious that a discussion which should undertake to ex-
haust the subject of inflexions, would require an entire vol-
ume, rather than a single chapter.
Rules for invariably appropriating* particular inflexions to
certain grammatical combinations, are worse than useless. Not
an example can be found in any of the older books of elocution,
which may riot with propriety be read in a manner opposite to
that which is directed. All that is necessary for so doing, is
for the reader to present the idea conveyed by the example, in a
different light from that contemplated by the constructor of the
rule.
It would seem at first sight, as if rules for inflexions ought no
more to be needed in reading or speaking, than in conversation.
If we understand passages aright, and make instinctive efforts
to convey our apprehension of them to others, our voices (if not
fettered by previous bad habits) will as infallibly make use of the
required inflexions, as our articulating organs will enunciate
the words.
Still farther, it is no more necessary for us to know what pre-
cise changes of pitch our voices exhibit in any one inflexion,
than in the case of articulation, to watch the minute changes
of position made by the lips, teeth and tongue.
But as the same objections are applicable, in a greater or less
degree, to giving information in regard to other instinctive acts
224 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
which occur in delivery, and as without some analysis of these,
there can be no study of elocution, it will be necessary to pre-
sent a general account of inflexions, upon the plan of treatment
pursued throughout the volume. Still we shall avoid laying
down precise and invariable rules.
In our examples for practice, we have from the first employ-
ed the marks commonly used for indicating inflexions, because
some guide is necessary for purposes of practice, and to enable
the student to go along readily with the teacher. Many how-
ever have been inserted, rather in accordance with the custom
of other books of elocution, and to prevent possible mistakes,
than because they are strictly necessary. Experience in using
the volume may hereafter lead to an omission of a considerable
number.
When a mark of inflexion is put over a word, it indicates the
general effort of the mind and voice upon the word, or upon the
phrase in which it occurs, rather than the exact degree of rise
or fall in pitch. The latter cannot be exhibited to the eye, ex-
cept by a notation, which like that of music, exhibits the pitch
of each separate syllable, while even this will not of itself be
sufficient. In music, notes do not often slide up or down, to
an extent that is deserving of regard. But in speech, each syl-
lable not only begins with a distinct and independent pitch, but
after having thus begun, has always a slide. The slide may be
either simply up or down, or may be first in one direction and
then in another. Still farther, the distance to which the slide
may rise or fall, is of several distinct degrees, each of which
conveys a separate meaning or expression.
In short, an inflexion is a change in pitch, in which
the voice first skips up or down, and then slides up or
down.
The skip may be to several different distances, and so
may the subsequent slide.
FALLING INFLEXIONS. 225
The slide may likewise be first in one direction, and
then in the other ; thus producing what are called waves
or circumflexes.
This waving course may even be continued through several
repetitions of upward or downward progress.
Thus the actual number of inflexions employed by the voice,
is very great. Instead of three, as formerly supposed, there can
scarcely be less than three hundred.
It will be easy however, to reduce them for practical purpos-
es, to three classes, and it is to a class, rather than to any one
of the variations of pitch, that we apply the term inflexion.
Inflexions, then, are of three kinds : 1. rising ; 2. fall-
ing ; 3. falling and rising, or circumflex.
This old classification, does in truth correspond to the dis-
tinctions which we recognize in our minds, and to the instinctive
vocal efforts which we make to set forth the relations of ideas.
The explanation of them will be rendered more readily in-
telligible, if we begin with the falling inflexions.
FALLING INFLEXIONS.
As a principle is often best illustrated by an extreme case,
we will commence explaining the general class of falling inflex-
ions, by a description of Cadences.
Every one knows that a cadence at the end of a sentence, in-
dicates a close of the course of thought ; and that after it there
is always a pause, and an interruption for the time, of the on-
ward progress of the mind.
This interruption or check, is the true principle of every fall-
ing inflexion. For the present, however, we shall speak only of
cadences, and of inflexions at the ends of phrases.
In every case of a falling inflexion on a strongly emphatic
word, there is at least a mental pause ; and if the delivery is very
20
226 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
slow and forcible, a vocal pause will also become strikingly
manifest. If the vocal pause does not come in immediately at
the end of the word which receives the inflexion, it will still
occur at the end of the group, or at farthest, of the phrase.
When a falling inflexion is used, the mind ceases for the
time being to look forward, and to employ ideas solely in refer-
ence to subsequent ones.
Either a simple close or termination of a course of thought,
and its independence of what is to follow, is indicated ; or the
truth and importance of an idea, is affirmed and particularly
pointed out.
In the latter case, the voice always leaps up to a higher pitch
on the accented syllable, so as to make the falling inflexion be-
gin from a higher point.
We have thus, at the ends of phrases, two kinds of
falling inflexions ; one, moderate and quiet, and which
conveys no impression but that of simple termination of
thought ; the other, striking, and calculated particularly
to attract the attention of the listener.
This will be best illustrated by a single example, read or spo-
ken in different styles. Let us take the first sentence in our
first extract, (p. 45.)
"I make the assertion deliberately. "\
Here the mark for the falling inflexion, placed after the word,
indicates a mere cadence, such as any one will naturally make
when the full stop occurs in punctuation. If the delivery is
impressive or solemn, and the word " deliberately" is uttered
with great earnestness, yet without a striking and peculiarly
animated tone, it will still keep the same pitch, but will be
dwelt upon in such a way as to prolong the syllables and make
the articulation particularly distinct. The tone of voice will
be strong and heavy. For our immediate purpose, we may in-
dicate this by the following mode of printing:
FALLING INFLEXIONS.
227
I make the assertion deliberately.\
But if the same word be uttered with striking animation, and
especially if with lively earnestness, the accented syllable will
begin on a higher pitch. The falling inflexion will start from
a higher point. Thus :
\
I make the assertion de * erately.
This style of utterance may also be united with emphatic
force that is, with a sudden loudness and an expulsive utter-
ance, such as we have already explained in part first, chap. 6.
This we may represent by printing the word in italics, but with
the same arrangement of its syllables.
\
I make the assertion de l erately.
This mode represents the course of the voice in emphatic fall-
ing inflexions. But as it would be inconvenient and unsightly
to print whole examples with such a displacement of the sylla-
bles, we indicate such forms of emphasis simply as follows :
\
I make the assertion deliberately.
That is, the word is printed in italics, to indicate emphatic
force, while the mark for the falling inflexion is placed over the
word, and (as nearly as convenient) over its accented syllable.
If capitals are employed instead of italics, they indicate a still
higher degree of force, earnestness and slowness.
Some examples however, have the falling inflexion placed
over a word which is not in italics or capitals. This indicates,
that although the word is not distinguished by any considerable
degree of force or loudness, yet it is uttered with a lively, or
peculiarly pointed expression, by beginning its accented sylla-
ble on a higher pitch, as we have just explained.
So far, then, we have two extremes of the falling inflexion;
one, that of a common cadence -either impressive and earnest,
228 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
or quiet and moderate, which we indicate by placing the mark
of inflexion after the word ; the other, either simply striking, or
striking and with emphatic force, which has the mark placed
over the accented syllable. These are the most common and
important uses of the falling inflexion.
There is however, still another modification, which expresses
an important distinction, and which is easily represented in
printing. It is when a short and yet lively and animated ca-
dence is to be made at the end of a clause, but before the en-
tire sentence is finished. In such situations, a cadence of some
sort is demanded, yet if the voice is suffered to descend as low
as in a full cadence at the end of a complete period or para-
graph, the effect will be to divide the whole into two separate
sentences. This error will not indeed affect the meaning, yet
it will injure the expression and seriously detract from the cor-
rectness of the composition, so far as this is judged by the ear.
The following example consists of two separate sentences,
united by the conjunction and, and with a semicolon between
them.
It is to the genius - of James Watt,
that all the benefits - of the steam engine
\
are mainly owing ;
and certainly no man
ever before,
bestowed such a gift on his kind.\
JEFFREY.
In this example, it is obvious that the cadence at the semi-
colon, ought not to be as low as that at the full stop. In fact,
the word owing ought to be a little higher than the preceding
word. This cadence on a higher key is indicated by placing
the mark of inflexion over the tcord, yet not over its accented
syllable.
FALLING INFLEXIONS. 229
Thus at the ends of phrases or sentences, the mind ex-
presses the close of a course of thought, and its inde-
pendence of what follows, by falling inflexions, either
high and animated, or low and quiet or impressive.
High and animated cadences are represented by pla-
cing the mark for the falling inflexion over the accented
syllable of the final word or group.
Those that are low, and quiet or impressive, have the
mark after the last word.
Cadences on a high pitch, and occurring in the middle
of a sentence, have the mark over the word, but not over
its accented syllable.
This sort of cadence is often required also at the end of a very
short sentence, when although pointed with a full stop, it has a
close connexion in thought, with the succeeding sentence.
If the word on which the cadence falls is emphatic,
the emphasis is indicated by italics or capitals.
But in a large proportion of cases, it happens that a falling
inflexion is required on a word that does not stand last in the
grammatical clause, or even in the phrase.
In such cases however, the principle is precisely the same.
The mind points out the word so particularly to the attention
of the hearer, that its onward progress is at least checked, if not
altogether interrupted. This is done, although the actual pause
may not occur until the end of the group, or perhaps of the
phrase.
^\\i falling inflexions not at the end of a phrase, are
never given, except upon emphatic ivords. This impor-
tant fact makes their theory easy of apprehension.
Almost every case of a falling inflexion on an emphatic word
may be referred to the principle of pointed designation. The
20*
230 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
reader or speaker affirms the truth of what is uttered, and par-
ticularly points out the most important word in the whole series.
. Hence, answers to questions are given with falling inflexions.
In argument, the same inflexion is given on what is affirmed.
So likewise, in narrative, all the most important circumstances
are pointed out by the same means.
Emphatic words with the falling inflexion, are naturally ac-
companied, in gesture, by the downward stroke of the arm. If
we reflect a little on that sort of mental pause, and that stopping
momentarily, to dwell on the truth and importance of an idea
which we enforce with this gesture, such reflection will contrib-
ute still farther, to make the true significance and intention of
the falling slide of the voice clearly intelligible.
The truth and completeness of the above short theory of the
falling inflexion on emphatic words, will be exemplified by the
following extracts, especially if they are supposed to be spoken
rather than read, and each emphasis to be accompanied by its
appropriate gesture.
They tell us, Sir,
\
that we are weak,
\
unable to cope with so formidable an enemy. \
I know there is not a man here,
\
who would not rather see a general conflagration sweep over
\ [the land,\
or an earthquake sink it,\
\
than one jot - or tittle
of that plighted faith,
fall to the ground. \
FALLING INFLEXIONS. 231
\
I hear much said of patriotism,
\
appeals to patriotism,
\
transports of patriotism. \
Gentlemen,
\
why prostitute this noble word ?\
There are some cases, however, of falling inflexions, which
may seem not so readily explicable by the above simple, yet
comprehensive account; such as when they are employed to
express command, exhortation, rebuke and contempt. The
following are examples.
\ \
Come ; let us go.
\
This fellow had a Volscian for his mother ; \
\ \
his wife is in Corioli ;
\
and this child,
\
like him by chance.
SHAKESPEARE.
Astonishment, surprise, wonder and admiration, express
themselves also by strong falling inflexions. E. g.
\
I am astonished!
\
shocked,
to hear such principles confessed. \
\
How wonderful,
that a nation should be thus deluded !\
232 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
But a little reflection will enable us readily to perceive, that
in uttering such emotions, the mind pauses and stops to con-
template the ideas which excite them. The expression how-
ever, of emotion and passion, is never given by inflexions mere-
ly. Additional variations of the voice in stress and quality of
lone are required, and these must, in general, be left to the
promptings of feeling.
RISING INFLEXIONS.
In these the voice slides upwards; and as the direction of
their slide is precisely opposite to that of falling inflexions, so
their significancy, and the use which the mind makes of them,
are of a contrary nature.
As falling inflexions either express the termination of a course
of thought, or an interruption of the mental act of looking for-
ward to other ideas, so the rising imply that no complete sense
has yet been made, or that the mind does not stop to contem-
plate an idea independently of some other.
A rising inflexion, then, expresses a continuation of thought,
and gives warning that something more is to follow. Or, if
given emphatically on a single word in the middle of a phrase,
it indicates that the idea is contemplated not by itself, but in
reference to something else.
Inflexions of this class are thus of much more frequent oc-
currence than the others. At the far greater part of the pauses
in discourse, the interruption of continuity is principally for
mental and physical convenience. As the mind proceeds in
building up the structure of a long sentence, it rests after short
portions of its work, and when about to pause, leaves off with
an upward turn of voice, to indicate that the sense is still sus-
pended, and that more ideas are to follow.
In illustration of this suspensive expression at a pause, take
the following two clauses, which are connected into a single
sentence by the conjunctions as and so.
RISING INFLEXIONS. 233
/
As face answereth to face in water,
so the heart of man to man.\
The moment a reader begins this sentence, the conjunction as
warns him that the clause which it introduces, will make no
complete sense of itself, but will require to be followed by an-
other one beginning with so. He will therefore avoid making
a cadence at the end, and will leave the sense suspended by a
rising inflexion.*
Since, then, rising inflexions of some sort occur at every
pause in which no complete sense is made, and these pauses
are by far the most numerous, it is obvious that to mark them
all would create unnecessary confusion to the eye. Yet this
error is quite prevalent in books for instruction in reading. As
already observed, we have probably marked too many in our vol-
ume. Yet when not required for expression, most of them have
been placed in situations In which unpractised readers might
be liable to make mistakes. Sometimes also they have been
inserted to show the antithetical balance of one phrase with an-
other, and to assist in apprehending the rhetorical structure of
the style.
The directions sometimes given in books for schools, which
imply that the common marks of punctuation are guides for in-
flexion, are extremely injurious. In accordance with habits
* We have uniformly avoided laying down any rules of reading, as
absolutely invariable. Falling inflexions may in almost every case be
substituted for rising ones, when particular styles of expression require
it to be done. In the above example, suppose the mind wishes to point
out in a manner calculated to attract particular attention, the illustration
efface answering to face in water, the reading will then be with a Hilling
inflexion on water, but with an upward skip on the accented syllable.
This upward skip, in such a case, answers the purpose of the upward
slide of a rising inflexion, at the same lime that the downward slide de-
signates the importance of the word water.
234 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
thus formed, ihe reading proceeds with an upward turn of the
voice at every comma. Thus most of the sentences, in every
variety of style, will be read in violation of their real meaning,
and if the listener understands them at all, he does so by a pro-
cess of correcting the reader's errors and explaining the sense
to himself. He either substitutes inflexions different from those
which he hears used, or, more commonly, imagines that he sees
the words before him, and thus gathers the meaning, as it were,
by the eye. Though many errors result from making the
marks of punctuation exclusive guides for pauses, yet such are
few, compared with what proceed from using them as direc-
tions, not only for these but for inflexions.
It is obvious that there can be no necessity for entering into
a detailed examination of the various forms and degrees of con-
nection which demand rising inflexions. No farther directions
are needed for practical purposes, than the following.
In reading let the mind l>e on the watrh for places in.
which a falling inflexion is demanded.
These will be required, first, to direct the attention of
the hearer to the completion of a short course of thought ;
secondly, to point out particular words, the assertion or
inculcation of which is of especial importance.
In all other cases, let rising inflexions occur naturally
and unconsciously. Even when a prolonged rising in-
flexion is demanded on a single emphatic word, it will
be natural for the voice to slide upwards rather than
downwards, unless care be taken to the contrary.
To use familiar language, rising inflexions will take
care of themselves.
The employment of falling ones, results always from intelli-
gence on the part of the reader or speaker, and from an inten-
tional effort to affirm and explain ideas to others.
RISING INFLEXIONS.
235
In the early attempts of children to read, and in their decla-
mation of passages committed to memory, all their inflexions
are rising, and it is with extreme slowness that they learn to
explain and designate ideas to others by means of affirmative
falling slides. In teaching a child to read or speak, exclusive
attention should be given to such falling inflexions as designate
the meaning.
In some form or other, and at some previous period, a prac-
tical skill in reading must have been gained, even by the oldest
students of delivery, before attempting to speak what has been
committed to memory. If this order of study be not observed,
declamation will proceed with an unvarying succession of ri-
sing inflexions, which convey no other impression than that of
a mere recollection by the declaimer, of the successive words
and clauses of his speech.
Yet there is an important class of cases in which, although
period is the appropriate mark of punctuation, arising inflex-
ion ought to be used at the end of the sentence.
These are when the sentence requires to be uttered in refer-
ence to something else, either expressed or understood. Let us
take for exemplification, the following conversational sentence :
It is not very probable,
/
that so fair an offer will be rejected.
If this be uttered as a simple declaration, it will end with a
cadence. But if spoken in a lively manner, and with reference
to a contrary opinion or idea, viz. that it is supposed that "so
fair an offer" will be rejected, or if regard be had to rejecting
instead of accepting so fair an offer, the inflexion at the end
will be a rising one.
The reference in cases of this class, is always to something
j opposite or different, which the mind is looking forward to, or
at least thinking of, at the time. Very often it is some contra-
iry opinion which is generally prevalent. At other times, refer-
236 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
ence is made to something which either has been said, or which
it is intended shall immediately follow. In some instances al-
so, a succession of several very short sentences is rendered
more lively and more closely connected in meaning, by ending
one or more with a rising inflexion, and thus uniting them as
much as possible into one train of thought.
For such reasons common conversation, unless very grave
and formal, is remarkably distinguished from reading and speak-
ing, by a less frequent occurrence of cadences. Civility, social
sympathy, and a constant reference to the thoughts and feelings
of others, lead to the avoidance of positiveness, and of assertions
terminated by a cadence. Hesitancy, by preventing the mind
from coming to positive conclusions, or by interrupting its pro-
gress towards a complete arrangement of thought, exhibits lit-
tle other peculiarity of utterance than a constant interruption
of the continuity of discourse by pauses with a rising inflexion;
the same inflexion occurring even at the end, from a continu-
ance of the uncertainty to the last.
The system which we follow in regard to the part of a word
over which the mark for a rising inflexion is placed, is this :
When a phrase ends with a slight rising inflexion, to
indicate suspension of sense, or a rhetorical contrast with
another phrase, the mark is placed over the end of the
last word.
When an emphatic final word has a rising inflexion,
and the rise of the voice is very striking and expressive,
the mark is placed over its accented syllable.
The mark for a rising inflexion placed over an em-
phatic word in the middle of a phrase, is generally over
its accented syllable, or over the vowel, in a word of one
syllable.
In many of the last cases, we think that the inflexion actual-
ly required in natural utterance, is some variety of the circum-
CONTRAST OF INFLEXIONS. 237
flex in most cases, a wave of the second, after an upward skip.
Yet it is commonly considered as nothing more than a strongly
marked rising slide.
In numerous cases, words which we mark by a rising inflex-
ion placed over the word, ought to have it placed under, and
passing up beyond it, if such a position could be arranged in
printing. The actual slide on the accented syllable, must
often begin on a lower key than that of the preceding word or
syllable. Beginning thus after a downward skip, the slide ex-
tends to a key still higher than that immediately preceding.
CONTRAST OF INFLEXIONS.
One of the most important uses of inflexions, is to express
contrasts between ideas. The idea which the mind affirms,
not simply, but in reference to another, takes a rising, and
that which completes the contrast, has a falling inflexion.
This will be made clear by examples :
1. One of two things may be affirmed, and the other denied.
In such a case, what is affirmed, is asserted as true of itself,
and its truth or falsehood will hold good, whether the idea which
is denied be mentioned or not. The mind may stop and con-
template the truth of the affirmative for any length of time.
E.g.
It will not snow.
\
It will rain.
It will make no difference which idea be first mentioned ;
the inflexions will still remain the same. E. g.
\
It will rain.
/
It will not snow.
Neither, in earnest or lively utterance, will the grammatical
construction affect the inflexions. E. g.
21
238 EXPOSITION OP THOUGHT.
\ /
It will rain ; and not snow*
If both ideas are affirmed in contrast with each other, that
which is mentioned jirst, has a rising, and the last mentioned,
which completes the contrast, has a falling inflexion. E. g.
It will either snow
\
or rain.
Or '
It will either rain
\
or snow.
QUESTIONS.
In general, the contrast between a question and its answer,
is expressed, like other contrasts, by the one having a rising,
and the other a falling inflexion.
More precisely, however, when a direct question is asked, to
which the answer will be yes or no, the mind of the person
who puts the question remains, after asking it, in a state of
suspense, and does not rest satisfied till an answer has been re-
turned. The answer is necessary, to complete or teminate the
course of thought which the mind has entered upon. Or, the
condition of the mind at the close of a question, may be stated
as one of the cases before mentioned, in which the course of
thought ends with a reference to something that is to follow.
* This sentence may indeed be read with precisely opposite inflex-
ions, e. g. it will rain, and not snow. This, however, as will readily
be perceived, does not set off the contrast in so striking a manner. It
is in fact a case of that substitution of one inflexion for another, which
we shall explain at the end of this chapter.
QUESTIONS. 239
Direct questions, then, which require yes or no for an answer,
end with a rising inflexion, according to the common rule of
school-books.
But there is another class of questions, which begin with an
interrogative pronoun or adverb, such as who, which, what ; or
when, why, wherefore. These in fact take the form of a com-
mand, or injunction. For example: When do you go? is the
same in meaning as, Tell me, when are you going ?
This class of questions take a falling inflexion on their em-
phatic word. E. g.
When do you go?\
\
or, When do you go 1
\
or, When do you go ?
\
or, When do you go 1 \
Indeed, any question may be put in the form of a command ;
just as we may say, I ask you to tell me, or, I demand that you
tell me.* E. g.
\
Are you going ?
or, Are you going ?\
\
or, Are you going ?
\
or, Are you going 1
Very often also, when an interrogative sentence is very long,
the rising tones of interrogation ought not to be continued to
the end, but falling ones should be substituted, and the whole be
made to end with a cadence. Yet in punctuation, the mark of
interrogation must be deferred to the end of the sentence.
* Our word demand is the same word as the French demande; but
in French, demande means simply to ask or inquire.
240 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
When likewise two questions are contrasted with each other,
the contrast is exhibited by a falling inflexion on the last ; as,
/ \
Do you go, or stay 1
/
Is Caesar dead,
\
or is he living?
Other variations from the most common modes of giving in-
flexions on questions, might be stated ; as when the words of
a question are repeated, by the person of whom it is asked, in
order to be certain that he understands the inquiry. E. g.
/ /
When am I going 1 do you say ?
But it is needless to pursue the subject of questions farther.
No practical direction, for interrogative inflexions, is needed,^
except to avoid following uniformly any of the common rules,
and to trust implicitly to natural instinct in reading questions,
just as is done in extemporaneous speaking.
What makes the common rules still more injurious, is, that
by directing attention exclusively to the inflexion at the end,
they divert attention from the INTERROGATIVE TONE which
characterizes every word of the question.
This interrogative tone running through the whole,
is the only essential requisite in uttering a question.
Every question that is not asked in a tone like that of a com-
mand or a requisition, is uttered with a peculiar interrogative
turn of the voice, on every syllable. This is of course most
conspicuous on the accented and emphatic syllables. The in-
terrogative tone consists in the upward slides and skips being
carried farther than ordinary. Instead of being simple seconds,
they are thirds, fifths, or octaves. This wider reach of the
skips and slides, causes the voice to be apparently on a higher
key than it really is.
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 241
From the very moment, then, of beginning an inter-
rogative clause, a natural tone of asking a question must
be made strikingly manifest, and kept up on every word.
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.
These begin with conditional or hypothetical conjunctions,
such as if, though, although, unless. They are also introduced
by such words as suppose.
The peculiarity of tone with which they are uttered, was
first discovered by Dr. Rush, who thus made a valuable contri-
bution to elocution.
Conditional clauses have a tone running through them
similar to that of questions.
Dr. Rush describes it as being precisely the same. To us it
seems clearly demonstrable that, while in questions the slides
of thirds, fifths or octaves are exhibited upon every syllable,
conditional clauses exhibit them only on the accented syllables.
In teaching, we have had our attention perpetually called to
the injurious effect of the common rules in school-books, which
direct to depend solely on the inflexion at the end of a question,
for exhibiting its interrogative turn ; such effect being to prevent
the natural tone of interrogation from being given throughout
the whole. Of equal importance has been the very common
fault of reading or speaking conditional clauses without their
natural and appropriate tone.
The following example contains two conditional clauses, the
first beginning with if, and the second with though. Each of
them is inclosed within a bracket.
If the driver - of a public carriage
maliciously overturn another upon the road,
whilst the proprietor is asleep - in his bed at a hundred
[miles distance,
21*
242 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
the proprietor
\
must unquestionably - pay the damages to a farthing;
but though the malicious servant
might also be indicted,
and suffer punishment - for a crime,
still, his master
could not be prosecuted for a crime.
The following example consists of a condition or supposition
followed by a question. The question at the end being asked
emphatically, the interrogative tone is stronger than the condi-
tional ; but if the two be carefully compared, it will be per-
ceived, that they have considerable resemblance to each other.
So, if one of two partners - in trade
commits a fraud, by forgery, or false indorsements,
so as to subject himself
to death, or other punishment, by indictment,
could the oilier party
be indicted - for a crime ?
-
Common geometrical demonstrations abound in conditional
clauses ; e. g. If A be to B as C is to D, then, &c. Such are of-
ten introduced by the word let; e. g. Let A be to B as C to D,
then E will be to F, &c.
Further examples of conditional clauses, will be given in the
subsequent chapter on Emphasis.
CIRCUMFLEX INFLEXIONS. 243
CIRCUMFLEX INFLEXIONS.
These begin with a falling, and end with a rising inflexion.
We indicate them by placing the marks for each close together,
and over the accented syllable of an emphatic word.
The falling part has the same significance as if it were used
alone. It is this first portion which gives circumflex inflexions
their logical force and use. By a slight alteration in the con-
struction of the sentence, every circumflex may be superseded
by a falling inflexion. In many cases also, it is merely a mat-
ter of taste which of these two to employ.
What then is the office of the last or rising slide of the cir-
cumflex ?
In most cases, this is called for simply by the grammatical
construction, which is such as to suspend the sense at the end
of the clause.
Sometimes also the rising part is required to exhibit a con-
trast with another word which has a falling inflexion.
It is a general rule of good taste in reading or speaking, to
emphasize by circumflexes as little as possible, and to substi-
tute simple falling inflexions. The incessant employment of
the former, produces a disagreeable style of animation in the
reading of some, who in other respects possess great merit.
It is going to an extreme, however, to endeavor wholly to avoid
them.
Circumflexes are as easy of execution as either rising or fall-
ing inflexions. Indeed in no sort of delivery do they so much
abound, as in conversation. No practical direction is required
for their management, further than the following :
In emphasizing with a circumflex, endeavor to ex-
press the logical turn of the idea, by means of a falling
inflexion : then suffer the voice to end with a suspensive
tone, in reference to the connexion with what follows,
or for the purpose of expressing a contrast.
244 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
When a circumflex occurs on an emphatic word, which con-
sists but of a single syllable, it is always what is called a wave.
That is, the voice slides first in one direction, and then in an-
other, without any break in the continuity of sound.
A wave may be either downwards and upwards, or upwards
and downwards. The first is of most importance, and is that
which we take care occasionally to mark. The second may
mostly be dispensed with, so far as the sense is concerned, and
in place of it the simple downward inflexion employed. It
is used to prolong a syllable arid give it a more -earnest expres-
sion. In very powerful delivery, especially of argumentative
composition, the increase of power given to falling slides, by
sliding instead of skipping up to the point where they com-
mence, is of perpetual occurrence. But as this mode of man-
aging downward inflexions, depends not on the logic and gram-
mar of a passage, but on the degree of earnestness in the read-
ing or speaking, we frequently dispense with marking it.
One of the most common uses of the circumflex, is the fol-
lowing. In statement or argument, a \vord is emphasized in
the way of pointed designation. The speaker by his tone and
gesture, insists that his hearers shall take especial notice of that
particular word. This pointing out is effected by means of a
falling slide of the voice. But on the other hand, the word on
which this is done is so situated, that it must ^hd with a rising
inflexion, on account of a contrast, or of a suspension of the
sense. Thus it happens that two different objects are to be ac-
complished ; and it is done by a circumflex.
EXTRACT FOR PRACTICE.
In the following glowing extract from Burke, the descending
part of every circumflex proceeds from this principle. It keeps
up throughout the extract, the tone of pointedly and strongly
inculcating the leading doctrines. Without the circumflexes
which we have marked, the argument will be delivered with di-
CIRCUMFLEX INFLEXIONS. 245
minished force and point. Although we have introduced a con-
siderable number of circumflexes, we might have inserted still
more. Each reader may increase or diminish the number, to
suit his own taste and judgment.
In a few instances, as will be observed, we have marked the
upward and downward wave. It will be perceived that by
means of it, a speaker will be enabled to set off the contrasts
with more force and power.
As this is one of the most magnificent passages of argument
ever written, we shall not only mark the emphatic words and
inflexions, but the emphatic slowness of rhythm which occa-
sionally occurs, and which is so striking a characteristic of
Burke's wonderful mastery of style.
The whole will illustrate the most important uses of all the
inflexions.
The clauses included in brackets are conditional, and each
must exhibit the conditional tone in a striking and spirited
manner.
The clause beginning with " As long as you have the wis-
dom," &,c. is also included in a bracket, although the introduc-
tory words, " As long as," do not in strict propriety introduce
a condition. The clause ought not therefore, by the laws of
language, to be read with the conditional tone. Yet if such a
tone be given, it will be an allowable license.
BURKE ON CONCILIATING AMERICA.
Let the colonies
\/
always keep this idea of their civil rights
/
associated - with your government,
\
they will ding and grapple to you ;
\
and no force - under heaven,
246 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
\
* will be of power to tear them - from their allegiance.
