GN 33 UC-NRLF B 3 117 S7T ''X " '<*v ■ ' LO lestions on the Customs, Beliefs, and Languages of Savages By J. G. FRAZER Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge THIRD IMPRESSION Cambridge: &t the University Press 1916 Questions on the Customs, Beliefs, and Languages of Savages • t I CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS C. F. CLAY, Manager ILontian: FETTER LANE, E.G. EDinburgf): loo PRINCES STREET i^cia gork: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS aSomfiaH, Calcutta ana i^aHras: MACMILLAK AND CO., Ltd. STaronto: J. M. DENT AND SONS, Ltd. STofega: THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA • • • • • •• • . . ;. • • • • - • 1 • • • • • • • ••• Al^ rights reserved Questions on the Customs, Beliefs, and Languages of Savages By J. G. FRAZER Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge THIRD IMPRESSION . •' « -. -, at the University Press ^916 p G v>^ CatnbrtHgf : PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. » « n u a n » <•„ >i « (1 « '• „" U o " " <• " " " " ',' »« "'"• " ,? "" *: n " « o <• " " First Edition 1907 Second Impression 1910 IVn'rci Impression 1916 PREFACE. MANY years ago I printed and circulated privately a set of questions on the manners and customs of savages designed to elicit information on the subject from persons who live or travel among uncivilised races. The present set of questions is a revised and enlarged edition of that work. In drawing it up I have endeavoured to summarise the various lines of enquiry which a prolonged study of savage life has suggested as worthy to be pursued. But the questions make no pretence to be exhaustive. Research, both in the field and in the study, is constantly opening up new points of view and thereby raising new questions. Thus it is to be expected, and indeed hoped, that the present list of questions may soon need to be in its turn supple- mented, if not entirely recast. In order to allow of this being done, the Syndics of the University Press have liberally consented to keep the type of the Questions standing, so that changes and additions may be made from time to time without difficulty. With regard to the use to be made of the Questions, I would point out that they are intended not so much to be put directly to the savage as to indicate to the civilised enquirer in the field those subjects on which investigators at home would be glad to have information. Thus it will be for \j b PREFACE the jurliv"'.ioi;s en(]u:'rer himself to choose the exact form in which t^he; questions may with most advantage b&'pu't to tlie, sa'vfage, either directly or through the medium of an interpreter. In doing so it is very important that he should as far as possible avoid the use of leading questions, that is, of questions which imply the kind of answer that may be expected j for the savage is commonly quick enough to perceive the drift of such enquiries and polite enough to give the answers which he believes will be most acceptable to the questioner. This indifference of savage man to abstract truth, and his obliging readiness to sacri- fice it to the supposed wishes of the person with whom he is talking, are a very fertile source of error, and every precaution should be taken to guard against it. The best way to proceed is commonly to start the savage talking on some topic of interest, say on birth or death customs, to let him run on till he has exhausted himself, and then to jog his memory by asking him about points which he has either imperfectly explained or entirely omitted. In this way the enquirer may obtain a considerable body of information on the subject of enquiry; and if the savage witness is fairly intelli- gent and well-informed, it is probable that among the facts thus drawn from him there will be manv which are not covered by the printed questions and which may shed a wholly new light on the matter in hand and perhaps on others which before were not supposed to be related to it. The unexpected infor- mation thus elicited is often the most trustworthy and valuable of all, first, because not being foreseen by the civilised man it cannot have been consciously or PREFACE I unconsciously suggested by him to the savage ; and, second, because it may put an entirely fresh com- plexion on a whole series of customs and beliefs about which we had fancied that we knew all that was worth knowing. So every one who questions savages as to their ways should make it a rule to let them speak as much and himself as little as possible. At the same time, while they ramble on, he will find it useful to keep a printed set of questions beside him for reference in order to refresh his own memory as to important points and to recall the wandering attention of his interlocutor. Further, the informa- tion obtained from one man should as far as possible be tested by examining other and independent wit- nesses. If they all agree in substance, the enquirer may feel satisfied that he has got at the truth. In pursuing enquiries of this sort it is essential to obtain as full and precise information as possible. General answers to the Questions are of little value : it is the details of custom and belief which are im- portant for the purposes of science. No facts should be neglected as too trivial to be investigated and recorded ; for facts which, taken by themselves, appear to ' be wholly insignificant may be of the highest importance in their relation to others which are unknown to the enquirer. Let him accordingly put down everything, whether it seems to him important or not. Let him not restrict his enquiries to the matters dealt with in the following Questions. These are merely headings or outlines of large subjects : it is for the enquirer to fill in the particulars, and to extend his researches to any other topics that may suggest themselves to him. 8 PREFACE All persons who are brought into close contact with savages have it in their power to render a service to science by carefully investigating and recording the customs and beliefs of the people who fall under their observation, for such records add to the sum of knowledge and may perhaps be of price- less value for the light they throw on the growth of human ideas and institutions. And the need to collect these records becomes more urgent every year as the circle within which they may be obtained grows steadily narrower. For every year civilisation encroaches more and more on savagery, and