THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL: PRACTICAL TREATISE ON CHEMISTRY, QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS, STOICHIOMETRY, BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS, MINERALOGY, ASSAYING, TOXICOLOGY, ETC., ETC., ETC. BY HENRY A. MOTT, JR., KM., PH.D., i MINING ENGINEER AND ANALYTICAL CHEMIST, MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETT, MEMBER OP THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, FELLOW OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ETC., ETC., ETC. istsfr f / NEW YORK: D. VAN NOSTRAND, PUBLISHER, 23 MURRAY STREET & 27 WARREN STREET. 1877. UNIVERSITY Copyright, 1877, by Henry A. Mott, Jr. Electrotyped by SMITH & McDOUGAL. Printed by J. J. LITTLE & CO. ri^ H E literature of Analytical Chemistry, in the various -*- branches of qualitative, quantitative, blowpipe and tech- nical analysis, $nd assaying, has expanded to such a degree as to make it impossible for students, and even for most pro- fessional chemists, to possess a complete library in these depart- ments of the science : moreover, much of the literature is sealed to many chemists by being published in French and German, or in journals and transactions of Societies which are inac- cessible. A further embarrassment arises from the multiplicity of methods given in special works, from which few can select without first testing several. This carefully prepared Manual of Dr. MOTT will prove especially valuable, as containing a judicious selection of the most important methods, most of which have been tested by laboratory experience, and found to give satisfactory results. These are presented in a concise form, with reference to original authors. The numerous tables of constants will also be found of great value. This work will possess a special value for the student and laboratory worker, and will serve as a useful reference book for the general scientific reader. CHAS. F. CHANDLEB, PH.D., M.D., LL.D., F.C.S., ETC. PREFACE. N" the principle that every scientific man " should compile his own pocket-book, as he proceeds in study and prac- tice, to suit his particular business," the Author accumulated from time to time a large number of valuable notes and tables, which became too voluminous to be carried in the pocket, and soon grew in the form of manuscript. After repeated requests by a number of prominent scientific men, the Author has decided to present the manuscript, greatly enlarged and im- proved, to the public. The object of the Author has been to accumulate only matter which has a practical value attached to it. Under the Department of Qualitative Analysis, the Author has adopted the method or classification presented in a work commenced by Tuttle and Chandler, and has consulted various works on the subject, especially Fresenius' Qualitative Analysis and "Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry. It has been the object of the Author to furnish formulae for all compounds and precipi- tates considered, as they have recently been determined. The Schemes presented will be found very practicable and accurate, as has been demonstrated by frequent use. Under the Department of Mineralogy, only the principal minerals of those elements which have found use in the Arts are considered. Free use has been made of Dana's Mineralogy, as also Egleston's Lectures on Mineralogy. vi PREFACE. V Under the Department of Quantitative Analysis, Schemes are presented for the most frequent occurring compounds met with in every-day analyses, all of which have been frequently tested and found accurate. Under the Department of Assaying, brief and accurate meth- ods are described for the assay of those ores usually met with in the laboratory. In preparing the method described for the assay of gold and silver ores, the Author was greatly assisted by a valuable pamphlet (reprint from the " American Chemist " for 1870) by T. M. Blossom, E.M. In the Miscellaneous Department, the Author has compiled a large number of tables which cannot help but possess a prac- tical value. It has been the intention of the Author to furnish the author- ity for all analyses and tables presented in this work; and if any have been omitted, by communicating direct to the Author, all claims will be promptly acknowledged. The various subjects considered in this work opens a channel for it among Chemists, Pharmaceutists, Physicians, and Scien- tific men in general. The Author is quite familiar with the fact that a work of this character must open much room for criticism; still he hopes it will prove on the whole acceptable to all. AUTHOK, 98 WALL STREET, Feb. 7, 1877. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGK TABLES OF THE ELEMENTS 3, 4, 5, 6 SPECIFIC HEATS 7, 10 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 11 DEPORTMENT OF THE METALS AND THEIR SALTS WITH REAGENTS 13-154 SCHEME FOR QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 138-146 DETECTION OF ACIDS 147-154 TABLE OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 155-169 ZETTNOW'S SCHEME FOR QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 170 SCHEME FOR THE ALKALOIDS 172 REACTIONS OF FAT OILS 176-179 FAT OILS 180-184 PHARMACOPCEIAL PREPARATIONS TESTS FOR IMPURITIES. 185-192 ORGANIC SUBSTANCES INFLUENCE ON THE PRECIPITATION OF METALLIC OXIDES 193 BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS 195 CASAMAJOR'S TABLE 196 TABLE OF VOLATILE ELEMENTS 198 SCHEME FOR BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS 200 SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATIONS 207-212 HYDROMETER DEGREES 213, 214 ALCOHOL SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLUTIONS 210 HYDROCHLORIC ACID SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLUTION... '220 NITRIC ACID SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLUTION 221 PHOSPHORIC ACID SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLUTIONS 223 SULPHURIC ACID " " " v< 225 ETHYLIC ETHER " " " " 226 AMMONIC HYDRATE " " " " 227 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE POTASSIC HYDRATE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLUTIONS . . . 229 SODIC HYDRATE . " " " " ... 230 ACETIC ACID " " " " ... 231 GLYCERIN " " " " ... 232 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF OFFICIAL LIQUIDS 232 TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHTS 235 MINERALOGY 241 PRINCIPAL MINERALS 243 COAL 336 PETROLEUM 348 SCALE OF HARDNESS 350 STOICHIOMETRY 353 TABLE OF SOLUBILITY 360 TABLE OF REDUCTION OF COMPOUNDS FOUND TO CON- STITUENTS SOUGHT. 362 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 371 IRON ORE ANALYSIS 373 CAST IRON " 384 CHROMIC IRON " , 388 PIG LEAD " 390 NICKEL ORE " 392 COPPER ORE " 393 ZINC ORE " 394 PYROLUSITE " 395 ILMENITE " 397 ORTHOCLASE " 398 DOLOMITE " 399 WHITE LEAD " > 400 TYPE METAL " 401 SILVER COIN " 402 FERTILIZER " 403 WATER " ".. 404 COAL " 421 GUNPOWDER " 423 GLASS " 425 CHLORIMETRY 427 TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix PAGE ORGANIC ANALYSIS . . 431 URINE " 450 BLOOD " 447 MILK 457 SUGARS 462 " EXAMINATIONS 472-486 ASSAYING 487 IRON ORE ASSAY 489 GOLD AND SILVER ASSAY 494 LEAD ORES, ASSAY OF , 514 ANTIMONY, " 515 PLATINUM, " 515 CHEMISTRY OF MAN 517 ANALYSIS OF SECRETIONS 520-544 MISCELLANEOUS DEPARTMENT 545 ELEMENTS, CLASSIFICATION OF 547 TABLE OF THE DEFUNCT ELEMENTS 554 PRICE OF METALS 556 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 557 FRUITS, COMPOSITION OF 572 GLYCERIN AS A SOLVENT 578 FORMULAE OF FREQUENTLY-OCCURRING SUBSTANCES 578 FORMULAE OF FREQUENTLY-OCCURRING ACIDS 581 ARTIFICIAL FORMATION OF ORGANIC BODIES 584 ALCOHOLS 585 ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS 587 AVAILABLE OXYGEN IN A FEW OXYGEN COMPOUNDS .... 589 OLD NAMES FOR A FEW SALTS 590 POISON AND THEIR ANTIDOTES 592 THERMOMETERS 598 DIFFERENT REMARKABLE TEMPERATURES 602 ^ T xr TS OF SATURATED SOLUTIONS 603 BAROMETER !> ... 604 IITS AND MEASI KES 605 THE VALI-, OF STANDARD COINS IN CIRCULA- > MON 3Y. . 614 S* ' 2 OO rHTHO O I:; ^'S8| *-3g8| || 3|S3 5 1 ; , , , , O 1 , , , 1 . , , , . . . 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Jdclilfil g'.g.gJI'O'S IS gpfSl d d d d d o" dodo os t- GO GO os OOQOOOOQOO 2:3 d S PH S cLS fil ft i *5 ft d 3 ft o* & ft S ft 3 ft d 6 o* r rS rS r gri "rH -iH O T-I O C^ (N .io^: ^ 1 'S 1 ' 5 " O 5 O" g J^ ^ UJ LU ^j d g hj 9 ? < ^ 2 2 _l ^ CO CO : ii (I ii ii ii ii cc x i +cc i i +oc CO ^^ -o ~o ~o ~o ~o ~o 2: SH CQ |o- +of IDC loc +cc ice g ^ ryi ' 25 P ,__J Q w < *: i CQ PQ 1 >^ 1 >* 1 >j \ fc | UJ s 1 cc hH 1 1 2 w K i i i UJ w 1 h- h- & MH|P W 1 2- 2- ti ZD H3 PC >> ~- ^ ^v^ ^ " acts the same as hydrosulphuric acid. 2AgN0 3 + NH 4 SH=Ag 2 S+NH 4 N0 3 + HN0 3 . 9. POTASSIC HYDRATE, when added, produces a light-brown precipitate of ARGENTIC OXIDE (Ag 2 0), insoluble in excess, SOLUBLE IN AMMONIC HYDRATE. 1C. AMMONIC HYDRATE added to neutral solutions pro- duces a brown precipitate of ARGENTIC OXIDE soluble in excess. No precipitate is produced in acid solutions. 16 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 11. POTASSIC BROMIDE precipitates ARGENTIC BROMIDE (AgBr) yellowish in color, insoluble in water and acids, and much less soluble in ammonic hydrate than the chloride, soluble in sodic hyposulphite. AgN0 3 + KBr= AgBr-f- KN0 3 . 12. POTASSIC IODIDE produces a pale-yellow flocculent precipitate of ARGENTIC IODIDE (Agl), slowly acted on by light, insoluble in acids and almost so in amraonic hydrate, soluble in a concentrated solution of potassic iodide, and soluble in a solution of sodic hyposulphite. The FOLLOWING are a few miscellaneous REACTIONS : Ag 3 P0 4 = ARGENTIC ORTHOPHOSPHATE or PHOSPHATE is a canary-yellow product. Solution is acid. AgN0 3 + NaP0 3 = AgP0 3 + NaN0 3 . AgPO 3 = ARGENTIC METAPHOSPHATE is a gelatinous mass. Ag 4 P 2 7 = ARGENTIC PYROPHOSPHATE is a white precipitate. 2AgN0 3 + K 2 Cr 2 7 .^Ag 2 Cr 2 7 + 2KN0 3 . Ag 2 Cr 2 7 = ARGENTIC BICHROMATE, red-brown. 2AgN0 3 + K 2 Cr0 4 =Ag 2 Cr0 4 + 2KN0 3 . Ag 2 Cr0 4 = ARGENTIC CHROMATE, dark-brown precipitate, sol- uble in ammonic hydrate and in dilute acids. AgN0 3 + KCN =AgCN + KN0 3 . AgCN = ARGENTIC CYANIDE is a white curdy precipitate, sol- uble in excess of reagent, insoluble in dilute acids. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 17 Ag 2 C0 3 := ARGENTIC CARBONATE, soluble in ammonic hydrate and ammonic carbonate. 2AgN0 3 -fC 2 H 2 4 =Ag 2 C 2 4 + 2HN0 3 . Ag 2 C 2 4 = ARGENTIC OXALATE, white precipitate, soluble in ammonic hydrate and sparingly in nitric acid. + C 6 H 5 K 3 7 =C 6 H 5 Ag 3 7 + 3KN03. C 6 H 5 Ag 3 7 = ARGENTIC CITRATE, white powder. C 6 H 4 Ag 2 6 = ARGENTIC TARTRATE, curdy precipitate, produced by mixing a dilute solution of argentic nitrate with a dilute solution of Rochelle-salt (C 8 H 4 KNa0 6 .4H 2 potassio-sodic tartrate) slightly acidulated with nitric acid. METALLIC SILVER is PRECIPITATED by Zn, Cu, Fe, Hg, P, etc., SnCl 2 , FeS0 4 , etc. AgN0 13. BLOWPIPE. Dry compounds of silver, mixed with sodic carbonate and fused before the blowpipe on charcoal, yield MALLEABLE, metallic GLOBULES of pure silver without forming an incrustation. CHARACTERISTIC REACTION, !Nb. 5. LEAD. Symbol, Pb. Atomic weight, 207. Equivalence, II and IV. Color, bluish white. Cut by a knife. Specific gravity, 11.36. Fuses at 325 C. (or 617 F.RUDBERG). Specific Heat, 0.0314. Atomic volume, 18.24. Electric conductivity at 32 P. 8.32. Order of malleability commencing * A (5 Heat or fuse. 18 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. with gold, is the seventh ; for ductility commencing with gold, is the eighth. Tenacity, iron as 1000, Pb=50. Order of heat-conducting power commencing with gold, is the seventh. LEAD OXIDES. LEAD unites with OXYGEN to form five OXIDES : Plumbic oxide, PbO ; Plumbous oxide, Pb 2 ; Plumbic peroxide, Pb0 2 ; Plumbic orthoplumbate, Pb 3 4 ; Plumbic meta plumbate, Pb 2 3 . Pb 2 PLUMBOUS OXIDE may be produced if plumbic ox- alate is heated in a retort from which air is excluded, viz. : PbO PLUMBIC OXIDE (Litharge) may be obtained pure by igniting basic nitrate or the carbonate or oxalate in a platinum crucible in contact with air, taking care the oxide does not fuse, otherwise it would take up the metal from the crucible. Pure oxide, lemon-yellow color, Sp. Gr. 9.4214. Pb0 2 PLUMBIC PEROXIDE may be formed by exposing the protoxide (PbO) suspended in water to the action of a stream of chlorine gas. It is a brown powder; when heated gives off oxygen, and is converted into red lead or protoxide. Pb 3 4 PLUMBIC ORTHOPLUMBATE = (2 PbO. Pb0 2 or PbO. Pb 2 3 ) Pb 2 Pb0 4 , and is sometimes called red oxide; it is formed when the protoxide is kept at a low red heat for a considerable time in contact with air. It is a scarlet crystal- line granular powder, Sp. Gr. 8.62 (KARSTEN). Pb 2 3 PLUMBIC META PLUMBATE (Pb.Pb0 3 ) may be obtained by precipitating a solution of red oxide in acetic acid with caustic alkalies or alkaline carbonate. It is a reddish-yellow precipitate. LEAD SALTS. The salts of lead are non-volatile ; most of them are color- less; the neutral soluble salts redden litmus-paper, and are decomposed at a red heat. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 19 Plumbic chloride, when heated with access of air, partially volatilizes, and oxy chloride of lead remains behind. METALLIC LEAD. 14. HEATED ON CHARCOAL, it fuses and gives an incrusta- tion of plumbic oxide, which is deep-yellow when hot, pale- yellow when cold. 15. HYDROCHLORIC ACID has very little action on lead. 16. NITRIC ACID, when concentrated, acts very slowly on lea + CO . BLOWPIPE. Dry compounds of lead, when fused with THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. sodic carbonate on charcoal in the inner (reducing) flame, fur- nishes very soft, MALLEABLE globules of METALLIC LEAD, which produces a mark on paper like a pencil. A yellow incrustation is formed at the same time, which becomes quite pale when cold. LIMIT OF REACTIONS OF TESTS FOR LEAD. ONE PART OF IN WATER. REAGENT. AUTHORITY. Lead 100,000 or more. Sulphydric Acid. A S Taylor Lead as Nitrate 200,000 Lassaigne. Oxide of Lead as Nitrate Nitrate of Lead 350,000 100,000 ci u it u Harting. Pfaff Oxide as Nitrate 20,000 HjSO^ in excess. Pfaff & Harting Lead as " . 25,000 Na 2 SO 4 in 15 rain Oxide as " 70 000 CHARACTEBISTIC EBACTIONS, 18, 21, 37. MERCURY. Symbol Hg (Hydrargyrum from vtiupapyvpov, liquid silver or quicksilver). Atomic weight, 200. Equivalence (Hg 8 ) and II. Density, 100. Mo- lecular weight, 200. Molecular volume, 2. One litre of mercury vapor, weight 8. 