But let it be once understood,
that your government may be one thing,
\/
. and their privileges another ; \ /
[lotion;
that these two things may exist - without any mutual re-
\
the cement is gone;
\
the cohesion is loosened ;
and every thing hastens - to decay and dissolution.
As long as you have the wisdom
to keep the sovereign authority - of this country,
\/
as the sanctuary - of liberty,
the sacred temple consecrated - to our common faith,
\
wherever
the chosen race - and sons - of liberty worship freedom,
/\
they will turn their faces towards you.
The more they multiply,
/\
the more friends you will have.
The more ardently they love liberty,
\
the more perfect will be their obedience.
\/
Slavery ,
\
they can have any where.
CIRCUMFLEX INFLEXIONS. 247
They may have it from Spain,
\
they may have it - from Prussia.
\/
But until you
become lost to all feeling
of your true interest,
and your national dignity,
\/
freedom they can have
from none but you.
\/
This is the commodity of price,
of which you have the monopoly .
This is the true - act of navigation,
which binds to you the commerce - of the colonies,
and through them,
\
secures to you the wealth of the world.
f ^ /
I Deny them this participation - of freedom,
and you break that sole bond,
which originally made,
\
and must still preserve,
the unity - of the empire.
Do not entertain so weak an imagination,
as that your registers, and your bonds,
248 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
\/
your affi davits , and your s uffe ra?ices,
\/
your cockets and your clearances,
/
are what form - the great securities - of your commerce.
\/
Do not dream that your Utters of office,
\/
and your instructions ,
\/
and your suspending clauses, /
[this mysterious whole,
are the things that hold together - the great contexture - of
\/ /
These things do not make your government,
/
dead instruments,
/
passive tools as they are ;
\
it is the spirit - of the English constitution,
\/ /
that gives all their life and efficacy - to them.
\
It is the spirit of the English constitution,
/
which infused through the mighty mass,
/\
pervades,
ferts,
/\
unites,
invigorates,
\
vivifies,
every part of the empire,
\
even down to the minutest member.
INFLEXIONS.
Before dismissing the subject of inflexions, it is important to
furnish some further illustration of the modes in which almost
every example that can be produced, for illustrating the propriety
of a rising or a falling inflexion on any one word, may be read
in an opposite manner the contrary inflexion being substituted
for that directed.
Every such change, however, of one inflexion for its opposite,
is but an apparent, and not a real exception. By such changes,
the idea is presented in a different light, or, to speak more pre-
cisely, with a different relation to other ideas.
It readily follows, then, that rules and directions for invaria-
bly appropriating one class of inflexions to any particular com-
bination of words, must be erroneous. This having been done
in so many of the books on elocution, the error has undoubtedly
contributed to the general neglect of such books by accurate
scholars, on the one hand, and by those who have a natural turn
for delivery, on the other.
It will be well to take some of the examples which we have
already used, and explain the circumstances of connexion with
other ideas which may require inflexions contrary to those
which we have already given them.
Take even such strong cases as those of the emphatic falling
inflexion, by which we express positiveness, strong affirmation,
or earnest and pointed designation of such ideas as we wish to
receive particular attention ; even in these, if we employ a dif-
ferent style of expression, or have a different object in view, the
downward slide is changed into a rising one. E. g.
" I make the assertion deliberately"
As much as to say I appeal to you, and ask you if I am not
perfectly cool and collected, in making the assertion.
" They tell us, Sir, that we are weak,
unable to cope with so formidable an enemy."
22
250 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
That is, I concede I allow that the opposers of war meas-
ures, consider us weak, &c.
We thus see, that
Concession, or appeal, or a fair and candid submitting
of an opinion or assertion, to the consideration and pos-
sible objections of others, will change affirmative falling
inflexions to rising slides.
So too, any rising slide may have a downward one
substituted for it, whenever we choose to interrupt the
grammatical or logical continuity of languge or thought,
for the sake of stopping and pointing out a particular idea,
as we pass along.
In most cases however, if this be done, the upward skip with
which the falling inflexion commences, will be high and striking.
The upward skip will indeed serve to a considerable extent,
the office of an upward slide.
Let us take for an example of this, the first conditional clause
of the extract from Burke; its inflexions may even be as fol-
lows, provided we state the condition in the utmost extreme of
pointedly and even dogmatically inculcating a doctrine.
\
Let the col onies
\ \
always keep the i de a of their civil rlghts
\ \
as^ciated with your ernment.
Some notice ought also to be taken of the change which of-
ten takes place at the close of a series of several falling inflex-
ions. At the close of our extract from Burke, we have the fol-
lowing series of emphatic particulars :
\ \ \ / \
" which pervades, feeds, unites, invigorates, vivifies, every
part of the empire."
INFLEXIONS. 251
Here it will be observed, that on the last member but one of
the series, the inflexion is changed. The object of doing this,
is simply to show that we are within one particular of the end
of the enumeration. If the conjunction and intervened be-
tween the two last members of the series, the change to the rising
inflexion would be on the last particular, instead of on the last
but one.
There are several ways of varying the inflexions, for the pur-
pose of showing that we are near the end of the series. The
last may be varied, or the last but one ; or the two or three last.
No more precise rule is necessary, than the following :
At or near the end of a series of particulars, we should
generally vary the inflexion, to show that the series is
nearly or quite ended.
The gestures that naturally accompany inflexions, curiously
correspond with them in regard to upward or downward di-
rection. We have before mentioned, that emphatic falling in-
flexions are accompanied with the downward stroke of gesture.
Rising inflexions, if of moderate extent, are accompanied, sim-
ply with a suspension of the hand in the air. The arm does
not naturally incline to descend or fall, until the sense is com-
pleted, and the voice employs an emphatic downward slide,
or a cadence. Emphatic rising inflexions, incline to carry the
hand in an oblique direction, upwards and outwards. But in
the most flexible, graceful and significant styles of natural ges-
ture, the motions made more or less in an upward dirction, are
executed rather at the wrist than from the shoulder. Circum-
flexes especially, tend to make the gesticulations of the hand
and forefinger extremely significant. A waving course through
the air is made by the hand, similar to the downward and up-
ward progress of the voice,
252 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
CHAPTER III.
EMPHASIS.
THIS important subject will be considered in the same physi-
ological light, as those of pause and inflexion. But before pro-
ceeding to treat of it in detail, it is essential that we make a few
remarks, in order to explain more definitely than any one has
hitherto done, what is the peculiar province of one who acts as
a teacher, not of oratory, but of elocution.
Delivery, as a subject of study on the part of a reader or
speaker, or of criticism on that of an auditor, must be regarded
under one of two aspects. Viewed in one light, it is a natural
and instinctive act, by which we give an adequate expression of
the thoughts and feelings suggested by our subject, and by the
time, place and occasion. This is the light in which it is re-
garded throughout the whole of this treatise. Elocution thus
limited, becomes a branch of physiology.
In the other aspect, reading or speaking is viewed as an art,
and therefore as dependent solely on judgment and taste. The
art of delivery is a part of the art of oratory. Acting, which
makes a distinct branch, is also in the legitimate sense of the
word an art ; as much so as poetry or painting. It is an art
of a high order.
Delivery thus exercised, makes use of the physiological laws
of utterance, as instruments. A speaker who deserves to be
called an orator, does much more than merely give an adequate
expression of his impulses and feelings. His reason, or as we
more commonly say, his taste and judgment, are all the while
superior to these, and, as it were, look down upon them from a
higher position; determining which he shall encourage and
which he shall check. In doing this, however, he must never
violate any law of nature. His pauses and inflexions, for in-
EMPHASIS. 253
stance, are all determined by laws of reason and grammar. In
short, all the principles which we have as yet investigated, are
fixed and definite. They are capable of being reduced to sci-
entific laws.
If we apply these considerations to our present subject, the
distinction between the natural laws of utterance in regard to
emphasis, and the artistical taste and judgment of the orator, is
as follows.
Nature has provided certain modes of rendering words em-
phatic. We are so constituted, that in the language of our defi-
nition, (p. 103,) " Emphatic force is given to those parts of dis-
course which excite the mind of a speaker to peculiar earnest-
ness, and cause him to make a special effort to awaken the
same feelings in those whom he addresses." In a merely in-
stinctive delivery, every word that peculiarly excites the speaker,
must be uttered in precise correspondence with the impulse.
But in so doing, he is liable to misjudge. He feels, for instance,
impulses leading him to enforce with great vehemence, all the
explanatory inflexions on the principal words of his course of
reasoning. His audience, however, may be so familiar with
the subject, or so quick of apprehension, that they do not need
this assistance, and feel it to be disagreeable. So too, of ap-
peals to the imagination and emotions : the speaker may per-
petually misjudge. In all such cases, a knowledge of elocution,
considered as a mere account of the natural laws of utterance,
can render him no assistance, and he must be guided by prin-
ciples belonging to the art of oratory. Such principles, like
those of poetry, painting and sculpture, are not properly of
a scientific nature. There may be a science of elocution, as
there is of natural history. No one however, speaks of a
science of poetry or oratory. Science does not, like the arts,
appeal to taste and the decisions of the imagination and feelings.
Asa clear apprehension of these distinctions is essential in
reference to practical speaking, as well as to an artistical man-
22*
254 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
agement of elocution, it will be useful to dwell upon the distinc-
tion between emphasis and inflexion. In speaking of the latter,
we have generally been careful to avoid confounding it with
the tone that results from its union with the former. An em-
phatic inflexion is a compound of inflexion with emphatic force.
Emphatic force results from feeling. The inflexions repre-
sent acts of the intellect, and are continually employed, with
or without that excitement of feeling which produces emphatic
force. Let us illustrate this assertion by a familiar example :
\
I said yes,
/
and not no.
Here the contrast between what is affirmed and what is de-
nied, is expressed by opposite inflexions. These must be of a
marked degree, or there will be no tone of explanation. They
must be at least thirds and not seconds ; and the extent of the
change of pitch, by skip and slide, will represent the degree of
explanatory tone. If we employ but a slight degree, the voice
will skip and slide a third; if we are more explanatory, these
changes will either be through a fifth, or the simple slides will be-
come waves. But suppose the person addressed, is inattentive,
or incredulous, and we wish to arouse his mind to perceive the
truth or importance of what we say ; then it is, and only then,
that we employ emphatic force. This may be given in differ-
ent ways, but it is always something superadded to the inflexion.
Emphasis, then, is some kind of emphatic force, and
may exist with or without inflexion.
It represents the feeling of the importance of an idea ;
and if accompanying an inflexion, it superadds force and
energy to the simply explanatory act of the intellect.
Emphasis or emphatic force, is simply an instrument
for awakening attention, and consequent sympathy, in
other minds.
EMPHASIS. 255
A familiar exemplification of its essential nature, is afforded
by the sharp, loud, or harsh utterance, which we employ to
command brute animals.
There is an apparent exception to the truth of the above
proposition, in the fact that we employ emphasis when talking
to ourselves. But in all such cases, we are either in imagina-
tion addressing others, or we actually address ourselves, in the
same way as when one person speaks to another. E. g. " I say
to myself." If we may be permitted to use a mode of expres-
sion that is now growing familiar to all, we may say that, subjec-
tively, we address ourselves viewed as objective. We, at any
rate, make an objective representation of our own discourse.
If then, the various forms of emphasis are nothing more or
less than instruments for arousing attention and sympathy in
others, when should we employ these instruments'?
It is obvious that we may feel the importance of directing the
attention of others, to the grammatical construction ; to the
logical relations of ideas; to particular images before the imagin-
ation; or to particular emotions or passions. Accordingly, we
have the following classification :
1. Grammatical Emphasis.
2. Logical Emphasis.
3. Emphasis of the Imagination.
4. Emphasis enforcing particular emotions.
The words to be selected for receiving emphatic force, must
evidently be the most important ones in reference to each of
these heads.
Errors occurring under the first two classes, imply that the
reader or speaker misapprehends the meaning of a passage. In
respect to these, no license is admissible, except to avoid giving
force to more words than will be necessary for intelligibility.
In respect to emphatic enforcement of words that appeal to
the imagination, or to the emotions, the principles of grammar
and logic are not without influence, yet imagination is also ne-
256 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
cessary, and taste and judgment must be exercised. The call
for these is similar to that made in writing an essay or oration.
The grammatical and logical arrangement of the composition,
will indeed, in ordinary cases, be a sufficient direction, but a
reader or speaker of skill and cultivated power, will often be
much superior to those who depend on these alone. No com-
position is found less interesting in ordinary delivery, than de-
scription or narration ; while none is more so, when read or
spoken by one who makes use of a poetical imagination.
We thus find that even the selection of words for receiving
emphatic force, is liable to depend on taste and judgment;
while the degree of the force must be determined solely by the
same guides. But as artistic principles are never very neces-
sary for enabling one to do justice to his own sentiments ; noth-
ing more is necessary for qualifying us to become practical
speakers, than to acquire the power of giving a free and bold
expression to natural impulses.
Let a speaker emphasize such words as most excite
his own understanding, imagination and feelings; and
let the degree of force be such as to produce on his au-
dience the impression he wishes.
In respect to determining the latter point, considerable assist-
ance may be derived from the section (p. 126) on the Con-
sciousness of being earnest and interesting.
By the very act of endeavoring to speak with earnestness,
one's whole mind is aroused to activity ; and improvement in
respect to propriety of emphasis, keeps pace with that in the
more mechanical and physical requisites of delivery. Yet
though the mind of the speaker is in fact actuated by principles
of thought, he is not often distinctly conscious of them at the
time of speaking.
The following general directions, however, seem to us to be
such as actually influence the choice of emphatic words, and
will undoubtedly be found useful.
EMPHATIC GROUPING. 257
In following a train of thought, we find that each suc-
cessive sentence adds a new idea to those which have
been given in preceding sentences.
The new idea must always receive an emphasis.
We also meet continually with ideas that have been
expressed or implied in previous sentences.
These are to be passed over without emphasis.
Sometimes however an idea is repeated by the wri-
ter, for the sake of again inculcating its importance.
In such cases it must be emphasized again, and with
still greater force.
The rhetorical principle of climax, is also of constant recur~
rence in animated composition, requiring the most important of
two or more ideas to be placed last. Hence, if we meet with
a series of emphatic ideas, which all stand in the same or a
similar relation, the emphatic force increases as we proceed,
and is most striking on the last of the climax. Therefore,
When we meet with a series of ideas requiring em-
phasis, let the climax of force correspond to that of the
thoughts.
Before proceeding to explain and illustrate by examples for
practice, the several kinds of emphasis, according to the classi-
fication lately given, we will furnish examples in which the
above rules will guide every one aright.
But it is first necessary to explain a principle which we have
before alluded to, viz. the effect of strong emphatic force in fu-
sing groups together, so as sometimes to make the actual words
of utterance extremely long.
EMPHATIC . GROUPING.
Emphatic force is a still higher degree of accentual force.
This higher degree may unite several groups, and even two or
258 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
more phrases, into a whole, which is uttered with a single men-
tal and vocal effort. In familiar delivery, such fusing of groups
and phrases causes the rate of utterance to be rapid. Experi-
enced speakers, however, learn to exhibit this process of ma-
king a single whole out of several parts, without any relaxation
of a suitable slowness and deliberation.
They acquire the power of keeping a clear and unwavering
conception of the intimate clustering of subordinate ideas
around the emphatic one, and of maintaining, at the same time,
a perfect command over the voice.
Yet it must be remembered, that in all such cases, the words
which cluster to the emphatic one, and make, as it were, one
extremely long group, are such as express ideas with which
both the speaker and the auditor are so familiar, that there is
no necessity for enforcing them. They are words which have
either been employed before, or would be readily understood if
they should be omitted. It is not even necessary to the mere
intelligibility of a discourse, that they be distinctly caught by
the ear. In addresses to very large assemblies, it often hap-
pens that they are not distinctly heard by a considerable pro-
portion of the auditors. Except in very deliberate and distinct
speaking, their natural utterance is in a sort of under tone, and
with an obscure sound of the voice, like that of words spoken
aside in a dialogue. They likewise run on a monotone, and in
a key at least as low, or as high, as that of the termination of
the slide or skip of the emphatic word. When on a low key,
as is always the case after an emphatic falling inflexion, it is
difficult to determine their exact pitch in so obscure a tone
of voice.
Some English writers on elocution, have to some extent, but
very imperfectly, apprehended this principle, and distinguished
the words which in this manner follow an emphatic falling in-
flexion, by the name of a slur, or a slurred passage.
We will first quote in exemplification, a sentence which we
have already employed to illustrate the lowest degree of the
EMPHATIC GROUPING. 259
principle; one in which a noun which has been before em-
ployed, is repeated again, without its natural strong accent, and
in short, is uttered precisely like a pronoun. Vide p. 204.
Yes! Gentlemen,
\
the defendant has forced the press.
In vehement argumentation, such a phrase is uttered like one
long word which has two secondary accents preceding the pri-
mary one at the end.
In the following example, all the words that follow the vehe-
ment emphasis on competency, are uttered with accents which,
in relation to that on com, are but secondary, and, the same be-
ing the case with the words before the emphasis, the whole
phrase becomes, in utterance, but a single word.
I deny the COMpetency of Parliament, to do this act.
We may even lengthen this example, and if the speaking be
sufficiently vehement, the whole will still be fused into a group
uttered as a single word.
I give an unqualified denial to the assertion of the COMpetency of Par-
[liament, to abolish the legislature of Ireland.
The following is from Wirt's celebrated report of the speech
of Patrick Henry in favor of war measures.
Sir, we have done every thing that COULD be done to avert the storm
[that is now coming on.
These examples will be abundantly sufficient to illustrate the
principle, which is one of very frequent occurrence, and indis-
pensable in practice whenever a glowing animation, and what
the ancients called the " torrent" of delivery, is called for. No
principle is more perpetually exemplified in conversation, and
in fluent extemporaneous speaking. There is no danger that
the lawyer will fail of instinctively practising it. Yet those
260 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
whose sole vocation, in speaking, is to deliver formal discourses
in very large rooms, are apt to acquire habits of monotonous
uniformity of force and accent, which entirely prevent this nat-
ural subordination of several words to a single one. An exclu-
sive cultivation of articulation, while other parts of delivery are
neglected, may produce the same ill effect. It is important to
be known, in reference to the mere intelligibility of a discourse,
that it is not at all necessary that every syllable, or even every
word, be distinctly caught by the auditors. Articulation is of
less importance to the meaning of the whole of a passage, than
natural emphasis, and the due subordination of a part of the
words to the rest.
In reference to this principle, the following will suffice for
practical directions.
When a phrase has a single strong emphatic word, let
this be uttered with such force, that the others shall be
kept subordinate to it.
If pauses are made for convenience of respiration, let
them be so managed, as not to interfere with the unity
of the phrase, and especially with the subordination of
all the words to the emphatic one.
It is the better observance of the relative subordination of
ideas, which chiefly constitutes the superiority of conversational,
or of glowing extemporaneous delivery.
The principle is of equal importance, in reference to clauses
and phrases which come in parenthetically, and interrupt the
connexion of others. The practical direction, however, for
managing these, should not be, to deliver them in an obscure
and hurried manner, but as follows :
Exhibit the subordination of phrases which interrupt
the connexion between emphatic words, principally by
means of striking force on the emphases which precede
and follow them.
EMPHATIC GROUPING. 261
EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE.
The following extract illustrates such principles of emphasis
as we have hitherto furnished. It likewise abounds in contrasts
of opposite emphatic inflexions. The primary principle of the
emphasis is very simple ; being that of a succession of new ap-
peals to the minds of the assembly. These grow stronger also,
in the way of climax.
\
They tell us that we are weak,
\
unable - to cope - with so formidable an adversary.
\
But when - shall we be stronger?
/
Will it be the next week,
\
or the next year ?
/
Will it be - when we are totally disarmed,
/
and when a British GUARD shall be stationed in every house ?
Shall we gather strength by irresolution - and inaction 1
Shall we acquire the means of effectual resistance,
/
by lying supinely on our backs,
/
and hugging - the delusive phantom of HOPE,
/
until our enemies shall have bound us,
/
hand and FOOT?
\
Sir, we are not weak,
if we make a proper use \
[power.
of those means which the God of nature hath placed in our
23
262 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
Three millions - of people,
armed - in the holy cause of liberty ,
/
and in such a COUNTRY - as that which we possess,
are invincible by any force
which our enemies - can send against us.
PATRICK HENRY.
The following illustrates the same principles, and especially
that of repetition for the sake of increased emphasis.
With a step steady as time,
/
and an appetite keen as DEATH,
the defendant - has been seen waging against the plaintiff,
/
a warfare not - of conquest,
\
but Of EXTERMINATION.
He has been seen - opening on the plaintiff,
\
the batteries of the press.
\
Yes, gentlemen,
\
the defendant - has forced the PRESS
\
to become the disturber - of domestic quiet,
the assassin - of private reputation.\
Our press, gentlemen,
\
was destined - for other purposes.
/
It was destined not - to violate,
\
but to PROTECT the sanctity of private rights.
GRAMMATICAL EMPHASIS.
It was kindly ordained - by a beneficent Providence,
\
to inform,
\
expand,
\
and DIGNIFY the public mind.
\
It is for THESE - high purposes our press was ordained ;
but the defendant
\
has rendered it the degraded vehicle - of foul defamation.
\
Of THIS I complain,
/
not - merely - as counsel for the plaintiff,
\
but as the humble - advocate of my country.
GRIFFIN.
GRAMMATICAL EMPHASIS.
This enunciates some words more strikingly than others, to
assist in apprehending, or remembering, an extended grammat-
ical construction. It is occasionally needed, when the style is
diffuse, and a particular sentence is long.
It often happens that the nominative noun of the subject, has
appended to it several words, which make the whole subject
very long. This appended portion will separate the nominative
from the verb, by a considerable interval. In such a case, it
will be uttered with more force ; and thus will not only have its
importance in the subject indicated, but will be remembered,
when the mind, both of the speaker and listener, arrives at the
predicate. There will also be a corresponding emphasis, on
the verb, adjective, or noun, of the predicate. E. g.
Every thing in the city - of our residence - on earth,
reminds us,
264 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
that we are never - stationary - in it,
[parture.
but are always advancing towards the period - of our final de-
In this example, the emphatic force on every thing, and re-
minds, shows the relation of nominative and verb. The subse-
quent emphases are not only grammatical, but logical ; since
they indicate the most important idea in each phrase, as well as
the construction of the sentence.
Grammatical emphasis is always needed, when the subject
and predicate are separated by intervening clauses. E. g.
The aggregate of days that have passed by us,
the yearly seasons,
the scenes of Ufe y and periods of age,
since we came into possession - of our privileges,
since we first - knew our dwellings,
walked - our streets,
and entered - our sanctuaries, and heard the words of God,
are so many advances towards eternity j\
and tell,
as they thicken - on the path - we leave,
how soon we reach the close - of our pilgrimage,
and enter - upon unknown worlds.
Prof. FITCH.
The emphases in the last two phrases of the above, show the
grammatical relation to tell, from which they are separated by
an intervening clause. These cases, like the last emphases in
the preceding example, and numerous others, are instances of
the coincidence of grammatical with logical emphasis.
GRAMMATICAL EMPHASIS.
In general, when a composition proceeds in a flowing style,
and with long periods, grammatical, in addition to logical em-
phasis, is needed. Yet to a great extent, the two will coincide.
The following beautiful period from the same sermon which
furnished our two preceding examples, will be found, on analy-
sis, an instructive exemplification of the present subject. We
mark its emphases as follows. The phrases which are wholly
in italics, are the subject phrases of the whole period. The
second and fourth from the end, have entire words in italics, to
show their common grammatical relation. In the others, the
words in corresponding grammatical relations, are indicated by
italicising the accented vowel of each. To prevent confusion,
we have omitted to mark the emphasis required on the word
" first," in the second phrase, which is purely an emphasis of
thought.
He has beheld us,
in the first stages - of our being - here,
engaged - in unrighteous rebellion - against his authority,
and bent - on neglect of his glories ;
and, moved with pity,
sent his everlasting Son,
to atone - for our guzlt and to call us - to repentance,
and his Holy Spirit,
to indzte - his will,, and influence us - to obedience.
One of the most common uses of this kind of emphasis, is to
connect an antecedent and its relative. If the antecedent be a
pronoun, it will thus, though naturally unaccented, receive a
strong and emphatic accent. E. g.
Nor could I regard him as a safe counsellor,
23*
266 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
in the affairs - of this government,
whose thoughts should be mainly bent - on considering, &,c.
From the above examples, our readers will readily infer, that
grammatical emphasis is common and important. Yet it must
be remembered, that while, in general, sentences are so con-
structed, that the most important word in each clause or phrase
will require some degree of emphasis in reference to setting
forth thought, the same emphasis will also assist in displaying
the grammatical relation.
LOGICAL EMPHASIS.
The emphasis of thought, coinciding with that of grammar,
will in general cause the most important words in a phrase to
be uttered more forcibly than others. There is a great deal of
such emphasis, which is too obvious to need rules or description.
Upon it, to a great extent, depends the rhythm of discourse, and
the balance of phrases in style.
But the most important part of the present subject, and that
to which the term logical emphasis is most applicable, is that of
emphatic inflexions.
These designate various relations between single words, or
between whole clauses, sentences, and even paragraphs, and
may be arranged under the following heads.
1. Simple pointed Affirmation and Designation.
2. Negation; often used in contrast with affirmation.
3. Condition and Consequence ; as contrasted relations,
4. Concession and Denial ; also contrasted.
5. Question and Answer ; generally contrasted.
6. Contrast; or one thing compared with another.
7. Reference; which is a variety of the preceding.
8. Correspondence; another variety of contrast : e.g.
\
" I told him to do so ; he did so."
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 267
9. Intensive Emphasis; which may be upon affirmation, ne-
gation, or contrast.
10. Emphasis of Remonstrance, which resembles that of Ref-
erence.
The inflexions, by which these relations are pointed out,
having been sufficiently noticed in the preceding chapter, we
shall proceed to furnish a series of extracts for practice, each of
which will be characterized by a prevalence of one sort of em-
phasis. The passages which we extract, will sometimes be
found among the most admirable in the language, as regards
rhetorical structure.
1. POINTED AFFIRMATION,
The following is from a vehement argument against the un-
ion of Ireland with England. The latter part illustrates, also,
the contrast of affirmation and negation.
" Sir, in the most express terms,
\ [gislature of Ireland.
I deny - the COMPETENCY - of Parliament - to abolish the le
\
I warn you,
\
do not DARE
\
to lay your hands on the constitution.
I tell you, that if,
circumstanced - as you are,
\
you PASS this act,
\
it will be a nullity,
and that no man in Ireland
\
will be bound to obey it.
263 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
\ V \
I make the assertion deliberately :
\
I repeat it,
and I call on any man who hears me t
\
to take down my words.
\
You have not been ELECTED - for this purpose ;
\
you are appointed to make LAWS,
/
and not legislatures :
\
you are appointed to act UNDER the constitution,
/
not - to alter it :
you are appointed - to EXERCISE - the functions of legislators, \
/
and not to transfer them :
/
and if you do so,
\
your act is a dissolution of the government :
you resolve society into its original elements,
and no man in the land,
is bound to obey you.
PLUNKET.
The following illustrates the emphasis of pointed affirmation
and designation, as it is used in the statement of a case.
Gentlemen - of the Jury.\
\
My case is as follows :
William Orr
was indicted,
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 269
\
for having administered the oath - of a United Irishman.
After remaining - upwards of a year in jail,
\
Mr. Orr was brought to his trial;
\
was prosecuted by the state ; \
[Wheatly,
was sworn against by a common informer - by the name of
\/
who himself had taken the same oath,
and was convicted under the insurrection act,
. , . . /
which makes the administering - such an oath,
/ \
felony, or death.
The Jury
\
recommended Mr. Orr to mercy.
The Judge,
with a humanity - becoming his character,
\/
transmitted - the recommendation
\
to the noble prosecutor - in this case.
Three of the jurors
made solemn affidavit, in court,
\
that liquor had been conveyed into their box ;
\
that they were brutally threatened,
by some of their fellow jurors,
\
with capital prosecution,
270 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
if they did not find their prisoner - guilty;
and that under the impression - of those threats,
and worn down by watching - and intoxication,
they had given a verdict - of guilty - against him,
though they believed him, in their conscience, to be innocent.
\
Further inquiries - were made,
which ended - in a discovery, j ^fam k ->>..-,*!
of the infamous - life and character
\
of the informer.
\
A respite - was therefore sent,
\
once, and twice, and thrice,
\
to give time,
/
as the Attorney General has already stated,
\
for his Excellency - to consider,
/
whether mercy - could be extended to him,
\
or not ;
\
and with a knowledge - of all these circumstances,
his Excellency - didjinatty determine,
\
that mercy should NOT be extended to him !
/
He was accordingly - executed, - upon that verdict,
and died
with a prayer - for the welfare of his country. \
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 271
\
It is upon the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, then, gentlemen,
tion ;\
that the attack has been made, by the author of this publica-
/
and against him,
\
the charge is made, \
[express it,
as strongly, I suppose, as the writer could find words to
"that the Viceroy of Ireland
\
has cruelly abused
the prerogative of royal mercy,
in suffering a man,
under such circumstances,
\/
to perish like a common malef actor "\
\/
For this,
the Attorney General calls upon you,
to pronounce the publication,
\
a false - and scandalous libel.
CURRAN.
.
The following indignant burst in the British parliament, ex-
emplifies the emphasis of pointed affirmation, in a statement in
reply. It also exhibits contrast and climax.
/
" They planted - by YOUR care ?"
\
No;
\
your oppressions - planted them in America.