thus every year the documents which best illustrate the early history of man are perishing. I hope that some few at least of the persons into whose hands these Questions may fall will be stirred to a sense of the importance of the work that can still be done and will set themselves to do it. They need not attempt to collect answers to all these questions at once. If they did, they might easily be discouraged and deterred by the magnitude of the undertaking. Let them begin by merely taking, say, a single section or two of the questions and investigating the particular subject or subjects with which they deal. If they do so, they will probably be drawn on further and further by the interest and fascination of the enquiry, and may find that what began by being a mere pastime soon grows into an absorbing pursuit. Time is apt to hang heavy on the hands of civilised men who live in the wilds remote from the society of their fellows. If they once interest themselves in the ways of the simple folk around them, they will both relieve the dulness of their own life and put PREFACE 9 themselves in a position to benefit others by advanc- ing the study of man. Answers to any or all of the following Questions will be gratefully received and acknowledged either by Baron Anatole von Hiigel, Curator of the Archaeo- logical and Ethnological Museum, Cambridge, or by myself. They should accordingly be addressed either to The Curator, the Archaeological and Ethno- logical Museum, Cambridge, England, or to J. G. Frazer, Trinity College, Cambridge, England. It is hoped and intended that such of the answers received as may seem to deserve publica- tion will be published either in one of the periodicals devoted to anthropology and folk-lore, or perhaps by the Cambridge University Press in special Anthro- pological Bulletins. Persons in contact with savages would add greatly to the value of the information they collect and to the obligation they thereby confer on science, if they would procure as many objects of ethnological interest as possible and send them to The Curator of the Archaeological and Ethnological Museum, Cambridge, England, by whom they will be gratefully received and acknow- ledged on behalf of the University of Cambridge. I have to thank Dr A. C. Haddon, Lecturer in Ethnology in the University of Cambridge, Baron A. von Hiigel, Curator of the Museum of Archaeo- logy and Ethnology, and Dr W. H. K. Rivers, Lecturer in Psychology in the University of Cam- bridge, for their kindness in reading proofs of this little work and suggesting some valuable questions which I have gladly added to the rest. Further I 1—5 M) PREFACE have had the great advantage of conversing on the subject of the Questions with my friend the Rev. J. Roscoe, of the Church Missionary Society, who has had long experience in the collection of eclino- logical information among the tribes of General Africa, particularly among the Baganda. The method of enquiry which I have here recommended to col- lectors is the one which Mr R.oscoe has followed for years and with the best results. Its practical success in his hands is a sufficient proof of the soundness of the principle. Pinally, I desire gratefully to thank the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press, not only for the readiness with which, in the interest of science, they undertook the publication of a work which can hardly prove financially remunerative, but also for their liberality in allowing me a very large number of free copies for distribution. I earnestly hops that the enquiry inaugurated under their auspices may result in making an addition of substantial value to our knowledge of savage man. J. G. FRAZER. 26^A July, 1907. In this Second Impression several relationships, which had been overlooked, have been added to Question 45. Otherwise the Questions are unchanged. J. G. F. Cambridge, bth February^ 1910. SUBJECTS OF THE QUESTIONS. Tribes, Clans, Totemism PAGE 13 Birth, Infancy, Descent, AdoDtion 14 Puberty ^ . 15 Eelationship 16 Intercourse of the Sexes and Marriage 17 Sickness and Disease 19 Death , . , 20 Murder • j . 21 Property, Inheritance, Slaves . . . , ib. Fire 22 Food 23 Hunting and Fishing 24 Pastoral Life 25 Agriculture 26 Clothing, Implements, Houses, Industries . 28 Trade and Commerce 29 Social Intercourse ib. Government . 31 1—6 12 SUBJECTS -OF THE QUESTIONS PAGE Messages and Records 34 Arithmetic ib. Astronomy, Meteorology, the Calendar . . ih. The Earth, Stones, Trees, Plants, Wttter, Animals 36 Doctrine of Souls 38 Demons, Spuits, Gods, Sanctuaries, Priests . 40 Sacrifices 42 Magic (Sorcery) and Divination .... 43 Ceremonial Uncleanness, and Taboo ... 44 LlisceUaneous Superstitions 46 Traditions 48 Folk-tales and Riddles ib. Names ib. Language . .' 49 Vocabulary . . . . , . . . . 61 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, AND LANGUAGES OF SAVAGES. By J. G, Fkazer. Tribes, 01a,ns, Totemism. 1. Are the natives divided into tribes, clans, or castes 1 Are these tribes, clans, or castes subdivided 1 Enumerate the tribes, &c. with their subdivisions. 2. Are the tribes, &c. distinguished by differences in dress, in the mode of wearino: the hair, &c. 1 3. What kind of names are borne bv the tribes, clans, &c. 1 Are the names ever the names of animals, plants, or other natural objects? 4. Do the members of the tribe, clan, or caste regard as sacred the animal, plant, &c. from which they take their names'? Do they refuse to kill and eat the animal or plant from which they take their names ? Do they identify themselves in any way with their namesake animal, plant, or thing ? (iV. B. The animal, plant, or thing which gives its name to a tribe, clan, or caste, and which is held sacred bv the members of that tribe, clan, or caste, is called a Totem.) 5. Give as complete a list of the totems as you can. Are they mostly animals 1 or mostly plants ? or mostly inanimate objects'? 6. Has each person several totems '? If so, how does he get each of them '? and how does he treat them respectively? 7. Has each sex a totem of its own '? If so, how do the men treat their totem and the women theirs 1 8. What do they think would happen to them if they were to kill or ea,t their totem animals or plants? 