96 grains (100 criths). Specific gravity, 13.596 at 32 F. Solidifies at -40 F.; boils at 350 F. Vapor, Sp. Gr. 6.976. Electric conductivity, 1.63 at 73 F. Atomic volume, 14.56. MERCURY OXIDES. There are TWO MERCURY OXIDES known: MERCURIC OXIDE HgO, or red mercuric oxide, also called binoxide and deutoxide. When mercurous or mercuric nitrate is exposed in a glass vessel surrounded with sand, to heat, as long as nitrous oxide is evolved, mercuric oxide is formed. The commercial oxide has a bright brick-red color, shining crystalline grains. Sp. Gr. 11.074 (Herapth) of precipitated. MERCUROUS OXIDE Hg 2 0. Black mercurous oxide, also called dioxide and suboxide. When a solution of mercurous salt is mixed with an excess of caustic alkali, mercurous oxide is precipitated. Brown-black powder. Sp. Gr. 10.69 (Herapth) of that obtained from calomel. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 23 METALLIC MERCURY. 28. HEATED IN A TUBE, having one end closed, it boils, and in the cool part of the tube minute shining particles con- dense. 29. HYDROCHLORIC ACID does not attack metallic mercury. 30. NITRIC ACID, if dilute and cold, dissolves the metal slowly, and the solution contains MERCUKOUS NITRATE. Dilute. ^A Concentrated acid, when hot, dissolves the metal rapidly, forming MERCURIC NITRATE. Cone. ^A , 3Hg + 8HN0 3 = 3Hg(N0 3 ) 2 + N 2 2 + 4H 2 0. 31. SULPHURIC ACID, when concentrated and in excess, if heated, dissolves the metal with evolution of sulphurous oxide, forming MERCURIC SULPHATE. When the metal is in excess of the acid, a mixture of mer- curous and mercuric sulphate is obtained. Dilute acid does not act upon the metal. SALTS OF MERCUROUS OXIDE. The mercurous salts volatilize on ignition ; most of them are decomposed by this process. Mercurous bromide and chloride volatilize unaltered. Mercurous nitrate is decomposed on the addition of much water into a pale-yellow insoluble basic and soluble acid salt. The soluble salts in the neutral state redden litmus-paper. Most of the salts are colorless. Solution best fitted for reactions : MERCUROUS NITRATE Hg 2 (N0 3 ) 2 . 32. HYDROCHLORIC ACID precipitates a powder of dazzling whiteness, MERCUROUS CHLORIDE (Hg 2 Cl 2 ) (calomel). Hg 2 2N0 3 + 2HC1= Hg 2 Cl 2 + 2H N0 3 . 24 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Insoluble in water and dilute acids. Hydrochloric and nitric acids, after long boiling, dissolves it. Nitrohydrochloric acid and chlorine dissolve it readily, converting it into mer- curic chloride. Ammonic hydrate and potassic hydrate Slacken mercurous chloride ; when potassic hydrate is used, the black mercurous oxide is precipitated ( 36) ; when ammonic hydrate is used, MERCUROUS-AMMONIUM CHLORIDE (NH 3 Hg) 2 Cl 2 is pro- duced. 33. SOLUBLE CHLORIDES produce the same precipitate as hydrochloric acid. Hg 2 (N0 3 ) 2 + 2NaCl = Hg 2 Cl 2 + 2NaN0 3 . 34. HYDROSULPHURIC ACID produces a black precipitate of MERCUROUS SULPHIDE (Hg 2 S) ; insoluble in ammonic sulphide, dilute acids, and potassic cyanide ; easily soluble in nitrohydro- chloric acid, but not by boiling concentrated NITRIC ACID, which does NOT ATTACK IT. Hg 2 (N0 3 ) 2 + H 2 S=Hg 2 S + 2HN0 3 . 35. AMMONIC SULPHIDE produces the same precipitate as hydrosulphuric acid. Hg 2 (N0 3 ) 2 +NH 4 HS=Hg 2 S+NH 4 N0 3 36. POTASSIC HYDRATE produces a black precipitate of MERCUROUS OXIDE. Precipitate is insoluble in excess. Sodic hydrate produces the same precipitate. 37. AMMONIC HYDRATE produces a black precipitate of 2NH 3 .3Hg 2 O.N 2 5 , which is a HYDRATED TRIMERCUROUS AM- MONIUM NITRATE. 2(NHHg 3 )N0 3 .2H 2 (according to C. G. Mitscherlich), but according to Kane, 2(NH 2 Hg 2 )N0 3 .H 2 (di- mercurous ammonium nitrate). The precipitate is velvet-black, and is known as " HAHNEMANN'S SOLUBLE MERCURY." THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 25 METALLIC MERCURY PRECIPITATED. 38. STANNOUS CHLORIDE produces a gray precipitate of ME- TALLIC MERCURY, which may be united into globules by boiling the metallic deposit, after decanting the fluid with hydro- chloric acid, to which a drop of stannous chloride may be added with advantage. 39. METALLIC COPPER, when introduced into a solution of mercury, becomes covered with a lustrous coating of METALLIC MERCURY. If the coated copper be dried and heated, it as- sumes its original color, the mercury being volatilized. Hg 2 2N0 3 + Cu = 2Hg+Cu2N0 3 . "Copper wire or foil, in pieces about one inch in length, may be used for this test. They should be first dipped into strong nitric acid, and well washed. The mercurial solution should be acidulated with a few drops of dilute nitric acid, and then boiled for a few minutes with the strips of copper. These are then to be removed, washed, dried between folds of paper, and gently heated in a small glass tube, closed at one end. A shining ring of minute globules of mercury will condense above the copper, which now resumes its original color. This method is often used to separate mercury from organic substances, in examining vomited matter, and in case of poisoning." (TuT- TLE AND CHANDLEB.) 40. POTASSIC CYANIDE precipitates mercuryo C Hg 2 2N0 3 + 2KCN = Hg 2 (CN) 2 + 2KN0 3 . (Hg 2 (CN) 2 -Hg+Hg(CN) 2 . There is first formed Hg 2 (CN) 2 , which is resolved into mer- curic cyanide Hg(CN) 2 and metallic mercury. METALLIC MERCURY is separated as a gray powder by zinc, sulphurous acid, and phosphorous acid. 41. NITRIC ACID converts all mercurous salts into mercuric by boiling. A FEW MISCELLANEOUS REACTIONS. POTASSIC IODIDE, when added to mercurous nitrate, forms a greenish-yellow precipitate of MERCUROUS IODIDE (always, how- ever, mixed with mercuric iodide), soluble in excess. 26 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. POTASSIO FERROCYANIDE, when added to mercurous nitrate, forms a white, and POTASSIC FERRICYANIDE a reddish-brown precipitate. Sodic phosphate and oxalic acid form white precipitates with mercurous nitrate. POTASSIC CHROMATE produces a brick-red precipitate when added to mercurous nitrate. GALLIC ACID produces a brownish-yellow precipitate when added to mercurous nitrate. 4:2. BLOWPIPE. Dry compounds of mercury mixed with ten to twelve parts of dry sodic carbonate, and heated in a dry glass tube, closed at one end, yield METALLIC MERCURY, which condenses in minute globules in the cool part of the tube. These may be united together into larger globules by rubbing with a glass rod. " To make this test more delicate, the mercury compound should be care- fully dried; the sodic carbonate should be ignited (on platinum foil) just previous to use. To prevent sublimation of any undecomposed mercury compound, a layer of sodic carbonate should be placed above the mixture." (TUTTLE AND CHANDLEK.) CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS, 32, 39, 42. DETECTION OF MEMBERS OF GROUP I. Having noticed the different respective behaviors of the chlorides of the members of this group, with water and am- monic hydrate, we are able to make a scheme for their separa- tion and detection. SCHEME FOR THE SEPARATION AND DETECTION OF MEMBERS OF GROUP I. The solution to be examined is supposed to contain a salt of silver, mercurous oxide, and lead. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 27 Add to the solution hydrochloric acid ; there is produced a precipitate of argentic, plumbic, and mercurous chloride. AgCl+PbCl 2 + Hg 2 Cl 2; Filter the precipitate and wash it, then boil the precipitate in water and niter : FILTRATE. The filtrate will con- tain PbCl 2 in solution. Add sulphuric acid if a precipitate is produced; it is plumbic sulphate PbS0 4 . (See 18; 27.) RESIDUE. The residue will contain AgCl+Hg 2 Cl 2 . ammonic hydrate, and filter. Add Solution. Solution will contain the silver salt. Add nitric acid, which will precipitate (AgCl) ar- gentic chloride. 5.) Residue. If black (see 32) dis- solve in (3HC1 + HN0 3 ) nitrohydrochloric acid. Add stannous chloride (SnCl 2 ) in excess, which will deposit metallic mercury (Hg). 38.) GROUP II. This group contains the metals NOT PRECIPITATED by HYDRO- CHLORIC ACID, but precipitated from their acid solutions by HYDROSULPHURIC ACID. FIRST DIVISION. Salts of the metals, the sulphides of which are INSOLUBLE IN AMMONIC SULPHIDE. SECOND DIVISION. Salts of the metals, the sulphides of which are SOLUBLE IN AMMONIC SULPHIDE. FIRST DIVISION. Salts of Lead,* Mercury, Copper, Cadmium, and Bismuth. SALTS OF MERCURIC OXIDE. Solution best fitted for the reactions : MERCURIC CHLORIDE (HgCl 2 ). The SALTS of MERCURIC OXIDE volatilize upon ignition ; most of them are decomposed by this process. Mercuric chloride, bromide, and iodide volatilize unaltered. Mercuric nitrate and sulphate are decomposed by water (added in large quan- tity) into soluble acid and insoluble basic salts. The soluble neutral salts redden litmus-paper. Most of the salts of mer- curic oxide are colorless. * The reactions of the salts of lead have been given 18 et seq. ; it is introduced here for the reason that very dilute lead solutions give no pre- cipitate with hydrochloric acid, but are precipitated by hydrosulphuric acid. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 29 43. HYDROSULPHURIC ACID, when added to a solution of mercuric chloride in small quantities, produces a white or yellow precipitate (HgCl 2 + 2HgS). On the addition of more of the precipitant, the precipitate formed passes from white to yellow, to orange, to brownish-red color, and finally to black if enough has been added. This distinguishes the mercuric oxide from all other bodies. HgCl 2 + H 2 S=HgS + 2HCl, MERCURIC SULPHIDE is not dissolved by ammonic sul- phide, potassic hydrate, or potassic cyanide; insoluble in boiling nitric or hydrochloric acid. Dissolves completely in potassic sulphide, and is readily decomposed and dissolved by nitrohydrochloric acid. 44. AMMONIC SULPHIDE produces the same precipitate as hydrosulphuric acid. HgCl 2 + NH 4 HS=HgS+NH 4 Cl+HCl. 45. POTASSIC HYDRATE, added in small quantities to a neutral or slightly acid solution, produces a reddish-brown precipitate, which acquires a yellow tint, if reagent is added in excess. The reddish-brown precipitate is a BASIC SALT; the yellow precipitate consists of mercuric oxide. = HgO + |KCl+HCl. In very acid solution the precipitation is very incomplete. When the solution of mercuric chloride contains an excess of ammonic chloride, the precipitate is analogous to that pro- duced in 40. 46. AMMONIC HYDRATE produces a white precipitate, if ammonic hydrate be in excess [HgCl 2 (NH 2 ) 2 ] ; if mercuric chloride be in excess [2HgCl 2 (NH 2 ) 2 ]. 47. POTASSIC IODIDE produces a scarlet precipitate of mer- curic iodide (Hgl 2 ). 30 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Soluble in excess of either salt. This difficulty may be avoided by adding a drop of potassic iodide to the white pre- cipitate by ammonic hydrate, 40, which will change to a chocolate-red Hgl 2 . 48. STANNOUS CHLORIDE, when added in small quantities, produces a precipitate of mercurous chloride. 2HgCl 2 + SnCl 2 ~ Hg 2 Cl 2 + SnCl 4 . If added in excess and boiled, the mercurous chloride at first formed is reduced to metal. Hg 2 Cl 2 + SnCl 2 = Hg 2 + SnCl 4 . The metal may be united into globules by boiling with hydrochloric acid and some stannous chloride. 49. BLOWPIPE. The behavior of the mercuric salts is the same as the mercurous salts ; therefore see 36. CHARACTERISTIC REACTION, 39, 43, 47, 4, 49. A FEW MISCELLANEOUS REACTIONS. FORMIC ACID REDUCES mercuric chloride to mercurous chloride. AMMONIC CARBONATE produces a white precipitate with mercuric nitrate. POTASSIC CARBONATE produces a yellow precipitate of HgO. HYDRO-POTASSIC CARBONATE and HYDROSODIC CARBONATE pro- duces a brown-red precipitate in mercuric nitrate, and a white precipitate turning red in mercuric chloride. Precipitate (2HgO,HgCl 2 ). SODIC PHOSPHATE produces a white precipitate. POTASSIC FERROCYANIDE produces in solutions not too dilute a white precipitate turning blue, prussian blue being formed while nitrate contains mercuric cyanide. POTASSIC FERRICYANIDE produces a white precipitate with mercuric nitrate, and none with mercuric chloride. TINCTURE OF GALLS forms an orange-yellow precipitate in all solutions except 'mercuric chloride. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 31 COPPER. Symbol, Cu. (Latin, Cuprium, Cuprus). Atomic weight, 63.5. Equiva- lence (Cu 2 ) IL and II. Color, flesh-red. Crystals, isometric. Specific gravity, 8.952. Atomic volume, 7.10. Specific heat, 0.0951. Fusing point, 1996 F. Electric conductivity at 32 F. is 99.95. Order of malleability commenc- ing with gold is third ; Ductility, fifth ; Heat-conducting power, fourth. Tenacity =550. COPPER OXIDES. There are two well-determined copper oxides, and two un- certain oxides. CUPROUS OXIDE, Cu 2 0, also called dioxide, suboxide, and red oxide of copper. Found native in two forms as (rothkup- ferey and) red copper and copper ~bloom^ chalotrechite (kupfer- bliithe). Ignite 29 pts. copper-filings with 24 pts. anhydrous cupric sulphate, and cuprous oxide is obtained. Hydrochloric acid forms, with cuprous oxide, cuprous chloride, which is easily decomposed by water. Nitric acid converts it into cupric nitrate ; most other acids decompose it, forming cupric salts and depositing metallic copper. Very few oxygen salts known ; sulphites and double sulphites with alkaline metals. CUPRIC OXIDE, CuO, black oxide of copper. Found native as malaconite. Prepared by exposing cupric sulphate to an in- tense heat, or cupric carbonate or nitrate to a moderate heat. Reduced to metal by hydrogen, when ignited with it, or char- coal. Potassium or sodium also reduce it to a metallic state. SESQUIOXIDE OF COPPER, Cu 2 3 ; not known in a separate state. Mix chloride of lime with a solution of cupric nitrate and there is formed calcic cuprate, a beautiful rose-colored substance ; it decomposes but slowly. Most other salts are de- composed with violent evolution of oxygen, soon after formation. PEROXIDE OF COPPER, Cu0 2 ; formed by agitating cupric hydrate with a large excess of hydrogen peroxide at C. It is a yellowish-brown powder. Insoluble in water, with acids it forms ordinary cupric salts and hydrogen peroxide. It may only be a compound of cupric oxide and hydrogen peroxide. (THENARD.) 32 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. METALLIC COPPER. 50. HEATED ON CHARCOAL it becomes coated with cupric oxide ; it fuses with difficulty, and gives no incrustation. 51. HYDROCHLORIC ACID has very little action on metallic copper. 52. NITRIC ACID dissolves it readily, forming cupric nitrate and evolving nitrogen dioxide. 53. SULPHURIC ACID, when hot and concentrated, rapidly dissolves copper, forming blue cupric sulphate (CuS0 4 ), and evolving sulphurous oxide. Dilute acid has but little action on copper. 