272
EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
\
\
\
They fled - from your tyranny,
to a then - uncultivated - and inhospitable country,
where they exposed themselves,
to almost all the hardships - to which human nature is liable ;
and among others,
to the cruelties of a savage foe,
the most subtle,
and I will take it upon me to say,
\
\
the most formidable,
\
of any people - upon the face of the earth;
\
and yet,
actuated - by principles - of true English liberty,
\
they met all these hardships with pleasure,
compared with those - they suffered in their own country,
\/
from the hands of those - who should have been
\
their friends.
-/->:
They nourished up - by YOUR indulgence?
\
They grew - by your neglect of them.
/
As soon as you began to care about them,
that care was exercised in sending persons to rule them,
LOGICAL EMPHASIS.
273
in one department and another, \
[bers of this house ;
who were, perhaps, the deputies of deputies to some mem-
\
sent - to spy out their liberties,
\
to misrepresent their actions,
\
and to prey upon them ;
men, - whose behavior, on many occasions,
has caused the blood of those sons of liberty,
\
to recoil within them ;
men - promoted to the highest seats of justice,
some of whom,
\
to my knowledge,
were glad,
/
by going to a foreign country,
\/
to escape being brought to the bar of a court of justice,
\
in their own.
/
They "protected - by YOUR ARMS?
\
They have nobly taken up arms - in your defense ;
they have exerted their valor,
amidst their constant and laborious industry,
for the defense of a country,
/
whose frontier was drenched in blood,
24
274 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
while its interior parts,
yielded all its little savings,
V
to your emoluments.
\
And, believe me;
\
remember I this day - told you so ;
that the same spirit of freedom,
/
which actuated that people, at fast,
\
will accompany them - stiH
Col. BARRE.
2. NEGATION CONTRASTED WITH AFFIRMATION.
Almost the whole of the following vigorous passage, illus-
trates this contrast. It concludes with a condition and its con-
sequence.
/
Parliament is not a congress - of ambassadors,
/
from different - and hostile - interests,
/
which interests each must maintain,
/
as an agent - and advocate,
/
against other agents and advocates ;
but Parliament is a deliberative assembly - of one nation,
\
with one interest,
\
that of the whole ;
/
where, not - local purposes,
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 275
/
not - local prejudices, ought to guide,
\
but the general good,
\
resulting from the general reason - of the whole.
/
You choose a member, indeed,
but when you have chosen him,
/
he is not a member of Bristol,
\
but he is a member of Parliament.
If the local constituent
should have an interest,
or should form a hasty opinion,
/
evidently opposite to the real good - of the rest of the com-
/ [munity,
the member for that place,
\
ought to be as far as any other,
from any endeavor - to give it effect.
BURKE.
3. CONDITION AND CONSEQUENCE.
The following is a remarkable passage. The first paragraph
is made up of a lengthened condition, followed by its conse-
quence. In the second paragraph, both the condition and the
consequence, are in the form of questions.
If it be true,
that Mr. Hastings was directed to make the safety andprosper-
/
[ity of Bengal, the first object of his attention,
276 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
/ [perous ;
and that, under his administration, it has been safe and pros-
/
[sions and revenues in Asia,
if it be true that the security and preservation - ofourposses-
/
[government,
were marked out to him as the great leading principles of his
and that those possessions and revenues,
/
amidst unexampled dangers,
/
'have, been secured and preserved ;
\/
then
a question may be mixed with your consideration,
\
much beyond the consequence of the present prosecution t
involving, perhaps,
\
the merit of the impeachment itself t
\
which gave it birth.
If England,
/
from a lust of ambition and dominion,
/
mil - insist
/
on maintaining despotic rule over distant and hostile nations,
[herself,
beyond all comparison, more numerous and extended than
and give commission to her viceroys - to govern them,
/
with no other instructions - than to preserve them,
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 277
and to secure permanently their revenues ;
with what color of consistency or reason,
\
can she place herself - in the moral chair,
\/
and affect to be shocked
\
at the execution - of her own orders,
\ [necessary to their execution
adverting to the exact measure - of wickedness and injustice -
\
and complaining only of the excess, as the immorality
/
considering her authority,
as a dispensation
for breaking the commands of God,
\/
and the breach of these,
as only punishable
\
when contrary to the ordinances - of man?
\/
. Such a proceeding, Gentlemen,
\
begets serious reflections.
It would be better, perhaps,
\
for the masters and - the servants,
of all such governments,
to join in supplication,
that the great Author - of violated humanity,
may not confound them together,
in one common judgment.
ERSKINE.
24*
273 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
4. CONCESSION AND DENIAL.
In the latter part of the following extract, we have marked
several of the emphases, with the wave, or inverted circumflex.
Throughout the whole passage, the contrasts will be obvious.
The appropriate inflexions will be successfully given by the
speaker, if he enters earnestly into the argument.
/
It ought to be the happiness - and glory - of a representative,
/
to live - in the strictest union,
/
the closest correspondence,
\>
and the most unreserved communication
\
with his constituents.
Their wishes
/
ought to have great weight with him ;
/
their opinion, high respect,
/
their business,
\
unr emitted attention.
/
It is his duty, to sacrifice his repose,
/
his pleasures,
/
his satisfactions,
\
to theirs ;
/
and, above all,
/
ever, and in all cases,
\/
to prefer their interests
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 279
\
to his own.
\/
But, his unbiassed opinion,
\/
his mature judgment,
\/
his enlightened conscience,
/\
he ought not - to sacrifice
to you,
\
to any man, or to any set of men living.
X\
These he does not derive
/
from your pleasure
\
"''
nor from the law - and the constitution.
/\
They are a trust from Providence,
/
for the abuse of which,
\
he is deeply answerable.
Your representative owes you,
/
not his industry only,
\
but his judgment ;
\
and he betrays,
/
instead of serving you,
/
if he sacrifices it
\
to your opinion.
BURKE.
280 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
5. QUESTION AND ANSWER.
The following is a continuation of the extract, in a previous
chapter, on " Conciliating America." Vide p. 245.
Do you imagine, then,
that it is the land tax
which raises your revenue ?
that it is the annual vote in the committee of supply,
which gives you your army ?
or that it is the mutiny bill
which inspires it with bravery and discipline ?
\
No!
\
surely no !
It is the love of the people :
it is their attachment to their government,
\ [ous institution, \
from the sense of the deep stake - they have, in such a glori-
which gives you your army and your navy,
and infuses into both, that liberal obedience,
without which,
.\
your army would be a base rabbk,
\
and your navy nothing but rotten timber.
BURKE.
6. ANTITHETICAL CONTRAST.
The following passage is the conclusion of the last extract.
The first two periods are in contrast with each other. In each
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 281
of the three concluding sentences, we have an antithetical con-
trast of ideas.
MAGNANIMITY IN POLITICS.
/
All this,
I know well enough,
/\
will sound wild,
/\
and chimerical,
/ / [cians,
to the profane herd of those vulgar and mechanical - politi-
/
who have no place - among us,
a sort of people who think that nothing - exists,
/
but what is gross and material,
and who, therefore,
far from being qualified to be directors
/
of the great movement - of empire,
/\
are not fit - to turn a wheel - in the machine.
\/
But to men - truly initiated,
\/
and rightly taught,
these ruling and master principles,
which, in the opinion of such men as I have mentioned,
/
have no substantial existence,
\
are, in truth, every thing,
\
and all in all.
282 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
/
Magnanimity, in politics,
\
is, not seldom, the truest wisdom ;
\/
and a great empire, and little minds,
\
go itt together.
/
Let us get an American revenue,
as we have got an American empire.
English privileges
/
have made it all that it is ;
English privileges, alone,
\/
will make it,
/\
all that it can be.
BURKE.
CROMWELL AND NAPOLEON.
The following extract from Macaulay, exhibits the utmost
degree of his peculiar antithetical style. Considerable skill and
judgment may be exercised in its delivery, by occasionally di-
minishing the emphatic force, and thus making the whole run
smoothly.
In the general spirit - and character - of his administration,
/
we think Cromwell
\
far superior to Napoleon.
Reason and philosophy
did not teach the conqueror of Europe,
LOGICAL EMPHASIS.
283
to command his passions,
or to pursue, as a first object,
\
the happiness of his people.
They did not prevent him from risking his fame and his power,
in a frantic contest against the principles - of human nature,
\
and the laws - of the physical world;
against the rage of the winter,
\
and the liberty of the sea.
[nicious of superstitions,
They did not exempt him from the influence of that most per-
\
a presumptuous fatalism.
They did not preserve him from the inebriation of prosperity,
or restrain him from indecent querulousness - and violence,
\
in adversity.
On the other hand,
the fanaticism - of Cromwell
never urged him on impracticable undertakings,
\
or confused his perception - of the public good.
Inferior to Bonaparte, in invention.
\
he was far superior to him, in wisdom.
The French Emperor is, among conquerors,
what Voltaire is, among writers,
284 EXPOSITION OP THOUGHT.
\
a miraculous child.
His splendid genius
was frequently clouded by Jits of humor,
as absurdly perverse,
\
as those of the pet of the nursery,
/
who quarrels with his food.
\
and dashes his playthings - to pieces.
\/
Cromwell
/\
was, emphatically, a man.
He possessed, in an eminent degree,
\
that masculine and full grown - robustness of mind,
\
that equally diffused intellectual health,
which, if our national partiality does not mislead us,
has peculiarly characterized
\
the great men of England.
Never was any ruler
\
so conspicuously born for sovereignty.
/
The cup which has intoxicated almost all others,
\/ /\
sobered him.
/
His spirit, restkss from its buoyancy, in a lower sphere,
reposed - in majestic placidity,
\
as soon as it had reached the level - congenial to it.
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 285
He had nothing in common - with that large class of men,
/
who distinguish themselves in lower posts,
and whose incapacity becomes obvious,
\
as soon as the public voice summons them to take the lead.
Rapidly as his fortunes grew,
\/
his mind
\
expanded more rapidly still.
/
Insignificant as a private citizen,
he was a great - general;
he was a still greater prince.
MACAULAY.
7. REFERENTIAL EMPHASIS.
This emphasis is a variety of that of Contrast. Some ac-
count of it has been given under the head of Rising Inflexions,
at p. 235. But as it often characterizes long passages, or even
an entire discourse, it requires some further notice.
When a speaker advances assertions or doctrines in opposi-
tion to an adversary, or contrary to a prevalent opinion, his tone
is characterized by a peculiar modulation, which indicates a
pointed reference. The same tone is likewise heard, when he
is liable to a suspicion of holding opinions contrary to what he
expresses. Though it runs through the whole of his delivery,
yet it is of course most striking on emphatic words.
Rising inflexions are the most prevalent and characteristic;
and, as was mentioned in the previous chapter, often take the
place of cadences at the ends of sentences. There is a ten-
dency, likewise, to use waves and circumflexes. When falling
25
286 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
inflexions are actually necessary, they begin on a high key, and
are often such as we mark by the wave.
In gesture, the rise of the hand corresponds in a general way
to that of the voice. Instead of downward strokes of gesture,
one or both hands are oftener extended towards the audience
with the expression of appeal.
We find it impossible to mark this emphasis, so as to distin-
guish it from other forms of contrast, except by indicating the
upward skip which so strikingly characterizes it. This we
effect by placing the accented syllable higher than the rest of
the phrase. No difficulty will be experienced in executing this
very striking and significant turn of the voice, provided the
reader trusts boldly to his natural impulses. It is one of very
frequent use in conversation.
THE UNION.
I prof' Sir,
in my career - hitherto,
to have kept steadily in view,
the honor - and prosperity of the u <e country,
/\
and the preservation - of our federal u nion.
I have not dt owed myself
\/
to look \*3 ond the union,
\/
to see what might be hidden in the dark recess be lt
I have n coolly weighed the chances - of preserving liberty,
when the bonds - that unite us together shall be broken a 5Mn der.
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 287
I have not accustomed myself to hang over the precipice -
/ [of Bunion,
to see, whether, - with my short sight,
\/
I can fathom the depth of the abyss - be
/ [this government,
nor can I regard him - as a safe counsellor, - in the affairs of
whose thoughts - should be mainly bent on considering
\/
not how the union - should be best pre 56 "*'
/
but how erdble might be the condition of the people,
/\
when it shall be broken up and de stroyed '
While the union
we have U &>
\
exiting
\
r ifying prospects
/
spread out - before us,
for us >
\
and our cM dren.
Be y nd that,
\
I seek not to penetrate the veil.
EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
God grant !
/
that, in my day, at least,
\
that curtain may not rise.
God grant,
/
that, on 7 y vision,
never - may be opened
what lies behind!
[sun in heaven t
When my eyes shall be turned to behold, for the last time, the
/
T not i
may I see him,
T
shining on the broken - and dis n ored fragments
/
r once u
of a glorious mon ;
/
C*V
on states dis ered,
/
dis cor dant,
\/
ber Cerent,
/
on a land rent with civil * 5j
\/
and drenched t it may be, in fraternal
let their last - feeble and lingering glance, rather,
behold the gorgeous ensign of the republic,
now known and honored throughout the earth,
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 289
\
stitt full high advanced,\
its arms and trophies
\
streaming in all their original tre,
/\
not a stnpe - erased or polluted, \
/\
nor a single r obscured ;\
bearing, for its motio,
/
such miserable interrogatory,
\/
as, What is all this
/\
nor those er words - of delusion and folly, \
/\
liberty ^ rst and union a ^terwards ;
\
but ev ery where,
spread all over in characters of living
/
a zing on all its ample folds,
\
& '
as they float over the sea and over the land >
/
and in every wind under the whole heaven >
/\
that er sentiment, \
/
dear to every true American heart,
25*
290 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
/\
... and
liberty union, \
\
now, , r ev
and for er t
\
one and inseparable.
WEBSTER.
8. CORRESPONDENCE.
The principle of this emphasis, as also its inflexion, is very
similar to that upon an answer to a question.
It may be illustrated by a short extract from a Scripture nar-
rative. A command to Noah being recorded, and the account
of it extending through four verses, when we come to its fulfil-
ment, we shall find it natural to emphasize the word did t as
follows.
And the Lord said unto Noah :
Come thou, and all thy house
into the ark: * * * *
* * *
And Noah did
according to all that the Lord commanded hirn.\
In the above, the most striking place for this emphasis, is on
" did;" but if the reader prefers, he may place it on commanded.
The following extract is in the highest degree rhetorical, and
like that just quoted from Webster, admirably illustrates the
importance of emphasis and inflexion, in bringing out the true
meaning and spirit of high wrought composition. In general,
its emphasis is required by the principle of Reference ; just as
in the preceding extract on union, regard is continually had to
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 291
those who speculate upon disunion. The writer refers to the
danger, that those who enjoy the blessings transmitted by the
Puritans, may naturally forget their sufferings.
But in one sentence, the emphasis on every phrase, is that of
Correspondence. This sentence commences, " They did vir-
tually renounce all dependence upon earthly support," &c.
That is, their conduct emphatically corresponded to their pro-
fessions.
THE PILGRIMS.
/
In the quiet possession of the blessings transmitted,
/
we are, perhaps, in danger - of footing,
/
i val .
or under uing
/ /
the su Jferings by which they were obtained.
that the noble pilgrims lived and endured for u
that, when they came to the wilderness,
\
they said tru ly,
/
though, it may be, - somewhat quaintly,
\
that they turned their backs on Egypt.
\
They did
\
virtually renounce all dependence - on earthly support :
\
they left
292 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
the land of their birth,\
of their homes, \
of their fathers' sepulchers ;\
\
they sacrificed ease,
\
and preferment,
\
and all the delights of sense.
\
And for what 1
/
To open for themselves an earthly paradise ?
/
to dress their bowers of pleasure,
/
and rejoice - with their wives and children ?
No;
they came not for them selves >
\
they lived not themselves.
An exiled and suffering - people,
they came forth
/\
in the dignity of the chosen servants - of the
to open the forests to the sun beam
\
and to the light - of the sun of n ^ eousness ;
\
to restore
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 293
oppressed - and trampled on - by his lows,
\
, . ., Kb
to religious and civil erty,
\
. rights ;
and equal
\
kv
to replace the creatures of God on iheir natural el;
^ hills
to bring down the
and make smooth - the rough ^
\
which the pride and cruelty of had wrought,
on the fair creation - of the Father of all.
\
What was their re
' tune?
For
,. / tions ?
distinc
/
-homel
the sweet charities - of
/\
No \
but their feet - were planted on the mount of ion,
and they saw, with sub
\
a multitude of pie,
where the solitary savage - roamed the forest ;\
294 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
\
van . ,
the forest ished,
\
and pleasant lages and busy ies appeared ;
/
foot
the tangled J path
expanded - to the thronged 3 way ;
\
. church
the consecrated
was planted - on the rock of heathen sacrifice.
/\
And, that W&
might realize - this vision, \
\
in
enter to
this promised land of faith, \
they endured hardship and braved death, \
deeming,
as said one of their company,
aU
that " he is not worthy - to live at
who, for fear of danger, - or death,
/
shunneth his country's - service,
\
or his own - honor ;
/
since death is inevitable,
\
and the fame of virtue immortal"
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 295
/
If these were the fervors of enthusiasm,
/
it was an enthusiasm - kindled and (
\
by the holy flame that glows on the altar of
\
an enthusiasm - that never a
but gathers life and strength,
as the immortal soul
\
expands - in the image of its Ore tor.
Miss SEDGWICK.
9. INTENSIVE EMPHASIS.
A glowing and ardent writer often falls into a style of com-
position, in which words are employed with an intensive mean-
ing. A reader who fails to sympathize with the deep earnest-
ness of such composition, is apt to omit the intensive emphasis
which is required.
The principle of this emphasis, will be made clear by the
following facts in regard to language. In every tongue, there
is a class of words which have either an intense meaning in
themselves, or indicate that those which they qualify, are used
intensively.
The most common in English, are: even, very, and self;
the adverbs at all, altogether, only, solely, wholly, and univer-
sally ; the pronouns whatever and whosoever, when placed after
their nouns; and, occasionally, adjectives in the superlative
degree.
The intensive emphasis indicated by the word even, is almost
always effected by a strong falling inflexion; and it will be
296 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
found a useful rule to employ such an inflexion, whenever this
word occurs ; or whenever it would be allowable to introduce
it, for the sake of setting forth the full force of a passage.
Sometimes, indeed, a circumflex takes the place of a simple
falling slide ; but, in such cases, the first or downward slide,
indicates the intensive force, and the rising, the suspension of
the sense.
The first example which we furnish, has its intensive empha-
ses indicated by even, by the word whole, and by a superlative
degree.
An exhibition - of the present state - of the mechanical arts,
\/
is a field much too wide even to be entered on this occasion.
\
The briefest outline even,
would exceed its limits; \
\
and the whole subject
will, regularly, fall to hands - much more able to sustain it.
\/
The slightest glance, however,
must convince us,
that mechanical power, and mechanical skill,
as they are now exhibited, in Europe and America,
mark an epoch - in human history,
worthy of all admiration.
WEBSTER.
Our next extract owes the whole of its peculiar force and sig-
nificancy to intensive words, which require a correspondent
style of emphasis.
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 297
ATHEISM.
\
But, indeed, it is heroism no longer,
\
if the atheist knows - that there is no God.
This intelligence
\
involves the very attributes - of divinity,
while a God is denied. \
\
For unless the atheist is omnipresent,
unless he is, at this moment, in everyplace - in the universe,
NX
he cannot know but that there may be, in some place,
manifestations of a Deity,
\
by which even he would be overpowered.
If he does not know, absolutely, every agent - in the universe,
the one that he does not know,
may be God.
\
If he is not himself the chief agent - in the universe,
\
and does not know what is so,
that which is so
may be God. \
[constitute universal truth,
If he is not in absolute possession of all the propositions - that
NX
the one which he wants
may be that there is a God.
26
298 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
If he cannot, with certainty,
\
assign the cause - of all that he perceives to exist,
that cause
may be a God. \
[measurable ages that are past,
If he does not know every thing that has been done - in the im-
some things may have been done
by a God.
\
Thus, unless he knows all things, -
\
that is, precludes another Deity - by being one himself,
he cannot know,
that the Being - whose existence he rejects,
does not exist.
JOHN FOSTER.
Our next extract is from the same powerful writer. To de-
monstrate the correctness of our emphases, we insert a blank
parenthesis in places where the word EVEN might be inserted.
Most of the emphases that are not intensive, exhibit antithetical
contrasts.
CHARACTER OF HOWARD.
In decision of character,
no man ever exceeded,
\/
or ( ) ever witt exceed
the late illustrious Howard.
The energy of his determination was so great,
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 299
that if, instead of being habitual, /
[casions,
it had been shown - only for a short time, on particular oc-
\
it would have appeared ( ) a vehement impetuosity ;
but by being unintermitted,
it had an equability - of manner,
\
which scarcely appeared to exceed the tone of ( ) a calm con-
b [stancy,
it was so totally the reverse
of any thing like turbulence,
\
or agitation.
It was the calmness - of an intensity kept uniform
\/
( ) by the nature - of the human mind,
forbidding it - to be wore,
\/
and ( ) by ike character - of the individual,
\
forbidding it to be less.
( ) The habitual passion
/
of his mind,
was a measure of feeling
\
almost equal ( ) to the temporary extremes - and paroxysms
\
of common minds :
\
as a great river,
in its customary state,
300 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
is equal to a small or moderate one,
( ) when swollen to a torrent.
The moment - of finishing his plans, in deliberation,
/
and commencing them, in action,
\
was ( ) the same.
\
We ( ) wonder what must have been the amount
of that bribe,
in emolument, or pleasure,
\
that would have detained him ( ) a week
/
inactive,
after their final adjustment.
\
( ) The law which carries water down a declivity,
was not more unconquerable - and invariable,
[object.
than ( ) the determination of his feelings - towards the main
The importance - of this object,
held his faculties in a state of excitement,
\
which was ( ) too rigid to be affected by lighter interests,
and on which, therefore, the beauties of nature and art
had no power.
\
He had no leisure feeling which he could ( ) spare,
/
[sive scenes which he traversed ;
to be diverted among the innumerable varieties of the exten-
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 301
all his subordinate feelings
/
lost their separate existence,
by falling into the grand one.
Such a sin against taste
\/
is ( ) very far beyond the reach of common saintship to commit.
It implied an inconceivable severity of conviction
that he had ( ) one thing to do.
and that he who would do some one great thing,
in this short life,
[his forces,
must apply himself to the work, with such a concentration of
as, to idle spectators,
who live only to amuse themselves,
\
looks ( ) like insanity.
His attention was so strongly and tenaciously fixed on his object,
\
that even at the greatest distance,
like the Egyptian pyramids to travellers,
it appeared to him - with a luminous distinctness,
\
as if it had ( ) been nigh,
and beguiled the toilsome length of labor and enterprise,
by which he was to reach it.
It was so conspicuous before him,
26*
302 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT .
\/
that not ( ) a step
deviated from the direction,
\/
and ( ) every moment, and every day,
was an approximation.
[the end,
As his method referred every thing he did and thought to
/
and as his execution did not relax for a moment,
lie made the trial, so seldom made,
what is the utmost effect,
which may be granted ( ) to the last possible efforts
\
of a human agent ;
and, therefore, what he did not accomplish \
[activity,
he might conclude - to be placed beyond the sphere of mortal
and calmly leave
\
( ) to the immediate disposal of Omnipotence.
JOHN FOSTER,
10. EMPHASIS OF REMONSTRANCE.
This is a common mode of enforcing an argument or a state-
ment. The principle is really the same as that of Reference ;
the only difference being that the reference is to nothing more
than the opposite of what is affirmed, without implying an ac-
tual adversary, or generally prevalent opinions.
In this style of emphasizing, the inflexions are executed with
wide skips, which make the voice vary strikingly in pitch. In-
tensive emphases are also of frequent occurrence.
LOGICAL EMPHASIS.
The following extract, like many others in this volume, has
been found extremely interesting, when delivered in an appro-
priate manner, but uninteresting when spoken without the pe-
culiar inflexions which it demands. Like that on " the Pil-
grims," it might be given to illustrate what might be called
Rhetorical Emphasis ; using such a term to describe the pecu-
liar illustration and enforcement which a good reader bestows
upon certain forms of composition, although the mere sense can
be exhibited without striking emphasis.
SOCIAL INFLUENCE OF RELIGION.
\
Religion is a social concern ;
\
for it operates powerfully on society,
contributing, in various ways,
\
to its stability and prosperity.
/
Religion is not merely - a private affair ;\
\
the community is deeply interested in its diffusion ;\
for it is the best support of the virtues and principles
on which the social order rests.
Pure and undefiled religion
\ * .
is to do good ;
and it follows, very plainly,
/
that, if God be the author and friend of society,
then the recognition of him
\
must enforce all social duty,
30 1 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
and enlightened piety
\
must give its whole strength - to public order.
/
Few men suspect,
\
perhaps no man
\/
comprehends
\
the extent of the support given by religion to every virtue.
S
No man, perhaps, is aware,
how much our moral and social sentiments
\
are fed from this fountain ;
\
how powerless
/
conscience would become,
\
without the belief of a God;
how palsied
/
would be human benevolence,
/
were there not the sense - of a higher benevolence
\
to quicken and sustain it ;
\
how suddenly the whole social fabric - would quake,
and with what a fearful crash
\
it would sink into hopeless ruin,
were the ideas of a Supreme Being,
of accountdbleness,
LOGICAL EMPHASIS. 305
and of a future life,
\
to be utterly erased from every mind.
\/
And, let men - thoroughly believe,
/
that they are the work and sport of chance;
/
that no superior intelligence
/
concerns itself with human affairs ;
that all their improvements
/
perish forever, at death ;
that the weak have no guardian,
/
and the injured no avenger ; /
[the public good;
that there is no recompense - for sacrifices to uprightness and
/
that an oath is unheard in heaven ;
/
that secret crimes have no loitness but the perpetrator ;
/
that human existence has no purpose,
/
and human virtue no unfailing friend;
/
that this brief life is every thing - to us,
/
and death is total, everlasting - extinction ;
/
once let them THOROUGHLY - abandon religion,
/
and who can conceive,
\
or describe,
\
the extent of the desolation - which would follow!
306 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
We hope, perhaps,
\
that human laws,
* \
and natural sympathy,
would hold society together.
As reasonably - might we believe,
\
that, were the SUN
quenched in the heavens ,
\
our torches would illuminate,
\
and our fires quicken and fertilize the creation.
What is there - in human nature,
to awaken respect and tenderness,
\
if man is the unprotected insect of a day ?
\
And what is he more,
/
if atheism be true 1
/
Erase all thought and fear of God, from a community,
and selfishness and sensuality,
\
would absorb the whole man.
Appetite, knowing no restraint,
and suffering, having wo solace, or hope,
\
would trample in scorn,
/
on the restraints - of human laws.
EMPHASIS OF IMAGINATION. 307
Virtue,
duty, ^
principle,
\
would be mocked and spurned,
\
as unmeaning sounds.
\
A sordid self interest
\
would supplant every other feeling ;
\
and man would become, in fact,
\
what the theory of atheism - declares him to be
\
a companion for brutes.
CHANNING,
EMPHASIS OF IMAGINATION.
In addition to the course of reasoning in .a composition, the
pictures displayed before the imagination, demand a prominent
exhibition. To a great extent this will be done, by a correct
grammatical and logical emphasis, because this will frequently
fall on the words that express the most important images.
But the employment of a vivid state of imagination, will often
enable an eloquent reader or speaker to present striking pictures
of scenes and illustrations, which a merely logical state of mind
will fail of exhibiting.
Yet however imaginative or poetical the subject and language
of a composition, the primary effort must be to exhibit the
logical course of thought. Every composition requires more or
less of the inflexions and emphases which we have hitherto de-
scribed. The emphasis of imagination is properly an enforce-
ment of such words as do not influence the course of reasoning.
308 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
It follows therefore, that it is never given by emphatic inflex-
ions. It is in fact executed solely by means of quantity, pause,
and variations in the loudness, or in the quality of the voice.
By these means, some words are made more prominent than
others, so that, in the mental picture, the images which they
describe, stand out in bold relief. Having already remarked
upon the necessity for taste and judgment in this kind of em-
phasis, the examples which we shall furnish, may not always
exhibit such emphatic words as every one will approve.
We shall exhibit this emphasis, by separating the letters of
words, as has already been done in the chapter on rhythm.
We shall thus have the means of indicating, not only such
words as have no logical or grammatical inflection, but also
those which answer the double purpose of inflected emphasis,
and that of imagination.
There is a peculiar appropriateness in this mode of marking,
inasmuch as the emphasis of imagination almost always pro-
longs the utterance, and produces a slowness in the rhythm.
EMPHASIS OF EMOTION.
Under this head are not to be classed the peculiar tones of
different passions, but a more striking presentation of words
which describe emotions and represent them to the imagination.
Readers of taste and judgment will give different degrees of
enforcement to such words, according to principles that are
purely artistical.
This emphasis is therefore the same in principle as the pre-
ceding. In the one, emotions, and in the other, images are
contemplated by the imagination. It will be marked in the
same way, and our extracts will illustrate both.
It is obvious that by this classification, we accomplish the
necessary object, of avoiding all intermingling of the subject of
practical speaking, with dramatic elocution. The distinction
between the two, has been alluded to in our introduction, and
EMPHASIS OP EMOTION.
is essential to be kept in view. An orator is permitted some-
times to introduce the peculiar manner of dramatic elocution,
as was successfully practised by Whitefield ; but he will never-
theless, run great risk in attempting to do so, unless, as was the
case with that eloquent clergyman, he has a natural talent for
acting.