9. Are 14 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, the men supposed to exercise any special power over their totems (animal, plant, or thing) ? Do they perform any ceremonies for the purpose of producing and multiplying or of diminishing and averting them 1 10. Have the}'" any stories as to the origin of the tribes, clans, or castes'? and as to the connection of the tril:>es, &g. with their totems ? Do they think that they are descended from their totems 1 Birth, Infancy, Descent, Adoption. 11. Are children much desired? Are barren women despised? 12. What measures are taken to make a barren woman fruitful? 13. What do they suppose to be the cause of the birth of children 1 Do they think that a woman can conceive without intercourse with a man ? and if so, how ? 14. Are the souls of the dead supposed to be reborn in infants ? If so, how are the dead recog- nised in the newborn children ? 15. Are any special ceremonies observed at the seventh or other month of pregnancy 1 What is the intention of these cere- monies *? 16. Are any ceremonies observed to facilitate delivery ? 17. Is the mother secluded ? Has she to obser\'e any rules as to diet and behaviour during pregnancy or after the birth ? Is she re2;arded as unclean t and has she to perform any ceremonies at entering into seclusion or before being re-admitted to society? 18. Has her husband to observe any rules as to diet and behaviour before or after the birth ? Is he subjected to any special treatment at such times ? 19. What ceremonies are observed at birth ? 20. What is done with the after-birth and navel- string ? Have they any superstitions about these parts ? 21. How is the child named ? Are there any rules about naming children after their parents or grandparents? Is there any ceremony like baptism? Any god-father or god-mother ? 22. Are there any ceremonies at the first cutting of the child's hair? How is the hair disposed of? (Compare No. 4-41.) AND LANGUAGES OP SAVAGES 15 23. Are there any special observances in regard to infants whose elder brothers or sisters have died pre- viously 1 24. Are children ever killed at birth ? Is there a regular custom of killing the first born or last born child ? What reasons do they give for such customs 1 Are female infants killed rather thati male infants, or vice-versa % 25. Are there any superstitions as to the birth of twins'? How are twins and their parents treated 1 Are twins credited with the possession of any special powers ? 26. When the father and mother belong to different tribes, clans, or castes, do the children take the name and totem of the father's tribe, &c., or of the mother's? Are they reckoned to the tribe, &c., of the father, or to that of the mother? 27. How long are children suckled? Are any customs or ceremonies observed at weaning? Any superstitious beliefs as to the effect of weaning on mother and child? 28. Are children given out to be suckled by others than their own mothers ? What relations are thus established between the children and their foster-parents ? 29. Is adoption practised ? With what ceremonies is it accompanied ? Is the adopted person so far taken into the kin of his adopted parents that he is allowed to contract marriages which would otherwise be unlawful to him ? Puberty. 30. Are any ceremonies performed on lads at puberty ? Describe such ceremonies fully. 31. Is there any pretence at such rites of killing the lad and then restoring him to life ? 32. After these initiatorv rites, are the lads forbidden to see women for a certain time ? If so, why ? 33. Do the prohibitions to kill and eat the totem animal or plant apply to children under puberty or only to grown people ? 34. Do the people practise cir- cumcision, or rites analogous to it, at puberty or at other times? If so, what is done with the severed foreskin or other part? What reasons do they give for circumcision, &c. ? 35. Do they at puberty or 16 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, other times knock out, chip or file the teeth, bore the nose, bore or distend the ears, insert rings in the lips, &c. ? What reasons do they give for such prac- tices 1 What is done with the extracted teeth ? 36. Do they tattoo, raise scars, or burn patterns on their bodies at puberty or on other occasions 1 What patterns are tattooed, incised or burned "? On what parts of the body are they made 1 Drawings of the tattoo marks would be useful. 37. What cere- monies accompany the tattooing ? Are the tattooers always of one sex 1 38. Are both men and women tattooed, or only men, or only women 1 When both are tattooed, are there any differences in the patterns for men and women? 39. Do the tattoo marks serve as badges to distinguish tribes, clans, or castes ? 40. Are the marks thought to protect the wearer against sickness or evil of any sort ? Are they sup- posed to benefit him in a future life? 41. Are any ceremonies performed on girls at puberty? 42. Is a girl secluded at her first menstruation ? What rules has she to observe at such times 1 Is she allowed to see the sun or fire ? 43. Are women generally secluded at menstruation? What rules have they to observe at such times ? 44. What do they suppose to be the cause of menstruation ? What do they think would happen if a man were to see or touch a menstruous woman ? Relationship. 45. Give the native names for the following terms of relationship : — Father, mother, brother, sister, husband, wife, son, daughter: father's father, father's mother, mother's father, mother's mother: father's brother, father's sister, mother's brother, mother's sister, father's brother's wife, father's sister's husband, mother's brother's wife, mother's sister's husband : father's brother's son, father's brother's daughter, father's sister's son, father's sister's daughter, mother's brother's son, mother's brother's daughter, mother's sister's son, AKD LANGUAGES OF SAVAGES 17 mother's sister's daughter : son's son, son's daughter, daughter's son, daughter's daughter : brother's son, brother's daughter, sister's son, sister's daughter : wife's father, wife's mother, wife's brother, wife's sister, wife's sister's husband, husband's father, hus- band's mother, husband's brother, husband's sister, husband's brother's wife, son's wife, daughter's hus- band. 46. Are tliere distinct terms for older brother and younger brother? for older sister and younger sister 1 If so, give them in all cases. 47. Are father's elder and younger brothers called great and little fathers respectively 1 48. Do the terms of relationship differ according as the speaker is a man or a woman 1 If so, give the different terms in all cases. 