54. NITROHYDROCHLORIC ACID dissolves copper, forming cupric chloride and evolving nitrogen dioxide (N 2 2 ). SALTS OF COPPER. " Most of the neutral salts are soluble in water ; the soluble salts redden litmus-paper, and suffer decomposition when heated to gentle redness, with the exception of the sulphate, which can bear a somewhat higher temperature. They are usually white in the anhydrous state ; the hydrated salts are usually of a blue or green color, which their solutions continue to exhibit even when much diluted." Solutions ~best fitted for the reactions : CUPRIC SULPHATE (CuS0 4 ). 55. HYDROSULPHURIC ACID produces a black precipitate of cupric sulphide. Cupric sulphide is slightly soluble in ammonic sulphide, completely soluble in boiling nitric acid, and dissolves com- THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 33 pletely in potassic cyanide ; not soluble in dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. 56. AMMONIC SULPHIDE produces the same precipitate as hydrosulphuric acid. CuS0 4 +NH 4 HS=CuS+NH 4 HS0 4 . 57. POTASSIC HYDRATE produces a light-blue bulky precipi- tate Of CUPRIC HYDRATE (Cu2HO). 4 + 2KHO=Cu2HO + K 2 S0 4 . Insoluble in excess. When heated, turns black, forming cu- PRIC OXIDE. " The presence of fixed organic matters (sugar, tartaric acid) causes the hydrate to redissolve in excess of potassic hydrate with a deep-blue color." (TUTTLE AND CHANDLER.) 58. AMMONIC HYDRATE produces a greenish-blue precipitate of a BASIC SALT (CuS0 4 + 2Cu2HO), when added in a small quantity; in a large quantity the precipitate dissolves, im- parting to the liquid a deep azure-blue color, forming (NH 3 ) 2 CuO + (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 . This test distinguishes copper from most other substances. 59. SODIC CARBONATE produces a greenish-blue precipitate of cupric carbonate and cupric hydrate (CuC0 3 + Cu2HO), with the evolution of carbonic oxide. This precipitate, on boiling, is converted into cupric oxide. 6O. POTASSIC FERROCYANIDE produces a chocolate-colored precipitate of cupric ferrocyanide (Cu 2 FeC 6 N 6 ). Insoluble in dilute acids, but readily soluble in ammonic hydrate. Decomposed by potassic hydrate, with the forma- tion of cupric hydrate and potassic ferrocyanide. 34: THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. To very dilute solutions of copper, potassic ferrocyanide imparts a reddish color, which is a more delicate indication than the ammonic hydrate reaction, being still visible in a solution containing 1 pt. of copper in 400,000 pts. of liquid (Lassaigne), and in 1,000,000 pts. (Sarzeau). Dissolves in ammonic hydrate, and forms on evaporation, which produces a most delicate test. Thus, if a solution con- taining copper and iron be treated with ammonic hydrate in excess, a few drops of potassic ferrocyanide added, the liquid filtered, and filtrate evaporated in a small porcelain crucible or capsule, cupric ferrocyanide is left behind, exhibiting char- acteristic red color (Warrington Chem. Soc., Qu. J. v. 137). Before applying the test, the solution should be acidulated with acetic acid. If strong mineral acids present, they should be neutralized by adding excess of potassic or sodic acetate. 61. POTASSIC CYANIDE produces a precipitate of CTJPEIC CYANIDE Cu(CN) 2 , which is yellow-green. Soluble in excess. Hydrochloric acid throws down from this solution cuprous cyanide soluble in excess of acid ; hydrosul- phuric acid and ammonic sulphide produces no precipitate with this solution. 62. POTASSIC IODIDE produces a yellow precipitate of CUPRIC IODIDE with separation of iodine. 63. METALLIC IRON, when introduced into a solution of copper, acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, be- comes coated with a characteristic film of METALLIC COPPER of coppery-red color. CuS0 4 + Fe=Cu + FeS0 4 . If the solution containing copper be introduced into a plat- inum dish with a little free hydrochloric acid and a piece of zinc introduced, the platinum becomes rapidly covered with a coating of copper. 4 + Zn=ZnS0 4 + Pt + Cu. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 35 64. BLOWPIPE. If a dry compound of copper is fused with a little sodic carbonate and potassic cyanide on charcoal in the reducing flame of the blowpipe, there is produced a globule of METALLIC COPPER. ~No incrustation is formed. If the fused mass is triturated with water in a mortar, the charcoal particles are washed off, leaving shining scales of metallic copper per- fectly visible when only a minute quantity of the compound is used. 65. BORAX and SODIC PHOSPHATE readily dissolve cupric oxide in the outer flame. Beads are green while hot, and blue when cold. Any compound of copper imparts to borax bead fused on platinum wire in the outer flame, a green color while hot, and blue when cold. If this bead is detached and heated, on charcoal, with a little metallic tin, the bead becomes red and opaque, and colorless when only a minute quantity of copper is present. In the inner flame the borax bead is made colorless, that produced with sodic phosphate and ammonia turns dark-green ; both acquire a brownish-red tint upon cooling. CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS, 58, 6O, 63, 64, 65. CADMIUM. Symbol, Cd. (Greek, Cadmia Calomine). Atomic weight, 112. Equiva- lence, II. Density, 56. Molecular weight, 112. Molecular volume, 2. Discovered in 1817 by Hermann and also by Stromeyer. Specific gravity, 8.604. Becomes brittle at 82 C. Boiling point, 1580 F. Fusing point,. 442 F. Calculated Sp. Gr. of vapor, 3,869 ; observed specific gravity, 3.94 Atomic volume, 12.96. Electric conductivity, at 32 F., 23.72. Order of ductility commencing with gold, eleventh. Color, grayish-white. CADMIUM OXIDES. Cadmium forms two oxides, viz. : Cd 2 and CdO. CADMOUS OXIDE Cd 2 0, or suboxide. This oxide may be ob- tained by heating the oxalate to about the melting-point of lead. _^ _^_ 2C 2 Cd0 4 + A<$=C It is a green powder resembling chromic oxide, and is re- 36 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. solved by heat or by acids into metallic cadmium and cadmic oxide. It does not yield metallic cadmium with mercury, hence it appears to be a definite compound and not merely a mixture of the metal with cadmic oxide. CADMIC OXIDE, CdO, or protoxide, may be obtained by heat- ing metallic cadmium in the air, when it takes fire and is converted into cadmic oxide. Formed also by igniting the hydrate, carbonate, or nitrate. Sp. Gr. 6.9502. Insoluble in water. METALLIC CADMIUM. 66. HYDROCHLORIC ACID, when hot, converts the metal into CADMIC CHLORIDE (CdCl 2 ), liberating at the same time hydrogen gas. * Cd + 2HCl=CdCl 2 + 2H. 67. SULPHURIC ACID, when dilute, converts the metal into CADMIC SULPHATE and liberating hydrogen gas. Cd + H 2 S0 4 =CdS0 4 -f2H. 68. NITRIC ACID is the best solvent for the metal, convert- ing it into CADMIC NITRATE (Cd2N0 3 ) and liberating at the same time nitrogen dioxide. 69. HEATED ON CHARCOAL, it fuses and deposits a reddish- brown incrustation of CADMIC OXIDE. CADMIUM SALTS. Most of the cadmium salts are colorless ; they have a dis- agreeable metallic taste, and act as emetics. The solutions, even of the neutral salts, redden litmus-paper. The salts are decomposed by heat. Solution lest fitted for the reactions : CADMIC NITRATE (Cd2N0 3 ). 70. HYDROSULPHURIC ACID produces in a solution of cadmic nitrate a bright-yellow precipitate of CADMIC SULPHIDE (Cd S). THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 37 The solution, if acid, must be largely diluted, as the precipi- tate CdS is soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid; not sol- uble in very dilute hydrochloric, sulphuric, or nitric acid, but soluble in boiling hydrochloric and sulphuric acids ; not soluble in alkalies or ammonic sulphide. Cadmic sulphide is the only yellow sulphide not soluble in ammonic sulphide. 71. AMMONIC SULPHIDE produces the same precipitate as hydrosulphuric acid. 72. POTASSIC HYDKATE produces a precipitate of CADMIC HYDRATE, which is white ; insoluble in excess of precipitant. Cd2N0 3 + 2KHO = Cd2HO + 2KN0 3 . 73. AMMONIC HYDRATE produces a white precipitate of CAD- MIC HYDRATE, soluble in excess. 74. AMMONIC CARBONATE produces a white precipitate of CADMIC CARBONATE, insoluble in excess. Dissolves readily in potassic cyanide. 75. SODIC PHOSPHATE precipitates CADMIC ORTHOPHOSPHATE (Cd 3 P 2 8 ). A white powder. 76. AMMONIC OXALATE produces a white precipitate when added to cadmic chloride of cadmic oxalate (CdC 2 4 .3H 2 0) ; soluble in ammonic hydrate. 77. POTASSIC FERROCYANIDE produces a white precipitate. 2Cd2N0 3 + K 4 Cfy=Cd 2 Cfy + 4KN0 3 . 78. POTASSIC FERRICYANIDE produces a yellow precipitate, soluble in hydrochloric acid. K 6 Fe 2 C l2 N l2 r=Cd 3 Fe 2 C l2 N l2 38 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. METALLIC CADMIUM PRECIPITATED. ZINC precipitates metallic cadmium from its salts (in den- drites). + Zn:=Cd+Zn2N0 3 . 79. BLOWPIPE. When a cadmium compound is mixed with sodic carbonate and fused on charcoal in the inner flame of the blowpipe, there is produced a reddish-brown incrusta- tion, of cadmic oxide, which becomes very distinct on cooling; no metal is produced. CHARACTERISTIC KEACTIONS, 7O, 79. BISMUTH. Symbol, Bi. (German, wismat). Atomic weight, 210. Equivalence, III and V. Specific gravity of solid, 9,830. Fusing point, 507 F. Atomic volume, 21.34. Specific heat, 0.0308. Electric conductivity at 32 F., 1.245. Order of brittleness commencing with antimony is third. BISMUTH OXIDES. Bismuth forms two definite oxides, and two others. BISMUTHOUS OXIDE, Bi 2 3 , or trioxide. Formed when bis- muthous nitrate is gently ignited. It is a pale-yellow powder, which melts at red-heat. It occurs native as bismuth ochre. BISMUTHIC OXIDE, Bi 2 5 , or protoxide. Prepared by passing chlorine through a concentrated solution of potassic hydrate which contains bismuthous hydrate (BiH0 3 , or Bi 2 3 .H 2 0) in suspension ; a blood-red substance then separates, which is a mixture of hydrated bismuthic acid and bismuthic oxide. This is treated with dilute nitric acid, which dissolves the oxide, but in the cold does not attract the acid. Bismuthic oxide is a bright-red powder. " Bismuthates are but little known. Hydropotassic bismuthate, Bi 2 KH0 6 =:BiK0 3 BiH0 3 , is known." AEPPE. BISMUTH DIOXIDE, Bi 2 2 . This oxide is formed when a solu- tion of a bismuth-salt is treated with stannous chloride. (A corresponding sulphide is known.) THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 39 BISMTJTHATE or BISMUTH, Bi 2 4 . When bismuthic oxide is heated to 100 C. it becomes converted into bisnrathate of bis- muth (Bi 2 3 .Bi 2 5 = 2Bi 2 4 ). METALLIC BISMUTH. 80. HEATED ON CHARCOAL it fuses and deposits a deep- yellow incrustation of bismuthous oxide (Bi 2 3 ). 81. HYDROCHLORIC ACID does not act upon bismuth. 82. NITRIC ACID dissolves it rapidly, converting it into bismuthous nitrate (Bi3N0 3 ). If water is added to the solution, a white basic nitrate (Bi 2 3 .N 2 5 + H 2 = Bi 2 N 2 8 + H 2 0) is precipitated. 83. SULPHURIC ACID dissolves it when concentrated and aided by heat, forming bismuthous sulphate, Bi 2 (S0 4 ) 3 , and liberating sulphurous oxide. DILUTE SULPHURIC ACID does not dissolve bismuth. BISMUTH SALTS. The salts of bismuthous oxide are non-volatile, with the ex- ception of a few (bismuthous chloride). The soluble salts, in the neutral state, redden litmus-paper, and are decomposed when treated with a large amount of water, insoluble basic salts separating, the greater portion of the acid and a small quantity of bismuth remaining in solution. /Solution best fitted for the reactions : BISMUTHOUS NITRATE, Bi (N0 3 ) 3 . 84. HYDROSULPHURIC ACID produces a black precipitate of bismuthous sulphide (Bi 2 S 3 ). 3 + 3H 2 S=Bi 2 S 3 -f6HN0 3 . Insoluble in alkalies, alkaline sulphides, and potassic cyanide. Nitric acid decomposes and dissolves it when hot. If the 40 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. solutions to be precipitated from are very acid from the pres- ence of free hydrochloric or nitric acid, they must be first diluted. 85. AMMONIC SULPHIDE produces the same precipitate as hydrosulphuric acid. 86. POTASSIC HYDEATE precipitates a white BISMUTHOUS HYDEATE (Bl' 2 3 .H 2 0). Insoluble in excess, but soluble in dilute acids. 87. AMMONIC HYDEATE produces the same precipitate as potassic hydrate. 88. SODIC CAEBONATE produces a precipitate of BASIC BIS- MUTHOUS CAEBONATE. The precipitate is white ; insoluble in excess and in potassic cyanide. 89. POTASSIC DICHEOMATE, or CHEOMATE, produces a yellow precipitate ; when in excess it has the composition of 3Bi 2 3 . 2Cr 2 3 . If this be treated with a small quantity of acid, a yellow salt remains undissolved, consisting of Bi 2 3 .2Cr 2 3 ; this may be precipitated when bismuth salt is in excess. (LowE.) This last precipitate, according to Pearson, consists of Bi 2 3 .Cr 2 3 . Compare 89 with 24. 90. WATEE, when added to solutions of bismuth, precipi- tate WHITE BASIC SALTS. (Bi 2 3 .N 2 5 + H 2 = 2Bi N0 4 + H 2 0) is precipitated from the nitrate; from the chloride a basic chloride (Bi 2 Cl 6 .2Bi 2 3 + 6H 2 0) is precipitated. " This reaction is very characteristic, and distinguishes bismuth from all other metals, except antimony. Bismuthous chloride exhibits this reaction in the most striking manner, and it is best to convert the bismuth compound into this salt by adding an excess of hydrochloric acid and evaporating to dryness. The residue is dissolved in as little hydrochloric acid as possible, and the solution poured into a large quantity of water. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 41 " Bismuthous sulphate is not decomposed by hydrochloric acid. When a solution is to be tested, therefore, which is known to contain sulphuric acid, it is best to precipitate bismuthous oxide by an excess of ammonia, filter, wash, and dissolve in hydrochloric acid, and then proceed as above." (TUTTLE AND CHANDLER.) A FEW MISCELLANEOUS REACTIONS. PYROPHOSPHORIC ACID, when added to a solution of bismuth- ous nitrate, produces a precipitate of BISMUTHOUS DIPHOSPHATE (2Bi 2 3 .3P 2 5 :=Bi 4 P 6 2l ). PHOSPHORIC ACID produces a precipitate of bismuthous phos- phate (orthophosphate) when nitric acid is present. Bi(N0 3 ) 3 + H 3 P0 4 + HN0 3 :=BiP0 4 -f-4HN0 3 . OXALIC ACID precipitates BISMUTHOUS OXALATE ; a white pre- cipitate (Bi 3 C 6 0, 2 .15H 2 0). TARTARIC ACTD added to hot moderately strong bismuthous nitrate, produces a white precipitate of BISMUTHOUS TARTRATE. C l2 H, 2 .Bi 2 0, 8 .6H 2 = Bi 2 3 .3C 4 H 4 5 .6H 2 0. METALLIC BISMUTH PRECIPITATED. Metallic bismuth is precipitated from its solutions by metal- lic iron, copper, lead, and tin, viz. : 91. BLOWPIPE. When solid compounds of bismuth are fused with sodic carbonate in the reducing flame of the blow- pipe, BRITTLE METALLIC GLOBULES of metal are produced, as also an incrustation of BISMUTHOUS OXIDE, which is yellow. CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS, 89, 9O, 91. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SCHEME FOR THE SEPARATION AND DETECTION OF THE MEMBERS OF THE FIRST DIVISION OF GROUP II. The solution to be examined is supposed to contain a salt of mercuric oxide, copper, cadmium, lead, and bismuth. Add hydrochloric acid no precipitate. Add to the solu- tion hydrosulphuric acid (H 2 S) ; there is produced a precipitate of bismuthous sulphide (Bi 2 S 3 ), plumbic sulphide, (PbS), cad- rnic sulphide (CdS), mercuric sulphide (HgS), and cupric sul- phide (CuS). "Wash completely to expel the chlorine in the mixture; add moderately strong nitric acid (free from hydrochloric), and warm, then filter. RESIDUE. SOLUTION. Is composed of The solution contains the Pb, Cu, Bi, and Cd. Add HgS + S. "Black." dilute sulphuric acid; concentrate solution to expel HNO, Dissolve in a little 1 U*v* j ctvLvt. 1 1 g W CtllU. 111 tni . aqua-regia. Add Residue. Solution stannous chloride ; PbS0 4 . Contains the Cu, Bi, and Cd. Add NH 4 HQ a precipitate is ' , ' and filter. .mercuric chloride, See 21. ,,Hg 2 Cl 2 . Heat. Me- Precipitate. Filtrate Blue tallic mercury is Bi 2 3 .H 3 0. Contains the Cu and Cd. Divide. formed. See 48. Wash, dis- solve in HC1. 1st Part. 2d Part. Test as 90. Acidulate with Add KCN to de- acetic acid. Add stroy blue color, K 4 Cfy, a preci- thenH 2 S. Pre- pitate Cu 2 Cfy. cipitate CdS. See 8 60 Y - KJV-'Vy ^ V/V7. See 70. SECOND DIVISION OF GROUP H. Metals, the sulphides of which are SOLUBLE IN AMMONIC SULPHIDE. AKSENIC, ANTIMONY, TIN, GOLD, PLATINUM. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 43 ARSENIC. Symbol, As. (Greek, arsenicon, potent). Atomic weight, 75. Equivalence, III and V. Density, 150. Molecular weight, 300. Molecular volume, 2. 1 litre of arsenic vapor weighs 13.44 grams (150 criths). Specific gravity, 5.7 to 5.959 (Miller). Atomic volume, 12.96. Specific heat, 0.0814. Elec- tric conductivity at 32 F., 4.76. Volatilizes at 356 F. Order of brittleness commencing with antimony, second. Color, dark-gray ; bright only when freshly fractured. ARSENIC OXIDES. Arsenic forms TWO WELL-DEFINED OXIDES, viz. : Arsenious oxide As 2 3 , and arsenic oxide As 2 5 . The black film which forms on the surface of the metal is supposed to be a SUB- OXIDE, but it is more probably a mixture of metallic arsenic with arsenious oxide. ARSENIOUS OXIDE, As 2 3 , in the hydrated state ARSENIOUS ACID. Occurs native in the mineral arsenite or arsenolite. Formed when arsenic is volatilized in contact with free oxygen, as when the metal is heated in a glass tube through which a current of air is passing. A> fl bo !* fl l 11 s "5 o "SV ga ^s"a "G *>> o a sa s II 12 II II 02 C5 II II o 9 0.85 35.3 -4 C. 0.8750 32.3* 0.8914 27.940 0.9363 15.900 0.86 32.6 + 3.5 0.8857 29.25 0.8937 27.633 0.9410 14.575 0.87 29.9 10 0.9000 26.00 0.8967 27.038 0.9455 13.250 0.88 27.3 17 0.9054 25.37* 0.8983 26.751 0.9510 11.925 0.89 24.7 23 0.9166 22.07 0.9000 26.500 0.9564 10.600 0.90 22.2 30 0.9255 19.54 0.9045 25.175 09614 9275 0.91 19.8 37 0.9326 17.52 0.9090 23.850 0.9662 7.950 0.92 17.4 44 0.9385 15.88 0.9133 22.525 0.9716 6.625 0.93 15.1 50 0.9435 14.53 0.9227 19.875 0.9768 5.500 0.94 128 57 0.9476 13.46 0.9275 18.550 0.9828 3.975 0.95 10.5 63 0.9513 12.40 0.9320 17.225 0.9887 2.650 0.96 8.3 70 0.9545 11.56 0.9945 1.325 0.97 6.2 79 0.9573 10.82 0.98 4.1 87 0.9597 10.17 0.99 2.0 92 0.9616 9.60 0.9692 950* Solution lest fitted for the reactions : AMMONIC SULPHATE (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 . 376. POTASSIO HYDRATE. If a solution containing an am- monic salt be treated with potassic hydrate, ammonia is liber- ated : The ammonia thus liberated may be detected by the smell, or by the fumes generated when a volatile acid is brought in contact with it. As, for example, HYDROCHLORIC ACID pro- duces WHITE FUMES of AMMONIC CHLORIDE \ The gas generated may be detected by moistened test-paper. Calcic or sodic hydrate may be used in place of potassic hydrate. 377. PLATINIC DICHLORIDE, when added to a solution con- * These numbers were determined by experiment ; the rest is Davy table by calculation. 136 ' THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. taining an ammonic salt, produces a yellow precipitate of AM- MONIC CHLOROPLATINATE [(N H 4 Cl) 2 PtCl 4 = (N H 4 ) 2 PtCl 6 ] I NH 4 C1+ PtCl 4 ^NH 4 Cl) 2 .PtCl 4 . ) 2 S0 4 + 2HCl+PtCl 4 =(NH 4 Cl) 2 +PtCl 4 + H 2 S0 4 . This precipitate is somewhat lighter in color than the cor- responding potassic precipitate. Where the precipitate is ignited it is converted into pure metallic platinum perfectly free from chloride. 378. NESSLER'S TEST. If to a solution containing an am- monic salt, POTASSIC HYDRATE be added, and a solution of MER- CURIC IODIDE in POTASSIC IODIDE, -&. J^rOWn PRECIPITATE Or COLORATION is immediately produced : This reaction is by far the most delicate test for ammonia. 379. SODIC ACID TARTRATE Or TARTARIC ACID produces a white precipitate of ammonic acid tartrate (NH 4 C 4 H 5 6 ): (N H 4 ) 2 S0 4 + 2NaC 4 H 5 6 = 2NH 4 C 4 H 6 Oe + Na 2 S0 4 . This precipitate is slightly soluble in cold water, readily sol- uble in alkaline solutions and mineral acids. If this precipi- tate be ignited the carbonaceous residue obtained will have no alkaline reactions. 380. SODIC PHOSPHO-MOLYBDATE produces a YELLOW PRE- CIPITATE, soluble in alkalies and non-volatile organic acids, but insoluble in mineral acids. 381. FLAME. Alcoholic solutions of ammonic salts burn with a blue or violet flame. 382. HEATED. Any ammonic salt, if heated, either alone or with a fixed alkali, baryta, lime, plumbic oxide, etc., evolve ammonia. Magnesia expels only half the ammonia, forming a double salt. CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS, 376, 378, 382. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 137 SCHEME FOR THE SEPARATION AND DETECTION OF MEMBERS OF GROUP V. The solution to be examined is supposed to contain a salt of potassium, sodium, and ammonia. Divide the solution into two parts : FIRST PART. Add potassic hydrate and boil, nd test for ammonia with hydro- chloric acid!,; also by smell and * test -paper. (See 376.) 'Test also with Nessler's solution. ( 378.) SECOND PART. If ammonia has been found in "First Part," evaporate to dryness the " Second Part " to ex- pel all ammonia. Dissolve residue in water; add hydrochloric acid, then platinic dichloride ; there will be precipitated potassic chloroplati- hate : filter and wash. PRECIPITATE. K 2 PtCl 6 . (See 365.) Test as in 368. FILTRATE. Evaporate filtrate to dryness; the presence of red circular crystals indi- cate the presence of a sodic salt. Add alcohol, and test by flame. (See 375.) SCHEME FOR QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS. THE SUBSTANCE FOR EXAMINATION IS A SOLID. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION.* This consists in an accurate observation of the physical prop- erties of the substance, its form, color, hardness, gravity, and odor, and of its deportment at a high temperature, either alone or in contact with some chemical compound which produces decomposition. 1. THE SUBSTANCE IS HEATED IN A DKY NARROW TUBE. (a). Organic compounds carbonize and blacken, evolving empyreumatic, inflammable gases. * The majority of the preliminary tests are taken from Manual of Chem. Anal., by Fred. Hoffman, Ph.D. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 139 (b). The substance remains unaltered indicating absence of organic matter, of salts containing water of crystallization, and of volatile compounds. (c). The substance fuses, expelling aqueous vapors, which condense in the cooler parts of the tube ; indicating salts with water of crystallization (these will generally re-solidify after the expulsion of the water) or decomposable hydrates, which often give off their water without fusing. (d). Gases or fumes are evolved; smell of iodine from iodine compounds ; smell of sulphurous oxide from decomposi- tion of sulphates ; smell of nitrogen oxides from the nitrates ; smell of ammonia from ammonic salts, from cyanides, or from nitrogenous organic compounds, in which latter case carboniza- tion takes place, and either cyanogen or empyreumatic fumes escape with the ammonia. (e). Sublimates are formed by volatile substances, as sul- phur and compounds of ammonium, mercury, arsenic, and antimony. In this case the sublimate is removed to the bot- tom of the test-tube, and, together with the substance, is covered with a few small pieces of charcoal, and again heated ; mercury and arsenic form metallic sublimates, the latter with the characteristic garlic odor, the former without. In another tube part of the substance is heated, and the sublimate is moistened with solution of potassic hydrate ; mercurous chlo- ride turns black; mercuric chloride red; and ammonic salts evolve the odor of ammonia. 2. THE SUBSTANCE is MIXED WITH DRIED SODIO CARBONATE, AND HEATED ON CHARCOAL IN THE REDUCTNG-FLAME OF THE BLOWPIPE. (a). Fusion and absorption into the coal indicates alkalies. (b). An infusible white residue, either at once or after pre- vious fusion in the water of crystallization, indicates com- pounds of calcium, barium, strontium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, or tin. (c). A reduction to the metallic state takes place, without formation of a periph eric incrustation upon the charcoal. Com- 140 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. pounds of tin, silver, and copper give malleable shining scales. Compounds of iron, manganese, cobalt, and nickel are reduced to a gray infusible powder ; all visible upon cutting the fuse from the coal, and triturating and levigating it in an agate mortar. (d). deduction with incrustation: Antimony compounds give a brittle metallic globule and a white incrustation ; bis- muth, a brittle globule and a brown-yellow incrustation ; lead, a malleable globule and a yellow incrustation ; zinc and cad- mium are reduced, but give, the former a white incrustation, not volatile in the oxidizing flame, the latter a brown-red in- crustation. (JCC VjJ j.Uj *) SOLUTION. RESIDUE. Add HN0 3 If black (see which will pre- 32). Dissolve cipitate AgCl. in (3HC1.HNC 3 ). (See 5.) Add SnCl 3 and 4 | boil ; Hg precipi- tated. (See 38.) * See Scheme i'or Analysis of Insoluble Substances. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 143 HS GROUP II. SCHEME FOR DETECTING. Pb, Cu, Bi, Hg, Cd, As, Sb, Sn, Au, Pt. Add to filtrate from Group I (after testing with HC1 until filtrate smells distinctly of the reagent; filter precipitate (after passing H 2 S gas through solution); wash it. Lay filtrate aside (test according to Group III). If no pre- cipitate forms, pass on to Group III. The precipitate may be : PbS, CuS, Bi 2 S 3 , HgS, CdS, As 2 S x , Sb 2 S x , SnS x , Au 2 S d : , PtS 2 . Add yellow NH 4 ns, warm geim) f aiiu iiiiui. RESIDUE. SOLUTION. j^_ PbS, CuS, Bi 2 S 3 , HgS, CdS. Wash well to remove Cl. (Test with AgNO 3 .) - Boil prec. with HNO 3 ,; filter; wash. As 2 Sx, Sb 2 S x , SnS x , Au 2 S 3 , PtS 3 .fl Add dilute H 2 SO 4 ; there is precipitated^BBs 3 + Sb 2 S 3 + SnS 2 + Au.,S :i + PtS 2 + S. Filter and wash ; dissolve in HC1 audC!O 3 by gentle heat ( AsCl, + SbCl 3 + SnCl 4 + Au($+ PtCl*. KESIDUE. SOLUTION. divide in two parts. HgS + S Pb, Cu, Bi, Cd. (black). Dis- iolve in Add dilute H,SO 4 , cone. sol. to expel HN.O ,, IST PART. Test this nortion for 2D PART. Test this portion for 3Hqi.HNO 3 Add H 2 O and filter. ^j7~ As, Sit v Sn. Au , Pt. and boil with SnCl 2 Prec.=Hg. RESIDUE. PbS0 4 . SOLUTION. Cu, Bi, Cd. Concentrate ; introduce some into flask contain - no- Zn + H 2 O + H 2 SO 4 . Divide in ha 1st Half. Ives. 8d Half. (See 43.) (See 21.) Add NH 4 OH and filter. See 132, 102. Pass gas generated into AgNO s . Add HC1, then FeSO 4 and boil. Add NH 5 C1. Evaporate to dryness over PRECIPI- FILTRATE. ;er : wash. Prec. equal Au. (See water bath ; treat with TATE. Cu, Cd. PRECIPI- FILTRATE. 191.) alcohol. "Ri O TT O TATE. Add Ova n o-A-r A/1 JDI 2 \J 3 . Jtl 2 \J. Wash. Dis- solve in HC1 IST PART. 2o PART. Wash well; introduce AgNO.,. Neutralize residue is (NHic!f a 7ptci indicates Pi. (See 182.) Add KCN witli dilute L test. ( 90.) AClClUltllc with acetic to destroy filter und precipitate NH 4 OH ; a yellow prec . = Ag 4 As 2 O 5 . acid. Add blue color ; in a test- (See 99, 107.) precipitate HA which tartaric acid and boil for a few minutes, filter (resi- is Cu 2 Cfy. (See (50.) will precipi- tate CdS. due Ag). Add H 2 S and boil ; an orange- red prec. = Sb 2 S 3 . (See 126.) _ _^^^^_ (See *70.) DETECTION OP TIN. Detach tin flask hv ap-Hation. then transfer the : to anotlu" Hg 2 Cl 2 ' ; boil. Hg is precipitated, which indicates Sn. (See 160.) GROUP III. SCHEME FOR DETECTING. A1 2 3 , Cr 2 3 , ZnO, CoO, I^^MnO, FeO, Fe 2 3 , Append|| Add to filtrate from NH 4 C1 + NH 4 OH (until alk MnO n )+N II (after testing wi 2 S) j) + N H 4 H S. Filter oif THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. cipitate. Lay % filtrate to one side to be tested according to Group IV. If no precipitate forms, pass on to Group IY. The precipitate may be : , # NiS+MnS.xH 2 0. Wash, and dissolve in the funnel with HC1, then wash again. There will be a RESIDUE. CoS + NiS + S. Wash well and treat with borax bead (note color). (See 277, 292.) precipitate, paper ill, in porcelain cru- , dissolve residue in JO, dilute, filter, te to a few dd acetic acid Filter off SOLUTION. Adda few crystals of KC1O, and boil to destroy H 2 S and to change FeO to Fe 2 O 3 . Add an excess of KOH. Filter off pre- cipitate and wash. FILTRATE. Some Zn, Al, Cr. Boil ; a precipitate s Cr 2 ; ,5H 2 0. Filter; test with bead. 216, 219.) .e filtrate in two See Dh parts. IST PART. Add H 2 S or NH 4 HS ; a precipitate isZnS.H 2 O. (See 226, 227.) Test according to 233. 2D PART. Add HC1, then NH.OH: a PRECIPITATE. Fe, Mn, Appendix (Zn, Cr?). Divide in two parts. IST PART. Dissolve in HC1 divide in halves. and (See cording to 208. 1st Half. Test a por- tion with KCNS ; color deep I blood -red, indicates ron. (See another portion with potas sic ferrocy- anicle. (See 256.) %d Half. Add Tar- taric acid, then an excess of NH 4 HO; a 2o PART. Divide in two parts : a and /?. 