When, however, a reader is strongly interested in relating or
describing an emotion, he will naturally sympathize with it in
some degree. This sympathy will color his delivery with more
or less of the peculiar tone of the emotion. Suppose, for in-
stance, he is reciting Collins's Ode on the Passions. With
perfect propriety, he may calmly describe the several passions,
while he yet presents a vivid picture of the acts of each. The
ode is in fact a narrative, and is to be read as such. In a more
animated style of delivery, he may sympathize with each pas-
sion as he describes its acts ; thus approximating his manner to
dramatic elocution. On the other hand, a purely dramatic de-
livery of the ode, proceeds in a different style, and requires that
the reciter personate each passion, in the same manner as when
acting in a play. It is a confused state of mind in reference to
this distinction, which produces the general failure in the at-
tempts of elocutionists to render this ode interesting in public
recitation. If read or recited strictly as a narrative description,
it is admirably adapted for public display. It is well fitted also,
for a bold style of recitation. But to deliver it as a declamation,
and with an affected imitation of the manner of each passion,
constitutes a style which has no foundation, either in taste or
in common sense.
EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE.
The emphasis of imagination and that on words describing
emotion, being chiefly required in narration and description,
the subsequent extracts are of this nature.
27
310 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
We mark them upon the following principles. Mere empha-
ses of grammar and logic are indicated by italics and inflexions.
A peculiar dwelling on a word, while the mind contemplates
the picture or the emotion which the word describes, is shown
by separating the letters. When two or more of these princi-
ples combine to produce the emphasis, their appropriated indi-
cations are employed in conjunction. This happens with the
greater portion of the emphases.
The extract immediately following, may be considered as ap-
pealing almost exclusively to the imagination. The emotion
which it will excite, will be simply that admiration which ne-
cessarily accompanies the description of splendid scenes.
THE TOURNAMENT IN IVANHOE.
The exterior - of the lists
was, in part, occupied with temporary galleries,
spread with tapestry and carpets,
and accommodated with cushions,
for the convenience - of those ladies and nobles,
who were expected to attend upon the tournament.
A narrow space - betwixt these galleries and the lists,
gave accommodation - for yeomanry,
and spectators of a better degree - than the mere rulgar,
and might be compared to the pit of a theatre.
The promiscuous multitude
\ [the purpose,
arranged themselves - upon large banks of turf y prepared for
which, aided by the natural elevation of the ground,
enabled them to look oter the galleries,
EMPHASIS OF IMAGINATION. 311
\
and obtain a f a i r view - into the lists .
Besides the accommodation - which these stations afforded,
many hundreds
\
had perched themselves on the branches of the trees,
which surrounded the meadow ;\
and even the steeple of a country church, at some distance,
was crowded with spectators.
The lists
now presented a most splendid spectacle.
The sloping galleries
[and beautiful ,
were crowded with all that was noble, great, wealthy
N
in the northern, and 'midland - parts - of England;
[spectators,
and the contrast - of the various dresses - of these dignified
/
rendered the view as gay,
\
as it was rich ;
while the interior and lower space,
[England,
filled with the substantial burgesses and yeomen - of merry
formed, in their more plain attire,
\
a dark fringe, orborder,
/
around this circle of brilliant embroidery,
relieving, and at the same time, s et ting off - its splendor.
The inclosed space - at the northern extremity of the list*,
large as it was,
EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
was now completely crowded
\
with knights - desirous to prove their skill against the challengers ;
and when viewed from the galleries,
presented the appearance - of a sea - of waving plumage,
intermixed with glistening helmets, and tall lances,
to the extremities of which
\ [breadth,
were, in many cases, - attached s m a 1 1 pennons, of about a span's
which, fluttering in the air, as the breeze caught them,
joined with the restless motion of the f e a t h e r s ,
to add liveliness to the scene.
SCOTT.
The emphases in the following narrative, are on images and
also on emotions contemplated by the imagination.
CADIZ DURING THE BATTLE OP TRAFALGAR.
We have frequently heard people relating,
with indescribable emotions,
the fears, the hopes, the agitations and the mo urn ings,
which occupied those few but interesting days,
when the united fleets - of France and Spain
sailed from Cadiz,
amidst the prayers - and benedictions of the people,
/
with the vain expectation of vanq uishing
the f o e - who had so long held them imprisoned
within their own fortifications .
EMPHASIS OF IMAGINATION. 313
The day they sailed,
all was expectation and anxiety.
The succeeding day
increased the suspense,
and wound up the feelings of the people
\
almost to a state of phrenzy .
The third day,
brought intelligence,
that the hostile fleets were approaching each other,
with all the preparations of determined hostility.
The ships were not visible from the ramparts,
but the crowds of citizens - assembled there,
had their ears assailed
\
by the roaring of the distant cannon;
the anxiety of the females bordered on insanity ;
\
but more of despair ,
/
than of hope,
was visible in every countenance.
At this dreadful moment,
a sound louder than any that had p receded it,
and attended with a column of dark smoke,
\
announced that a ship had exploded.
The madness of the people
was turned to rage against England;
27*
314 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
and exclamations burst forth,
denouncing instant death,
to every man who spoke the language - of their enemies.
The storm that succeeded the battle,
tended only, to keep alive, through the n i g h t ,
\
the horrors of the day,
and to prepare them
\
for the melancholy spectacle - of the ensuing morning,
when the wrecks - of their floating bulwarks
were seen on shore,
and some - that had escaped the battle and the storm,
entering the bay;
to shelter themselves
from the pursuit - of their victorious enemy.
JACOBS.
A critic has quoted the following, as the most magnificent
passage in modern oratory.
HYDER ALL
When, at length,
Hyder Ali found
that he had to do with men who either would sign no convention,
or whom no treaty and no signature could bind , /
[itself,
and who were the determined enemies - of human intercourse
he decreed to make the country
EMPHASIS OF IMAGINATION. 315
possessed by these incorrigible, - and predestinated criminals,
a memorable example - to mankind.
He resolved
in the gloomy recesses of a mind - capacious of such things,
\
to leave the whole C arnatic ,
\
an everlasting monument of vengeance;
\
and to put perpetual desolation
as a barrier,
between him, and those against whom
the fa it h - which holds the moral elements of the world - together,
, * % w u 6 If. v '* n * Jtft;> * i
was no protection.
He became, at length, so c o nfi dent - of his/orc,
and so collect ed - in hia might,
\
that he made no secret - whatever,
of his dreadful resolution.
Having terminated his disputes - with every enemy - and every rival,
who
buried their mutual animosity,
in their common interest - against the creditors of the nabob of Arcot,
he drew from every quarter,
whatever a s avag e fero city could add
/
to his new rudiments -in the arts of destruction,
and compounding all the materials
\
of fury, havoc, and desolation,
316 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
/
into one black cloud,
he hung, for a while,
on the d e c 1 i v i t i e s - of the mountains.
Whilst the a u t k o r s of all these evils,
/
were idly, and stupidly, gazing - on this menacing meteor
which blackened - all the horizon,
it suddenly - burst,
and poured down the to hole of its contents,
on the plains of the C a r n a t i c .
Then, ensued a scene oftooe,
the like of which,
no eye - had seen, nor heart conceived,\
and which no tongue could adequately tell.
All the horrors of war,- before known, - or heard of,
\x
were mercy to that new havoc. \
\
A storm of univ er sal fir e ,
/
blasted every field,
consumed every house,
and destroyed every temple.
The miserable inhabitants,
flying from their flaming villages,
\
in part, were slaughtered ;
others
EMPHASIS OF IMAGINATION. 317
/
[function,
without regard to s ex, to age, or rank, or sacredness of
/
fathers torn from children,
/
husbands from wives,
/
enveloped - in a whirlwind of cavalry,
and amidst the goading spears of drivers,
/
and the trampling - of pursuing horses,
were swept into captivity
in an unknown and hostile land.
Those who were able to evade this tempest,
\
fled to the walled cities.
/
But escaping from fire, sword, and exile,
\
they f e 1 1 - into the jaws of f a mine .
\
For eighteen months,
\
without intermission,
this destruction
raged from the gates of Madras to the gates of Tanjore;
and 50 completely ,
did these masters in their art,
Hyder Ali and his more ferocious son,
/
absolve themselves - of their impious vow,
that when the British armies
traversed, as they did, the Carnatic,
318 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
for hundreds of miles, in all directions,
through the whole line of their march,
\
they did not see one man,
\
not one woman,
\
not one child,
\
not one four-footed beast,
of any description whatever.
One dead uniform silence,
reigned over the whole region.
BURKE.
The following extract is, in its structure, argumentative. It
abounds also in intensive emphases. Still the predominant ap-
peal is to the imagination, and to emotions contemplated by the
imagination rather than directly felt.
It consists of three passages preached before the legislature
of Connecticut, in the year 1813. The three separate passages
were, we believe, first placed together by Mr. J. E. Lovell, who
is so well known as an able elocutionist.
Without a knowledge of the time when the sermon was de-
livered, the passage might be regarded as nothing more than a
sublime rant. But it should be remembered that the year 1813
was that in which the power of Bonaparte was at its height, and
all Europe was banded against him ; a million of armed men
contending on the plains of Germany alone. A nearer approx-
imation is perhaps made in this passage, to the energy of the
Sacred Prophets, than in any other modern composition.
EMPHASIS OF IMAGINATION. 319
LOSS OF NEW ENGLAND MORALITY.
The crisis has come.
By the people - of this generation,
by ourselves, probably,
the amazing question is to be decided,
whether the inheritance of our fathers
shall be preserved^
or thrown away ;
whether our Sabbaths
shall be a delight,
\
or a loathing;
whether the la v e r n s , on that holy day,
shall be crowded with drunkards,
or the sanctuary of God
with humble worshippers;
whether riot and profaneness,
shall fill our streets;
and poverty, our dwellings,
toad convicts, our jails,
and violence , our land,
\
or whether industry,
and temperance,
and righteousness,
320 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT,
shall be the stability of our times :\
whether mild laws
/
shall receive the cheerful submission - of freemen,
/
or the iron rod - of a tyrant
\
compel the trembling homage - of slaves.
\
Be not deceived.
/
The rocks and hills of New England,
\
will remain till the last conflagration.
/
But let the Sabbath be profaned with impunity,
/
the worship of Go d be abandoned,
/
and the government and religious instruction of children neglected,
/
and the streams of intemperance be permitted to flow,
and her glory will depart.
The wall of f i r e will no longer surround her;
and the munition of rocks will no longer be her defence.
The hand that overturns our laws and temples,
is the hand of death
\
unbarring - the gates of Pandemonium ,
and letting loose upon our land,
\
the crimes and miseries of hell.
If the Most High should stand aloof,
and cast not a single ingredient into our cup of tremblin g,
/
it would seem to be full of superlative woe.
EMPHASIS OP IMAGINATION. 321
But He will TO o t stand aloof.
As we shall have begun an open con tro versy - with Him,
He will contend openly with u s .
And never,
\
since the earth stood,
has it been so fearful a thing,
for nations to fall into the hand - of the living God.
The day of vengeance is at hand ;
the day of judgment has come;
\
the great earthquake which sinks Babylon,
is shaking the nations,
and the waves of the mighty commotion
are dashing on every shore.
/
Is this, then, a time to remove the foundations,
/
when the earth itself is shaken?
/
Is this a time, to forfeit the protection of God,
/
when the h e a r ts of m e n are fa iling them for fear, /
[earthf
and for looking after those things - which are to come upon the
X
Is this a time,
/
to run upon his neck and the thick bosses of his buckler
/
when the nations are drinking blood,
/ .
and fa i nting ,
/
and passing away, in his wrath ?
28
322 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
/
Is this a time to throw away the shield of faith,
/
when His arrows are drunk with the blood of the slain?
/
to cut from the anchor of hope,
when the clouds are collecting,
/
and the sea and the waves are roaring,
/
and thunders are uttering their voices,
and lightnings blazing in the heavens,
/
and the great hail is falling from heaven upon men,
/ / /
and every mountain, sea, and island,
/
is fleeing in dismay from the face of an incensed Go df
Dr. BEECHER.
ADDRESS TO MONT BLANC.
/
Hast thou a charm || to stay the morning star,
/
In h\s steep course? \\ so long he seems to pause,
Qnlhj bald awful bead, || OCharaouny!
The Arvi and Arveiron, \\ at thy base,
[form,
Rave ceaselessly, || while thou, dread mountain
R i s e s t H from forth thy silent sea of pines
How silently! |{ Around thee, and above,
\ \
Deep is the sky, and black: \\ transpicuous deep,
An ebon mass! || rnethinks thou piercest it,
As with SL wedge! \\ But when I look a*ain t
\ \
It seems thine own calm home, || thy crystal shrine,
EMPHASIS OF IMAGINATION. 323
Thy habitation \\ from eternity.
dread and silent form! |j I gazed on thee,
Till t h o u , || still present to my lodily eye,
Didst -oanish from my thought. || Entranced in prayer,
1 worshipped the invisible || alone.
IV ho || sank thy sunless pillar s in the earth?\
Who || filled thy countenance with rosy light?\
Who || made thee father of perpetual streams?\
And yo u, ye five wild torrents l| fiercely glad ,\
Who called you forth \\ from night and utter death?
From darkness, let you loose, || and icy dens,
Down those precipitous, || black, jagged rocks,
Forever shattered, || and the same for ever ?\
\
Who gave you || your invulnerable life,
\ \ \ \
Your str ength , your speed, || your fury, and your joy,
/
Unceasing thunder || and eternal foam?
/ /
And who commanded, \\ and the silence came,
"Here shall the billows stiffen || and have rest?"
\ /
Ye ice-falls! || ye, that, from yon dizzy heights,
/
Adown enormous ravines || steeply slope,
>
Torrents, methinks, || that heard a mighty noise,
And stopped, at once, || amidst their maddest plunge,
Motionless torrents! || silent cataracts!
324 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
Who made you glorious || as the gates of heaven,
Beneath the keen, full moon? \\ Who bade the sun
Clothe you with ra inbows? \\ Who, with lovely flowers
Of living blue, \\ spread garlands at your feet?
\ \ \
God! God! j| the torrents like a shout of nations
Utter; || the ice plain bursts, and answers, God!
\ [voice,
God! sing the meadow streams, || with gladsome
And pine groves, j| with their soft and soul -like sound.
\ [God!
The silent snoic-mass, \\ loosening, || thunders,
Ye dreadless flowers , \\ that fringe the ete rnal fr o s t !
Ye wild -goats, \\ bounding by the eagle's nest!
Ye eagles, || playmates of the mountain blast!
\
Ye lightnings^ \\ the dread arrows ofthe clouds,
Ye signs and wonders \\ ofthe elements!
Utter forth God! \\ and fill the hills with praise.
COLERIDGE.
CHAPTER IV.
TRANSITION BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS.
IT being a primary requisite of a good delivery, that it exhibit
the course of thought throughout a composition, the division
'into paragraphs must be manifested to the ear, as clearly as it is
shown by the broken lines in printing, to the eye.
TRANSITION BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS. 325
As each paragraph possesses a true unity, it must be uttered
as a whole. The winding off required at its close, has already
been treated of, under the head of Cadence ; a careful manage-
ment of which must of course be the first object of attention, in
exhibiting the transition to the next paragraph.
The commencement of a new one, must if possible, be given
with a marked variation of manner. This is sometimes difficult
to accomplish, when, as often happens, the new paragraph does
not begin with any considerable change of subject or style. If
indeed it introduces a different course of thought, or a decided
variation in style, and if in addition, these are made prominent
by words of strong emphasis, no difficulty need be experienced.
In such cases, nothing more is required than a close adherence
to the demands of the subject and language.
When there is no sudden or striking change of thought or
language, the reader or speaker is thrown upon his skill in de-
livery, and must make a particular and careful effort to render
manifest the completion of one paragraph, and the commence-
ment of another.
Failures in this respect, generally begin with a neglect of the
deliberate close and the decided pause, which are required in
the extended cadence of the preceding paragraph. Let these
be carefully executed.
Then let the change of position and attitude, and the
actual rest which a speaker naturally indulges, be en-
couraged, and indeed studied.
In general, no pains ought to be taken to conceal them ;
since the audience also need the relief which they afford.
If the speaker or reader has actually rested between two
paragraphs, his voice, and indeed his whole delivery, will ex-
hibit a certain fresh excitement upon entering on the next pas-
sage, which will almost be sufficient, of itself, to mark the
transition.
28*
326 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
Yet in following this direction, care must be exercised not to
fall into a monotonous, yet common, habit, of beginning every
paragraph in a loud and high tone, and one of such a sort as
indicates either an undue excitement, or nothing more than
freshness of animation.
Let a careful effort be made, to exhibit a tone of en-
tering' upon a new and different train of ideas.
The tone actually used in any particular case, will be made
up of a complication of various slight differences of modulation,
yet it is not necessary to their exhibition that we know at the
time, what modulations we are actually using. An earnest ef-
fort to accomplish the desired effect, will be sufficient to pro-
duce them.
In short, let the reader or speaker, adhere closely to the de-
mands of the words he is at any one time uttering.
But let him also study to vary, as much as possible,
his method of commencing paragraphs, by means of other
changes than those of inflexion and emphasis.
As a general rule, we must aim at striking variations. It is
most easy, and in many respects most natural, to proceed in
reading or speaking, with an unvarying uniformity. The in-
creased exertion necessary for large audiences, makes this
tendency so strong, that nothing but intentional skill, united to
a high degree of self-possession, can counteract it.
An instructer finds the subject of the present chapter, ex-
tremely difficult to teach. Even after the student has faithfully
practised himself, in pausing between the divisions of his dis-
course, and in exhibiting a decided transition of manner on a
few words, he is yet liable, after uttering not more than one or
two lines, to revert to the same modulations, attitudes and ges-
tures, which he had been previously using.
Especially, therefore, in delivery adapted to large rooms,
must not only a change of manner be exhibited at the begin-
TRANSITION BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS. 327
ning of a paragraph, but be persevered in during its continu-
ance, and be kept as decidedly peculiar, as the subject and
language will permit.
As it is often a matter of little consequence, in writing or
printing, whether a passage be considered as a single paragraph,
or be subdivided into two or more, it will be found a good prac-
tical rule, to divide a composition for speaking, into as many as
the course of thought will admit. But when this is done, the
cadences will not be in every case low and formal ; the pauses
also, will sometimes be short.
In part first, we furnished, under the head of contrasts of
force, an extract which will practise in transition, and the lim-
its of the volume will allow of inserting but one more.
The example which follows, is selected not on account of the
transitions being very striking, but because it admits of being
divided into short paragraphs.
EXTRACT FOR PRACTISING TRANSITION.
Shall we break the treaty ?
/
Sir, from argument calculated to produce conviction,
\
I will appeal directly to the hearts of those who hear me,\
and ask,
\
whether it is not already
\
planted there 1
I resort, especially,
\
to the convictions of the western gentlemen,
\
whtther t
/
supposing no posts,
328 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
/
and no treaty,
\
the settlers will remain in security ?
/
Can they take it upon them to say,
that an Indian peace, under these circumstances,
/
will prove frm ?
\
No, sir,
\
it will not be peace,
\
but a sword.
\
It will be no better than a lure,
\
to draw victims within the reach of the tomahawk.
On this theme,
\
my emotions are unutterable.
/
If I could find words for them,
/ \/
if my powers bore any proportion to my zeal,
/
I would swell my voice to such a note of remonstrance,
it should reach every log house beyond the mountains
I would say to the inhabitants,
\ \
wake from your false security :
your cruel dangers,
/
your more cruel apprehensions,
\
are soon to be renewed:
TRANSITION BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS. 329
in the day time,
\
your path through the woods will be ambushed:
the darkness of midnight
\
will glitter with the blaze of your dwellings.
/
You are a fa the r
\
the blood of your sons shall fatten your cornfield:
/
you are a mo the r
the war-whoop shall wake the sleep of the cradle.
On this subject
/
you need not suspect any deception on your feelings.
\
It is a spectacle of horror that cannot be overdrawn.
X
If you have nature in your hearts,
it will speak a language
/
compared with which, all 1 have said, or can say,
\
will be poor and frigid.
Will it be whispered,
/ [tion of the frontiers ?
that the treaty has made me a new champion - for the proteo
\
It is known
\
that my voice as well as vote,
\
has been uniformly given,
in conformity with the ideas I have expressed.
330 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
Protection is the right of the frontiers ;
\
it is our duty to give it
Who will accuse me of wandering out of the subject ?
\ [ures ?
Who will say that I exaggerate the tendencies of our meas-
Will any one answer by a sneer,
/
that all this is idle preaching 1
Will any one deny, that we are bound,
and I would hope, to good purpose,
by the most solemn sanctions of duty,
/
for the vote we give ?
/
Are despots, alone, /
[blood of their subjects 1
to be reproached with unfeeling indifference, to the tears and
/
Are republicans unresponsible 1
[cabinets and kings,
Have the principles upon which you ground the reproach upon
/
no practical influence ;
/
no binding force ?
/
Are they merely themes of idle declamation,
/
introduced to decorate the morality - of a newspaper essay,
/
[that state house ?
or to furnish pretty topics of harangue from the windows of
I trust it is neither too presumptuous, nor too late to ask ;
TRANSITION BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS. 331
\
Can you put the dearest interests of society at risk,
without guilt,
\
jind without remorsel
It is vain to offer as an excuse,
\/
that public men are not to be reproached,
for the evils that may happen to ensue from their measures.
Those I have depicted
\
are not unforeseen ;
they are so far from inevitable,
\
we are going to bring them into being by our vote.
\
choose the consequences,
and become as justly answerable for them,
\
as for the measures that we know will produce them.
By rejecting the treaty,
\
we light the savage fires,
\
we bind the victims .
This day we undertake to render account \
[make,
to the widows and orphans whom our decision will
\
to the wretches that will be roasted at the stake.
\
to our country,
and I do not deem it too serious, to say,
332 EXPOSITION OF THOUGHT.
to conscience,
\
and to God.
WE ARE ANSWERABLE !
/
and if duty be any thing more than a word of imposture,
/
if conscience be not a bugbear,
\
we are preparing to make ourselves
\
as wretched as our country.
FISHER AMES.
333
PART III.
EXPRESSION.
HITHERTO we have considered delivery merely in reference
to intelligibility and force. Exposition of Thought, which we
last discussed, is a subject entirely distinct from that of Expres-
sion. The latter does not proceed from the understanding, or
from the imagination ; it springs from feeling.
Suppose two persons to read or speak either of our extracts,
and each to exhibit precisely the same delivery, so far as it can
be influenced by the directions we have hitherto given. The
two will set forth the same ideas, and give them the same rela-
tive importance. They will be equally earnest and forcible.
The attention of an audience may be as completely enchained
by the one as by the other. The hearers may even be impress-
ed and gratified in an equal degree by both. All this may be
done, and yet they may proceed in diametrically opposite styles
of delivery. They may differ in Expression.
As Expression proceeds from feeling, it is obvious that per-
sons of widely different temperaments and characters, must be
predisposed to different styles of speaking. What we call a
person's natural and characteristic manner, has its origin in
such constitutional and habitual influences.
So too, the subject of an address, the nature of the occasion,
and the peculiar character and circumstances of the audience,
all exert their appropriate influences, and excite feelings in the
speaker, which modify his style of expression.
Whoever be the speaker, an entire address, or at least a di-
vision or a paragraph, is characterized by some prevalent ex-
pression. We trust this will be shown by our subsequent clas-
29
334
EXPRESSION.
sification, to be not only a fact, but one which has as definite a
foundation in nature, as articulation, pause, inflexion or em-
phasis.
Our views on this subject are not theoretical, or the result of
investigation on abstract grounds, but arise from observation of
the varieties of manner exhibited by persons differing in age,
character and profession, and aiming at different objects in
speaking.
Nor is the subject difficult, either to teach or to learn. On
the contrary, any particular style of expression is more easily
imitated than the sum total of the numerous and subtle modula-
tions which combine to effect a complete exposition of thought.
Every natural style is produced by the continual recurrence of
some simple and definite modification of tone. Mixed expres-
sions do not so often appear in any one address, as might be
expected previous to investigation ; and when they do occur,
are easily analyzed, their elements being few and definite.
Expression is always the result of two sets of influences,
which are in nature perfectly distinct, although existing in con-
junction. We shall describe these in separate chapters, and
call them
1. MOODS OF DELIVERY.
2. STYLES OF ADDRESS.
Every address exhibits a certain style, and also proceeds in
one of the moods of delivery, or in a medium between them.
CHAPTER I.
MOODS OF DELIVERY
THESE are but two in number; a single exception which we
shall hereafter mention, being but partial. They are
1. The Direct;
2. The Meditative Mood.
MOODS OF DELIVERY. 335
The second might be called the indirect ; but the term we
adopt, though less appropriate in reference to mere classifica-
tion, is more descriptive of the actual state of mind which it
expresses. When we speak of but two moods, we have refer-
ence to extreme degrees of each. An address often exhibits a
medium or mixture of each of the two.
THE DIRECT MOOD OF DELIVERY.
Suppose a speaker makes an extemporaneous address, on a
subject with which he is so familiar as to have all his ideas, and
their language, perfectly at his command. Suppose his whole
matter and style are so prompt and fluent, that his thoughts are
ready for use in his mind, and he has merely to employ them
as instruments. Then suppose him to be exclusively occupied
in endeavoring to influence his audience. If such be his situa-
tion and efforts, his delivery will be in what we call the direct
mood.
In this mood, the speaker's energies are wholly di-
rected towards his audience.
Every tone, look and gesture, shows that he is primarily, and
indeed exclusively influenced, so far as his delivery is concern-
ed, by this state of mind. Whether he asserts, explains, insists,
persuades, urges, commands, exhorts, or appeals, it is prima-
rily to them. None of these things are done in reference to
strengthening his own convictions, or satisfying his own feel-
ings in view of his subject. He endeavors exclusively to influ-
ence others ; and does not aim to satisfy himself and others.
The truth and interest of a course of thought, are not dwelt upon
abstractly, or for the gratification of his own mind, but are ta-
ken for granted, and enforced upon his audience. He is not
assisting himself to think and feel, but occupied in making oth-
ers sympathize with thoughts and feelings completely matured
in his mind.
336 EXPRESSION.
The pleadings of lawyers before juries, are generally in this
mood of delivery, and with little or no admixture of the medi-
tative. Still further illustration will be afforded under the next
head, by the comparison of the two moods with each other.
To succeed in speaking in this mood, it will be sufficient for
the student to put his mind into the state above described, and
make vigorous efforts accordingly. Yet it will be interesting
and useful to describe, in detail, the modifications of general
manner which result from so doing.
1st. The attitude is that of leaning forward towards
those addressed.
If they are very near, as in the case of a jury addressed by a
lawyer, the body will lean forward from the hips. But if the
audience is large, the body will not bend from the hips, but
lean forward from the foot on which it rests, generally from
the right one.
It should be remembered that in graceful attitudes, the bend-
ing forward which expresses sympathy and a desire to bespeak
attention, will not be principally at the neck. The head will
incline with the body, and not by itself. Bending the head
without the body, is apt to suggest a notion that the speaker
feels too proud to be unreservedly polite, or sympathizing.
2d. In gesture, the arm will be freely extended, and
not be half drawn back.
If this be not done, the speaker will be liable to appear either
bashful, or too self-important to be in earnest.
There is an exception in the case of those familiar ges-
tures of explication or argument, in which the elbows remain
Dearly at the sides of the body, and the gesticulations are made
with the fore-arm and wrist. These are the gestures commonly
used in conversation, and deserve to be cultivated in familiar
delivery. Vide p. 4o.
MOODS OF DELIVERY. 337
The wrist will be well bent back, and the thumb and
forefinger widely opened, in order that the palm of the
hand may make a frank and striking appeal.
3d. The voice will be open, distinct, clear, and ear-
nestly sympathizing, in its tone.
The peculiar tone of voice which characterizes this mood of
delivery, is that which the musicians call reedy. The clarionet,
among musical instruments, exemplifies the quality in the most
perfect manner. The voice does not exhibit the pure tone, in
absolute perfection. It is more or less palatal, that is, assisted
by reverberation from the palate or roof of the mouth, and not
wholly laryngeal, or from the throat. Those who have not
studied music, may recognize this quality of the speaking voice,
from its resemblance to the tone of grave, yet sympathizing
conversation.
When the direct mood of delivery is entered into with
great earnestness, it naturally tends to make the articu-
lation very distinct.
The voice inclines to execute each syllable with an elaborate
finish. Even in rapid speaking, the utterance of the words and
syllables in detail, has a certain deliberation.
Finally, the countenance has an open and earnest ex-
pression ; the eyes looking directly and steadily (for
most of the time) towards those addressed.
THE MEDITATIVE MOOD.
In this, the speaker dwells upon ideas for their own
sake, and for the satisfaction, at least in part, of his own
mind.
If his audience coincide with him, they do so from pure sym-
pathy, and not because he makes an especial effort to influence
29*
EXPRESSION.
them. The delivery is substantially the same as if the speaker
were giving free utterance to his thoughts and feelings, with-
out addressing an audience.
The purest exhibition of this mood, is heard in impassioned
meditation and soliloquy. Although a soliloquy may powerfully
affect an audience, yet it must not be addressed to them.
As in a soliloquy, so in lower degrees of the meditative mood,
the speaker reflects upon ideas and feelings, while he is uttering
them. He enforces them for his own satisfaction, as well as
for that of his hearers, upon whom he acts, as it were, indirectly.
The meditative mood is used to express conviction, the speak-
er's personal interest, and the interest common to him and his
audience. The direct, is that of pure affirmation, inculcation,
persuasion and appeal.
The direct is objective in its efforts, and the meditative more
or less subjective.
The speaker being more or less in a state of medita-
tion and reflection, this state influences his whole ap-
pearance.
1st. His ATTITUDE is more erect and self-balanced,
than when speaking in the direct mood. The head
slightly inclines to be thrown backward, while the eyes
look more or less upwards.
2d. The arm, in gesture, tends more upwards, and
the palm of the hand is less strikingly presented to the
audience.
3d. The voice, though it may exhibit any degree of
earnestness and passion, has a more thoughtful and solilo-
quizing tone sounding more as if the speaker had no
audience before him.