49. Do the terms of relationship differ according as the person referred to is addressed directly or spoken of indirectly? If so, give the different terms in all cases. 50. Is there a specially close relationship between a man and his sister's children 1 If so, how is it shown 1 Intercourse of the sexes and Marriage. 51. Are the sexes allowed free sexual intercourse with each other before marriage ? Do men or boys cohabit with immature girls ? Or is the virginity of girls carefully preserved till marriage? 52. Are the relations of the sexes loose or strict after marriage ? 53. Is a man compelled, or is he forbidden, to marry a woman of the same tribe, clan, or caste as himself ? 54. If persons of the same tribe, clan, or caste are not allowed to marry, are they allowed to have sexual intercourse without marriage, or would this be equally wrong? 55. What are the for- bidden degrees of consanguinity in relation to marriage? 56. May children of the same mother but not of the same father marry each other ? May children of the same father but not of the same mother marry each other? 57. In regard to cousins, 1—9 Id QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, may the children of two brothers marry each other 1 Mav the children of two sisters marrv each other ? May the children of a brother and sister marry each other? Are any of these marriages specially pre- ferred and regarded as peculiarly appropriate ? 58. What reasons do the natives give for forbidding the marriages of near relations? 59. Are any natural ill effects supposed to result from the un- lawful intercourse of the sexes'? Are the parties themselves or the whole , people or the country believed to suffer for such misdeeds 1 Is any punish- ment inflicted on the offenders ? any expiation made for the crime ? 60. May a man have several wives ? (polygyny). 61. May a woman have several husbands? (polyandry). If so, are her husbands brothers or not ? 62. What reasons do they give for the practice of polygyny or polyandry 1 63. Is there anything like group-marriage, that is, the marriage of a group of men to a group of women, so that every man of the one group may lawfully have inter- course with every woman of the other group ? 64. How does a man obtain a wife 1 by purchase, by capture, or how ? 65. Does a man bring his wire to his own home 1 or does he live with his wife's family wholly or in part ? 66. Do bride and bridegroom prepare for marriage by fasting, bleeding, keeping awake the night before marriage or in other ways? 67. Describe the marriage ceremonies fully, including the ceremonies observed at bringing the bride into the house or hut of the bridegroom. 68. Is rice, corn, or other grain thrown on the newly wedded pair? and if so, why? 6S. Is the bride veiled? Are there any ceremonies at veiling or unveiling her ? 70. Is the bride or bridegroom ever represented at the marriage ceremony by a proxy or dummy ? 71. Ai-e any ceremonies observed by bride and bridegroom on the day after marriao-e ? 72. Does a man cohabit with his wife immediately after marriage? or does he AND LANGUAGES OF SAVAGES 19 refrain for a certain time, say several days or months ? and if so, wiiy ? 73. Does he visit his wi£e only by stealth for some time after marriage ? If so, why 1 74. Is it required or permitted that the wife should be deflowered by a person other than her husband 'i or that at marriage she should have connexion with other persons before she may cohabit with her hus- band ? 75. Are there times when men abstain from cohabiting with v/omen, as during menstruation, pregnancy, after child-birth till the child is weaned, before and during hunting, fishing, war, or other occasions ? Enumerate these occasions, and give the reasons for such abstinences, 76. Are there occasions when men exichange wives'? 77. What becomes of a widow ? Is she free to marry as she likes ? Have the relations of her late husband any rights over her 1 78. Are any special ceremonies observed when a widow or a widower marries again ? or when a man marries a second or third wife, his other wives being still alive? 79. Are men or women ever formally married to trees, plants, birds, earthen vessels, swords or other objects ? If so, v/hat reasons are given for such marriages ? 80. May a man look at or speak to his wife's mother ? May a woman look at or speak to her husband's father 1 If such persons avoid each other, what reasons are given for the avoidance 1 81. Are any restrictions placed on the social intercourse of brothers and sisters ? May they speak to each other'? 82. Are there any other cases in which relations by blood or marria;*e avoid each other? Sickness and Disease. 83. What do thev think are the causes of sickness and disease? 84. Are there men whose special business it is to heal the sick 1 85. What remedies are employed ? What ceremonies are observed in healing the sick ? 86. If disease is thought to be caused by the presence of a 1-10 20 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, demon or spirit in the sick person, how do they expel the demon or spirit 1 87. Are any special remedies adopted or ceremonies observed when epidemics, such as small-pox or cholera, break out ? Death. 88. How do they explain death 1 Is it ever attributed to sorcery ? 89. What ceremonies are observed at death 1 90. Do mourners cut, wound, or mutilate themselves ? Do they sprinkle their blood on the corpse or on the grave ? What is the object of these custom.s 1 91. How are the dead disposed of? Are they disposed of differently according to their ages or the manner of the death they died 1 E.g. are the bodies of infants, suicides, women dying in childbed, and men slain in war treated diSerently from the bodies of mature persons who die of disease ? Are there any rules as to the position of the body at burial or cremation? 92. Are the dead ever buried in the house 1 If so, what reasons are given for the custom 1 93. Is a special opening made for carrying a corpse out of a house? If so, why? 94. What special ceremonies are observed at the death and burial of chiefs ? 95. Are the graves of chiefs or of other persons kept secret? and if so, why? 96. Is the ghost of the departed feared? Are some classes of ghosts more dreaded than others ? 97. Are any steps taken to propitiate the ghost or to prevent its return ? Is food presented to it in the house or at the grave ? Is it threatened and driven away ? 