1st a. Dis- solve in warm HC1. Add Nn,CO 3 , NH 4 OH and BaC0 3 ; shake well ; a pre- Filter and wash, and phates and oxa and filter. alate of phos- s of Ca, Ba, Sr, Mg. Dissolve precipitate IB acetic acid FILTRATE. Divide in two parts. IST PART. part to a lent pale precipitate indi- cates presence of ac j,j phosphoric acid. SD PART. Add Fe 2 Cl 6 and sodic acetate. RESIDUE Ibssic Hi 'Filter, trce* The'SK.O ATOendix !trate i wi Consist NH'H will show the presence of Mn by a pre- cipitate MnS.xHoO. with salt, add to fil- th en 5, which Warm gently and filter. PRECIPITATE. Fe 2 3 .P 2 5 =FeP0 4 . [See 298.) 2fi. /?. Fuse on Pt foil with vescence of CO 2 indicates the pres- NaNO s and Na.,C0 3 . If green, Mn is resent. (See 311.) Dis- solve residue Consists of oxalates. Wash dry and ignite. Dissolve in dilute HC1. Effer- ence of phosphoric acid. the presence of phosphoric FILTRATE Will contain Ba, Sr, Ca, Mg. White powder. Indicates Test according to Group IV. in H 2 O and filter. SOLUTION. Cr, Mn, Zn. Add acetic acid and divide. Add jriuabic ace- taic : a yellow precipi- tate i^^K>4- (See lasi part of 216.) M Half. Add alcohol ; boil :| filter if necessary;' then add H 2 S ; a pre- cipitate is ZnS.H 2 O. (See 226.) RESIDUE. Mn, Fe, Zn. Dissolve in HC1. Add KOH in excess, add to filtrate H 2 S; a precipitate is a O. (See 226.) his filtrate maybe tested for any of the metals of this Group. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. GROUP IV. U5 SCHEME FO^ DETECTING ^ *. Ba, Sr, Ca, Mg. < Add to filtrate from Group III (after testing with NH 4 HS), N H 4 C1 + N H 4 H + (N H 4 ) 2 C0 3 ; a precipitate is produced ; filter and wash. If no precipitate is produced, pass on to Group Y. FILTRATE. PRECIPITATE. BaC0 3 + SrC0 3 + CaCO 3 . Dissolve in HC1 ; add sodic acetate, then K 3 Cr 2 O 7 ; a yellow precipitate is produced ; filter. PRECIPITATE. BaCrO. '(See 321.) Mg. Add NaHP0 4 ; a precipitate (P0 4 ) 8 .7H 2 O. (See 357.) FILTRATE. Add to a portion of fi anci^wait ten minutes, if a precipitate forms. Add to the remaining portion K 2 S0 4 ; a precipitate is produced; filter and wash thoroughly. \TE. PRECIPITA 1 : SrS0 4 . (See 331, 335.) acic FILTRATE. Add NH,OH and oxalic acid; a whi^precipitate is CaC 2 4 . (See 34C346, 342.) I GROUP V. SCHEME FOR DETECTING NH. 3 , K, Na. Divide a portion of the original solution in two SECOND PART. If ammonia has been found in "First Part," evaporate to dryness the " Sec- Part" to expel all t as salts). Dig 2 O; add HC1, then ^^^^^ pitate forms ; filter 10 FIRST PART. * Add KOH and boil ; test gas with HC1 ; smell, and try test-- 376.) Test also with Nessler's sfl (See 378.) * 146 PTHE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. K,PtCl,. 368. PRECIPITATE. (See 365.) Test as in FILTRATE. Evaporate filtrate to dryness; the presence of red circular crystals indi- cates the presence of Na. Add alco- hol, and test by flame. (See 375.) May also test with K 2 O.Sb 8 5 .7H 3 0. (See 373.) INSOLUBLE SUBSTANCES. ^SCHEME FOR THEIR DETECTION. Si0 2 , Silicates, BaS0 4 , PbS0 4 , SrS0 4 , Sn0 2 , Cr0 3 . borax bead green=O 2 3 . Fuse part of insoluble pe with Na 2 C0 3 on charcoal with reducing flame, then put Bm a bright silver coin when cold, and moisten with water ;^a small black spot on silver, after standing, indicates S^>hl^ Wash the fused mass a little, then grind to a powder, and carefully look for metallic scales Pb(S0 4 ). Boil original substance with NH 4 C 2 H 3 2 , and filter adPwash. I Con SOLUTION. .tains the Pb(S0 4 ?). Sen XLUTION. Acidulate with H Cl ; evaporate to ^^^isten with HC1; dissolve Fuse some with Na 2 Co 3 on char- coal; metallic gloj3iile=Sn. Black spot on silver coifcBaS0 4 + SrS0 4 . Fuse some of residue on Pt foil with Na 2 C0 3 ; boil with water and filter. RESIDUE. Dissolve in HC1 ; evaporate to dry- ness ; moisten with H Cl ; dissolve in H 2 and filter. Test for H 2 S0 4 with BaCl 2 . RESIDUE. Test for SnO 2 with phosphorous bead. SOLUTION. Ba, Sr. Test ac- cording to Group IV. RESIDUE. .' . Test for Si0 2 with phosphorous bead. * I THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 14T * * DETECTION OF THE INORGANIC AND ORGANIC ACIDS IN SUBSTANCES SOLUTE IN WATER, SULPHURIC ACID (H 2 S0 4 ). Add baric chloride to a portion of the original solution [if Pb.Ag. or Hg 2 salt have been found, add Ba(N0 3 ) 2 ], which, if acid, first make neutral or slightly alkaline with NH 4 OH. If a precipitate forms, add HC1; if it does not dissolve, sulphuric acid (Hf60 4 ) is present. H 2 S0 4 +BaCl 2 =BaS0 4 + 2HCl. To detect free H 2 S0 4 in presence of a sulphate, fluid under examination with a very little cane-s evaporate to dryness at 212 F. If free H 2 S0 4 waS*preHK, a black residue remains, or in the case of most mini^fc quan- tities, a blackish-green residue. Other Jpe acids do not de- compose cane-sugar in this way. (RuNGE.) HYDROCHLORIC (HC1); HYDROBROMIC (HBr); HYDRIODIC (HI); HYDROCYANIC (HCN); HYDROFERROCYANIC (H 4 Fe Ir Cy*^LHY- DROFERRICYANIC [H 6 (Fe 2 ) VI Cy )2 ] ; and SULPHUR. m Add to a portion of the original solution argentic nitrate (AgN0 3 ) ; there will be precipitated: AgCl + AgBr + Agl + AgCy + Ag 4 FeCy 6 + Ag 6 F^y , 2 . Observe the color of the precipitate : AgCl, AgBr, AgCy, Ag 4 FeCy 6 are white precipi^M Agl is a yellow precipitate. Ag 6 Fe 2 Cy, 2 is a brownish-red precipitate. Add HN0 3 to the precipitate and shake it; if it does not dissolve, one or all of the above acids may be present. If the precipitate is blackish, this points to hydrosulphuric acid or a soluble metallic sulphide. ^tolphur may easily be testing a fresh solution \\^IBS0 4 . If hydrosulphuric acid VBpgnt in the solution to 148 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. I it must first be removed by boiling. Alkaline sulphides must be removed by a j^tallic salt, such as will not precipitate any of the other ^SRls, or at least will not precipitate them from acid solutions. HYDRIODIC ACID (HI) and HYDROCYANIC ACID (HCN), in the presence of hydrochloric or hydrobromic acid, may be detected, viz. : The HYDRIODIC ACID solution is mixed with some thin clear starch-paste, then made distinctly acid with dilute H 2 S0 4 or HC1, and a drop or two of a concentrated-solution of jpotassic nitrate (KN0 2 ) is then added, when the starch iodide, blue color, makes its appearance ; if the hydriodic acid present is verff* dilute, the fluid turns reddish instead of blue. This re- actj^fcts more delicate when the solution is quite cold. The HYDROCYANIC ACID solution (or the solution containing it) is xnJKed with ferrous sulphate, which has been exposed to the air for a while ; then potassic hydrate is added, when a bluish-green precipitate forms, which consists of prussian blue and ferric hydrate. Heat, then add HC1, when the hydrate will dissolve and leave prussian blue undissolved. If hydro- cyan^yicid is present in only minute quantities, the fluid ply appears green after adding HCl, and it is only after long standing that a small precipitate falls. For the detection of HYDROCHLORIC and HYDROBROMIC ACID, hydrocyani^fend hydriodic acid must be removed. All the radicals present in the solution to be tested must be con- verte^^nto silver salts and ignited. The argentic cyanide wiJ^^^W)y be decomposed, leaving the argentic chloride, bi^^^^Bnd iodide unaltered. The residue is then fused with Na 2 C0 3 + K 2 0, then boiled with H 2 0; sodic and potas- sic chloride, bromide, and iodide are then in solution ; or the fused silver salts may be easily decomposed by means of zinc and H 2 S0 4 , and the whole allowed to stand for some time. The solution, containing the soluble zincic chloride, bromide, or iodide, is filtered oiitftom the metallic silver. If to the , mixed sodic or zincic s^^^p solution of one part of cupr^HMphate and two and affll^parts of ferrous sulphate THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 149 be added, the sodic or zincic iodide will be decomposed and cuprous iodide (Cu 2 l 2 ) will be precipitated as a dirty- white precipitate. The addition of a little ammonic hydrate helps the complete precipitation. From HYDROBKOMIC ACID, hydriodic acid is separated most accurately by palladious chloride, which only precipitates the hydriodic acid as palladious iodide. From hydrochloric it is separated by palladious nitrate. HYDKOBROMIC ACID, in presence of hydriodic acid and hydro- chloric acid, may be detected, viz. : " Mix the fluid with a few drops of dilute H 2 S0 4 , then with some starch-paste, and add a little red fuming nitric acid or, better still, a solution of hypo- nitric acid in sulphuric acid, whereupon the iodine rej^ion will show itself immediately. Add now chlorine water^Irop by drop, until that reaction has disappeared; and then add some more chlorine water to set the bromine also free, which may then be separated and identified," viz. : The substance to be examined is placed in a test-tube, and a little carbonic di- sulphide or chloroform is added, which gathers as a globule at the bottom ; dilute chlorine water is then added drop bydrop, the whole being agitated. When bromine is present 'W con- siderable quantities (e. g., 1 of bromine to 1000 of water), the globule acquires a reddish-yellow color; with very minute quantities (e. g., 1 of bromine to 30,000 of water), it still has a perceptible pale-yellow tint. , 3 HYDROCHLORIC ACID. Hydrochloric acid may be said to be present traces of iodine and bromine have been found ; if the^re'cipi- tate by argentic nitrate is quite large, and is not soluble in- nitric acid. METALLIC CHLORIDE. Metallic chlorides are detected in the presence of metallic bromides, viz. : The metaU|*chlorides and bromides are trit- urated with potassic eliminate, the mixture treated wjfc sul- phuric acid in a tubulated retort, and a gentle heat applied ; 150 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. a deep brownish-red gas is evolved, which condenses into a fluid, and passes over into the receiver. If this distillate is mixed with ammonic hydrate in excess, if a metallic chloride is present, a yellow tint is imparted to the liquid by the am- monic chromate which forms ; upon the addition of an acid, the color of the solution changes to a reddish-yellow, owing to the formation of ammonic dichromate. In the case of a metal- lic bromide, the distillate does not turn yellow, but becomes colorless upon supersaturation with ammonic hydrate. NITRIC ACID (HN0 3 ). If ferrous sulphate is added very carefully to a solution con- taining a nitrate (with the same volume of pure sulphuric acid as the nitrate), so that the fluids do not mix, the stratum, where the two fluids are in contact, shows a purple, afterward a brown, or in cases where only minute quantities of nitric acid are present, a reddish color. If the fluids are mixed, a clear brownish-purple liquid is obtained. CHLORIC ACID (HC10 3 ). When sulphuric acid is poured into a solution containing a chlorate (as, for example, potassic chlorate), there will be pro- duced potassic perchlorate (KC10 4 ), potassic hydrosulphate (KHS0 4 ) ; and a bright yellow gas, perchloric oxide (C1 2 4 ), is evolved : This gas has an aromatic odor, and colors the solution yel- low. If the solution be heated (which should be done with only a small quantity, and with a great deal of care), a crack- ing sound occurs. PHOSPHORIC ACID (H 3 P0 4 ). Add to the solution suppose^Jk) contain phosphoric acid, ammonic hydrate in excess, then ammonic chloride, and then magnesic sulphate ; there will be precipitated ammonio-mag- THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 151 nesian phosphate (NH 4 ) 2 Mg 2 P 2 8 . The precipitate is white, and if kept in a warm place (not too hot) it subsides quickly. If a solution containing phosphoric acid be added drop by drop to a solution of ammonic molybdate in nitric acid, there is formed in the cold, either immediately or after the lapse of some time, & pulverulent pale-yellow precipitate, which gathers on the sides and bottom of the tube. If the phosphoric acid is only present in quantity (0.0002 grm.), it is necessary to heat gently (not above 100 F.), and to wait a few hours. ( OXALIC ACID (C 2 H 2 4 ). HYDROFLUORIC ACID (HF). Add ammonic hydrate, then calcic chloride ; if a precipitate is produced, add acetic acid; if not dissolved, test a portion of the original solution by adding some finely-pulverized man- ganese dioxide and a few drops of sulphuric acid for OXALIO ACID. If present, a lively effervescence ensues, caused by escaping carbonic oxide : Test another portion of the original substance for HYDKOFLTJ- OEIC ACID. Mix together the substance to be tested with sul- phuric acid (so that a thin paste is made) in a platinum crucible, and cover with a watch-glass which has been coated on the convex side with bees- wax, and a few marks made with a pin through the wax to the glass ; fill the concave side with water,, and heat the crucible gently for an hour or so, when the marks made by the pin will be etched into tjie glass by the action of the hydrofluoric acid evolved, and the marks will not be removed by washing. BORACIC ACID (H 3 B0 3 ). Add to a portion of the original solution, hydrochloric acid until distinct acid reaction ; then dip a slip of turmeric paper in the solution ; then dry the paper at 112 F., when, if boracic acid was present, the paper will show a peculiar red tint 152 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. (H. Rose). If this peculiar red-tinted paper be moistened with an alkali or alkaline carbonate, its color passes into bluish or greenish-black. Hydrochloric acid restores the red tint (A. Yogel; H. Ludwig). Malvern W. lies, Ph.B., has discovered what may be called the most reliable test for boracic acid and borates known. It consists in simply dipping a platinum-wire in glycerine, then into the finely-powdered substance, and then holding the same in a gas flame, when the flame will be colored green. By this method boracic acid has been detected in substances when, by all other tests, its pres- ence could not be demonstrated. SILICIC ACID (H 4 Si0 4 ). This acid has probably been found already. Evaporate some of original substance with hydrochloric acid to dry ness ; moisten with hydrochloric acid, and dissolve in water. If Si0 2 remains, silicic acid is present. (Phosphorous bead.) CHROMIC ACID (H 2 Cr0 4 ). The yellow or red color of the original solution, or the purple-red color of the precipitate produced by argentic nitrate, points to the presence of chromic acid. If there re- mains any doubt, add plumbic acetate to a portion of the original solution acidified with acetic acid, when basic plumbic chromate will be precipitated (Pb 2 Cr0 5 = 2PbO.Cr0 3 ). ORGANIC ACIDS. Before testing for organic acid, remove, first, Group I, II, III, according to Scheme, as their presence might disturb the reactions. Make a portion of the fluid from which Group I, II, III have been removed slightly alkaline by adding NH 4 OH ; add some NH 4 C1, then CaCl, and shake vigorously, and let the mixture stand at rest for some minutes (ten to twenty). A precipitate forms ; filter. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 153 PRECIPITATE. FILTRATE. Digest and shake the pre- Add some more calcic chloride, then add alcohol. A pre- cipitate with NaHO ; dilute with water ; filter, and boil fil- cipitate forms ; filter. trate for some time. If a pre- PRECIPITATE. FILTRATE. cipitate seoarates, TARTARIC Wash with some alcohol, Heat to expel alcohol, neu- AciDtC^HsOa) maybeassumed dissolve on filter with HC1 ; tralize exactly with HC1, nnd to be present. Pour over the precipitated calcic tartrate NH*OH in a test-tube, then add AgNO 3 , and heat, when pulverulent metallic silver add NH,OH to feeble alka- line reaction, and boil for some time. A heavy white precipitate forms ; filter. addFe. 2 C! 8 . If a light-brown flocculent precipitate is pro- duced, filter, digest, and heat-the washed precipitate with* NH 4 OH in excess; will separate. PRECIPITATE. FILTRATE. filter, evaporate filtrate near- Calcic cit- Add alcohol ly to dryness, and divide in trate dissolve again, which halves. in HC1; add NH 4 OH, and will precipi- tate calcic 1ST HALF. 2D HALF. boil; if calcic malate ; dis- Add alcohol Add hydro- citrate is pre- solve in acetic and baric chloric acid, cipitated acid ; add al- chloride; a when BEN- again, CIT- cohol, and white precipi- ZOIC ACID RIC ACID filter if neces- tate will con- (C 7 H B 2 ) will (C 6 H 8 7 ) is sary. The sist of baric be precipi- present. filtrate is pre- succinate, tated as a daz- cipitated with BaC 4 H,0 4 , zling white tate, and neutralized with ammonic hydrate ; wash precip- cates the pres- sparkling powder. itate; stir in water decomposed by H 2 S, and evaporate ence of suc- u Benzoic acid filtrate to dryness. The malic acid thus obtained, if heated in a glass tube, is CITR1C ACID * may generally be detected converted into maleic add (C 4 H 4 O), which will condense by pouring a to crystals in the colder part of the tube. This indicates little hydro- the presence of MALIC ACID (CH 6 O 5 ). chloric acid over the orier- inal solution, when the benzoic acid will remain undissolved ; if this be heated on a platinum-foil, it will fuse, and afterward volatilize completely. The fumes of benzoic acid cause a peculiar irritating sensation in the throat and provoke coughing : when cau- tiously cooled, they condense to brilliant needles ; when kindled, they burn with a lumin- ous sooty flame." ACETIC ACID (C 2 H 4 2 ). Introduce a portion of the original solution in a small tube, pour some alcohol over it, add about an equal volume of sulphuric acid, and heat to boiling. Evolution of the odor of acetic acid demonstrates its presence, increased by shaking. FORMIC ACID (CH 2 2 ). When neither chromic or tartaric acid have been found, add to solution argentic nitrate in excess the sodic hydrate until the fluid is exactly neutralized, and boil. If formic acid is present, the argentic formiate which was produced is decomposed and metallic silver precipitated If chromic and tartaric acid have been found, mix the orig- inal solution with some nitric acid ; add plumbic oxide in ex- cess ; shake the mixture ; filter ; add to the filtrate dilute sul- phuric acid in excess, and distil. Add to the distillate ferric oxide (Fe 2 3 ), when the fluid will become a blood-red color, owing to the formation of a soluble neutral salt. 154: A COMPLETE TABLE OF BY JAMES (OLD SYSTEM OF NAME. AMMONIA. POTASH. CARBONATE OF POTASH. BICARBONATE OF POTASH. Salts of Potash, - Soda - - - - - No precipitate. No precipitate - - - - - - - - - Lithia .... TPlia cflTYiA precipitate, but after a time a granular one. J. lie ralilL. Baryta, .... A voluminous precipitate, solu- ble in a large quantity of wa- ter. The same. A white preci- pitate, soluble with, effervesces in free acids. The same. Strontia, - Lime - . . No precipitate unless left for some days. ociine as otron- Same as Bary- ta; not quite so soluble. Same as Baryta. JL he same as Same as Baryta. rpu/i como tia. quite so soluble. Baryta & Stron- tia. J. 116 balDC. Magnesia, - - - A bulky preci- pitate complete- ly soluble in Mu- riate of Ammo- nia. A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess ; solu- ble in Muriate of Ammonia. A white preci- S'tate, soluble in uriate of Am- monia. No precipitate unless solution is boiled, then a strong one. Alumina, - - - - A white preci- pitate, insoluble in Muriate of Ammonia in ex- cess, but soluble in Potash. A white preci- A precipitate soluble in ex- cess, insoluble in Muriate of Ammonia. A precipitate A white preci- pitate, soluble in caustic potash. A precipitate, The same ; Car- bonic Acid gas is disengaged. The same. pitate, insoluble in excess and in Muriate of Am- monia. completely solu- ble in excess. soluble in a great excess of preci- pitant. Thoria, - - - - Yf* HO A gelatinous precipitate, in- soluble inexcess. The same. HPVio corn A A white preci- pitate, soluble in excess. The same. A white, volu- minous precipi- tate, in soluble in excess. Ji lie balllc. A. whit6 prcci* pitate, slightly soluble in a great excess. pletely soluble in a great excess. Zirconia, - - - - A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess. The same, per- fectly insoluble in excess. A white preci- pitate, slightly soluble in a great excess. The same. Cerium, - - - - (Protoxide, Peroxide) A white preci- pitate, turning brown, insoluble in excess. The same. A white preci- pitate, slightly soluble in ex- cess. The same. UNIVERSITY ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. HAYWOOD. NOMENCLATURE.) CARBONATE OF AMMONIA. SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. HYDROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA. YELLOW PRUSSI- ATE OF POTASH. BED PRUSSIATE OF POTASH. No precipitate. No precipitate. - - - - - - - - - The same. No precipitate. _ _ _ The same. No precipitate. _ -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ The same. No precipitate. _ _ _ - - - _ _ _ Same as the Bi- carbonate of Pot- ash, soluble in Muriate of Am- monia. No precipitate. No precipitate if the test is pure. The same. No precipitate in any solution. A white precipi- tate of Alumina, soluble in Potash. No precipitate. No precipitate. A white preci- pitate, soluble in excess. No precipitate. A white precipi- tate,soluble in Pot- ash. No precipitate. _ _ - The same. No precipitate. A white precipi- tate of Thoria. A white, heavy precipitate, solu- ble in acids. No precipitate. The same. No precipitate. A precipitate of A white preci- pitate. No precipitate. Thesame,more easily soluble in excess. No precipitate. A voluminous precipitate. A white preci- pitate. No precipitate. The same. No precipitate. A white precipi- tate of Protoxide. A white preci- pitate. No precipitate. 156 A COMPLETE TABLE OF BY JAMES (OLD SYSTEM OF NAME. OXALIC ACID. IODIDE or POTASSIUM. SULPHATE OF POTASH. PHOSPHATE OF SODA. Salts of Potash, - T ifhia No precipitate _ _ _ A white preci- pitate, if Ammo- nia be added. No precipitate; but if Ammo- nia be added, a strong one. Baryta, - - - - No precipitate unless left for some days. A voluminous, white precipi- tate, insoluble in strong acids. A white preci- pitate, soluble in free acids. Strontia, - - - - A troubling in strong solutions; if Ammonia be added, a precipi- tate. An immediate precipitate, solu- ble in Nitric or Muriatic Acid. No precipitate. The same as Baryta ; rather more soluble in water. No precipitate in dilute solu- tions, but a white one if strong. Same as Baryta. Same as Baryta. Magnesia, - - - No precipitate unless Ammonia be added. No precipitate. A white precipi- tate, particularly if Ammonia be added. Alumina, - - - - No precipitate. _ After a time crystals of Alum are formed. A white precipi- tate, soluble in Acids or Potash. Glucina, - - - - No precipitate. No crystals are formed. A voluminous precipitate. Thoria, .... A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess. A white preci- pitate, soluble in Muriatic Acid. _ - _ Thrown down as a double salt, insoluble in ex- cess. After a time a precipitate is formed, but is easy soluble in an excess. A white, flaky- precipitate. A white pre- cipitate, soluble in acids, but is again precipita- ted by boiling. Zirconia, .... A white precip- itate, soluble in a great excess or in Muriatic Acid. A white precip- itate,eveninacid solutions ; spar- ingly soluble in Muriatic Acid. - - - A white preci- pitate, almost in- soluble in water and acids. After a time a precipitate, in- soluble in ex- cess. A voluminous precipitate. A white precipi- tate. (Protoxide, Peroxide) ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. HAYWOOD. NOMENCLATURE ) 157 METALLIC ZINC. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. OBSERVATIONS. On Platinum wire tinges outer flame violet ; with Bo- rax and Oxide of Nickel, a blue bead. The bead of Nickel and Bo- rax is not changed by Soda ; heated on Platinum wire tinges outer flame yellow. Tinges outer flame of a car- mine color ; the double phos- phate is fusible. Cannot easily be distin- guished ; the Chloride tinges outer flame greenish ; infusi- ble alone; fusible with fluxes. Tinges outer flame carmine red when heated on Platinum wire. Same as Stroutia, only not so bright; gives a powerful white light when strongly heated. When a salt of Magnesia, that has been heated, is mois- tened with Nitrate of Cobalt, it acquires a pale red color. Treated as the above on Charcoal, a fine blue color is communicated to the assay. When moistened with Ni- trate of Cobalt, becomes dark gray, or nearly black. Not easily distinguished ; produces a colorless bead with Borax. Y-ttria behaves in the manner as Glucina. Give a white precipitate with Tartaric Acid, a yellow one with Chloride of Platinum, and a gelatinous one with Hydrofluosilicic Acid, which distinguishes it from other substances. Gives no .precipitate with Tartaric Acid, or Chloride of Platinum, by which it may be dis- tinguished. No precipitate with Chloride of Platinum ; an easily be distinguished from the former. Easily distinguished by forming a white precipitate with Sulphates and Carbonates. The Chloride is insoluble in Alcohol. Distinguished from Baryta by giving a pre- cipitate with Hydrofluosilicic Acid, and by the filtered liquid of the still Alkaline Sulphate giving a precipitate with Baryta water. Distinguished from Baryta and Strontia by giving no precipitate with Sulphates when diluted ; separated in the state of Nitrates and Chlorides by Alcohol. Easily distinguished and separated by Sul- phates from the above, or by the precipitates being all soluble in Muriate of Ammonia. Distinguished from the Alkalies by giving a white precipitate with Ammonia, and may be separated from most other substances by Caustic Potash. May be distinguished from Alumina by the Carbonates, from Magnesia by being insolu- ble in Muriate of Ammonia, and from Lime and the Alkalies by Ammonia. Thoria maybe distinguished and separated from the above substances, as it is perfectly insoluble after ignition in all acids except the Sulphuric. Distinguished from Thoria by Sulphate of Potash, and from the other substances de- scribed by the same means as Thoria. Cannot easily be distin- guished from similar sub- stances. Distinguished from Thoria by Sulphate of Potash and Oxalic Acid, and from Yttria by its Oxide, after ignition, being insoluble in all Acids except the Sulphuric. Converted to Peroxide, sol- Distinguished from other substances pre- uble in Borax, producing a viously described by turning into a red Per- red bead ; color flies on cool- oxide when heated in contact with the atmos- ing. phere. 158 A COMPLETE TABLE OF NAME. AMMONIA. POTASH. CARBONATE OF POTASH. BICARBONATE OF POTASH. Manganese, - - - (Protoxide) A white preci- pitate, soluble in Muriate of Am- monia, turning brown at the sur- face. A precipitate, turning brown, insoluble in Mu- riate of Ammo- nia. A permanent, white precipi- tate, slightly sol- uble in Muriate of Ammonia. The same, un- less very dilute. Manganese, - - - (Sesquioxide and Peroxide) KflMI A dark-brown precipitate, in- soluble in Muri- ate of Ammonia. A white, gelat- inous precipi- tate, soluble in excess. The same. The same as Ammonia. A brown, volu- minous precipi- tate. A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess, but soluble in Muri- ate of Ammonia or Caustic Alka- lies. The same. A white preci- Eitate, which be- aves in the same manner. Cobalt, .... (Protoxide or Peroxide) Nirkpl - A blue precipi- tate, soluble in excess, forming a greenish so- lution, turning brown. A slight green troubling, then a clear, blue solu- tion, precipitate green by Potash. A green preci- pitate, soluble in Muriate of Am- monia, turning brown in contact with the air. A reddish- brown precipi- tate, insoluble in Muriate of Am- monia. A blue preci- pitate, insoluble, turning green and pale, red when boiled. An apple-green precipitate, in- soluble in ex- cess. A green preci- pitate, insoluble in excess, turn- ing brown at the surface. The same. A red precipi- tate, which boil- ing renders blue. A light-green precipitate. A white preci- S'tate, soluble in uriate of Am- monia. A light-brown precipitate. A red precipi- tate. The same ; Car- bonic Acid gas is given off. The same. The same ; Car- bonic Acid is dis- engaged. (Protoxide and Peroxide) (Protoxide) Iron ..--- (Sesquioxide and Peroxide) Cadmium, - - - Lpart A white preci- pitate, soluble in a slight excess. A white preci- pitate, insoluble in an excess, ex- cept with Ace- tates. A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess. A white preci- pitate, soluble in a great excess. A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess. A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess, but soluble in Pot- ash. A white preci- pitate ; Carbonic Acid is disen- gaged. A similar preci- pitate with an evolution of gas. (Protoxide Peroxide) Bismuth, - - - - A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess. The same. The same. The same. Copper, --- - (Deutoxide) A green preci- pitate and deep purple solution ; again precipi- tated by Potash if boiled. A green preci- pitate, which boiling renders black. A green preci- pitate, which boiling renders black. A light-green, precipitate, solu- ble in excess. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. 