The Pure Tone, (vide p. 5S,) in its highest perfection, is
heard only in this mood of delivery. Indeed, the most perfectly
musical sound of the speaking voice, is called for only in the
MOODS OF DELIVERY. 339
recitation of interesting or elevated poetry, or of prose, that like
poetry, addresses the imagination and feelings more than the
understanding. When one is reading or reciting, rather than
speaking, it is often required that the quality of voice be as ab-
solutely musical as in the most perfect execution by the masters
of singing.
When the meditative mood of delivery is carried to the de-
gree of soliloquy, the voice is so completely in the throat as to
exhibit more or less of a hollow sound. But in practice, this
tendency to hollowness of tone must be in a good degree con-
tracted, or it will be apt to degenerate into obscurity, or into
mouthing" and affectation.
The natural tendencies of the utterance are to be less distinct
in articulation, in this mood of delivery. The voice being less
open, broad and clear, arid the utterance being more in the
throat, the consonants are enunciated with less strength and
precision. They are likewise not so much dwelt upon as in
the direct mood.
Hence the speaker needs to take more pains to articulate
with completeness and precision.
Indeed so little is it natural to be distinct and articulate in
the meditative mood, that if delivery which proceeds in a high
degree of it is made perfectly successful, the flow of utterance of
thought and feeling, is constantly accompanied by a separate
effort to be distinct and intelligible.
Hence we see the reason of the common fact that thoughtful
and intellectual men are apt to have an indistinct articulation
in public reading or speaking.
The reading or recitation of poetry, or of soliloquies, requires
that this separate effort for articulation be made with very great
care and patience.
The most interesting exemplifications of eloquence in the
meditative mood, are afforded by poets reading or reciting their
own productions with enthusiasm, and by eloquent clergymen.
340 EXPRESSION.
Speakers who manifest cultivated minds and elevated char-
acters, always speak more or less in this mood. Even when
their utmost energies are exerted to convince or persuade their
auditors, they still manifest, for the greater part of the time, a
thoughtfulness of manner, which proves that they endeavor to
satisfy their own minds, as well as those of others.
Instructive and interesting lectures, should always be deliv-
ered chiefly in this mood.
Whenever the ideas expressed concern the whole hu-
man family, or the speaker's fellow countrymen, the
meditative mood should be more or less conspicuous in
the delivery.
This mood contributes most to dignity, elevation and sincerity
of delivery. Yet it is frequently observed that men of superior
talents, high cultivation, and great earnestness of character, are
dull and uninteresting speakers. They are so even when
speaking extemporaneously, and when their matter and style
are such as may be expected from their talents and characters.
Such speak purely in the meditative mood, but without excite-
ment, and with an abstracted manner. They do not sympa-
thize with their audience, or endeavor to influence them.
There is, then, an ABSTRACTED MOOD of delivery, which
is meditative and inexpressive, and which ought always
to be avoided.
These considerations suggest an explanation of the fact so
commonly observed, that eloquent writers are not always elo-
quent speakers. It is also true, on the other hand, that many
eloquent extemporaneous speakers cannot write with eloquence.
The minds of the former class work best in solitude, and are
rendered confused and feeble, by the presence of their fellow
men. The latter class have their minds aroused by the pres-
ence of an audience. The former are hindered, and the latter
excited, assisted and encouraged, when occupying the situation
of a speaker.
STYLES OF ADDRESS. 341
The peculiarly impressive tone which we so often hear in
public prayer, is an exemplification of the meditative mood in
delivery. When most appropriate, it differs little, if at all, from
the tone of a loud and earnest soliloquy. In most cases also,
the awe which the person officiating experiences, makes his voice
highly pathetic, that is, causes it to proceed in the intonation of
the semitone, which will hereafter be described.
As the most elevated and interesting delivery generally ex-
hibits a mixture of both the two moods which have just been
described, it is a useful expedient for a student of elocution to
practise repeating the same passage in each of them separately,
and afterwards to make use of such a medium between the two
extremes, as is most appropriate for the composition, and for
the time, place and occasion, in which he is preparing to speak.
On some occasions likewise, one or the other mood is required,
without any admixture of its opposite.
No separate examples are therefore required for practising
the moods. Any extract may be employed for either or both.
No compositions except soliloquies, are confined to one mood,
in every possible circumstance.
CHAPTER II.
STYLES OF ADDRESS.
THESE are independent of the Moods, and are of two classes,
according as they represent thought or sentiment ; according as
they attempt to compel conviction, or simply make an appeal.
The styles which set forth thought, address chiefly
the understandings of the audience.
Those of sentiment, appeal primarily to imagination
and feeling.
The two classes are opposed to each other.
342 EXPRESSION.
Their general characteristics may be explained by referring
to exemplifications of each, with which all are familiar.
Suppose a debater earnestly contending for victory on an ex-
clusively logical question ; or a lawyer engaged in a purely le-
gal argument before a judge. In either case, there is no room
for imagination or sentiment; the understanding alone is ad-
dressed. The feelings which give warmth and animation to
the delivery, are those only which accompany pure argument,
and strife for victory in debate. Such oratory is in one of the
styles characterized by the expression of thought, and an effort
to compel assent.
On the other hand, how different are the examples of genu-
ine poets, or of interesting clergymen, who express ideas of
imagination and sentiment, as well as of logical reasoning.
These do not force us, they interest us. Instead of being driv-
en, as it were, by the energy of their understandings and wills,
we voluntarily sympathize, and take pleasure in coinciding
with them. Although sentimental delivery exhibits thought,
yet it appeals primarily to the imagination. Nor does the
speaker aim to force others to feel with him ; he himself feels
with them. His will and energy of character are not brought
to bear upon them, to produce a change in their feelings and
convictions. The utmost compulsion attempted, is that of an
earnest and sympathizing appeal.
Argument with a direct effort to carry a point, may indeed
be assisted by imagination and sentiment; but in this case the
latter are not simply spontaneous ; they are made use of as addi-
tional instruments of compulsion. The speaker gives utterance
to them, not from mere impulse, but because he intends to in-
fluence others by them.
Although particular styles of composition most natu-
rally suggest corresponding styles of address, yet any
composition admits of being read or spoken in any style.
STYLES OF ADDRESS. 343
Even pure logical argument may be exhibited with a senti-
mental manner of presentation. The speaker may avoid affirm-
ing positively, but content himself with stating or offering his
arguments, and then leaving his hearers to coincide with him or
not. This is the most agreeable, and one of the most common
modes of presenting argument, in conversation.
The most appropriate names of the two classes of styles, will
be different, according to the aspects under which they are
viewed. If regard be had to the nature of the compositions
which respectively demand them, they will be called those of
thought and reasoning, on the one hand, and those of imagina-
tion and sentiment, on the other. The other aspect regards
the sort of exertion made by the speaker, and according as he
endeavors to compel his hearers, or contents himself with ap-
pealing to them, they might be termed the compulsory, and the
appealing styles; or they might receive the names of active,
and passive.
We think it best, however, to name the two classes accord-
ing to the demands, in ordinary circumstances, of the composi-
tion to be delivered. When the understanding is primarily ad-
dressed, the thoughts are affirmed, and if they are enforced, it
is done by forcible affirmation. This produces what is called
forcible declamation ; and we should adopt the term declama-
tion, were it not that it is often used as one of disparagement in
criticisms on oratory. The term didactic might be employed,
except that the word has, in strict propriety, a more limited
meaning.
We shall therefore call the two classes : the AFFIRMATIVE,
and the SENTIMENTAL styles of address.
The distinctions which we are now considering, are liable to
be confounded with those of the Moods of delivery. Yet they
are entirely different. Although argumentative or forensic
speaking generally proceeds in the Direct Mood, yet it may
with propriety be more or less Meditative. The speaker may
344 EXPRESSION.
affirm either to himself, or to others, or to both. So too, the
delivery which springs from imagination and sentiment, may
either proceed in the direct mood, and appeal to others, to be-
speak their attention and sympathy, or it may be in the medi-
tative mood, and exhibit no especial directing of look, voice and
gesture, towards the audience.
The whole number of the unmixed styles of address, in prac-
tical speaking, is twelve. One hxilf of them, however, are mod-
ifications of the others, and thus we have six primary divisions.
Each class has three styles, as exhibited in the following table.
I. Affirmative Styles.
1. Affirmation.
a. Explanatory Affirmation.
2. Impassioned Affirmation.
a. Impassioned Explanatory Affirmation.
3. Contentious Affirmation.
a. Contentious Explanatory Affirmation.
II. Sentimental Styles.
1. Simple Sentiment.
a. Simple Pathetic Sentiment.
2. Impassioned Sentiment.
a. Impassioned Pathetic Sentiment.
3. Hortatory Sentiment.
a. Hortatory Pathetic Sentiment
In each class, the second style is more powerful than the
first, and the third than the second. The three styles in each
may therefore be considered as different degrees, as well as
different kinds of force. The description of them under their
several heads, will show that nature has appropriated a definite
and precise tone of voice for each.
It may be asked, are there no mixed styles? We believe
there are but few. Each style may be in one of the two moods,
or in a medium between them. They may also be exhibited
STYLES OF ADDRESS. 345
with a difference in respect of qualities which do not influence
the style; the principal of which me familiarity, and its oppo-
site, gravity; force, and its opposite, moderation; liveliness,
which is made up of familiarity and force; dignity, which re-
quires gravity and some degree of the meditative mood ; suavity
which is effected by a smooth quality of voice, and sometimes
by a prolonged vanish ; and sympathy, which depends to a con-
siderable extent on look and gesture, but likewise employs a
clear and reedy tone of voice.
The first style in each class, viz. that of Simple Af-
firmation, and that of Simple Sentiment, is not necessa-
rily destitute of force.
On the contrary, some of the most powerful passages of dec-
lamation, as, for instance, that from Plunket, on p. 267, exhibit
a vehement, but yet unimpassioned force of delivery; and on
a similar principle, many of the most powerful passages of sen-
timent, are likewise unimpassioned. An impassioned style,
however, is more strongly influential on an audience, than the
highest degree offeree with an unimpassioned manner.
The impassioned styles are distinguished by some personal
emotion of the speaker, which colors his whole intonation.
The emotion is often some definite feeling, such as surprise,
wonder, triumph, exultation, sorrow, pity, regret, and various
others, which all have names, and each of which is generally
furnished by nature, with a certain mode of exhibition. Yet
no style of delivery, according to the above classification, de-
pends on the peculiar nature of the emotion or passion exhibited.
They are determined rather by the presence or absence of any
emotion at all, affecting the current tone of voice, and em-
ployed, not for its own sake, but as an expression of earnest-
ness. The modifications of tone which distinguish the styles,
are entirely independent of those which constitute the natural
language of the different passions. The study of the latter is
30
346 EXPRESSION.
not necessary for oratory, being required only in the art of act-
ing ; in artistic recitation ; and in such speaking as is intended
to exhibit a display of art, or in other words, is intentionally
executed as a sort of acting.
In fact, it is not necessary that Impassioned Affirmation or
Sentiment, in delivery, exhibit any one of the various passions.
The word impassioned does not, in common usage, necessarily
convey such a meaning. We familiarly speak of impassioned
earnestness, and it is in this sense that we employ the word in
our classification. We may affirm a truth with great force of
delivery, or we may do so with an impassioned earnestness of
affirmation. The distinction between the two we shall explain
more fully, when we treat of each style specifically.
Previous, however, to describing and illustrating each, it will
be satisfactory to the student, to present a brief explanation of
the discoveries made by Dr. Rush, in regard to the vocal func-
tions by which they are executed. But although this gentle-
man has described them with his accustomed accuracy, he has
not systematically appropriated them to their natural uses.
Every syllable in discourse has a slide. A slide is either
simply upwards or downwards; or it proceeds first in one direc-
tion and then in its opposite, constituting a wave.
Explanatory expression is (in our opinion,) given by a wav-
ing slide. An expression which is not explanatory, has a slide
simply upwards or downwards.
But the slide may be without any stress, or force of utterance,
on one portion more than on another ; or it may have stress on
different parts. The stress may be on the beginning, i. e. at the
first issuing of the syllable ; or in the middle ; or at the end.
It may also be first at the beginning, and then at the end ; and,
finally, it may be a stress carried with great energy throughout
the whole extent of the slide. Each of these six variations in
respect of stress is the characteristic of a distinct style.
UNIMTASSIONED AFFIRMATION. 347
These distinctions have long been recognized in music, and
have each received an appropriate name, with reference to style
of musical expression. Indeed, so far as we can discover, after
improving every opportunity, for many years, of listening to
well executed music, expression in this art is produced by the
same means as in either reading, speaking or conversation.
It must be borne in mind that expression, whether in music
or in elocution, is something which characterizes every note or
syllable. Each style of delivery has therefore a peculiar mode
of uttering all the syllables, which is independent of emphasis,
inflexion, or any other element of utterance: Yet it will, of
course, be most conspicuous on accented and on emphatic syl-
lables, as well as on those which have long quantity, or which
are delivered with slowness, or with energy. The same is
equally true of notes in music.
We now proceed to describe and exemplify the several styles.
Under each head we shall also refer to such of the preceding
extracts as belong to it, and thus classify all in the volume, in
respect to styles of delivery.
UNIMPASSIONED AFFIRMATION.
This may be exhibited either with calmness, with ani-
mation, or with a vehement and even violent force.
It is used for stating pure fact or thought, provided the
statement is made by assertion, and without an appeal.
Its tone is that produced by the unvarying recurrence of
stress upon the beginning of each syllable. This " radical
stress" is instantly followed by the commencement of the van-
ishing movement on the syllable : vide p. 61.
It has been already described in part first, p. 67. But we
then had in view a high degree of this mode of enforcement,
with reference merely to preparatory exercises of the voice ;
such being the easiest and most common form of Animation.
348 EXPRESSION.
In the compositions to which this style of delivery is most ap-
propriate, there is commonly a frequent occurrence of emphatic
falling inflexions, which are accompanied by the downward
stroke in gesture. It often happens likewise, that circumflex
inflexions occur on such emphatic words as demand a pointed
designation, but yet require to end with a rising inflexion, on
account of suspension of sense.
Among our previous extracts, may be classed under this style,
those commencing on p. 267 (which should be vehement) on
p. 282 (which is calm) on p. 296 the intensive passages,
pp. 297 and 298^-and the remonstrative, p. 303.
The following extract may be spoken without impropriety in
the next style, viz. that of Explanatory Affirmation. But if
carefully examined, it will be perceived to belong to that now
under consideration. It may be spoken, either calmly, or with
a high degree of force.
ON THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION.
/
When we have formed a constitution upon free principles,
/
when we have given a proper balance
to the different branches of administration,
/
and fixed representation
/
upon pure and equal principles,
we may, with safety,
\
furnish it with all the powers
necessary to answer, in the most ample manner ,
the purposes of government.
The great desiderata,
UNIMPASSIONED AFFIRMATION. 349
are nfree representation, and mutual checks.
When these are obtained,
all our apprehensions - of the extent of powers,
\
are unjust and imaginary.
What, then, is the structure
\
of this constitution ?
One branch of the legislature
is to be elected by the people
by the same people who choose your state representatives.
Its members are to hold their office two years,
\
and then to return to their constituents.
Here, Sir,
\
the people govern :
\
here they act,
by their immediate representatives.
\
You have also a senate,
\
constituted by your state legislatures
\
by men, in whom you place the highest confidence,
and forming anotlier representative, branch.
Then, again, you have an executive magistrate,
created by a form of election,
30*
350 EXPRESSION.
\
which merits universal approbation.
In the form - of this government,
and in the mode of legislation,
\
you find all the checks,
which the greatest politicians, and the best writers,
have ever conceived.
The entire organization is so complex,
so skilfully contrived,
\
that it is next to impossible,
that an impolitic, or wicked measure,
should pass the great scrutiny, with success.
\
Now, what do gentlemen mean,
\
by coming forward, and declaiming - against this government 1
Why do they say,
\
we ought to limit its powers,
\
to disable it,
\
and to destroy its capacity - of blessing the people ?
/
Has philosophy suggested,
/
has experience taught,
that such a government
/
ought not to be trusted,
EXPLANATORY AFFIRMATION. 351
/
with every thing necessary - for the good of society 1
\/
Sir, when you have divided and nicely balanced the de-
partments of government,
when you have strongly connected the virtue of your rulers
\/
[with their interests,
when, in short, you have made your system as perfect
\/
\ [as human forms can be,
you must place confidence,
\
you must give power.
ALEXANDER HAMILTON.
1. a. EXPLANATORY AFFIRMATION.
This combines an explanatory tone with enforce-
ment of Affirmation by radical stress. A careful effort
to explain all our ideas, causes each syllable to have a
waving slide.
Though many syllables are so short as to afford no opportu-
nity for a perceptible wave, yet even such exhibit a vocal effort
towards one. On the longer syllables, the wave is conspicuous,
and especially on the accented vowels of emphatic words.
The gestures, in this style of address, incline more than in
the preceding, to waving and sideway motions, and are espe-
cially characterized by gesticulations made from the wrist, in-
stead of from the elbow, or shoulder.
As the voice endeavors to proceed, as much as possible with
waving slides, the syllables are more prolonged than in the pre-
ceding styles, and the articulation of the terminal letters of
words is particularly distinct.
Note. In part first of this work, the section (p. 129) on the Tone of
Communicating Thought, has partially anticipated our present subject.
But in that section we had reference, not to particular styles of address,
352 EPR
ESSION.
but to that general care by which every part of delivery is so managed as
to appear like an actual exposition of ideas, and not like an abstract and
absent minded enunciation of words instead of thoughts and feelings.
The extracts on pp. 268, 274, and 278, demand this style of
delivery, and a high degree of force and power.
The following extract is explanatory, as well as didactic ; but
familiar and lively, rather than forcible.
Speak the speech, I pray you,
\
as / pronounced it to you ;
\
TRIPPINGLY 07i the tongue.
/
But if you mouth it, as many of our players do,
\
I had as lief the town crier had spoken my lines.
\
And do not - saw the air - too much,
\ /\
with your hands, thus ;
\
but use all gently.
\
For in the very torrent,
\
tempest,
and, as I may say, whirlwind - of your passion,
\
you must acquire and beget a temperance,
\
that may give it smoothness.
\
Oh ! it offends me to the soul,
to hear a robustious, periwig-pated fellow,
\
tear a passion to tatters,
EXPLANATORY AFFIRMATION.
\
to very rags,
\
to split the ears of the groundlings,
who, for the most part,
\
are capable
of nothing - but inexplicable dumb shows, and noise.
\
Pray you, avoid it.
\
Be not too tame, - neither ;
\
but let your own discretion
\
be your tutor.
Suit the action to the word,
\
the word to the action ;
with this special observance,
\
that you o'erstcp not the modesty of nature ;
for any thing so overdone
\
is from the purpose
of playing ;
whose end is,
\
to hold, as 'twere, the mirror, up to nature;
to show virtue her own feature,
scorn, her own image, \
[pressure.
and the very age - and body - of the time, his form and
354 EXPRESSION.
/
Now, this overdone,
\
or come tardy off,
/
though it make the unskilful laugh,
\/ \
cannot but make the judicious grieve ;
\
the censure of one of which
must, in your allowance,
\
over weigh a whole theatre
/
of others.
Oh ! there be players, that I have seen play,
\
and heard others praise,
\
and that highly,
/
that, having neither the accent of Christian,
\
nor the gait
\
of Christian, pagan, nor man,
have so - strutted, and bellowed,
\ [men,
that I have thought some of nature's journeymen had made
\
and not made them well;
they imitated humanity
so abominably !
SHAKESPEARE.
IMPASSIONED AFFIRMATION. 355
2. IMPASSIONED AFFIRMATION.
In the preceding styles, a speaker may be highly vehement,
and yet exhibit a degree of coolness; the force with which he
speaks proceeding from clearness of understanding, and energy
of affirmation.
The present style implies personal feeling and impas-
sioned earnestness ; and is accordingly more powerful in
its effect, when employed with energy.
Passages which demand this style, in addition to impassioned
earnestness, generally exhibit frequent colorings from various
emotions which accompany excited argument ; such as wonder
at absurdity ; surprise at mistakes ; contempt for false reasoning ;
triumph in view of truth ; indignation at error ; joy, satisfaction,
complacency, confidence, and others.
The tone of Impassioned Affirmation, is the median
stress ; i. e. a stress in the middle of each syllable.
Tn music, this is called the swell, and produces the same ef-
fect as in elocution, when given on notes no longer than the
syllables of speech.
The swell is generally sudden. In the radical stress of the
preceding styles, the first issuing sound of the vowel is the loud-
est part of the slide. The median stress begins with a slight
sound of the vowel, which instantly swells to a forcible one, and
immediately afterwards ends with a quick vanish at the end of
the syllable.
The gestures in this style, are slower and less sudden. The
sweeping motions of the arm are wider, and with a slow strength.
The breast is heaved up, and swells with earnestness, and the
muscles of the arm are nerved to the highest state of tension.
Among our extracts in previous chapters, those demanding
iis style, are on pp. 53, 110, 117, 120, 220, 261, 271, 281.
356 EXPRESSION.
The following is from a speech by Brougham, on the occa-
sion of a solemn affirmation made by the Duke of York, that in
the not improbable event of his succeeding to the crown, he
should never approve a bill for Catholic emancipation. It re^
quires the most vehement enforcement.
Will any man tell me,
/
that he has NOW confident hopes of the Catholic Question ?
/
Does any man really believe NOW
that the Catholic Bill will pass ?
\
Does any man believe
that the ominous news of this day,
which has gone forth to England and Ireland,
\
will not ring the knell of despair in the ears of the Catholics ?
/
Instead of a majority - of twenty seven members of this house,
/
to save the empire from convulsion,
I believe nothing can save Ireland,
nothing can preserve the tranquillity of Ireland,
\ /
and save England from new troubles,
\
but an OVERWHELMING majority.
\
Now, too is the time,
\
or not for years.
\
This is the hour of its good fortune.
\
This reign
IMPASSIONED AFFIRMATION,
357
\
the present reign,
is the critical moment of its probable success.
\
The time may pass quickly by you ;
\
the glorious opportunity may soon be lost.
After a little sleeping, and a little debating,
and a little sitting upon these benches,
and a little folding of your arms,
and a short passing space of languid procrastination,
\
the present auspicious occasion will have DISAPPEARED,
\
and the dominion of BIGOTRY and DESPOTISM
\
will come, in all its might, upon our slumberings,
\
like an arm - ed man, - in the night,
and destroy the peace of Ireland,
endanger the safety of England,
\
and threaten the liberties of the general empire.
It becomes us, then,
\
to set our house in order, by times,
and to recollect, /
[majority of nineteen,
that if we carried up the Bill, on a former occasion, by a
and it failed in the house of Peers,
31
358 EXPRESSION.
\
there is ten thousand fold the necessity /
[conclusion,
for taking this last opportunity - of bringing the question to a
\/
because an event may happen,
\
when you will have no longer the option ;
when even if the Bill should be carried
/
not by a majority of nineteen, or twenty seven,
\
but by a unanimous vote - of both houses of Parliament,
\
and the voice of the whole country,
\
even if the country streamed with blood,
the measure could not be effected,
\
except by an inseparable breach - with the Crown.
BROUGHAM.
In the following magnificent defense of his conduct by De-
mosthenes, we mark many of the questions with falling slides,
to indicate the triumphant tone with which they should be put.
A powerful effect is also produced by intensive emphases.
\
Athenians ! consider ;
\
what was the part of a faithful citizen 1
\
Of a prudent, an active, and an honest minister ?
/
Was he not to secure Eubcea,
/
as our defence against all attacks - by sea ?
/ /
Was he not to make Bceotia our barrier on the midland side ?
IMPASSIONED AFFIRMATION. 359
/ / [ter?
the cities bordering on Peloponnesus our bulwark on that quar-
\
[tion of corn,
Was he not to attend, with due precaution, - to the importa-
that this trade might be protected, through all its progress ,
\
up to our very harbor ? \
[seasonable detachments
Was he not to cover those districts which we commanded, by
\ \ \
as the Proconesus, the Chersonesus, and Tenedos ?
\
To exert himself - in the assembly, for this purpose,
while, with equal zeal,
he labored to gain others to our interest and alliance,
\ \ \
as Byzantium, Abydos, and Eubcea ?
\
Was he not to cut off
/
the best - and most important resources of our enemies,
\/ \
and to supply those in which our country - was defective ?
And all this you gained
\ t
by my counsels, and my administration.
Such counsels,
and such an administration,
as must appear, upon a fair - and equitable view,
\
the result - of strict integrity;
\
such as left no favor able juncture unimproved,
360 EXPRESSION.
\
through ignorance, or treachery ;
\
SUCh as EVER HAD THEIR DUE EFFECTS,
as far as the judgment and abilities of one man
\
could prove effectual.
\/
But if some Superior Being,
\/
if the misconduct - of your generals,
\/
if the iniquity - of your traitors,
\/
or if aU these together broke in upon us,
and, at length, involved us in one general devastation,
\
how is DEMOSTHENES to be blamed ?
\
Had there been a single man,
in each Grecian state,
/
to act the same part which / supported in this city ;
\
nay,
had but one such man been found in Thessaly,
\
and one in Arcadia,
/
actuated - by my principles,
\
not a single Greek,
\
either beyond, or on this side Thermopylae,
could have experienced the misfortunes - of this day.
\
All had then been FREE and INDEPENDENT,
IMPASS. E X P L A N . AFFIRMATION. 361
\
in PERFECT TRANQUILLITY, SECURITY, and HAPPINESS,
/
uncontrolled, in their several dominions, by any foreign power,
and jilled with gratitude to you and to your state,
\
the authors of these blessings so extensive and so precious.
And all this by my means.
DEMOSTHENES.
2, a. IMPASSIONED EXPLANATORY AFFIRMATION.
This differs from the preceding, in the employment of waves,
and in the earnest long quantity which they require.
The following extract from an argument before a jury, will
readily suggest the peculiarly powerful declamation which con-
stitutes this style.
In the case - of a civil action, Gentlemen of the Jury,
\ /
throughout the whole range of civil injuries,
the master is always, civilitcr,
. \
answerable for the act of his servant or agent;
and accident or neglect
can therefore be no answer
\
to a plaintiff - complaining of a consequential wrong.
/
If a driver of a public carriage
/
maliciously overturns another, upon the road, /
[distance,
whilst the proprietor is asleep in his bed, at a hundred miles
the party injuring
31*
362 EXPRESSION.
\
must, unquestionably, pay the damages, to a farthing ;
/
but though such malicious servant might also be indicted,
\/
and suffer an infamous judgment,
/ [tion ?
could the MASTER, also, become the object of such a prosecu-
\
Certainly not!
\
In the same manner, partners in trade
are, civilly, answerable for bills drawn by one another,
or by their agents drawing them by procuration,
\
though - fraudulently,
\
and in abuse of their trtists ;
/
but if one partner commits a fraud,
/
by forgery, or fictitious endorsements,
/ [indictment,
so as to subject himself to death, - or other punishment by
/
could the other partners be indicted ?
\
To answer such a question, here, would be folly ;
/ /
because it not only answers itself, in the negative,
\
but exposes to scorn \
[civil actions,
every argument which would confound indictments with
\
Why, then, is printing and publishing
\
to be an exception - to every other human act?
Why is a man to be answerable criminaliter t
IMPASS. EXPLAN. AFFIRMATION. 363
/
for the crime of his servant, in this instance,
\
more than in all other cases?
/
As far, indeed, as damages go,
\
the principle is intelligible and universal;
but as it establishes a crime, \/
\ / [disgrace,
and inflicts a punishment which affects character and imposes
\
it is shocking to humanity, and insulting to common sense.
\
How is this vindicated?
\/ \
From the supposed necessity of the case.
\/
An indictment for a libel
\
is, therefore, considered to be an anomaly in the law.
\/ \
It was held so, undoubtedly;
\
but the exposition of that error lies before me;
\
the Libel Act lies before me,
\
which, expressly, and in terms,
directs that the trial for a libel \
[CRIME ;
shall be conducted like EVERY OTHER TRIAL, for ANY OTHER
and that the jury shall decide,
not upon the mere fact - of printing or publishing ,
\
but upon the whole matter put in issue, \
[CHARGED BY THE INDICTMENT.
that is, the publication of the libel - WITH THE INTENTION
364 EXPRESSION.
\
THIS is the rule by the Libel Act ;
and you - the Jury, as well as the Court, are bound by it.
ERSKINE.
3. CONTENTIOUS AFFIRMATION.
This might also be called the Forensic style ; being that used
in the most vehement debates, and by lawyers, in their most
powerful pleadings. It expresses the extreme of earnestness in
contending for victory, or in striving to gain a cause ; and calls
for a corresponding degree of mental and bodily energy.
Its tone is that of the compound stress ; i.e. a stress
first at the beginning and then at the end of a syllable.
The middle part of the slide is less forcible than the com-
mencement, and instead of a vanishing termination, a sudden
force is given at the end. Hence the terminal consonants of
syllables and words are very strongly enunciated, and the artic-
ulation is forcibly distinct.
The gestures are numerous, and made with great strength
and heartiness.
The extracts on pp. 56, 262, and 275, are from powerful
pleadings of great lawyers, and require this style.
The following extract is from a speech of the most powerful
of the French orators. Its object is to prevail on the legislature
to adopt, without examination, an extreme measure intended
to rescue France from national bankruptcy.
It will be perceived that the overpowering vehemence of this
style and the next one, causes the groups to be long ; and not
only multiplies emphatic words, but sometimes makes more
than one emphatic inflexion necessary in a phrase.
Has not the Minister of Finance
\ \
drawn a most ALARMING PICTURE of our present situation?
Has he not told you
CONTENTIOUS AFFIRMATION. 365
\
that delay must aggravate the evil ?
/ /
that a day, an hour,
\
a moment ,
\
wza^ render it irremediable 1
\
Have we any other plan,
\
to substitute for the one he proposes ?
\
One of this assembly answers yes !