98. Are the bodies of the dead mutilated in any way ? Are any portions of them preserved as relics? 99. Are there any special customs or superstitions about the Ijones or the skulls of the dead ? Are they disinterred after a time and reburied ? 100. Are images of the dead made and kept by the relatives 1 If so, what is done with them ? 101. Is the property of the dead destroyed ? Is any portion of it made over to the deceased, and if so, how ? 102. Is the AND LANGUAGES OF SAVAGES 21 house where the death took place destroyed or deserted? Is the village destroyed or deserted? 103. Are the persons who have handled the corpse regarded as unclean and obliged to purify themselves by means of fire, water, &c. 1 Describe any such purificatory ceremonies. 104. Have the relations of the deceased (particularly the widow or widower) to observe any special rules for some time after the death? 105. What is the mourning garb? Why is it assumed? Do mourners cut their hair or on the contrary let it grow long? Are they secluded from society? 106. Are any festivals held in honour of the dead at certain intervals after death or at fixed peribds? Are the souls of all the dead supposed to return to their old homes at certain seasons? If so, what preparations are made to re- ceive them? 107. Do they believe in any form of resurrection ? Under what conditions is it thought that a dead body may be resuscitated ? Murder. 108. Is a murder avenged by the relations of the murdered person ? Are all members of the victim's tribe, clan, or caste bound to avenge his death? or is the duty of revenge laid upon any particular kinsmen of the deceased? And are all members of the murderer's tribe, clan, or caste held responsible ? 109. Is compensation for homicide allowed ? How is the amount determined, and to whom is it paid ? 110. Is a murderer regarded as unclean, and has he to undergo purification before he is re-admitted to society ? Are there any special rules as to his eating and drinking, his dress, the vessels he uses, ifec. ? Property, Inheritance, Slaves. 111. Is tribal or individual property in land recognised? Have subdivisions of the tribe (clans, families, &c.) their own special lands 'i 112. How is property pro- 22 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, tected ? Af-e m^fks ptit on property by the owner ? Is the theft of ptoperby so marked thought of itself to ervtail some eTil consequence on the thief, quite apQrtt from punishment inflicted on him by the fi,ggrieved ? 113. Wh-at afe the rules of the descent of property ? Does a ma/n's property descend to his child ren, or to his brothers^ or to his sisters' children 1 Afe tliere different modes of descent for different kinds of property ? 114. Do \Tomen in- herit property 1 115. Does the youngest child ever suecered in preference to the eider 1 116. Have they slaves? and if so, how are slaves obtained ^i 117. Do freemen coh?«Mt with slaves 1 What is the status of children of a slave mother ^d a free father, or of a free mother and a slave father 1 Fire. 118. How is fire obtained ? Is it lighted when required or kept always burning 1 119. Is any special person or class of persons told off to make fire or to keep it burning? Is there any rule as to the age, sex, or condition (e.g. whether married or single) of such persons'? 120. If fire is made by the friction of sticks, what names are given to these fire-sticks? Are these fire-sticks the objects of any superstitious beliefs or practices ? 121. Do they f ecoonise a eacred as distinct from an ordinarv fire ? and if so, how is the sacred fire kindled, and what use is made of it ? 122. Is special virtue attributed to fire obtained from a tree which has been struck by lightning ? 123. Is fire solemnly extinguished on certain occasions (as after a death, during a drought, at harvest, midsumn^er, &c.) and a new fire made ? What reasons are given for the extinction of the old fire and the kindling of the new ? 124. Have they any oeJremonies of dancing round a fire, leaping over it, or driving cattle through it ? Why do they do so? 125. Do they ever walk over hot stones or hot ashes as a solemn rite ? If so, what is the AND LANGUAGES OF SAVAGES 23 intention of the rite? and on what occasions is it observed ? 126. Is any special relation supposed to exist between women and lire ? E.g. is it thought that women can conceive by contact with fire 'i or that they can act as wives of the fire-god? Food. 127. Do they eat everything edible ? Or are certain foods forbidden? Are some foods for- bidden {a) to every one without distinction ; (6) to members of particula,r tribes, clans, or families , (c) to women, but not to men, or vice versa , (d) on certain occasions, as after a death, during pregnancy, war-time, hunting, fishing, harvest, &c. ; (e) at certain periods of life (childhood, puberty, adult years, &c.) ? What are the foods thus forbidden ? What reasons do they give for these prohibitions ? 128. When these prohibitions are temporary, is any ceremony observed when the restriction is removed and the food is partaken of for the first time? 129. Do they eat iish and eggs and drink milk ? If not, why not ? 130. Do they store food for future use ? and if so, how ? 131. Are they acquainted with any intoxicant or nar- cotic ? How is it prepared ? Are there any ceremonies observed in its preparation or in its use? Have they any superstitions about it ? What is their theory of intoxication ? 132. Have they any rules as to the distribution of game and other food among relations or among fellow tribesmen ? 133. Do men and women eat together ? And if not, why not ? 134. Do children eat with grown-up people? 135. Does each person eat apart ? And if so, why ? 136. Have they any superstitious beliefs or practices with regard to the refuse of their food ? Do they take pains to hide or destroy it ? 137. Have they any feasts at which it is a rule that ail the food must be consumed on the spot ? 138. Is cannibalism practised ? Do they eat their enemies or their friends ? 139. What reasons do they give for the practice? 140. Are 21 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, there any special ceremonies at cannibal feasts? Are special vessels or implements used on such occasions 1 141. Is the use of human flesh confined to any class or sex? 142. What is done with the bones of persons who have been eaten ? 143. Do they ever drink the blood of men or animals? Or do they specially avoid the blood ? 