159 CARBONATE OF AMMONIA. SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. HYDROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA. YELLOW PRUSSI- ATE OP POTASH. RED PRUSSIATE OF POTASH. The same. No precipitate unless Ammonia be added. A flesh-red pre- cipitate, turning brownish in con- tact with the air. A pale-reel pre- cipitate, soluble in free acids. A brown preci- pitate, insoluble in free acids. The same. A milk-white precipitate of Sulphur ; solu- tion then con- tains a Proto- salt. The flesh-red pre- cipitate ; the preci- pitate by Ammonia is turned flesh-red by it. A grayish-green precipitate. The same as the Protoxide. A white preci- pitate, soluble in excess. A white preci- pitate if neutral, but none if acid. A white precipi- tate, insoluble in excess. A gelatinous, white precipi- tate, insoluble in Muriatic Acid. A yellowish-red precipitate, solu- ble in Muriatic Acid. A red precipi- tate, soluble in Muriate of Am- monia. No precipitate ; solution turns darker. A black precipi- tate, insoluble in excess. A green preci- pitate turning gray, insoluble in Muriatic Acid. A reddish- brown precipi- tate, insoluble in Muriatic Acid. A green preci- pitate, soluble in excess, forming a bluish solution. No precipitate ; solution turns darker. A black precipi- tate, slightly sol- uble in excess. A white preci- pitate, slightly tending to green, insoluble in Mu- riatic Acid. A yellowish- green precipitate, insoluble in Mu- riatic Acid. The same. No precipitate. A black precipi- tate,turningbrown at the surface. A light-blue Rrecipitate, turn- ]g darker, in- soluble in Muri- atic Acid. An immediate dark-blue preci- Gitate, insoluble i Acids. A light-brown precipitate. A milky-white precipitate of Sulphur; solu- tion then con- tains Protoxide. A black precipi- tate, same as Pro-, toxide. An immediate dark-blue preci- pitate, insoluble in Muriatic Acid. No precipitate. A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess. A yellow preci- pitate. A yellowish pre- cipitate, insoluble in excess. A slightly yel- low precipitate, soluble in Muri- atic Acid. A yellow preci- pitate, soluble in Muriatic Acid. The same. A black preci- pitate, in both neutral and acid solutions. A black precipi- tate, insoluble in excess. A white preci- pitate. No precipitate. The same. A black preci- pitate, in both neutral and acid solutions. A black precipi- tate, insoluble in excess. A white preci- pitate, soluble in Muriatic Acid. A pale-yellow precipitate, sol- uble in Mnriatic Acid. A green preci- pitate, soluble in excess, same as Ammonia. A black or dark- brown precipi- tate, in both neu- tral and acid so- lutions. The same ; insol- uble in excess.. A reddish- brown precipi- tate, insoluble in Muriatic Acid. A yellowish- green precipitate, insoluble in Mu- riatic Acid. 160 A COMPLETE TABLE OF NAME. OXALIC ACID. IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. SULPHATE OF POTASH. PHOSPHATE OF SODA. Manganese, - - - (Protoxide) A white crys- talline deposit, unless very di- lute. No precipitate. A permanent, white preci pi tate. Manganese, - - - ^Sesquioxide and Peroxide) No precipitate, but the solution is soon rendered colorless. _ - _ - - - A brown preci- pitate in neutral solutions. Zinc ..... i A white preci- pitate, soluble in free Acids and Alkalies. No preciprt&te. A white preci- pitate, soluble in free Acids and Alkalies. Cobalt, .... (Protoxide or Peroxide) NirkAl A slight troub- ling and shortly a pale-red, preci- pitate. No precipitate. A blue precipi- tate. (Protoxide and Peroxide) No immediate precipitate, but a slow deposit. No precipitate. A white precipi- tate, slightly ten- ding to green. (Protoxide) Iron A yellow color, and shortly a precipitate. No precipitate. No precipitate. A white preci- pitate, turning green. (Seequioxide and Peroxide) No precipitate ^ solution turns yellowish. No precipit&te. A white precipi- tate, which Am- monia turns brown, and at length dissolves. Cadmium, - - - Lead - .... An immediate precipitate, solu- ble in Ammonia. . A white preci- pitate. (Protoxide, Peroxide) An immediate, white precipi- tate. A yellow preci" pitate, soluble in a great excess. A white preci- pitate, very in- soluble. A white precipi- tate, soluble in Potash. Bismuth, - - - - No immediate precipitate, but after a time a granular one. A brown preci- pitate, soluble in excess. No precipitate except from the water of solu- tion. A white preci- pitate. Copper, - ... (Deutoxide) A greenish pre- cipitate. A white preci- pitate, soluble in a great excess. No precipitate. A greenish- white precipitate, soluble in Am- monia. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. 161 METALLIC ZINC. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. OBSERVATIONS. No precipitate. Is precipitated as small metallic spangles. Precipitates in a crystalline me- tallic state. Precipitates it from the milky solution, even as a spongy mass. Zinc and Iron both precipitate metallic Copper from all its solu- tions. Pr6duces a bead of an ame- thyst color in the outer flame with Borax, which disap- pears in the inner flame. Same as Protoxide. On Charcoal with Soda a coat of white Oxide is formed; with Nitrate of Cobalt they assume a green color. The smallest portion colors Borax strongly blue; reduced to a metallic state with Soda; magnetic. With Borax in the outer flame, a reddish color, which disappears when cold ; with Soda, a white magnetic powder. With Borax in the outer flame, a red bead, turning lighter as it cools : interior flame a green bead, turning lighter on cooling. Peroxide behaves in the same manner; with Soda, a magnetic powder is ob- tained. Heated on Charcoal, in the inner flame a brownish-red powder sublimes. Heated on Charcoal with Soda, is reduced to metallic globules, which are mallea- ble; a yellow powder sub- limes: produces clear glass with Borax. On Charcoal are easily re- duced to brittle metallic glo- bules ; a yellow oxide sub- limes ; with Borax, a clear glass. Outer flame with Borax, a fine green bead ; inner flame dirty red ; with Soda is re- duced. The reaction of these salts with Hydrosul- phate of Ammonia is so well characterized that they cannot be mistaken. The Peroxide is always converted into the Deutoxide by solution in an Acid. Muriatic Acid converts it into Protoxide by boiling. The solution in Potash is precipitated by Hyd. Sul. 'Am., which distinguishes it from earthy salts, and may easily be separated from other metals by Ammonia. Easily distinguished from all other salts by their behavior with Hydrosulphate of Am- monia. Distinguished from Cobalt by Ammonia and Potash, aad from other substances in the same way as Cobalt. The Salts of Iron are easily distinguished by their behavior with the Prussiates ; may be separated from Manganese by Succinate of Soda. Peroxide is distinguished and separated from Protoxide by red Prussiate of Potash and Ammonia. Distinguished by Sulphuretted Hydrogen, and may;be separated from all the above by a bar of Zinc. Solutions of Lead give a precipitate with Sulphuric Acid and sulphates, and therefore may be distinguished from most other metals. Muriatic Acid also precipitates Lead, but water dissolves the precipitate. May be detected by giving a precipitate with water alone. Salts of Copper can be easily distinguished from other salts by their behavior with Am- monia and Potash. 162 A COMPLETE TABLE OF NAME. AMMONIA. POTASH. CARBONATE OP POTASH. BICARBONATE OF POTASH. Silver, .... A brown preci- pitate, very solu- ble in excess, but is reprecipitated by Potash. A brown preci- pitate, insoluble in excess, but soluble in Am- monia. A white preci- pitate, soluble in Ammonia. The same. Mercury, - - - - (Protoxide) A black preci- pitate, soluble in excess. A black preci- pitate, soluble in excess. A dirty yellow precipitate, which boiling renders black. A white preci- \ pitate, rendered black by boiling. Mercury, - - - - J (Peroxide) A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess. A yellow or white precipi- tate, soluble in excess. A r e d d i s fa- brown precipi- tate ; if it con- tains Muriate of Ammonia, a white one. A r e d d i s fa- brown precipi- tate, either im- mediate or after a time. Platina, - - - - finid A yellow preci- jpirate, soluble in excess, insoluble in free acids. A yellow pre- cipifate, soluble in excess when boiled, and again precipitated by acids. At iivwf Yin A yellow preci- pitate, insoluble in excess. The same ; Mu- riatic Acid must be added in all cases. Tin ------ A yellow preci" pitate. A white Dreci* j\L nrst no precipitate, but shortly a black one. A white Dreci- No precipitate. A white preci- No precipitate The same (Protoxide) Tin pitate, insoluble in excess. pitate, soluble in excess ; decom- posed by boiling. pitate, insoluble in excess. (Peroxide) A white preci- pitate, soluble in acids and in ex- cess. The same, sol- uble in excess. The s a m e ; deposits slowly again after solu- tion. A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess. Antimony, - - - A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess and in Muriatic Acid. The sane, sol- uble in Muriatic Acids. The same. The same. Chromium, - - - A greenish-blue precipitate, in- soluble in ex- cess. A green preci- pitate, soluble in excess ; again thrown down by boiling. A green preci- pitate, slightly soluble in ex- cess. The same ; rath- er lighter. Vanadium, - - - A grayish- white precipi- tate, turning red and dissolving. The same. A grayish- white precipi- tate, soluble in excess. The same. Columbium, - - - Is readily dis- solved, and may be again precipi- tated by acids. The same, in- soluble in strong acids. The same, and may be dissolved by Acetic Acid. The same. Iridium, - - - - A brown pre- cipitate, partly soluble, forming a purple solu- tion. A dark-brown precipitate. No precipitate; color destroyed. The same. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. 163 CAKBONATE OF AMMONIA. SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. HTDROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA. YELLOW PRUSSI- ATE OF POTASH. RED PRUSSIATE OF POTASH. A white preci- pitate, soluble in excess. A black preci- pitate, in both neutral and acid solutions. A black precipi- tate, insoluble in excess. A white preci- pitate. A reddish- brown precipi- tate. A gray or black precipitate. A black preci- pitate, in acid and neutral solu- tions. A black precipi- tate, insoluble in excess, partly sol- uble in Potash. A white, gelat- inous precipi- tate. A reddish- brown precipi- tate, turning white. A white preci- pitate. A black preci- pitate, turning white, and again black by an ex- cess, soluble in Potash. The same; solu- tion must be neu- tral. A white preci- pitate, turning blue. A yellow in most solutions. but none with the Perchloride. A yellow preci- pitate. A brown color and shortly a precipitate. A brown precipi- tate, soluble in a large excess. A yellow preci- pitate, solution turns darker. The same. A yellow preci- pitate, if neutral. A black preci- pitate, in both acid and neutral solutions. A brown precipi- tate, soluble in ex- cess. An emerald- green color. No precipitate. The same. A dark-brown precipitate, in both acid and neutral solu- tions. A brown precipi- tate, soluble in ex- cess, re precipita- ted by Muriatic Acid. A white, gelat- inous precipi- tate. A white preci- pitate, soluble in Muriatic Acid. The same. No immediate precipitate, but shortly a yellow one. A yellow preci- pitate, soluble in excess. No precipitate at first,but short- ly the whole forms a thick jelly. No precipitate. The same. A red precipi- tate in acid so- lutions. A red precipitate, soluble in an ex- cess. A white preci- pitate, insoluble in Muriatic Acid. No precipitate, but shortly a slight opacity. The same ; ap- proaching to vio- No precipitate in any solutions. A greenish preci- pitate. No precipitate. No precipitate* The same, in- soluble in excess. Generally a brown precipi- tate, in ether, acid,' or neutral solutions. A grayish-white precipitate. The same. - - No action with the Acid, but a brown precipitate with the Oxide. A yellowish- green precipi- tate. The same. A dark-brown precipitate. The same ; solu- ble in excess. No precipitate. 164 A COMPLETE TABLE OF NAME. OXALIC ACID. IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. SULPHATE OP POTASH. PHOSPHATE OP SODA. A white preci- pitate, soluble in Ammonia. Ayellowish pre- cipitate, soluble in excess. A white preci- pitate', unless the solution be di- luted ; soluble in water. A yellow preci- pitate, soluble in Ammonia. Mercury, - - - - (Protoxide) A white preci- pitate. A greenish-yel- low precipitate, rendered black by an excess and at length dis- solves. A white preci- pitate. A white preci- pitate. Mercury, - - - - (Peroxide) A white preci- pitate, but none in the Perchlo- ride. A fine scarlet precipitate, sol- uble in excess and in Muriatic Acid. A white preci- pitate. A white preci- pitate in most, but not in the Perchloride. Platina, - - - - TolH No precipitate. A dark color, and shortly the Gold is precipi- tated. A white preci- pitate. No precipitate. A deep-brown color and preci- pitate, which boiling reduces. A dark color and a yellowish precipitate. A yellowish Rrecipitate.turn- ig red, soluble in excess. No precipitate. No precipitate. No precipitate. A white preci- pitate, partial. No precipitate. No precipitate. No precipitate. A white preci- pitate. A white preci- pitate. Tin (Protoxide) Tin (Peroxide) Antimony, - - - A white preci- pitate, caused by water. The same. The same. The same. Chromium, - - - No precipitate. A greenish pre- cipitate, soluble in Muriatic Acid. No precipitate. A light-green precipitate. Vanadium, - - - - - - - - - No precipitate. No precipitate. Columbium, - - Dissolves the Oxides. - - - Fused with it, the Oxide re- mains after boil- ing. - - - Iridium, - - - - - - - - - - No precipitate or action. ._ _ _ ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. 