I conjure that member to recollect,
\
that his plan is unknown,
\
that it would require time,
\
to explain and examine it,
\
that, were it now in discussion,
\
its author may, perhaps, be mistaken ;
\
or if not, that we may think he is,
and that, without the concurrence of PUBLIC OPINION,
\
the GREATEST POSSIBLE talents
would be of no avail, in the present circumstances.
\
I, too,
am/ar from thinking,
/ [means ;
that the minister has proposed the best possible ways and
but at this critical moment,
366 EXPRESSION.
\ \
I cannot even think of placing my views in opposition to his.
/
However preferable, I may deem them,
I know that it is in vain for me
\
to pretend to his prodigious popularity,
\
the reward of such distinguished services,
\
to his long experience,
\ \
to his reputation of the Jirst financier in Europe,
\
or to the singular - and unprecedented good fortune,
which has marked his career,
\
more perhaps, than that of any former statesman.
We must, therefore,
come back to the plan of Mr. Neckar.
\
But, "why adopt it without deliberation?"
/
Do you think, then, that we have TIME,
/
to examine it in detail,
/
to discuss the principles, and go over all the calculations ?
\
No,
\
NO,
\
a thousand times - no.
\
We can only propose insignificant questions,
\
and superficial conjectures.
CONTENTIOUS AFFIRMATION. 367
\
What, then, shall we do, by deliberating?
\
LOSE the decisive MOMENT !
involve ourselves in disputes - about the details of a scheme,
which we really do not understand;
diminish, by our idle meddlings, the Minister's credit,
\ \
which is, and ought to be, greater than our own.
Gentlemen,
/ \
Mis course is both impolitic, and dishonest. /
[the idea of bankruptcy,
I would ask those who seem to be accustoming themselves - to
/
in preference to excessive taxes,
/
whether a NATIONAL BANKRUPTCY !
\
is not itself
\
the most cruel!
\
the most unjust!
\
the most ruinous,
\
of all possible taxes ?
MlRABEAU.
3. a. EXPLANATORY CONTENTIOUS AFFIRMATION.
This differs from the preceding in the employment of
waving slides.
Gentlemen of the Jury,
/
How any man can rationally vindicate
368 EXPRESSION.
the publication - of such a book as Paine 's Age of Reason,
in a country where the Christian religion
/
is the VERY FOUNDATION - of the LAW OF THE LAND,
/
I am totally at a loss to conceive,
\
and have no wish to discuss,
\
How is a tribunal, - /
[and practice
whose whole jurisdiction is founded upon the solemn belief
of what is here denied as falsehood and reprobated as impiety,
\
to DEAL - with such an anomalous defence?
\
Upon what principle is it even OFFERED to the court,
whose authority is contemned and mocked at? /
[ously adopted in belief - and solemnly acted upon,
If the religion proposed to be called in question is not previ-
\
what authority has the court to pass any judgment AT ALL,
\
either of acquittal, or condemnation ?
Under what sanction,
\
are the witnesses to give their evidence,
\
without which there can be no trial?
Under what obligations
/
can I call upon you, the Jury - representing your country,
\
to administer justice ?
\
Surely,
STYLES OF SENTIMENT.
369
upon no other,
\
than that you are sworn to administer it, under the oaths you
\ [have taken.
The whole judicial fabric,
\
fr^m the king's sovereign authority to the lowest office of mag-
\ [istracy,
has no other foundation.
\
The whole
is built, both inform and substance,
\ /
upon the same oath of every one of its ministers,
to do justice,
\
" as God shall help them hereafter."
ERSKINE.
STYLES OP SPEAKING CHARACTERIZED BY SENTIMENT.
These have been enumerated on p. 344. It ought to be
mentioned that all poetry is to be read in one of them. The
same assertion may be made, with very few exceptions, of
dramatic composition. Conversation, likewise, is generally in
the style of simple sentiment, though sometimes becoming im-
passioned. These styles are more interesting than those of
thought, and sometimes require as vehement bodily and mental
exertion. Their vehemence, however, is of a different kind ;
it is also, as will hereafter be explained, far more exhausting to
the speaker.
Sentimental delivery generally uses long quantity, and con-
sequently its rhythm (vide p. 188) is often such as in the
chapter on that subject, we indicated by separating the letters
of many of the words. Vide p. 148.
32
370 EXPRESSION.
1. UNIMPASSIONED SENTIMENT.
Which we have also called Simple Sentiment. It may be
calm and simply interesting, or warm and glowing in various de-
grees, without being impassioned.
Its tone is a prolongation of the vowels without stress.
Such a prolongation makes the voice more musical ; and it
will be found a good direction for acquiring it, to put the mind
in a state similar to that of a singer. Yet in so doing, we must
be careful not to fall into what is called a tone; the natural in-
tonation of speech must be carefully preserved.
In sentimental delivery, the vowels occupy a larger portion
of the slide than in the preceding styles. Take such a syllable
as old: the / and d will be less dwelt upon, and enunciated with
less strength. Sometimes, in the most interesting recitation of
lyric poetry, the approximation to vocal music, in this respect,
is very close. The vanishing movement also is executed in a
more clear and musical quality of voice, and with less obscurity
and huskiness of sound.
The previous extracts in this volume which require this style,
but with different degrees of warmth and animation, are on pp.
62, 113, 139, 142, 151, 158, 264, 265, 297, 298, 303, 310, 312,
314, 319.
The two following passages from orations at Plymouth and
at Bunker's Hill, are glowing, yet not impassioned.
NEW ENGLAND.
/
The hours of this day are rapidly flying,
and this occasion will soon be passed.
Neither we, nor our children,
can expect to behold its return.
They are in the distant regions of futurity,
SIMPLE SENTIMENT. 371
\
they exist only in the all creating power of God,
/
who shall stand here, a hundred years hence,
to trace, through us, their descent from the Pilgrims,
and to survey, as we have now surveyed,
the progress of their country, during the lapse of a century.
We would anticipate their concurrence with us,
in our sentiments of deep regard forour common ancestors.
We would anticipate, and partake
the pleasure with which they will then recount
the steps of New England's advancement.
On the morning of that day ,
although it will not disturb us , in our repose,
the voice of acclamation and gratitude
commencing on the Rock of Plymouth,
shall be transmitted through millions of the sons of the Pilgrims,
till it lose itself in the murmurs of the Pacific seas.
[our places,
We would leave, for the consideration of those who shall then occupy
some proof
that we hold the blessings - transmitted from our fathers,
\
in just estimation;
some proof of our attachment to the cause of good government,
and of civil and religious liberty;
some proof of a sincere and ardent desire,
372 EXPRESSION.
/
to promote every thing which may enlarge the understandings,
and improve the hearts of men.
And, when, from the long distance - of a hundred years,
they shall look back -upon us,
they shall know, at least,
that we possessed affections,
which, running backward,
/ [our happiness,
and warming with gratitude forwhatour ancestors havedonefor
\
run forward also to our posterity ,
and meet them with cordial salutation,
ere yet they have arrived on the shore of being.
\
Advance, then, ye future generations!
We would hail you,
as you rise, in your long succession,
to fill the places which we now fill,
and to taste the blessings of existence,
where we are passing, and soon shall have passed,
our own human duration.
We bid you welcome to this pleasant land of the Fathers.
We bid you welcome
[England,
to the healthful skies, and the verdant fields of New
We greet your accession
to the great inheritance which we have enjoyed.
[liberty.
We welcome you to the blessings of good government, and religious
/
We welcome you to the treasures of science,
/
and the delights of learning.
SIMPLE SENTIMENT.
373
N
We welcome you to the transcendent sweets of domestic life,
to the happiness of ki ndr ed , and parents, &nd children,
We welcome you to the immeasurable blessings
of rational existence,
the immortal hope - of C hristianity ,
and the light - of ev erlasting truth.
THE BUNKER'S HILL MONUMENT.
Our object, in erecting this monument,
is to show our deep sense
WEBSTER.
\
of the value - and importance of the achievements of our ances-
[tors;
and by presenting this work of gratitude to the eye,
to keep alive similar sentiments,
and to foster a similar regard,
to the principles - of the Revolution.
Human beings are composed not of reason only,
\
but of imagination also, and sentiment;
\
and that is neither wasted nor misapplied,
[sentiments,
which is appropriated to the purpose of giving right direction - to
and opening proper springs of feeling in the heart.
Let it not be supposed
that our object is to perpetuate national hostility,
\
or even to cherish a mere military spirit.
\ \ \
It is higher, purer, nobler.
We consecrate our work to the spirit of national indepen-
\ [dene e ,
and we wish that the light of peace
32*
374
EXPRESSION.
may rest upon it forever.
We rearamemorial /
[conferred on our land,
of our conviction of the unmeasured benefit - which has been
[events
and of the happy influences which have been produced by the same
on the general interests of mankind.
We come, as Americans,
to mark a spot
which must be forever dear
to us, and our posterity.
We wish that whosoever, in all coming time,
/
shall turn his eyes hither ,
may behold that the place is not undistinguished,
where the first great battle of the Revolution was fought.
We wish that this structure
may proclaim the magnitude - and importance of that event,
to every class and every age.
/
We wish that infancy
/
may learn the purpose of its erection from maternal lips,
\
and that weary and withered age
may behold it,
and be solaced by the recollections which it suggests.
/
We wish that labor may look up here,
and be p r o u d, in the midst of its toil.
\
We wish that, in those days of d is aster, /
[upon us, also,
which, as they come upon all nations, must be expected to come
\
desponding patriotism
SIMPLE SENTIMENT. 375
may turn its eyes hither
and be assured that the foundations of our national power
still stand str ong .
We wish that this column
[pies dedicated to God,
rising towards heaven amid the pointed spires of so many fern-
may contribute also to produce,
in all minds,
a pious feeling of dependence - and gratitude.
We wish, finally,
that the last object
on the sight of him who leaves his native shore,
and the first to gladden him who revisits it,
may be something
which shall remind him of the liberty and glory - of his country.
Let it rise,
till it meet the sun in his coming ;\
/
let the earliest light - of morning gild it,
and parting day
linger and play on its summit.
WEBSTER.
Calm philosophical eloquence often requires this style, as in
the following extract from the New York translation of Hum-
boldt's Cosmos. The delivery must proceed with absolute
calmness and repose.
EARTHQUAKES.
Before we quit the phenomena - of earthquakes,
[and quite peculiar impression,
we must advert to the cause of that indescribable, deep,
376 EXPRESSION,
made upon us by the first earthquake we experience,
even when it is accompanied - by no subterraneous noise.
The impression - does not, we believe,
result from any recollection of destructive catastrophes
/
presented to our imagination by narratives of historical events ;
what seizes upon us so wonderfully,
is the disabuse of that innate faith
[the earth,
in the fixity - of the solid and sure-set foundations of
From early childhood,
[water,
we are habituated to the contrast - between the mobile element -
and the immobility - of the soil on which we stand.
All the evidences - of our senses
have confirmed this belief.
But when suddenly the ground begins to rock beneath, us,
the feeling arises in the mind,
of an unknown,- mysterious power, in nature,
coming into action, and shaking the solid globe.
[ted in an instant.
The illusion of the w h ole of our earlier life is annihila-
\
We are undeceived as to the repose of nature;
[empire,
we feel ourselves transported to the realm, and made subject to the
of destructive unknown powers.
Every sound ,
the slightest rustle in the air,
sets attention on the stretch.
We no longer trust the earth - on which we stand.
The unusual - in the phenomenon
PATHETIC SENTIMENT. 377
throws the same anxious unrest and alarm over the lower animals.
\
Swine and dogs are particularly affected by it ;
and the very crocodiles of the Orinoco,
otherwise as dumb - as our little lizards,
leave - the shaken bed of the stream,
and run bellowing- into the woods.
\/
To man ,
[ite d so me thi n g.
the earthquake presents itself as an all-pervading - unlim-
\ /
We can remove from an active crater ;
from the stream of lava, - that is pouring down upon our dwelling,
\
we can escape;
\/
but with the earthquake,
we feel, that, whithersoever we fly,
we are still over the hearth of destruction.
HlJMBOLDT.
1. a. UNIMPASSIONED PATHETIC SENTIMENT.
The ordinary slide on syllables that have no marked inflex-
ion, extends through the interval of a musical tone.
Pathetic expression is given by the slide through a
semitone.
In aiming to execute this slide, we must not attempt
to proceed by means of a musical ear, but must simply
take on a pathetic expression of voice.
Neither in so doing should we indulge ourselves in any ap-
proximation to a whine ; or employ for the purpose a high pitch ;
378 EXPRESSION.
or exclusively use rising inflexions. Some authors have given
directions to this effect, which are very erroneous. Let the
student, who is curious in such matters, consult Dr. Rush, or
Prof. Day.
The true pathetic not being very often required in practical
speaking, and being also easy to exhibit, a single short extract
will be sufficient. We mark the emphases with reference to
the course of thought and the appeals to the imagination, and
not to indicate a higher degree of pathos. The expression must
be diffused over the whole.
OX THE DEATH OP HAMILTON.
5 a d , my fellow citizens,
are the recollections and forebodings,
which the present solemnities
force upon the mind.
Five years have not elapsed,
since your tears flowed for the Father of your country,
and you are again assembled,
to shed them over her eldest Son.
The urn which bore the ashes of Washington,
la followed
by the urn which bears the ashes of Ha milt on.
DR. MASOX.
2. IMPASSIONED SENTIMENT.
In the preceding style of simple or unimpassioned sentiment,
the speaker yields himself passively to spontaneous impulses.
He is borne on by a current, while his audience are carried along
by sympathy which, however, is not so much with the speaker,
as with ideas which interest both alike.
IMPASSIONED SENTIMENT. 379
In Impassioned Sentiment, the speaker is either actuated by
some one of the emotions or passions, which are common to
men, and have their specific names in every language, or, as in
the case of Impassioned Affirmation, he feels an excited and
intense earnestness, which is of the nature of passion.
This impassioned earnestness produces an internal activity
and energy of mind and body. In the affirmative class of styles,
the impassioned energy seems external (objective,) and resem-
bles that of some bodily labor or exercise, such as fencing, me-
chanical employments, and athletic sports. But in the styles of
sentiment, the body may be outwardly calm (except in the ex-
pression of the countenance,) while a vehement state of emo-
tion exists within, and produces impassioned tones, by an ex-
cessive and exhausting internal effort of the vocal and respira-
tory organs.
Although, as has just been mentioned, various definite emo-
tions may occur in this style of delivery, yet even these have, in
addition to the natural tones and gestures by which they are
expressed, a general enforcement given them by means of the
prevailing tone of impassioned earnestness of sentiment.
This tone is the vanishing stress on each syllable.
It is exactly the reverse of the radical stress; the syllable
commences with a feeble and almost imperceptible sound, and
rapidly increases in force to the end, at which it leaves off ab-
ruptly. The extreme termination of the slide is its loudest part.
The bodily exertion by which this is effected, is that of a
strong action of the breast and of the internal muscles of respi-
ration and voice. In the most vehement efforts, the action is
violent and even convulsive. It is always accompanied by a
decided sensation at the bottom of the breast and pit of the
stomach, of a strong effort to express deep inward feeling.
Though the sensation is not ordinarily noticed, yet it is recog-
nized by every one whose attention is turned to it. When great
and prolonged strength of voice is employed by a person speaking
380 EXPRESSION.
in this style, the external muscles below the pit of the "stomach
are brought into forcible action, so as to flatten the body in front ;
they thus assist in expelling the breath, and in keeping the
chest full while the vocal organs are making a powerful effort
on the termination of the syllable. From these physiological
facts originate certain descriptive words and phrases of lan-
guage, such as deep, or profound earnestness, deep emotion,
yearning sympathy, and others.
The tone we are now considering, is not only the prevailing
one of dramatic elocution, but is one of the most common that
we hear in every day life ; meeting us whenever emotion is ex-
pressed in conversation. The sobbing enunciation of words
which we hear from a child weeping wilh indignation and an-
ger, consists of the highest decree of the vanishing stress, on
the slide of the semitone. We say the highest degree : for in
the conversation of those who are less excited, different degrees
are exhibited according to the amount of excitement.
When large rooms are to be filled, and when serious earnest-
ness, and strenuous efforts to influence an audience, are called
for, the long continued use of this tone is in the highest degree
exhausting to the speaker. No skill in speaking, nor judgment
in managing the breath, can wholly prevent such an effect. It
is the instinctive and necessary employment of impassioned sen-
timent, which breaks down the health of those clergymen, who
fulfil the precept of Horace :
" Si vis me flere, dolendura est ipsi tibi."
If you wish me to feel, first feel yourself.
It was this physical and mental effort, which made Mrs. Jordan,
a celebrated tragic actress, frequently vomit after leaving the
scenes, and which caused Whitefield sometimes to vomit blood
after preaching. A protracted continuance of it produces a
sensation of sinking and distress at the stomach, which often
destroys the appetite for a time, and makes the stomach revolt
IMPASSIONED SENTIMENT. 381
at food. Yet let no one hope to be able to move the feelings of
an audience without employing it : for it is the sole provision of
nature for that purpose. The only remedy for exhaustion or
impaired health, thus produced, is simply rest.
The previous extracts which require this style are at pp. 124,
144, 145, 146, 154, 167, 168, 213, 218 (at the bottom,) 286,
291,314,319,322,327.
All the extracts however, in the first and second parts
of this volume, which we have referred to under the
head of Impassioned Affirmation, may without impro-
priety, be spoken in the style we are now considering.
It depends on the speaker's personal character, and on
the circumstances in which he is placed, whether it is
most proper to appeal primarily to the understandings,
or to the feelings of those whom he addresses.
Having furnished an example of the triumphant energy of
Demosthenes in Impassioned Affirmation, it will be interesting
to see exemplified his power in Impassioned Sentiment.
FROM DEMOSTHENES.
\ [nians,
There are two distinguishing qualities, Athe-
\
which the virtuous citizen should ever possess;
/
a z e a 1 - for the honor and preeminence of the state;
/
in his official conduct,
and, on all occasions - and in all transactions,
\
an affe c ti o n - for his country.
This
\
nature can bestow.
33
382 EXPRESSION.
XX
Abilities and success
\
depend upon another power.
and in this affection,
you find m e
fi r m and inv ar table.
\
Not the solemn demand of my person,
\
nor the vengeance of the Amphictyonic council,
[which they denounced against me,
\
nor the terror of their threatenings,
\
nor the flattery of their promises, \/
[roused like wild beasts against me,
n o , nor the f u r y of those accursed wretches - whom they
could ever tear this affection from my breast.
\
From first to last ,
I have uniformly pursued
the j u s t - and virtuous - course of conduct ;\
/
asserter of the honors ,
/
of the prerogatives,
of the g I o r y of my country. \
/
Studious - to support them,
/
zealous - to advance them,
\
my whole being
IMPASSIONED SENTIMENT. 383
is devoted to this glorious cause. \
was nev er known /
[ t i o n - at the success of a fo reign power;
to march through the city with a face of j o y and e x u 1 1 a -
embracing, and announcing the joyful tidings,
/
to those who I supposed would transmit it to the proper place.
[country,
I was never known to receive the successes of my own
\
with tremblings;
\
with sigh ings;
\
with eyes bending to the earth,
\
like those impious men who are the d e f a m e r s of the state,
as IF, by such conduct,
/\
they were not d e f a m e r s of t h e m s e I v e s :
/
who look abroad,
/
and when a fo reign potentate
has established his power on the calamities of Greece,
\
applaud - the event ;
\
and tell us we should take every means to perpetuate his power.
\
Hear me, ye immortal gods!
\
and le t not - these their desires be rat ifi ed in heaven!
\
Infuse a better spirit into these men !
\
Inspire even their minds with purer sentiments!
384 EXPRESSION.
\
This is my fi r s t prayer.
Or,
/
if their natures are not to be reformed,
\
ON THEM,
\
OH THEM ONLY,
\
discharge your vengeance!
\
Pursue them both by land and sea!
\
Pursue them even to destruction!
But, to us, /
[from impending evils,
display your goodness, ina speedy deliverance
[quillit y .
and a 1 1 the blessings of protection and tr an-
As the voice of criticism has, in every age, pronounced the
orations of Demosthenes to be unapproached in power by any
subsequent compositions, we add another extract from his fa-
mous defense. Our limited space, however, compels us to place
in immediate succession, two passages which are separated in
the oration by a long one even superior in power to that which
precedes it. The conclusion is considered a more sublime ap-
peal than is to be found in any other uninspired address.
But, Athenians,
\/
since Aeschines has insisted so much - upon the EVENT,
I shall hazard a bold assertion.
I s a y , then,
\
that, had we all KNOWN
IMPASSIONED SENTIMENT. 385
what fortune was to attend our efforts ;\
\ \
had we all fo reseen the fi nal issue:
\
had y ou for eto Id it, Aeschines,
\
(you, whose voice was never heard,)
\
yet, even in SUCH a case,
must this city have pursued the very same conduct,
\
if she had retained - a thought,
\/
of glory ,
/
of her ancestors,
\
r > f posterity.
[army,
If Philip had been chosen general of the Grecian
/ [insidious nomination,
and some OTHER state had drawn the sword against this
/
and fought the battle unassisted by the Athenians,
that people who, in ancient times,
\ /
never preferred inglorious security to honorable danger,
\
who would not have spurned you with scorn?
\
But it cannot BE!
\
No! my countrymen!
\
it cannot BE, \
[for the liberty and safety of all Greece.
that you have acted wrong, in encountering danger bravely -
No!
33*
386 EXPRESSION.
\
[were exposed at Marathon!
By those generous souls of ancient times - who
By those who stood arrayed at P la t <z a !
by those who encountered the P e r s i a n fl e e t at S A L A -
\ [MIS!
who fought at Artemisium!
\ /
By A L L those illustrious sons of Athens,
\
whose remains lie deposited - in the public mon-
\ [ument s!
all of whom \
[country!
received the same honorable interment -from their
/
NOT
/\
those only who PREVAILED,
/
NOT
/\
those only who were VICTORIOUS.
\
And with reason.
What was the part of gallant men,
\
they all performed.
' \/
Their SUCCESS
\
was such as the Supreme Director of the World
dispensed to each.
2. a. IMPASSIONED PATHETIC SENTIMENT.
This is distinguished merely by the slide of the semi-
tone.
IMPASSIONED PATHETIC SENTIMENT. 387
Passages requiring it, abound in the drama, and in novels.
Being of unfrequent occurrence in oratory, even in that of the
pulpit, a short extract will suffice for practical illustration.
The following certainly requires a pathetic delivery ; but the
pathos must be that of a man, and the key of the voice a
deep and even rough bass. The whining pathetic, which is
sometimes assumed by those who affect an interesting style of
speaking, will be ludicrous when applied to the masterly elo-
quence of Cicero, who was not only an orator, but a command-
ing statesman.
CICERO AGAINST VERRES.
It was in vain that the unhappy man cried out,
\
" / am a Roman citizen;
\
" I have served under Lucius P retius ,
\
" who is now atPanormus, and will at test my inno-
[cence."
The bloodthirsty Praetor,
DEAF to a 1 1 that he could urge in his own defense,
orders the infamous punishment to be inflicted.
Thus, Fathers, was an innocent Roman citizen
publicly mangled with scourging;
[suffer ings,
whilst the only words he uttered, amidst his cruel
were, " / am a Roman citizen!"
With- these ,
/\ [famy.
he hoped to DEFEND himself! from violence and i n-
/
But of s o little service - was this privilege to him,
388 EXPRESSION.
/ [ship,
that while he was thus asserting his privilege of citizen-
\
the order was given for his EXECUTION!
for his execution- upon the CROSS!
\
O LIBERTY!
O sound once -DELIGHTFUL to every Roman ear ! \
O SACRED privilege - o/* ROM AN CITIZENSHIP!\
/
ONCE sacred,
\
HOtff TRAMPLED Upon !
3. HORTATORY SENTIMENT.
This requires the highest excitement, and the most
vehement exertion that can be employed in speaking.
At the present day it is almost never heard, except from fa-
natics and ignorant enthusiasts. Those who write what de-
mands a true hortatory sympathy in delivery, generally shrink
from the fearless, and yet manly, abandonment, without which
the genuine tones of exhortation cannot be given. A student
of elocution will never succeed in exhibiting this and some oth-
ers of the most powerful tones, by merely imitating a model.
The vocal organs refuse to obey the commands of mimicry, or
of cold hypocrisy, in respect to the genuine language of strong
personal emotion. We cannot learn to exhibit such tones at
will, except by disciplining the imagination, until we become
able to put ourselves into the actual state of feeling from which
they result.
In exhortation, as in contentious affirmation, the speaker ex-
erts himself to the utmost to influence others.
For this purpose, he intentionally enforces and strength-
ens the exhibition of his internal emotion.
HORTATORY SENTIMENT. 389
Whereas in the most powerful of the affirmative styles, he
compels the attention of his hearers, and forces them to think
and reason with him, in this, he compels them to sympathize
with him in his feelings.
Strong internal emotion being in itself exhausting, and being
much more so, when the speaker superadds a vehement
strengthening of its exhibition, this is the most fatiguing of all
styles of addressing an audience. Genuine and powerful ex-
hortation, however, is never appropriate or useful for very long
at a time.
The tone of exhortation is produced by the thorough
stress } increasing in force to the end of the syllable.
The thorough stress is an increased force throughout
the whole extent of the slide.
In other forms of stress, there is a relaxation of the vocal
muscles, and a corresponding dullness, or tendency to huskiness
of sound, on some part of the slide. There are one or two
other varieties of the thorough stress besides the hortatory ; this
being characterized, as just mentioned, by a greater energy at
the end than at the beginning of the syllable.
In parts first and second, the extracts at pp. 70 and 140, are
specimens of hortatory composition, and admit of the style of
address now under consideration.
The following extract is from the same harangue by Mira-
beau, from which we selected a passage to illustrate the strong-
est of the affirmative styles, vide p. 364. It is a peroration, in
the form of an overpowering appeal to the imagination and
feelings.
\
This, then, is the point to which you are advancing.
\
I hear much said of patriotism!
\
appeals to patriotism!
390 EXPRESSION.
\
transports! of patriotism.
Gentlemen,
\
why prostitute this noble word ?
Is it so very magnanimous,
/
lo give up a p a r t - of your income,
/
in order to save - your whole property?
\
This is simple arithmetic!
/
and he that hesit at e s t
\
deserves contempt! rather than indignation.
I exhort you, then, most earnestly,
\
to v o t e - these extraordinary supplies.
\
VOTE them,
\
I beseech you ;
\
vote them at ONCE;
\
for the crisis does not admit of delay !
/
and if it occurs,
\
w e must be responsible for the consequences!
\
Bankruptcy!
\
NATIONAL BANKRUPTCY is before you.
It threatens to swallow up
\
your p e r s o n s , your property, your honor!
\
and yet you deliberate!
MlRABEAU.
HORTATORY PATHETIC SENTIMENT. 391
3. a. HORTATORY PATHETIC SENTIMENT.
In this style, the slide is the semitone j the stress be-
ing the same as in the preceding.
Our extract is from Adherbal's appeal to the Roman Senate,
against Jugurtha.
/
Fathers!
/
Senators of Rome,
/
the arbiters of the world!
\/
To you I fly
for refuge from the murder ous fur y of Jugurtha.
\
By your affection for your children;
\
by your / o v e for your country;
\
by your own virtues;
by the majesty - of the Roman Commonwealth;
by a II that is sacred, and all that is dear to you ;
deliver
/
a wretched prince
\
from undeserved, unprovoked injury;
and save the kingdom of Numidia,
/
which is your own property,
from being the prey
/
of violence,
392 EXPRESSION.
/
usurpation,
and cruelty.
SALLUST.
The translation just given, seems to have been made by the
author of " The Art of Speaking," who was head master of
one of the great English schools, about the middle of the last
century. Though admirable, it makes no pretence to being
literal. We therefore subjoin the original, and a translation
which aims to be close. We sometimes also substitute simple
rising for emphatic falling inflexions, in accordance with what
we conceive to have been characteristic of ancient elocution.
/
Patres conscript! ,
/
per v o s , per / i b e r o s , atque p ar ent es ,
/
per majestatem P opuli R o mani ,
subv en it e mis er o mihi;\
it e obvi am inj uri ee;\
/
no lite pati regnum Numidia,
quod v estrum est,
perscelus et sanguinem familiae nostrae,
t ab es c er e.
SALL. Jug. c. xiv. ad fin.
/
Conscript Fathers, /
[parents,
by y our selves, by yourcJrildren, and by your
/
by the grandeur of the Roman nation,
MIXED STYLES. 393
grant me aid in my wretchedness ;\
interpose against wrong;\
/
suffer not the kingdom of Nu m i di ,
\/
of which you are the owners,
through the crimes and the bloo dy de aths ofourfamily
to waste a to ay and be destroyed.
MIXED STYLES.
A passage is occasionally met with, which seems to require a
union of explanation and sentiment. Since a waving slide on
each syllable gives a tone of explaining thought, and the van-
ishing stress expresses Impassioned Sentiment, the union of
both will present a style in which ideas are explained to the
understanding, and also urged by an impassioned earnestness
of appeal. This we conceive to be the true description of the
tone actually heard in an appropriate delivery of the powerful
extract at p. 245. We may therefore call its style a union of
Argument with Impassioned Sentiment.
By a similar enforcement of the wave by thorough stress, the
Hortatory may be made Explanatory. We shall perhaps thus
have the most overpowering mode of exhibiting our last extract
from Mirabeau, p. 389.
But not only may Impassioned and Hortatory Sentiment be
united with the explanatory tone ; the same is also true of Sim-
ple Sentiment. Thus each of the three styles of sentiment may
be compounded with explanation.