144. Are there occasions when they avoid even the sight of blood? JE.g. are men forbidden at times to see the blood of women, or women to see the blood of men? 145. Do they ever fast ? On what occasions, and why ? 146. Do they think that by eating the flesh of certain animals or persons they acquire the quaiities of the animal or person eaten? E.g. that by eating the heart of a lion or of a brave man they become brave ; by eating the heart of a hare or a deer they become timid, &c. ? Hunting and Fishing. 147. What customs and superstitions have they in connexion with hunting and fishing ? 148. Do they perform any ceremonies for the purpose of multiplying the game and the fish ? 149. Do the hunters and fishers prepare themselves for hunting and fishing by any observances or ceremonies ? Do they observe any special rules as to eating, speaking, silence, bathing, intercourse with women, &c., before or during hunting and fishing? Do they scarify themselves, and why? 150. Do the people (women, children, &c.) left at home observe any special rules while the men are out himtina: and fishinsr ? 151. Do the hunters and fishers observe any special ceremonies on returning from the chase and from fishing ? 152. Are any ceremonies observed for the purpose of appeasing the spirits of the animals and fish which have been killed ? What do they do with the bones ? 153. Are the hunting and fishing implements (traps, nets, boats, &c.) worshipped or propitiated in any way? AND LANGUAGES OF SAVAGES 25 Pastoral Life. 154. Do they keep cattle? and what kind of cattle ? Does every one keep cattle or only the chiefs 1 155. Do they live on the flesh, the blood, or the milk of their cattle, or on all three 1 Are cattle killed regularly for food, or only on special occasions ? What are these special occasions ? 156. How are the cattle killed 1 Is there one way of killing them when they are to be sacrificed, and another when they are to be eaten? 157. Is the killing of a head of cattle always or generally the occasion of a feast ? Have other persons besides the owner of the cattle a right to share in such a feast? 158. Are the cattle regarded as sacred in any way ? What marks of respect are paid to them ? 159. Are the cattle milked and tended by men or by women? If by men, are the women forbidden to enter the cattle yards and to meddle with the cattle ? 160. Is any- special sanctity ascribed to the dairy, and to the dairyman or dairy woman ? Has he or she to undergo any special training for the office? or to perform any ceremonies before or after milking the cattle? 161. Is the milk drunk fresh or sour? Is it made into curds, butter, or cheese? 162. Do the people object to sell their milk or other dairy produce to strangers? and if so, why? 163. Are there any superstitious customs or beliefs about milk? 164. Are any persons, in any circumstances (e.g. when wounded or menstruous) forbidden to drink it ? 165. Is it forbidden to boil the milk? and why? 166. Is drinking milk together a bond of union between the persons drinking ? Does it constitute a bar to marriage between a man and a woman ? 167. Is any special use made of the dung or urine of the cattle in religious or other ceremonies ? Are they used as a means of purifying the person, house, utensils, &c. ? 168. Is any sanctity ascribed to the grass, or in general to the fodder, of the cattle ? Is it used in ceremonial or religious rites ? 169. Are 1—13 26 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, the cattle omaraented in any way ? Are their horns twisted into special shapes ? 170. Do they pay attention to the pedigrees of their cattle or not ? 171. Do they keep other domestic animals than cattle 1 and why ^ 172. Do they keep wild animals in captivity ? and why ? Agriculture. 173. Do they till the ground and cultivate fruit-trees ? What crops do they raise ? 174. Are there any ceremonies or superstitions at clearing land for cultivation? 175. Any super- stitious customs at cutting down trees? E.g. are apologies oS'ered to the tree-spirit for disturbing him ? 176. Anj superstitious customs at digging wells or bringing water for irrigation 1 177. How are the lands distributed for purposes of cultivation? Has each man his own field ? or are the fields owned and tilled by all the people in common ? 178. Is there a periodical redistribution of lands? 179. If the cultivation shifts periodically from one district to another, is the site of the village shifted with it ? or does the village remain permanent ? 180. Does each man enjoy the produce of his field ? or is the produce of all the fields thrown together, and then divided amongst all the people? 181. Is the beginning of the New Year determined by agricul- tural operations, as sowing or harvest? 182. Is there a period of general license and lawlessness at the New Year or at any other time? 183. What duties are undertaken by men and women respectively in Agriculture? 184. Do they practise the artificial fertilisation of fruit-trees, such as palm-trees or fig-trees? Do they practise grafting? 185. Is grafting or artificial fertilisation associated with any superstitious practices ? 186. Do they think that each crop (wheat, rice, maize, &c.) is animated by a spirit or deity ? What names do they give to such spirits? Do they propitiate these spirits in AND LANGUAGES OF SAVAGES 27 any way ? 187. Do they sacrifice to obtain good crops 1 or to save the crops from blight, hail, &c. ? Have they any custom or tradition of human sacrifices in connexion with the crops ? 188. Have they any special ceremonies at breaking up the land by hoeing or ploughing ? 189. Any special ceremonies at sowing? 190. Have the sowers, or the people generally, to remain chaste before or after sowing? Or on the contrary are they specially enjoined to indulge their sexual passions at such times? 191. Are any special rules of conduct prescribed for the people while the crops are growing? 192. Do they practise any superstitious ceremonies for the purpose of keeping birds and vermin (mice, caterpillars, &c.) from the crops ? 193. What ceremonies are observed at harvest? 194. Are the first fruits of the crops offered to deities? How are such offerings disposed of ? 195. Have they any superstitions about the first corn (rice, maize, &c.) cut or the last corn cut ? 196. Is any portion of the crop pre- served with special ceremonies till the next sowing or the next harvest? What reasons do they give for these customs ? 197. Are there any ceremonies practised on the harvest field, such as wrapping up persons in the sheafs, rolling on the ground, &c. ? 198. Are there any ceremonies or superstitions about threshing, winnowing, &c. ? 19S. Are persons engaged in agricultural operations (as sowing, reaping, threshing, gathering the fruits, making oil, &c.) regarded as sacred or tabooed in any way ? Have they to observe Any special rules during these opera- tions ? e.g. must they remain chaste ? must they abstain from cutting their hair ? must they avoid the use of certain common words ? 200. Is the plough ever used for superstitious purposes, e.g. for the procuring of ra,in, the averting of epidemics, or the like ? 201. Is the winnowing basket or the sieve ever used for superstitious purposes^ e.g. in connection 28 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, with the birth of children or in ceremonial purifi- cation 1 202. Is the pestle for pounding corn or rice ever used for such purposes ? Clothing, Implements, Houses, Industries. 203. Do the people wear clotlies 1 Do they show signs of shame at being seen naked ? Describe briefly their principal garments. 204. How does the dress of a chief differ from the dress of a commoner ? 205. Do they wear ornaments 1 Are these orna- ments ever regarded as amulets or protective charms ? 206. How is the hair worn by men and women respectively 1 Is the hair of the face or body eradicated or cultivated ] 207. Is the hair of the head sacred ? Is it deemed a powerful charm 1 (See also No. 431.) 208. Describe briefly their principal tools and weapons. 209. Are special classes of persons engaged in special industries, such as themanufactureof tools and weapons, the working of metals, the making of cloth, the building of canoes, the fashioning of pottery? Are certain in- dustries in the hands of men only and others in the hands of women only 1 If so, which ? Are industries hereditary ? Do they resemble castes ? 210. If they work metals, do smiths occupy a peculiar position in society 1 Are they feared or despised 1 211. Are any superstitious customs observed in the making of pottery ? 212. Are any superstitious customs observed at the extraction of metal from the ore ? 213. Do they build permanent huts or houses'? Describe briefly the shape and materials of their houses. How are the houses arranged in a village? Has each family a separate house? Or do all the villagers reside in one or more large common houses? Are the villages fortified ? 214. Are there separate houses for the unmarried men and the unmarried ffirls? 215. Is there a club-house for the men to which women are not allowed access ? 216. Are any superstitions customs observed at building or AND LANGUAGES OF SAVAGES 29 occupying a new house ? or at founding a new village ? 217. Have they any superstitions in regard to the threshold? Do they object to sit or tread upon it? and if so, why 1 Do they ever bury the dead or anything else under the threshold? 218. Is fire brought to a new village from the old one? or is a new fire ceremonially kindled in the new village? Trade and Oommeree. 219. Do the people trade among themselves or with neighbouring tribes ? What products are especially exchanged ? Is there a special class of traders or merchants ? 220. Are there regular markets? If so, how are they esta- blished ? How often are they held ? What customs are observed in connexion with them? 221. Have they the custom of " the silent trade " ? That is, do they barter goods with other tribes or with Europeans without personal contact, each side depositing its wares in certain spots and carrying away the wares of the other side without speaking or meeting? 222. Have the natives any kind of money or any- thing that passes for money, such as cattle, shells, salt, axes, &c. ? 223. Do they employ weights and measures ? What are their standards of weight and measure ? Social Intereourse. 224. Are women and children well treated? 225. Are there rules of avoidance between men and women at certain times ? U.g. do men and women eat separately ? Do they use diifferent paths? (See also Nos. 75, 80—82.) 226. Are old people treated with respect and tenderness ? or are they put to death when they grow decrepit? 227. Are the people divided into social ranks or castes? Are there nobles and commoners? If so, what are the rules observed between these ranks or castes in regard to social intercourse ? Will they eat with each other 1 Will they use the same fire ? 30 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, 228. Are the ranks hereditary 1 or can they be obtained by purchase or in other ways 1 229. What are the native forms of salutation 1 230. Do they observe any peculiar ceremonies at the reception of strangers or of members of their own tribe who have returned from a journey? 231. Are there public messengers or heralds who pass freely from tribe to tribe 1 Are they treated as sacred or inviolate ? What tokens or badges do they carry? Are they men or women ? 232. What ceremonies do the natives observe at the making of friendship or brotherhood among themselves or with strangers? 233. What games do they play? Are certain games always played at certain seasons or on certain occasions? and if so, why? 234. Have they any game like our '-tug-of-war" or "French and English " ? Is it played at any particular season or on any particular occasion ? Are omens drawn from it ? 235. Do they fly kites ? Have they any superstitions about them ? 236. Describe their dances. In their dances do they imitate natural things, such as the waves of the sea, the growth of crops, the motions of birds and beasts, (fee. ? What is the purpose of these dances ? Are they ever religious or magical in character ? Are they supposed to benefit the community in any way, as by averting sickness or increasing the supply of food ? 237. Do they dance to the moon ? and if so, why ? 238. Do they wear masks in their dances 1 What do these masks repre- sent? Are they deemed sacred? Where are they kept? Is there any superstition as to their manu- facture? 239. Vfhat musical instruments are played 1 Are any of these instruments (e.c/. drums and flutes) deemed sacred? 