But in addition to this number of mixed styles, there would
seem to be no incompatibility in a union of a wave of the semi-
tone with each of the forms of stress which characterize the
three primary styles of sentiment. If this be so, then the six
sentimental styles may each be of two kinds, according as they
34
394 EXPRESSION.
are explanatory or not. Examples of all these varieties might
probably be found in the drama. When we mentioned, some
pages back, that the mixed styles are few, it might have been
more correct to say that they are of infrequent occurrence.
The following extract appears to demand a tone of explana-
tion, and also to require to be presented in manner of a simple
appeal, i. e. in the tone of Unimpassioned Sentiment. Its style
will thus be a 'union of Explanation and Simple Sentiment. It
admits likewise of being delivered with the stronger enforce-
ment of Impassioned Sentiment. Argument presented as in
this passage, is generally accompanied by exhibitions of wonder
and surprise, which may be either calm or impassioned. The
passage is a continuation of the extract on p. 278.
My worthy colleague says,
\
his will ought to be subservient - to yours.
/
If that be all,
\
the thinff is innocent.
\/
If government were a matter of will, - upon any side,
\
yours, without question,
\
ought to be superior.
But government and legislation
\
are matters of reason,
\
and judgment,
/
and not of inclination ;
/
and what sort of reason - is that,
\
in which the determination precedes the discussion ;
CONVICTION. 395
in which one set of men deliberate,
\
and another decide ;
/
and where those who form the conclusion,
are perhaps three hundred miles distant
\
from those who hear the argument.
BURKE.
CONVICTION.
Finally, there is a peculiar style of speaking which not un-
frequently occurs in debate, and seems to demand a notice be-
fore leaving the subject of Expression.
It is heard when a debater expresses his settled con-
victions ; while he neither appeals to the assent of others,
nor even endeavors so to act on their minds as to make
them reason along with himself.
He says, by his manner, " This is the truth ; I am satisfied in
my own mind. I must continue to hold these opinions, whether
you agree with me or not." The tone is often heard when a
speaker is closing a debate, or summing up a series of argu-
ments. Too strong an exhibition of it, gives the manner of
dogmatism.
This peculiar manner seems not to depend on either of the
modes of stress. It appears rather to be an instance of what is
called by Dr. Rush, the " drift of the falling third." Falling
inflexions are given to as many as possible of the emphatic
words. Their number therefore becomes uncommonly great,
and characterizes the whole delivery. But another peculiarity
is equally characteristic. The emphatic falling inflexions do
not commence on so high a pitch, as in other modes of present-
ing argument. Consequently, the voice does not make as wide
skips in pitch ; its whole current is more even, and approxi-
mates to a monotone.
396 EXPRESSION.
The following extract affords a good exemplification.
STANDING ARMIES.
\
Sir, we have heard a great deal about parliamentary or-
\ [mies,
and about an army continued
\
from year to year.
/
I always have been, Sir,
\
and always shall be,
\
against
a standing army, of any kind.
\
To me it is a terrible thing.
/
Whether under that of parliamentary,
\
or any other designation,
a standing army
\
is still a standing army,
\/ \
whatever name it may be called by.
They are a body of men
\
distinct from the body of the people ;
\
they are governed by different laws;
and blind obedience,
\
and an entire submission to the orders of their commanding of-
ficer,
is their only principle.
TREMOR OF THE VOICE
397
\
The nations around us, Sir,
/
are already enslaved,
and they have been enslaved
by these very means ;
by means of their standing armies,
\
they have every one lost their liberties :
\
it is, indeed, impossible,
/
that the liberties of the people can be preserved in any country,
where a numerous standing army is kept up.
PULTNEY.
THE TREMOR OF THE VOICE.
When the nervous and muscular systems are tasked to their
utmost, in the expression of sentiment or passion, the voice is
characterized by a tremulous tone. This tone is familiar to
every one from the exhibitions of it which so often occur in
common life, when persons are actuated by strong feelings of
joy or grief, hope or fear, anger or tender sympathy, and by
some others of the most common emotions.
In dramatic elocution, the tremor is of frequent occurrence.
Tt may be required in farce, or in comedy, and produces some
of the most powerful effects in tragedy.
But in oratory, it is rarely indulged in, and need not be cul-
tivated. It is well, however, for a student of elocution to be
aware of its existence as a natural exponent of emotion, and
sometimes to indulge himself, to a moderate degree, in its use.
When cultivating the utmost depth and earnestness of expres-
sion ; when his emotion gives him a sensation of speaking from
34*
398 EXPRESSION.
the lowest depths of his breast, and produces a convulsive ac-
tion of that part of his frame; he will find his voice naturally
incline to a tremor on the most passionate words. A slight
degree of this tremulousness may sometimes be indulged in, to
increase his expressiveness.
If, however, he deliberately makes use of the tremor, so that
the hearers are led to notice the fact of his doing so, the effect
will be undesirable in any delivery which is intended to be
useful.
A decided tremor results in fact, from bodily weakness, when
the speaker is under the influence of an overmastering feeling.
Any considerable manifestation of weakness is injurious to
oratory. The hearers commiserate the speaker, instead of yield-
ing themselves up to his influence.
The tremor, like the semitone, is very easy to execute by
those who cultivate an affectation of emotion, instead of a gen-
uine eloquence, and is therefore liable to be resorted to ; by those
who practise what may be called tricks in delivery.
399
PART IV.
LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS SELECTED BY THE
STUDENT.
As Speaking cannot be learned without considerable prac-
tice, it is essential to its rapid and certain acquisition, that the
student have some guide for the modes of practice.
The following course of lessons, is the result of long contin-
ued efforts to discover what difficulties a student of elocution
experiences, when endeavoring to prepare himself for appearing
successfully before an audience.
Each lesson has been tested and improved by the experience
of successive classes in college, until all have finally been
brought into the form in which they are now presented. It has
been made a standing rule, to reject every thing from them
which was found to be either unnecessary, difficult, or disagree-
able ; and on the other hand, to add to them all the information,
and describe every mode of practice, which any one, whatever
may be his turn of character in reference to public speaking, may
find necessary for enabling him to make a creditable appearance.
If it be asked what has been taken as the test of practical suc-
cess, we answer, a consciousness of being able to speak with
steadiness, manliness and force; and if not with a decided
gracefulness, with at least a freedom from any noticeable awk-
wardness, as well as from any schoolboy tone. The true an-
swer, however, to this question, is found in the lessons them-
selves, which are intended to present, not ideal, but practical
and attainable standards. No lesson or direction is founded on
an expectation that the student who is to practise it, has a ge-
nius fur oratory, or is even engaged in the study of that branch
400 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
of the liberal arts. Oratory makes use of Speaking, in the
same way as the art of composition makes use of grammar.
But in addition to the advantages for practice and instruction
which this plan affords, we derive the benefit of a convenient
opportunity for explaining many points in reference to speak-
ing, which are important to be known, but which if discussed
in the systematic manner of the preceding parts of this trea-
tise, would swell the volume to a larger bulk. Though less sys-
tematic and perhaps less agreeable for the general reader, the
method in which we shall introduce such miscellaneous infor-
mation, will be more useful to the practical student.
It seems best to give full directions on each point, although
in many cases some ideas in the first part of the volume are,
by so doing, repeated.
ESTABLISHED CUSTOMS.
The following are the most important of the customs, in re-
gard to practising before the instructor, which have gradually
become established in this college, as convenient and useful.
The appointments are five minutes apart for each student,
and in alphabetical order of names.
As it is impossible for every one to be, in every instance, punc-
tual to a minute, and accidental interruptions are liable to oc-
cur, the students are in the habit of accommodating each oth-
er, by waiting, if necessary, and allowing each other time to
speak in the order of arrival. When it is particularly inconve-
nient for one to wait, his classmate yields his turn, although he
may have corne first. No difficulty ever occurs between stu-
dents, from want of a spirit of mutual accommodation.
It thus happens, that very often the student who is practising
has a classmate present. The latter generally waits in a part
ESTABLISHED CUSTOMS.
401
of the room not immediately in front of the speaker; as it is
easier and better to imagine an audience present, than to at-
tempt to make a single person a substitute for an assembly.
For the same reason, the instructor generally remains on one
side, and the speaker never addresses him directly. The ex-
amples likewise that are set by the instructor, are not addressed
to him who is practising, but to an imaginary audience.
Instruction is in most cases given, whilst the speaker's deliv-
ery is in full flow. It thus comes at the precise moment when
it is wanted. The principal reliance in instruction, is placed,
on telling the speaker not when he is wrong, but when he is
right. Simply mentioning faults, is rarely of any service. It
is intended never to interrupt or make a criticism, without at
the same time giving a direction that shall at once unfetter the
speaker from the embarrassment of some practical difficulty
which he is at the time experiencing, in regard to executing
his own intentions.
The accidental and occasional presence of a classmate, or of
one of the especial instructors of the student's own class, is at-
tended with many advantages. It gives habits of steadiness
and self-possession, without which none can practically succeed
in public delivery. The instructor likewise is so far removed
in age and experience from the student, that it is riot so easy in
many cases to learn directly from him, as indirectly through
the success of a classmate. Every example of truly good de-
livery given by a student before his fellows, has a powerful in-
fluence in assisting as well as encouraging them to do the same.
On this account, as well as for the student's own sake, great
pains are taken, not to suffer any one to speak before his class,
who will so far fail, as to discourage his companions, and by
his faults confuse their judgment as to what is correct, natural
and practicable.
402 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
GENERAL PLAN OF LESSONS.
During the Sophomore and Junior years, each student
receives private instruction for one week of each term.
He practices in the Chapel once a day for five days, viz. on
Thursday and Friday, and on Monday, Tuesday, and the morn-
ing of Wednesday. He then declaims before his class on
Wednesday afternoon.
On each day of practice he receives a distinct lesson on some
one essential point of delivery.
These five lessons have reference to some one important
style of delivery, which is the especial object of study during
the term.
A higher style of delivery is cultivated in each successive
College term, and each term has its peculiar series of lessons.
The whole, now for the first time printed, exhibits the mode
of preparing for public speaking which has been for several
years established in Yale College.
RULES OF PRACTICE.
Experience has established the value of the following rules.
RULE I. To secure the greatest improvement, the ex-
tracts should always be in PROSE.
The public recitation of poetry is a separate branch of elo-
cution, and presents several difficulties which are not provided
for in these lessons.
Inexperienced speakers should select for early practice, ex-
tracts from debates, orations, or pleadings of lawyers. These
are easiest to speak. But as soon as some skill and experience
have been gained, it is very important to practise on extracts
that were not originally written to be spoken, and are interest-
GENERAL PLAN. 403
ing solely from the value of their thoughts and the beauty of
their language.
RULE II. The extracts should be selected with refer-
ence to the value and interest of the thoughts which
they express.
It is impossible to acquire a good delivery, by practising on
extracts weak in matter and bombastic in style.
RULE III. The extracts should never be more than
three, and often not more than two minutes in length.
Longer compositions must be studied and practised in sepa-
rate portions. Different paragraphs and parts of complete com-
positions require different styles of delivery.
The higher the style of speaking aimed at, the shorter must
be the passage to be spoken, in order to afford an opportunity
for the fullest possible development and expansion of thought
and feeling in delivery. Among orators of high reputation, it
will be found that the higher the oratory, the fewer are the
words employed, and the shorter is the discourse.
RULE IV. Each series of five lessons must be practis-
ed on the same extract.
RULE V. In practising with an instructor, each lesson
should be on a separate day.
If they are all practised in succession and at one rehearsal,
they will confer comparatively but little benefit.
RULE VI. Each lesson should be mastered in a short
period of time.
Earnest effort, with the assistance of an instructor, will gen-
erally secure a mastery of each lesson in about Jive minutes.
It is of the highest importance to practise vigorously for a short
time, rather thun feebly for a longer period. Unhesitating and
prompt habits, arid the ability to bring one's powers instantly
into action, are essentially necessary in public speaking.
404 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
No student, however, will do himself justice in speaking,
without considerable private practice. Yet even this ought in
most cases to be methodical that is, with the definite object of
acquiring improved habits in respect to some particular point
in delivery.
SOPHOMORE YEAR, FIRST TERM.
STYLE OF DELIVERY TO BE ACQUIRED.
This may be called BUSINESS SPEAKING.
When eloquently exhibited, the eloquence will be
that of natural and extemporaneous earnestness.
PRACTICAL USES OF THIS STYLE.
To command respect and secure attention. The lowest de-
gree of a good delivery secures these objects, whatever be the
time, place or occasion. Unless by his delivery a person can
at least command attention, he cannot be considered as quali-
fied for public speaking at all.
It should be impossible for an audience to distinguish, by the
delivery, whether a composition is written or extemporaneous.
It is not difficult to arrive at this degree of ability in delivery.
If it is attained, the discipline of the whole College course
of study will certainly make the student an extemporaneous
speaker.
FAULTS TO BE PREVENTED.
In general the monotonous and formal habits, which cause a
speaker to seem not to believe or feel what he says.
The most important precept is, to think intensely while
speaking.
When practising in private, attend to some particular quality
in delivery, in order to form good habits.
SOPHOMORE YEAR, FIRST TERM. 405
But when actually addressing an audience, never think of
how you are speaking, but of what you are speaking.
LESSONS .
Remarks. The lessons are of two classes. The
first and second, have reference to making the sense of
what is spoken INTELLIGIBLE.
The very first lesson, however, is intended to exhibit a natu-
ral and extemporaneous style of speaking. This can be effect-
ed, by strictly confining the effort to a plain and forcible exhi-
bition of mere thought.
The two first lessons command attention, and make the de-
livery natural, forcible and distinct. They also discipline the
voice and gesture preparatory to attempting the next, which are
to be more polished and expressive.
Hence in the first lessons, no more should be attempted than
can be thoroughly mastered at a single first effort. The student
must defer the most interesting expression which he feels him-
self capable of giving, until he practises the lessons on expression.
The great additional advantage will thus result, that expression,
and what is most beautiful and interesting in delivery, will have
a solid foundation in thought and common sense. And thus
all danger of becoming theatrical will also be avoided.
The third and fourth, practise the speaker in EXPRES-
SION.
The fifth lesson combines the qualities thus far acqui-
red, into one harmonious whole.
In this lesson the speaker yields himself wholly to the im-
pulse of thought and feeling.
The result will be an exhibition of the natural elo-
quence of the speaker, developed and improved by pre-
paratory lessons in Elocution.
35
406 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
The distinction is always kept in view, between such elocu-
tion as is acquired merely by rule, and a spontaneous and cap-
tivating eloquence.
Though thought and feeling cannot be directly taught, yet
certain modes of practice will excite them. Habits may be
formed of vividness of mind in speaking. When this has
been done, the very act of speaking will arouse the mind to
activity, and kindle the feelings.
LESSON I.
MANLY ATTITUDE AND GESTURE AUDIBILITY DISTINCTNESS.
Directions. 1st. Stand simply erect. Gesture freely
to assist the voice.
Be careful to extend the arm forwards with manly
freedom and heartiness.
2d. Propel the voice to the farthest extremity of the
room, and give its sound a MANLY FORCE, to command
respect and attention.
3d. Be deliberately DISTINCT. That is, do not suffer
the words and syllables to be huddled together. This
is to be done by attending to the natural grouping of
the words.
Be careful to give a separate impulse of the voice to
each grovp. yet in a smooth and natural manner.
Whenever two groups are attempted to be uttered at one im-
pulse, the utterance will inevitably be indistinct.
In uttering each group, be careful to exert a vigorous
action of the mind, to impress the idea on the audience.
Particular use is also made of this lesson to discipline the
voice, so that subsequently no exertion may be necessary to en-
able the speaker to fill the large room in which he speaks.
SOPHOMORE YEAR, FIRST TERM. 407
The upper key is first practised, for the purpose of enlarging
the compass of the voice and giving dignity to its whole range.
By the subsequent lessons in expression, the lower key is dis-
ciplined. Thus the whole compass of the voice is not only
adapted to the large room, but is improved in its quality. Its
tone becomes fuller, smoother and more interesting. Also, by
employing a high key in this first lesson, the speaker can, at
first, succeed better in respect to an extemporaneous and sin-
cere manner.
Consequently, to secure the greatest amount of improvement
from this lesson, the speaker should use much more loudness
than will be expedient in the subsequent ones. Loud speaking
is at first easier than that in which the voice is subdued. It is
only by strong practice, likewise, that the quality of the voice
can be improved in dignity and steadiness of tone.
The most difficult part of this lesson, is the steady SLOWNESS
that is required for large rooms. Even speaking that is appa-
rently rapid, must be, in fact, much slower when adapted to
large audiences, than when given in a small room.
This steady and deliberate slowness, likewise, prepares the
speaker for that ease and composure which will be required in
the last two lessons.
LESSON II.
ARTICULATION.
Directions. Speak in the same manner as in the first
lesson, but in addition take especial pains in ARTICU-
LATION.
Thus the syllables will not only be distinct from each other,
but each letter will be articulated.
Besides however the finish and perfection which this lesson
is intended to give to the articulation and gesture, it has anoth-
er object of still greater importance. Articulation may be per-
408 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
fectly distinct, and yet the tone of voice remain unmeaning.
It is sometimes observable, that those who take great pains with
their articulation, neglect at the same time to keep the voice in
a natural and interesting tone.
Therefore, in this lesson, articulation must be employed as
an instrument for explaining thought. The voice must be
made as flexible as possible. The waving and varying tones of
explanation and setting forth ideas, as if the speaker were
carefully inculcating his own opinions, must be patiently culti-
vated.
Upon this and the preceding lessons depends the acquisition
of those qualities which cause a speaker to appear as if extem-
porizing.
Even when the style of delivery appropriate for the composi-
tion is that of sentiment, the practice of the tone of sentiment
is deferred to the next lesson. In the present lesson, every
composition is spoken with explanatory and argumentative turns
of voice. This prevents falling into what are called tones in
speaking, and causes the final delivery to exhibit the requisite
medium between pure sentiment and pure thought.
In addition to simple manliness of attitude and gesture,
let them be carefully adapted to the size of the room.
The farther off the more distant part of the audience are,
the more erect is the natural attitude, and the higher is the
hand raised in appealing to them.
In large rooms, the hand, in ordinary gesture, must rise at
least as high as the shoulder or the upper part of the breast.
In this lesson also, the speaker finds himself sufficiently at
leisure, to watch i\\Q flexibility^ variety and grace of his action.
It is therefore advisable to gesture during the whole of the les-
son, and deliberately to study significance and variety of motion.
SOPHOMORE YEAR, FIRST TERM. 409
LESSON III.
EARNESTNESS.
Remarks. The object of this lesson, is to establish the habit
of expressing real thought and feeling.
Every tone and gesture should have the peculiar modification,
which only exists when there is a hearty effort to interest and
convince the audience.
This is most easily effected, when the audience is small, and
near the speaker as, for instance, when a lawyer addresses
a jury.
Therefore, in this lesson, practise as follows.
Directions. Imagine a few persons in the seats near
you, and address them with the most pointed and hearty
earnestness.
In attitude, lean forward towards them, bending at
the hips.
In gesture, direct the hand towards them.
Take more especial pains to be pointedly earnest on
the EMPHATIC WORDS. Be sure to speak them with suf-
ficient force. Dwell also upon them in an earnest
manner.
In private practice carry this earnestness to a great extreme,
even to the degree of violence. If this be faithfully done, the
voice and gesture will become habitually spirited and interest-
ing, even in the calmest and most quiet moods of delivery.
LESSON IV.
ELOQUENCE.
Remark. Eloquence cannot like elocution be learned from
a teacher. Yet a person may teach himself to be eloquent,
and an experienced teacher can afford him considerable assist-
ance.
35*
410
LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
Directions. Practise the same pointed address, as in
the preceding lesson, (but without violence,) and look
about three quarters of the distance across the room.
Adapt attitude and gesture to the same distance.
Unite with the tones of earnestness, the distinctness
and articulation of the two first lessons.
Keep the feelings vivid.
Be careful never to relax in deliberate energy and
force, so that the voice may have a striking expression
in all parts of the room.
The speaking will thus become manly and effective. The
speaker will be forcible, earnest, sincere.
LESSON V.
EXTEMPORANEOUSNESS.
Remark. The most striking things in delivery will often oc-
cur suddenly to the mind of the speaker, during the excitement
of speaking. A speaker \vho cultivates a natural instead of a
theatrical eloquence, will not be able always to speak the same
discourse in precisely the same manner. He must have the
habit of encouraging good impulses, and should generally act
out new and sudden ones, without distrust or hesitation.
Directions. Speak wholly from the impulse of
thought and feeling.
Aim to appear as if extemporizing.
Take no particular pains as to any one point that has
been studied in the previous lessons.
Imagine the whole audience present. Act upon them,
and endeavor to interest them in the thoughts and feel-
ings of the composition.
If the composition be well committed to memory, and the
above lessons faithfully practised, there is no danger that the
SOPHOMORE YEAR, SECOND TERM. 411
speaker will manifest embarrassment. Experience shows that
natural diffidence is no serious impediment to eloquence in pub-
lic speaking. It generally springs from sensibility, and this
characteristic is favorable.
SOPHOMORE YEAR, SECOND TERM.
SUBJECT OF STUDY. INTERESTING SPEAKING. The
eloquence of FULL, ENTHUSIASM.
Remarks. The preceding course of lessons cultivated the
eloquence of thought and manly energy.
It is the object of the present course to superadd enthusiasm.
LESSON I.
MUSICAL VOICE.
Remarks. In general, when an audience is to be interested,
it must first be aroused and excited. Therefore, to be interest-
ing, we must first be spirited. But in order to be spirited, we
must begin our practice with being forcible.
If we attempt to cultivate a musical voice for a large room,
without first acquiring a manly force, we shall become feeble
and effeminate.
Directions. 1. Stand erect, with the chest thrown
well forwards. Let the lower limbs, however, be easy,
to avoid a swelling attitude.
The position of the body will thus express enthusiasm.
2. Open the hand wide, and extend the arm to its full
length stiffening the muscles.
The action of the arm will thus correspond to the
condition of the breast. Its motions will be slow and
earnest.
412 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
3. In this lesson, use the upper key of the voice, but
with a deep tone.
Address the most distant part of a very large audience.
Make the voice reach them without explosive effort,
but rather by an earnest prolongation of tone.
LESSON II.
DEEP TONED VOICE.
Remarks. The previous lesson will not complete the acqui-
sition of the necessary tone of voice. Enthusiasm, which is
the source of what people call an interesting manner in delivery,
springs from meditation.
Directions. Practise in the same way as in the pre-
ceding lesson, but in the meditative mood of delivery.
Vide part 3, chap. 1.
Use as much depth of tone as in earnest and passion-
ate soliloquies.
Let the speaker withdraw wholly into his own mind,
but give his feelings bold utterance.
It will still be necessary to address, in imagination, a very
large audience. Unless this be done, the expression of enthu-
siasm will be so feeble and obscure, as to excite commiseration,
rather than sympathy.
LESSON III.
INCULCATION.
Remarks. The voice must now acquire the tone of forcible
and pointed address.
Without this lesson, the voice will sound too abstracted.
Power must also be employed, to command respect.
Directions. Repeat the first lesson, but address an
imaginary audience in the room.
SOPHOMORE YEAR, SECOND TERM. 413
Do this with a deliberately pointed address.
Thus the voice, having previously acquired a strongly
interesting tone, will make the audience think as well as
feel.
LESSON IV.
APPEAL.
Remarks. The last lesson will have produced a style of
speaking of great, yet not the highest power.
A powerful appeal has more effect than the strongest incul-
cation.
Directions. Proceed in the meditative mood as in
the second lesson, but look earnestly at an audience in
the room.
Make the most powerful appeal to their sympathies,
with voice and gesture.
LESSON V.
APPROPRIATE STYLE FOR THE COMPOSITION.
Remarks. Each of the previous lessons will have exhibited
a natural and interesting delivery, but the object of the present,
is to cultivate the precise medium between different qualities
which best fits the composition spoken.
Directions. Imagine the class audience present, and
surrender the mind unreservedly to the impulses of the
thoughts and language to be uttered.
Address the class, not as acquaintances, but as repre-
sentatives of our common human nature.
Be fearless in appeal to the universal sympathies of
mankind.
Observation. Speakers are apt to fear that exhibitions of
enthusiasm may be unsafe. This will never be the case, when
414 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
feeling is united to thought, and petty differences of character
among mankind are disregarded. Confident appeals to univer-
sal sympathy, must necessarily meet with a response.
SOPHOMORE YEAR, THIRD TERM.
SUBJECT OF STUDY. COMMANDING SPEAKING. The
eloquence of CULTIVATED POWER.
Remarks. The great object of the present course of lessons,
is to cultivate a developementof all the resources for interesting
an audience, which are furnished by the composition to be
spoken.
LESSON I.
EXPANSION OF THOUGHT.
Remarks. Speakers of cultivated power, find more meaning
in the words of an eloquent composition, than inferior speakers
discover.
The speeches of the highest class of orators are the most brief
in language, yet the most full of thought. It is the especial ob-
ject of delivery to express this fullness of meaning.
Directions. Large audiences expand a speaker's mind.
Therefore address, in imagination, a very large audience.
Cultivate great freedom and flexibility of attitude.
Let the changes of position be bold and decided.
Use great expansion and variety of gesture.
Employ a slow articulation, long pauses and striking
transitions of voice. Make use of striking and deliberate
emphasis, as the most powerful of instruments for pro-
ducing the effects that you wish.
Strive, with intense effort of mind, to make the audi-
ence think at every word.
SOPHOMORE YEAR, THIRD TERM. 415
LESSON II.
EXPANSION OF FEELING.
Remarks. In the previous lesson, the effort has been to dis-
play thought. The audience also were aroused, and made to
think with the speaker. To thought must now be added feel"
ing. This lesson likewise, must be practised as before a very
large audience.
Directions. Speak as before, but in the meditative
mood, and with strong emotion. Vide p. 337.
Make especial use of all the resources that can influ-
ence the imaginations of the audience.
Whenever the imagination can be appealed to, make
use of gestures that are boldly poetical.
Keep the mind intensely watchful, that no opportuni-
ty escape, in which the audience can be made to feel.
LESSON III.
SYMPATHY.
Remarks. The very best speaking does not attempt to com-
pel men, as it were, by mere force. There should always be
more or less of the persuasive. Persuasion appeals to sympathy.
Directions. Address an audience in the room, but
with the same enlarged exhibition of thought and feel-
ing.
Look earnestly at the audience, and endeavor to enlist
their sympathies.
Let the voice be deliberately flexible, and a marked
use be made of pauses and transitions.
416 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
LESSON IV.
DETERMINATION.
Remarks. A speaker who has an important point to gain,
does not rest satisfied with a mere effort to persuade. To make
sure of his object, he adds a power, that proceeds from deter-
mination.
Directions. Address an audience in the room. Ap-
peal powerfully to sympathy, but snperadd that force
which comes from a determination to carry a point.
When the compositions of others are spoken, and in
general, when a formal written address is delivered, the
point to be carried, is to make the audience attend, and
take an interest in the ideas that are offered.
LESSON V.
CONFIDENCE.
Remarks. Speaking may be skillful, interesting and forcible,
and yet fail of its intended effect. In such cases, the speaker
does not place full confidence in his audience.
Directions. Superadd to persuasion and determined
force, a bold confidence in the audience.
Disregard their accidental characters and circumstan-
ces, and appeal confidently to such feelings as are the
same in all men.
JUNIOR YEAR, FIRST TERM. 417
JUNIOR YEAR, FIRST TERM.
SUBJECT OF STUDY. Acceptable delivery before large
audiences. Style of delivery for POPULAR ORATORY.
Remarks. There is a peculiar excitement produced in a
speaker by the presence of a large crowd of his fellow men a
more expanded sympathy, and a corresponding enlargement of
manner, in delivery.
To succeed with large and miscellaneous assemblages, elo-
quence must be spirit-stirring and attractive.
A musical voice and rhythm are indispensable.
Attitude and gesture must intentionally be made more bold
and free, in order to attract the eye from a distance.
The question will be asked, Does the study and practice of
successful delivery before large audiences, improve the speak-
er's style of delivery before smaller ones? It does ; and indeed
it is impossible to arrive at the higher styles of eloquence by
any other process of cultivation. Without it, a speaker's man-
ner will exhibit a narrowness, littleness, and restraint. It is
always easy to reduce the scale of our delivery when we wish
to adapt it to a small audience/ Vide pp. 169, 170.
LESSON I.
EXPANDED VOICE.
Remarks. The object of this lesson, is to make the most re-
mote and inattentive auditors hear and attend, by means of the
full tone and musical sound of the voice.
In the lower part of the upper key of each person's voice,
there is a peculiar, smooth, full and musical tone, which is the
most expressive, and can be heard the farthest.
If this agreeable and effective tone be, at first, carefully culti-
vated on the upper part of the voice, the subsequent lessons will
36
418 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
develope it in the lower keys, and the student will be able finally
to exhibit it on any key that is desirable.
This full and musical voice is essential for very large audi-
ences.
It is only by using this quality of voice, that the speaker can
proceed with ease. Any other will be disagreeable to the hear-
ers, and tend to bring on a sore throat in the speaker.
The key of voice for an audience, depends on the distance
of the more remote hearers from the speaker, (vide Whately's
Rhet., Part IV.) The larger the audience, the higher must be
the key. Vide p. 171.
For the same reason, the larger the audience, the SLOWER
(in an easy and sustained way) must be the utterance.
The vowels must be slightly prolonged, to favor the musical
audibility, and make the tones of expression reach to a distance.
For the same reason, emphatic words and pauses must be
given with great prolongation.
Directions. Imagine a large crowd present.
Stand erect, and with the body rising to its full height.
Lean forwards not from the hips, but from the foot
on which the body rests.
Direct the arm in gesture, over the heads of the greater
part of the audience, to those more remote. Let the
hand be as high as the shoulder.
Keep the voice sustained in the key for the distance.
Separate the groups of words, to allow of perfect ease
in taking breath.
Prolong the words, and especially the emphatic ones.
Do not strain or force the voice, but suffer it as it were,
to flow of itself. It is indispensable that the delivery be
easy and pleasant to the speaker himself.
When first beginning this practice, use a considerable
degree of loudness.
JUNIOR YEAR, FIRST TERM.
419
In the case of most voices, this last direction is at first abso-
lutely necessary for success, and this kind of discipline rapidly
deepens and mellows the tone, till the voice becomes audible
(as in a fine toned musical instrument) without loudness.
LESSON II.
SPIRITED ENUNCIATION.
Remarks. The previous lesson if practised without this, will
in time, produce a sort of drawl, such as we often hear from
those who speak in the open air. Vide p. 172.
Articulation, likewise, must be superadded to distinctness.
The object should be, not only to attract distant or inattentive
auditors by the sound of the voice, but to cause them to follow
the speaker, syllable by syllable.
The hearers should be able to distinguish the words and syl-
lables as clearly, as if they saw them printed in large characters
and held up before them.
Directions. Exhibit the qualities of the last lesson,
but, practise, in addition, a very forcible accent, and an
energetic articulation of every letter.
Endeavor to compel attention, not merely to the gen-
eral sense, but to every word that you utter.
LESSON III.
HARMONIOUS FLOW.
Remarks. As the first lesson, if exclusively practised, may
in the end produce drawling and formality, so the second may
lead to stiffness and a dry and labored style.
A spontaneous and captivating FLOW of thought and feeling
must be cultivated.
This, philosophically stated, is musical rhythm, (the highest
degree of which is exhibited in the recitation of lyrical poetry,)
420 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
but it is difficult in elocution to cultivate rhythm on musical
principles. The following mode of practice will be certain to
secure a flowing rhythm. The mode of practice corresponds
with the true cause of rhythm, both in music and poetry.
Directions. Use the full and musical voice. Proceed
with a free and unhesitating FLUENCY.
Avoid all self-criticism, and abandon yourself to the
pleasurable flow of impulse.
As you proceed, give yourself up wholly to the PLEAS-
URABLE EXCITEMENT of hearty and flowing expression.
Observation. A very common fault among public speakers,
is a habit of intellectual hesitation. This is frequently supposed
to proceed from defect of memory, or deficiency of ideas. It is
in fact, generally, a mere habit of mind in delivery, and may
readily be broken up by such exercises as those of this lesson.
LESSON IV.
BOLD EMOTION.
Remarks. A manifestation of emotion sufficiently striking
for a small audience, will appear uninteresting and tame before
a large one.
Large audiences require that exhibitions of imagination and
feeling be, as it were, on a large scale.
Directions. Neglect the audience to some extent,
and yield yourself up to your own thoughts and feelings.
Be perfectly fearless and indifferent as to any possible
faults, and abandon yourself to unrestrained enthusiasm.
Especially let this be the case on the most important
words and passages.
The enthusiasm should be more meditative and so-
liloquizing, or more earnestly addressed to the audience,
according to the character of the composition delivered.
.
JUNIOR YEAR, SECOND TERM. 421
LESSON V.
ABANDONMENT.
Remarks. Among men of education, the chief impediment
to eloquence, is the habit of self-criticism and distrust of them-
selves, at the time of speaking.
- These habits of checking impulses, may prevent some faults,
but generally destroy all positive excellence.
Take as a golden rule, NEVER TO WATCH AND CRITICISE THE
DETAILS OF YOUR ELOCUTION, WHEN ACTUALLY ADDRESSING AN
AUDIENCE.
Directions. Indulge in the most unrestrained emotion.
Appeal triumphantly to the sympathies of the audi-
ence.
The more boldly this is done, the greater will be the
pleasure you will inspire.
Observation. Never distrust your audience. Address them
as human beings, who cannot but share the common sympathies
of our nature,
JUNIOR YEAR, SECOND TERM.
SUBJECT OF STUDY. Elevated Delivery. The elo-
quence of glowing thought. Delivery which elevates
the minds of the auditors.
Remarks. It is the especial object of the present course of
five lessons, to prepare students for speaking their own compo-
sitions.
From an imperfect knowledge of delivery, many are not
aware, that any serious essay may be spoken in an elevated
36*
422 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
manner, if the time and place are suitable. They suppose
such a style of speaking necessarily requires, if not a declama-
tory, at least an oratorical, or a rhetorical style of composition.
This is a very injurious mistake.
Upon the present course of lessons, is placed the sole reliance
for the actual merit of the speaking at the Junior Exhibition.
The latter is not, indeed, required to be, without exception, in
an elevated style; but it is nevertheless expected, that each
composition will be spoken in a spirited and interesting man-
ner. If this be done, the speaking will be either elevated or
familiar. But familiar speaking, if before a large and miscel-
laneous audience, is far more difficult of execution than that
which is elevated. It requires more self-possession and expe-
rience, a voice of more real strength, and an uncommon maste-
ry of rapid articulation, as well as of the power of accommo-
dating the voice to rooms. To arrive at it, an elevated style
must first be attained. It is in fact the last accomplishment
acquired by speakers, being mastered only after considerable
practice at least in imagination in speaking to large audi-
ences.
To be successful before large audiences, it is absolutely ne-
cessary, therefore, to be master of a high and bold style of de-
livery. Upon the same resource, also, must be placed the sole
dependence for giving interest to such chaste yet plain essays,
as, although sensible and judicious, would, when simply read
in a large room, sound tame and uninteresting.
It is recommended to the students to endeavor, if possible, to
exemplify the ability in speaking required in the following les-
sons, upon such composition as is not unlike what they them-
selves would write; to give interest to plain language and valu-
able thoughts, by means of elevation and skill of delivery; and
not to be dependent for animation and enthusiasm, on uncom-
mon qualities of style.
JUNIOR E A R , SECOND TERM. 423
LESSON I.
POWER.
Remarks. It is the object of the present lesson, to give
such discipline as to prevent all languor or drawling of the
voice, and all awkwardness of gesture. We use the term pow-
er, because it describes the nature of the speaker's efforts. If
successfully exhibited, it produces what audiences call by a low-
er term, viz. spirit or animation. Those who have not learned
by experience, are singularly ignorant, how vivid and concen-
trated an effort of mind and body is required, to give to a large
audience the impression of spirit and animation.
Directions. Address an extremely large audience.
Give accent and articulation with an intentional and
commanding FORCE.
To make this easy and natural, as well as sufficiently
powerful, utter the words with an inward feeling of
power.
Determine to command the attention of the audience.
Observation. It is a speaker's own fault if his audience are
inattentive. In general it is in the best taste, not to make
much display of this confidence in one's own skill, when actu-
ally addressing an audience. Still if some slight manifestation
of it does appear, the effect is not disagreeable. It is pleasant
to witness manifestations of power, in this, as in other acts.
LESSON II.
SPLENDOR.
Remarks. It may seem a bold direction, to advise a modest
young man to cultivate splendor of delivery. If he succeeds,
however, in acquiring it, audiences will apply a much lower
epithet. The strongest expression will be such as striking.
424 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
In fact we use the term in reference, not so much to what the
speaker will actually exhibit, as to what he should aim at. An
animated speaker's thoughts and feelings, seem far more vivid
and glowing to himself than to others. This lesson being
private should be carried to a great extreme.
Directions. Let the eyes of the imaginary audience
be gratified by attitudes and gestures of the boldest kind.
Cultivate bold poetical gestures, which appeal to the
imagination.
Arouse activity of imagination in yourself and others,
and keep every image vivid and strong.
LESSON III.
SENTIMENT.
Remarks. A better term than sentiment would be pathos,
in the sense in which it was used by the Greeks. In a vivid
state of the intellect and imagination, every idea and image
has some feeling connected with it. It is chiefly the expres-
sion of these, that constitutes eloquence. Remember that this
lesson, being practised in private, should be executed in an ex-
treme manner.
Directions. Enlarge and magnify the exhibition of
feeling.
Practise such power in this respect, that when before
an audience, you shall not need to make much exertion,
and indeed shall be spirited and interesting, while, at
the same time, you appear simply calm and graceful.
LESSON IV.
TRIUMPHANT APPEAL.
Remarks. It is an essential requisite of satisfactory delive-
ry, that it be executed with a reasonable degree of ease. If
JUNIOR YEAR, SECOND TERM. 425
the audience notice that a speaker is under the necessity of ma-
king excessive exertion, they will feel either disgust or commis-
eration. Practice and experience enable one to make the vig-
orous efforts which are really necessary, in a graceful and agree-
able manner. The delivery will indeed seem to the audience to
flow, almost without effort, and from the spontaneous and pleasu-
rable impulses of the speaker. And this is the principal cause
of the high enjoyment experienced in hearing really good speak-
ing. It will therefore be best to continue the same powerful
exertion as in the previous lessons. By doing this, we shall so
strengthen the faculties required in delivery, that the final les-
son can successfully be practised in an easy, calm and genial
mood of mind.
Directions. Address in imagination an audience in
the room, and apply directly to them all the resources
of eloquence that have been practised in the previous
lessons.
Let not your manner be that of one asking for the
admiration of the audience. Rather appeal trium-
phantly first, to the common sympathies of men, and
secondly, to their social and friendly feelings.
LESSON V.
CALM TOWER.
Remarks. The previous lessons having been practised as
gymnastic exercises of the mind, a strength and skill will have
been acquired, which will relieve the speaker from the necessi-
ty of making more exertion, than just that degree which is
most genial for himself, and agreeable to the audience.
Directions. Yield yourself up to pleasurable impul-
ses of intellect, imagination and feeling.
In general, be calm and graceful,
426 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
If an idea, however, requires even a vehement and
overpowering force, do not spoil its utterance by an un-
natural reserve.
Observation. Modesty is of course essential to a gentle-
man ; yet it does not call for a studious effort to conceal a well
founded consciousness of power. Honesty, frankness and open-
ness of disposition, are as essential as modesty.
JUNIOR YEAR, THIRD TERM.
SUBJECT OF STUDY. Matured Delivery. Such speak-
ing as is required for Oratory. Skill and power for
Mass Meetings.
Remarks. It not being the custom of this institution, to
make Speaking a regular exercise of the Senior Class, it must
be during the Junior year that students are to become qualified
for appearing at Commencement It is therefore a principal
object of the following course, to assist in bestowing this quali-
fication upon all the members of the class alike. The instruc-
tors make no attempt to render the delivery of those who actu-
ally appear on that occasion, any thing more than a fair exhibi-
tion of the average knowledge of this branch possessed by the
graduating class. Yet for a young man who has had no expe-
rience before audiences except what can be acquired in Col-
lege, to speak with acceptableness in a very large church
crowded to its utmost capacity, is a difficult undertaking.
The highest styles of secular oratory, exhibited in this coun-
try at the present day, like the triumphs of ancient eloquence,
are brought out by the influence of mass meetings. These not
only elevate and expand a speaker's mind, but stimulate it to
its utmost efforts. Littleness and narrowness of manner dis-
JUNIOR YEAR, THIRD TERM. 427
appear, and what artists call breadth of style takes their place.
Sharpness, nasality and obscurity of tone, are no longer heard,
while awkward constraint in attitude and gesture gives place to
freedom and heartiness. (Vide pp. 161 and 169.) Even that
most difficult, and, in our judgment, most valuable of all modes
of address, a graceful, spirited, and yet commanding familiari-
ty, is most rapidly acquired through the bold freedom necessary
for mass meetings. The cultivation of familiar speaking being
obviously most appropriate for the Senior year, the following
lessons form, therefore, an appropriate introduction to it, in ad-
dition to being necessary as the conclusion of the Junior series
of practisings.
LESSON I.
FULLEST EXPANSION.
Remarks. The most natural and pleasant mode of practis-
ing that slowness, distinctness, and sustained energy or grace
of manner, and (to use familiar language) that whole-souled
expression, which we are now proceeding to cultivate, will be
to imagine ourselves speaking to several thousands of people
assembled in the open air.
Directions. Without violence or vociferation, pro-
ceed in the style of effective address to a mass meeting.
Imagine such an assembly before yon, and nature
will suggest the means of success.
Endeavor to adapt your delivery to an extreme dis-
tance, in respect of key, slowness, accent, emphasis, ar-
ticulation, a sustained and harmonious rhythm, and wide
ranging gestures and changes of position.
Cultivate this adaptation with energy, and also with
patience.
428 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
LESSON II.
REFINEMENT.
Remarks. It is apt to be supposed that successful speaking
in the open air, must necessarily exhibit considerable coarse-
ness and rudeness. This is a mistaken notion. A musical
voice is heard the farthest, and is most favorable for articula-
tion. The gestures need not be violent or extravagant. They
simply require to be wide and free.
Directions. Repeat the same practice 4 but in the
MEDITATIVE MOOD.
By so doing, rude energy will be changed into bold
and commanding enthusiasm.
No disagreeable degree of loudness will be necessary.
LESSON III.
ENLARGED SCALE.
Remarks. When speaking in the circumstances we are
now supposing, it will not be sufficient to trust, as on ordinary
occasions, merely to natural impulses. The speaker must take
pains to set forth a striking exhibition of what ought to attract
the attention of the audience. He must intentionally enlarge
the scale of the picture, with reference to its being viewed from
a distance. Otherwise what he does will appear tame and un-
interesting.
Directions. Take pains to attract attention from a
distance.
Give an intentional increase of force and boldness to
the emphasis.
Study the boldly poetical and passionate in attitude
and gesture.
JUNIOR YEAR, THIRD TERM. 429
111 this lesson, practise yourself in making a display
of such things.
LESSON IV.
EMPLOYMENT OP STRIKING PASSAGES.
Remarks. It is one of the last and highest attainments in
delivery, to be able to make an intentional employment of the
most striking passages in a discourse. We are here, indeed,
getting upon dangerous ground ; yet finished oratory habitually
places great dependence upon favorite passages. The student
of delivery must not shrink from this study, notwithstanding
the examples which are so often witnessed of mere ostentation
and clap-trap.
Directions. Distinguish definitely in your mind, cer-
tain passages as best adapted for useful effect.
Make especial efforts upon them. Enter upon them
with some deliberation. Pause somewhat after them.
Do not spoil their exhibition, by shrinking from an
unreserved freedom and boldness.
LESSON V.
TEMPERANCE.
Remarks. The directions of Shakespeare are universally
known, yet it will be well to quote them : " In the very torrent,
tempest, and as I may say, whirlwind of your passion, you
must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smooth-
ness." But with reference to the opposite extreme also, it will
be not inappropriate to introduce a criticism of the celebrated
Dr. Beecher, after hearing, by request, an exhibition of a rhe-
torical society. " Gentlemen, a river must indeed have banks,
but still there must be a river" In this lesson the style for a
mass meeting must be given in its full extent.
37
430 LESSONS FOR EXTRACTS.
Directions. Exhibit a bold and striking delivery, but
moderate it sufficiently for the time, place and occasion,
on which you are about to speak.
But let this be done without unnatural reserve and
self-restraint.
Neither suffer yourself to become tame. Give nature
a free scope.
Be perfectly collected, and sufficiently calm.
If you have to fear ungenerous criticism, and it is re-
ally necessary to protect yourself against it, proceed, in
a considerable degree, in the Meditative Mood. This
will afford an infallible protection.
Observation. As the most serious hindrance to eloquence
is the fear of unsyrnpathizing and illiberal criticism, let the
speaker himself cultivate a "large tolerance" in his criticisms
upon others. He will find such habits of great assistance to
his own confidence when speaking.
431
PREPARATION FOR JUNIOR EXHIBI-
TIONS AND COMMENCEMENTS.
IN the first place, the fact must be borne in mind, that few
cases occur, in which a young man does not exhibit a much
more natural and interesting delivery, when speaking an ex-
tract from some elegant writer, than when delivering his own
composition. This assertion is indeed contrary to prevalent
opinion, but the experience of instructors establishes its truth.
To say nothing of a not unreasonable degree of diffidence, the
genuine modesty which almost always characterizes a really
good scholar, causes him to do less justice to the merits of his
own composition than they deserve. Especially if the style is
in good taste and free from exaggeration or pretension, is the
writer apt to fail in giving an earnestness or elevation of deliv-
ery correspondent to the actual importance or interest of his
finest thoughts. It must be remembered that eloquence of de-
livery does not depend primarily upon a rhetorical structure of
style. Though the contrary opinion is often entertained, it is
yet a mistaken notion, and one of exceedingly injurious conse-
quences. On the contrary, the very highest degree of eloquence
in delivery, absolutely requires that the language uttered be
plain and simple. It will be sufficient to refer to the Bible, to
Shakespeare, and to Demosthenes, Chatham, Grattan and Pat-
rick Henry. The practical direction, therefore, must be for the
student to render full justice to the actual ideas which he has
written, although the language in which they are expressed,
may not of itself excite his enthusiasm. More particularly let
this be done in all cases in which the imagination is appealed
432 ORIGINAL COMPOSITIONS.
to. There will be no danger of rant or bombast, provided that
id&s are spoken, and not mere words. Rant and bombast are
the expression, not only of want of thought, but also of want of
real imagination.
Another suggestion is 4jften found to be of great service.
Writers are apt to feel that it will not be safe or proper, to ex-
press with force or enthusiasm, ideas which are not absolutely
new. Here again is a mistake. The true question is not
whether an idea is new, but whether it is important and inter-
esting. Sometimes indeed the interest is partly or wholly
that of novelty, but ideas of the deepest interest, appeal to uni-
versal human nature, and ought not to be wholly new. It is a
great error to attempt to depend solely on novelty for interest.
Indeed, at best, the interest of mere novelty is apt to be of an
inferior kind. In short, the writer and speaker must take for
granted, that what deeply interests him, will certainly interest
his audience, provided he gives an adequate expression to his
own feelings.
As to diffidence, a single consideration should be sufficient.
The performances of modest young men who are considered as
having talent and scholarship, are always interesting to cultiva-
ted audiences. Let another fact, however, be borne in mind;
diffidence never manifests itself outwardly in any disagreeable
degree, when a speaker is once master of a natural and extem-
poraneous style of delivery. But if still further suggestions be
needed, let it be remembered that diffidence is no natural ob-
stacle to enthusiasm ; than which nothing is either more inter-
esting or more safe. Simply let care be taken that diffidence
do not proceed from egotism, and the speaker may be relieved
from all embarrassment by yielding himself up unreservedly to
the inspiration of his subject. A certain abstractedness, both
from self, and from the accidental circumstances of the time
and place, must exist in all good delivery. Vide the remarks
under the head of the " Meditative Mood/' p. 340.
ORIGINAL COMPOSITIONS. 433
To prepare a composition of greater length than a mere ex-
tract, for speaking in a manner to do it full justice, is somewhat
of a task. If the writer say he cannot do this without audien-
ces upon whose patience to practice, he proves himself destitute
of a useful knowledge of delivery. Experience demonstrates
that those who take this ground, will be certain not to succeed.
A student who had a poem to recite at an approaching com-
mencement, carried it to the most celebrated of American act-
ors, requesting to be instructed how to deliver it. The actor
glanced at the poem, and replied : " Tt would cost me three
weeks of study to prepare for delivering this myself, and I can-
not undertake to qualify you."
The labor of writing, correcting and rewriting, causes ideas
to lose their freshness. The necessary hesitation respecting the
choice of words and arrangement of style, during the process of
composition, perplexes the memory of the sneaker, and distracts
his mind from that main course of thought, upon which a suc-
cessful delivery principally depends. Without careful study in
reference to speaking, even the best composition will be liable
to appear immethodical, confused and dull. By study, the ideas
will be restored to that fresh interest with which they first sug-
gested themselves to the mind ; the several parts of the compo-
sition will be connected in the mind in their proper order and
mutual bearing, and their proportionate importance will be as-
sociated with them in the memory. It sometimes happens in-
deed, that after thoroughly preparing a composition for delivery,
by several repetitions of preparatory speaking, the student com-
plains that he experiences a loss of interest in the ideas, and
finds it difficult to speak them with animation. But if the de-
livery has been well studied, this is an indication not unfavor-
able. In such cases the student has often subsequently inform-
ed the writer, that the actual presence of the audience, at once
relieved every such difficulty, and caused the whole series of
thoughts to pass through his mind as if he were speaking ex-
37*
434 ORIGINAL COMPOSITIONS.
temporaneously, and were then for the first time conceiving
them. To be in this state of mind before an audience, is said
by those who have made a thorough preparation, to be extremely
inspiriting and agreeable.
The following are the rules adopted in this institution, in re-
gard to preparing for Exhibitions and Commencements.
1. The compositions must be finished and committed
to memory, before the beginning of the week which
precedes that in which the Exhibition or Commence-
ment occurs.
2. They are t6 be fully prepared for public delivery,
before the week in which the Exhibitioner Commence-
ment takes place.
A great benefit results from making an early preparation,
and then suffering the mind to remain for three or four days,
in a state free from anxiety or the necessity of labor. In this
way, the speaker appears before the public with a fresh and
cheerful interest, and his delivery becomes more natural and
animated.
3. The student is to prepare his own delivery, at least
up to the point of being able clearly to exhibit the ideas
and the methodical course of thought which character-
ize his composition.
He is to pay particular attention to the pauses and
transitions, at the paragraphs into which it is divided.
4. The plan has been tried and found to be of great
benefit, to require each performer to associate with him,
in practice before the instructors, one of his companions,
as a friend and critic, to assist, by communicating his
impressions, the advice of the instructors, and the taste
and judgment of the performer himself.
ORIGINAL COMPOSITIONS. 435
Such is ,now the established rule. The performer feels a
more just confidence, when his delivery gratifies one of his fel-
lows, than when he is assisted by no sympathy but that of those
who are far removed from him in age.
5. It is absolutely necessary, that a young man who
is to address a crowded audience in a large room, for the
first, or at most for but the second time in his life, have
several opportunities of practising the accommodation of
his voice, attitude and gesture, to the room in which he
is actually to appear.
For the information of the friends and patrons of this institu-
tion, it will be not unimportant to mention, in this place, that
skill in public speaking is considered an accomplishment of no
value, except for those whose education qualifies them for use-
fulness. No one is appointed to appear before the public merely
because he is a speaker.
436
APPENDIX.
THE size which this volume has reached, owing to the neces-
sity of inserting a sufficient number of examples for practice,
compels us to omit nearly the whole of an appendix, in which
we had discussed the following topics. 1. The general subject
of good taste in respect to the kinds of delivery most appropri-
ate on different occasions: 2. The management of the mind,
when carrying on in conjunction the two processes of composi-
tion and of speaking i. e. its management in Extemporaneous
Speaking: 3. Reading, in its two kinds of Public and Parlor
reading: 4. The delivery of Poetry : 5. Continued Self-Culti-
vation in Elocution : 6. The Elocution of Conversation : 7.
The influence of public speaking on Health.
Without attempting to discuss any of these important sub-
jects in full, we will briefly mention a few considerations suffi-
cient to complete the present work as a practical treatise on
Public Delivery. Such ideas will be selected as an instructor
is most often called on to suggest in answer to enquiries; yet
they will be merely indicated, as space is wanting for their full
development.
1. Good Taste. All public delivery may be divided into two
kinds; the Elevated and the Familiar.
Elevated Delivery ought always to be characterized
by Gravity, Dignity, Suavity, and Sympathy.
Familiar Delivery should especially exhibit Liveliness,
Fluency. Grace, and as much Rapidity, as is consistent
with intelligibility. Vide last par. p. 344.
In both kinds, Grace and Self-Possession ought to manifest
themselves as established personal habits of the speaker. As
APPENDIX.
437
much varie^also ought always to^>e employed, as the course
of thought wm permit.
Finally, so far as delivery merely is concerned, Brevity
is one of the most important of all qualities.
Very few speakers seem to be aware of this unquestionable
fact. Elocution, like music, has but a limited numbe'r of legit-
imate resources for variety. Of the two arts, music bestows the
deepest and most universal pleasure. Yet musicians appreciate
the great importance of brevity in single performances, and
not only shorten them as much as possible, but call in every prac-
ticable resource for variety. Even the most favorite performers,
avoid, if possible, taking on themselves alone the task of grati-
fying an assembly throughout an entire concert. Actors pursue
the same'policy ; they always shorten long speeches in a play.
2. Extemporaneous Speaking. In the case of a mind well
disciplined by education, the hindrances to this accomplishment,
are almost solely the embarrassment and confusion of mind
which attend the want of established habits of good delivery.
Vide the remarks which precede the lessons for the first term
of the Sophomore year, p. 404.
Delivery may be compared to the mechanical and habitual
parts of the act of writing a composition. If one has an easy
current hand, and confirmed habits of accuracy in spelling,
grammar and the simplest principles of style, the labor of original
composition is so simplified that the mind is free to think and ar-
range its thoughts with facility. In extemporaneous speaking,
a perfect fluency, readiness, and habits of clearness and force,
in delivery, in conjunction also with the composure and self-
possession which become habitual, not only leave the mind
equally free to think, but even assist it in so doing.*
* The mental process by which an extemporaneous speaker keeps
the construction of sentences and paragraphs clear and regular, is a cu-
rious and useful subject of study. We can but simply mention, that it
is similar in many respects to that of reading at sight. Vide p. 206.
433 A P P E X D 1 X .
3. Reading. Parlor reading, as an accomplishment, resem-
bles that of extempore music on a piano requiring not only
great skill, but a peculiar natural genius in the reader. But as
an accomplishment, it is not often called for in society music
afford inff.so much more pleasure.
Public reading is readily mastered after one has be-
come an accomplished speaker.
It differs from speaking in requiring less clearness and
brilliancy of voice, shorter pauses, and less force of em-
phasis.
Suppose an accomplished speaker to have a manuscript pre-
pared, from which it is optional with him either to read or
speak. If he prefers the former, let him consider how he
would speak the composition, and use the same emphases, in-
flexions and pauses, but less forcibly. The actual degree of
approach to the bold and striking exhibitions made in speaking,
will depend on the circumstances of the time, place and occa-
sion, and on the speaker's own choice and taste. Public read-
ing may approach indefinitely near to speaking, and it is a prac-
tise adopted by many, occasionally to speak a portion of a dis-
course, although the prevailing delivery is that of reading.
To be effective, reading should always have in a considera-
ble degree the tone of addressing an audience; yet the address
is not so direct and earnest. Reading is principally, and in-
deed almost exclusively, in the Meditative Mood of delivery.
Some may imagine that in addressing public audiences,
speaking must of course be more effective than reading. This
is not true. For lectures, whether of instruction or amusement,
and for many other purposes, reading is not only more agreea-
ble, but more useful. It puts the hearers into a more reflective
and thoughtful, as well as into a more complacent and gratified
state of mind.
Public reading should be accompanied by graceful attitudes
and gestures. These however will be fewer in number, and
APPENDIX. 439
like the tones of the voice will not be as forcible, or make so
strong an appeal, as in speaking.
Under this head should be ranked the kind of reading neces-
sary in schools and families for purposes of instruction :
The principal requisites of which are distinctness,
slowness, and a strong and vivid emphasis.
4. Poetry. It is obvious that to attempt to exhibit such
Practical Speaking as will be useful in the business of society,
by adopting the schoolboy practice of declaiming poetry, is ab-
surd. Poetry must be read or recited. Recitation is a pecu-
liar branch of elocution, and as distinct as that of Acting.
The public reading of poetry is often necessary. No pecu-
liar directions, however, are required, except that in giving the
pauses, inflexions and emphases necessary for exhibiting the
sense, care must be exercised that full justice be done to the
meter. For this, let the reader depend on his ear, and care-
fully observe the ca3sural pauses. It is the worst possible style
of reading, which makes poetry sound like prose.
Poetry, however, presents peculiar difficulties, compared with
prose, inasmuch as a larger proportion of the words are impor-
tant in meaning, and require an especial care in articulation.
Therefore,
In reading poetry, take more pains than with prose,
to exhibit the natural grouping of the words.
The influence of the feet in versification, tends to make a
reader join words together which are separated in the natural
grouping, and to separate many which must be grouped togeth-
er. Hence careless reading is more unintelligible in poetry
than in prose. Even public recitations of poetry, with a full
and musical voice, and with bold emphasis, are seldom, for
this reason, satisfactorily intelligible to an audience.
5. Self-cultivation in Elocution. Good habits, once acquired,
are not very liable to be lost in after life. A spirited and truly
440 APPENDIX. **
natural delivery, improves as its possessor grows older, even if
he neglects its further cultivation. It receives ^influence of
a more matured mind and character. The beauty, strength
and flexibility, however, of the voice, will degenerate, unless
occasionally cultivated.
Those who wish <o pursue a course of self-cultivation in the
higher qualities of delivery such as are needed in oratory, and
such as depend on a vivid imagination and susceptible feelings
must have the habit of occasionally amusing themselves with
endeavoring to express by Speaking, Recitation or Reading,
the full amount of thought, imagination and feeling, contained
in choice extracts from the greatest writers.
If Speaking be practised in private, it ought always to be ad-
dressed in imagination to an appropriate audience. We have
just used the expression, " amusing themselves." A certain
degree even of sportiveness, in solitary practice, will often be
useful, by tending not only to make the exercise agreeable, but
to promote natural and healthful habits of mind. In this way
may be prevented an evil described by Tacitus, in his tract on
the causes of the decay of eloquence among the Romans;
among which he enumerates the custom adopted by oratorical
students, of getting up theatrical trials, and practising enthusi-
astic declamation in defense of injured innocence, and against
fancied tyrants and oppressors. By this process, a false and
empty show of passion became established in place of a living
eloquence.
Genuine eloquence can only be cultivated by a persevering
self-development and discipline, not only of the imagination,
but of the whole character. This subject, however, has more
connexion with the study of composition, than with that of de-
livery, and belongs rather to rhetoric than to elocution. Elo-
quence in delivery, cannot exist without eloquence in the
thoughts delivered. All that delivery can do, is to afford an
adequate presentation of thoughts; it cannot supply them.
LJ U I O fO
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