240. Do they use a bull-roarer, i.e. a flat stick whirled at the end of a string so as to make a booming noise ? Are such instruments regarded as mysterious or sacred ? Are they used at initiacory or other ceremonies? Are AND LANGUAGES OF SAVAGES 31 women allowed to see them? 241. Have they any associations for religious or political purposes 1 Describe the obiect of these associations, the mode of admission to them, the ceremonies performed by them, the privileges enjoyed by their members, the badges of membership, &c. ♦ Government. 242. Have the people any form of government ? 243. Have the old men much power ? Do they meet in council for the regulation of tribal affairs 1 244. Are there chiefs or kings? How do they acquire the chieftainship or kingship ? Is the office elective or hereditary ? If hereditary, does it descend to the chief's children, or to his brothers, or to his sister's children, or to whom 1 245. Are there separate chiefs for war and peace? 246. What ceremonies are observed at the election or inauguration of chiefs and kings ? 247. Are the brothers or other relations of the new king put to death at his accession? If so, how is it done? 248. Are the sisters of the king allowed to marry ? Are they allowed any special license or placed under any special restrictions ? 249. Is the king ever required or allowed to marry his own sister or daughter ? What reasons are given for such a custom ? 250. Does the king's mother hold any special office ? Is she allowed to communicate freely with the king or not? 251. Is the king ever a stranger or a man of another tribe who acquires the kingdom by marrying the princess ? May he be a man of humble birth ? 252. Is the daily life of the chief or king regulated by special rules and restrictions in regard to eating, drinking, diet, show- ing himself in public, &c. ? Is he confined to his house? 253. Is there any reluctance to accept the kingship on account of the burdensome restric- tions imposed on the king, or for any other reason ? 254. What ceremonies are observed when subjects 32 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, or strangers are admitted to an interview with the king ? 255. Does the king possess any regalia or insignia of oflSce, such as a crown, sceptre, throne, royal robes, &c. ? Are these objects regarded as sacred or thought to possess any magical virtues ? Is» the rio-ht to the kingdom dependent on their possession? Are sacrifices offered to them? 256. Does the king keep any portion of his deceased predecessor, as his skull, a tooth, or a lock of his hair? Is he obliged to eat any portion of his pre- decessor ? 257. Are any sacrifices offered or ceremonies performed for the purpose of prolonging the kind's life? Describe anv such sacrifices or ceremonies. 258. Has the chief or king to perform any priestly functions ? Does he offer public prayer and sacrifices ? 259. Does he perform magical ceremonies for bringing rain or sunshine, for ensuring good crops, for making women fruitful and cattle to multiply, for averting sickness, and for conquering enemies? 260. Is the chief or king held responsible for public calamities, such as drought, dearth, excessive rains, and other evils which we regard as beyond human control? Is he punished, deposed, or put to death when such calamities happen ? 261. Is the chief or king ever killed for any other reason ? Is he allowed to die a natural death ? What happens when his bodily or mental powers fail ? 262. Are chiefs or king's treated as sacred or divine in their life-time ? 263. Are they deified after death ? Are sacrifices offered to dead kings? 264. Are the bodies of dead kings, or parts of them, care- fully preserved ? Describe their tombs and the ceremonies observed at them. 265. Are the graves of chiefs or kings ever kept secret? and if so, why? 266. Are chiefs or kings supposed to turn into wild beasts after their death ? If so, how are such beasts treated ? 267. Is a temporary or mock king appointed at certain times ? Are such appointments AND LANGUAGES OF SAVAGES 33 annual or at all events periodical? How is such a temporary or mock king appointed ? What are his duties and privileges 1 How long does he reign ? and how does his reign come to an end? What does the real king do during the mock king's reign ? 268. Is the chief or king assisted by a council What are the duties of the council? 269. By whom a,re civil and criminal cases tried ? Hovv^ and by whom are judicial decisions co.rried out ? 270. In doubtful cases, is an appeal made to an oracle or to a judicial ordeal? Describe any such oracles and ordeals. 271. What acts are deemed crimes ? How are they punished ? If criminals are put to death, what modes of execution are adopted 1 War. 272. What ceremonies are observed before going to war? and what is the intention of these ceremonies? 273. Have the warriors to prepare themselves for war by fasting, continence, or in other ways ? 274. Do they wear charms to protect themselves in battle ? Describe any such charms. 275. Have the warriors on the war- path to observe any special rules as to food, women, sleeping, scratching themselves, wetting their feet, touching their heads, &c. ? 276. Are the persons left at home bound to observe any special rules as to diet, sleeping, &c., while the warriors are out on the war-path? Do they dance or perform any ceremonies ? and if so, why ? 277. Do they mutilate their slain enemies ? and how, and with what object? 278. Do they bring back the heads or the scalps of their enemies and preserve them ? Are these heads or scalps supposed to benefit the community in any way ? Are any ceremonies per- formed at their reception or on subsequent occasions ? 279. What ceremonies are observed on the return of the war party? 280. Are any precautions taken to guard the slayers against the angry ghosts of the 84 QUESTIONS ON THE CUSTOMS, BELIEFS, slain 1 281. Is a man who has slain an enemy obliged to perfijrm any ceremonies or to observe any special regimen beiore he may associate with his wife and with his fellows? In particular, are there any rules affecting his eating, drinking, sleeping, costume, and the vessels and implements which he uses? 282. What ceremonies are observed at the con- clusion of peace ? Messages and Records. 283. Do they send messages or make records by any methods like writing, as by notching sticks, carving or painting figures on wood or stone, tying knots on a string, &c. 1 284. Do they use musical instruments, such as horns or drums, to give signals and convey in- formation? Have they any regular code of signals? 285. Do they convey information by marking trees, placing sticks in the branches,