165 METALLIC ZINC. BEFOUE THE BLOWPIPE. OBSERVATIONa Is precipitated in a metallic state. Forms a gray coating, which is an amalgam. Same as Pro- toxide. A black, metal- lic powder. A brown, bulky coating. Small grayish- white spangles of Tin. A white jelly_; Hydrogen gas is disengaged. Precipitated in the form of a black powder. No precipitate. Precipitated as a dark powder. With Borax in the outer flame, a milky glass ; with Soda is easily reduced. Heated in a glass tube with a little Soda, Mercury sub- limes and condenses in small globules. Same as Protoxide. Completely reduced, but rives no color to fluxes or Same as Platina, insoluble in all acids except Nitro-Mu- riatic. Easily reduced with Soda ; deprives a bead of Copper and microcosmic salt of its green color. Reduced on Charcoal, forms a white enamel with glass ; does not dissolve easily in Borax. Reduced with Soda, rapidly oxidizes and sublimes in the outer flame as a thick, white smoke. A fine emerald-green bead, both in the inner and outer flame, with fluxes. In the inner flame, with Borax, a green glass, outer becomes yellow. Effervesces with Soda; a clear glass with Borax, or the Phosphoric Salt. No action with fluxes ; no odor ; may be coupled with Muriatic Acid throws down a white preci- pitate, insoluble in acids, but soluble in Am- monia, which distinguishes it from all other substances. Muriatic Acid gives a white precipitate, insoluble in acids, which Ammonia renders black, but does not dissolve ; by this it may be distinguished. Persalts of Mercury are easily recognized by Sulphuretted Hydrogen and Iodide of Po- tassium. Easily recognized by its behavior with Pot- ash and Ammonia ; may be separated by Mu- riate of Potash. Protochloride of Tin gives a deep purple color and precipitate ; Sulphate of Iron throws down the gold, which distinguishes it from most other metals. The behavior of these salts with Gold, as above, is sufficient to distinguish them. The Peroxide is insoluble in all Acids after ignition ; Nitric Acid oxidizes Tin, but does not- dissolve the Oxide. The Oxide is volatile and insoluble in Nitric Acid ; may be distinguished from Tin by Sulphuretted Hydrogen ; water only pre- cipitates part of the Oxide. Its solutions are usually green, and may be distinguished from most other solutions by Sulphuretted Hydrogen. All its salts have a blue color : distinguished from Iron by Hydrosulphate of Ammonia. When fused with Caustic or Carbonated Alkalies, the whole is soluble in water. Fused with Carbonate of Potash, the result is not soluble in water, but dissolves in Mu- riatic Acid, producing various colors. 166 A COMPLETE TABLE OP NAME. AMMONIA. POTASH. CARBONATE OP POTASH. BICARBONATE OF POTASH. Rhodium, - - - Shortly a lem- on-yellow color. A yellow preci- pitate, soluble in acids. A gelatinous Crecipitate when oiled with the double Chloride. No precipitate Palladium, - - - A yellowish precipitate, slightly soluble in excess. An orange-col- ored precipitate from the Nitrate. A deep-brown precipitate, in- srluble in ex- cess. The same. Osmium, - - - - No precipitate ; solution turns yellow. Fused with the whole, is soluble in water. No precipitate ; solution turns yellowish. The same. Tellurium, - - - A white preci- pitate, soluble in excess. A white preci- pitate, soluble in excess ; repreci- pitated by acids. The same. The same. Titanium, - - - A white preci- pitate, insoluble in excess. The same. The same. The same. Tungsten, - - - The Acid dis- solves, but is again precipita- ted by stronger acids. The same. Is insoluble in water when fused in it. - - - Uranium, - - - A brown, flaky precipitate, in- soluble in ex- cess. A yellowish precipitate, in- soluble in ex- cess. The same, slightly soluble. The same. Molybdenum, - - The Acid is dis- solved, and the Protoxide forms a brown precipi- tate. The same ; pre- cipitate insolu- ble in excess. A brown preci- pitate, soluble in excess. The same. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. 167 CARBONATE OF AMMONIA. SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. HYDROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA. YELLOW PRUSSI- ATE OF POTASH. RED PRUSSIATE OF POTASH. No precipitate. - - - No precipitate. No precipitate. - _ _ The same. A dark-brown precipitate. The same. An orange or olive yellow pre- cipitate. _ _ _ The same. A brown preci- pitate. The same; solu- ble in excess. No precipitate. No precipitate. The same. A black preci- pitate, soluble in Potash. The same, or in excess. No precipitate. No precipitate. The same. No precipitate. A dirty-green pre- cipitate, unless Tartaric Acid be present, then no precipitate. A deep orange precipitate. The same. No precipitate. A precipitate, sol- uble in excess. _ A yellowish precipitate, solu- ble in excess. No precipitate. A black precipi- tate, slightly solu- ble in excess. A brownish-red precipitate. _ _ _ The same. A brown preci- pitate, in Alka- line solutions. The samej if Mu- riatic Acid be added. A brown preci- pitate. The same. 168 A COMPLETE TABLE OF NAME. OXALIC ACID. IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. SULPHATE OF POTASH. PHOSPHATE OF SODA. Rhodium, - - - Fused with the Bi sulphate, the whole dissolves in water. Palladium, - - No action. _ _ __ An orange-yel- low precipitate. - - - Osmium, - - - - Tarns darker, but is not preci- pitated. No precipitate or action. Titanium, - - - A white floccu- lent precipitate. - _ _ - - - - - ~ Tungsten, - - - _____ - - - Does not form a double salt. _ _ _ Uranium, ... _ _ _ - - - No double salt. _ _ - ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. 169 METALLIC ZINC. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. OBSERVATIONS. Precipitated from double Chloride of Rho- dium and Soda. Precipitated in a metallic state. Precipitated as a dark powder. Is precipitated der. pow- A deep-blue color is produced. In Muriatic Acid a blue Oxide is formed. In a Muriatic solution of the Acid a blue and red powder. No action with fluxes. Same as Rhodium. Gives a strong odor of Chlorine ; has no action with fluxes ; maybe cupelled with Lead. A white glass, when cold ; with fluxes ; fumes when heated alone. With Soda, a yellow glass, opaque when cold ; with Bo- rax and inner flame, a blue glass. With Borax, a clear glass in the outer flame, yellow in the inner; blood-red with Iron and Phosphorous salt. On Platinum with Borax, a clear, yellow glass, outer flame, dirty green, not vola- tile. Sublimes as a white pow- der ; a clear glass with Bo- rax. Insoluble in acids after ignition ; distin- guished and separated by Bisulphate of Potash ; the double Chloride is soluble in Alcohol. The Cyanide of Mercury will easily sepa- rate Palladium as a yellow precipitate : the Chloride is soluble in Alcohol. Tincture of Galls gives a purple precipi- tate ; separated by distillation. May be separated from most other metals, combined with Chlorine or Hydrogen, both compounds being volatile. Is precipitated by boiling ; distinguished from other metals by its behavior with Tar- taric Acid and Hydrosulphate of Ammonia. Sulphuric, Nitric, and Muriatic Acid preci- pitate its Alkaline solutions white, turning yellow when boiled with Nitro-Muriatic Acid. Separated from most metals by dissolving in Carbonate of Ammonia or Soda ; its solu- tions are green. Distinguished by Carbonates, but separated by Hydrosulphate of Ammonia. 170 ZETTNOW'S SCHEME FOR QUALITATIVE ANALY ARRANGED BY FOR THE STUDENTS OF THE SCHOOL Add hydrochloric acid to the solution, wash, and filter. Precipitate. Boil with water and filter. Add excess of dilute Solu- tion. Add H 2 S0 4 Residue. Treat with (NH,)HO. Precipitate. Agitate with considerable cold water and filter. To 4 add BaH 2 O a and boil. Place -- when wash Pre- cip- itate Pb. Solu- Eesidue tion. turns Add gray HNO 3 . or black, Filtrate. Add excess of (NH 4 ) 2 C 2 O 4 Residue. Add (NH 4 )HO and (NH 4 ),C 4 H 4 6 , digest and filter. Volatilized. Solution. (NH 4 ).,0. Add Test gas excess with HC1 of and litmus. (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 and Vola- tilized. Collect spots on cold porce- lain, and treat with NaClO. Spots dissolve; As. Spots do not dissolve ; Sb. Test also with AgN0 3 . Hg-. Pre- cip- itate As. Precipitate Ca. Residue. Boil with Na 2 C0 3 , filter, wash, dissolve on filter with HC1, neutralize filtrate with (NH 4 )HO, and divide into two parts. Filtrate. Add H(C,H,0 2 ) and K 2 CrO 4 (NH 4 ) 2 C 2 4 , warm, filter, evaporate to dryness, and ignite residue. Test on platinum wire in colorless flame; intense yellow color indicates Na. Violet color seen through blue glass indicates K. Precipitate Pb. 1st Haff. Add excess of solution ofSrS0 4 . Second Half. Add excess of H 2 Si 3 Fl e and alco- hol. Shake, filter, dilute with water, expel alcohol by evaporation, add solution of CaSO 4 , and after one or two miuutes a precipitate Sr. Precipitate Ba. In this scheme regard is had to the following sub- stances in aqueous solution : I. PbO, Ag 2 O, HgO. II. CaO, BaO, SrO. III. (NH 4 ) a O, Na 2 0, K 2 0. IV. As 2 3 , As 2 5 , Sb. 2 3 , Sb 2 O 5 , SnO, SnO a , Hg 2 0, CuO, CdO, Bu0 3 . V. FeO, Fe a 3 , Cr a O,, Al a O,. VI. MnO, MgO, CoO, NiO. VII. ZnO. N. B. To test for zinc, mix HC1, H 2 S0 4 , filter, add NaHO in and NH 4 C1 to filtrate, boil until ter. Add K 4 Fe a Cy 8 to solution, SIS WITHOUT THE USE OF H 2 S OR (NfU) HS, H. C. BOLTON, Ph.D., OF MINES, COLUMBIA COLLEGE. 171 Filtrate. H^SOi and wash on filter. Filtrate. Divide the solution tnto two unequal parts, \ and |. of the solution in a Marsh's apparatus, add pieces of zinc and a strip of platinum foil, but little zinc remains heat 15 or 20 minutes, and throw contents of flask on a filter ; thoroughly. Treat with strong HNO 3 , and filter. Filtrate. Boil with a little HNO 8 and divide in two unequal parts. Residue. Wash, boil with HC1, and filter. tion. Put in a plati- num ilu dish ' with a piece ofzinc. A dark spot on the plati- num indi- cates Sb. due. Add to so- tion ill plati- num dish, boil with HC1, filter and add HgCl 2 Pre- cipi- tate Sn. Filtrate. Divide into two parts. 1st Portion. Add KCyS. Red Color, 1st Half. Add SnClo. Precipi- tate Hg-. Second Portion. Neutralize with (NH 4 )HO, add ex- cess of BafO;,, agitate 10 minutes, filter and wash thoroughly. Second Half. Add HC1, boil, then add excess of NaHO, wash the precipitate on fil- ter with water, then with (NH*)HO contain- ing NH 4 C1. Residue. Dissolve on filter in very little HC1 and add large quantity to the filtrate. A cloudy precipi- tate in- dicates Bi. Filtrate. Divide into two parts. Precipitate. Boil in a porcelain dish with dilute HnSO 4 and filter. Add excess of NaHO to filtrate, a few drops of K 2 Mn 2 O s , and a little NH 4 C1, boil, filter, and divide the solution. 1st Half. Acidify with HC1 and add K t Fe 2 Cy 8 Precipi- tate Cu. 3d Half. Add excess of NaHO. a white gelatin- ous Precipi tate Cd. 1st Half. Add some E(C S H S 0,) and Fb(C 8 H,O a ) 9 Precipitate Cr. M Half. Add ex- cess of NH 4 C1. Precipi- tate Al. * To determine de- gree of oxidation of Fe, examine the ori- ginal solution with K 4 Fe 2 Cy 8 and KCyS. a portion of the original solution with excess, and boil. Add a little (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 all odor of (NH 4 )HO is expelled, and fil- a cloud or precipitate indicates Zn. Filtrate. Add excess of dilute H a SO,, filter, and sat- urate filtrate with [NH 4 ) a CO 3 , warm, filter, and wash. Precipitate Mix a por- tion with Na.,C0 3 and NaN0 3 , fuse on platinum foil. Green color, Mn. - Dissolve another portion in HC1, neu- tralize with (NH 4 )HO, add con- siderable NH 4 C1 and (NH 4 ) 2 C 2 O 4 Precipitate Ca. Solution. Add Na 2 HP0 4 . Pre- cipi- tate Mgr. Solu- tion. Evap- orate to dry- ness, dis- solve in HC1, add KNO n and H(C,H 3 O a ), filter. Pre- cipi- tate Co. Solu- tion. Add Na HO. Pre- cipi- tate Ni. 172 STAS-OTTO'S SCHEME FOR THE TRANSLATED FROM THE OERMAN Taken up by ether in acid solutions.* Taken up by ether With tannic acid. Solid Precipitated. No action. With concentrated sulphuric acid. COLCHI- CIN. DlGITA- LIN. PICROTOX- IN. In the cold. On heating. The yellow solution is colored violet by concen- trated Mixed with a solution of galls concentra- ted H a SO 4 , a bright- The dilute alkaline (.NaHO) solution is colorless and Rose-red. Brown-red. Yellow, then or- ange, and cherry-red. Yellow, then violet-blue, and dark-red. HNO S is formed and finally a red Fehling's copper solution. BBUCIN. DELPHIN- IN VERA- TRIN NARCOTIN liquid. Soluble in forms with forms with on dissolving concentra- ted HN0 3 , concentra- ted H 2 S0 4 concentra- ted HC1 a in H 2 SO, with a little On diluting the nitric acid solu- tion and making it alkaline With NaHO, an orange- red colora- tion is obtained. On dissolv- ing in con- centrated H 2 SO< and mixing with a drop of bromine water, a violet-red coloration is produced. with a bright-red color, which becomes yellow on heating. On adding stannic choride to this solu- tion, a and bro- mine water a reddish- violet color. The same coloration appears on evaporat- ing with phosphoric acid. colorless solution, which becomes a fine dark- red on heating. HNO 3 , forms a red color. Concentrated H 2 SO< with a trace of sodic molyb- date forms a green color. Dissolves in HC1, forming a pale-green solution which turns is formed. yellowish-red ACONITIN on adding NH 4 HO. dissolves in H 2 SO< with a red-brown color. * Also a small quantity of atropin. t Also partially * Pharmaceutische Post, DETECTION OF ALKALOIDS, ETC. 173 BY H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, PH.D.* in alkaline solutions.! Insoluble in ether. coccognidii ) Earth nut oil Daphne mezereum Arachis hypogcea; .... 0.914-0.921 0918 Ergot oil Secale cornutum 922 37 & Hazel-nut oil Corylus avellana . . 91987* 19 Henbane-seed oil ... Horse-chestnut oil. . Hyoscyamus nigra \ jEsculus hippo- ) ") castanum C 0.913* 0.915 + 8 Mesua oil . . . Mesua ferrera . 954 + 5 Black mustard oil. . Sinapis nigra 92102* below White mustard oil. . Sinapis alba 93383* does not solidify. Oil from seed of Nigella sativa 92 + 2 Oil from root and ) Pinus quadrif olia 0.935 Parsley oil Petroselinum sativum. 1 078 at 12 f becomes turbid \ at 12, but Plum-kernel oil. ... Oil from seed of Prunus domestica Pougamia glabia 0.9127 915 | does not solid- Ufy. -8.7 + 8 Summer rape-seed ) Brassica pro3cox .... 91555* oil f "Winter rape-seed oil Brassica napus . . . 91648* a little below Sesame oil Spindle-tree oil Spurge oil Sesamum orientale. . . . Euonymus europosus. Euphorbia lathyris. . . 0.92415* 0.95717* 92613* -5 -12 to -15 -11-1- Oil from seed of Sterculia f OBtida .... 923 below +3 Oil from various } Thea and camellia. . . 0.927 j forms an eimil- ( sion at 4.5 The following table * exhibits the rotary power of a con- siderable number of volatile oils, together with their refractive indices A, D and H, as determined by Gladstone (Chem. Soc. J., xvii, 3). Also their specific gravities. The rotary power was determined for a column of liquid 10 inches long ; the same length of a solution of equal parts of cane-sugar and w^ater produced a deviation of +105. * Watt's Die. Chem., vol. iv, p. 185. 182 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF ESSENTIAL OILS. CRUDE OILS. SPECIFIC GKAVITY AT 15.5 C. REFRACTIVE INDICES. ROTATION. Temp. A. D. H. .9852 1.0425 .8808 .8825 .8804 .9005 .9203 .9388 .9410 .8845 .9121 .8832 .8956 1.0297 .9622 .8584 .8908 .8847 1.0475 .8775 .9414 .8922 .8584 .8812 .9322 .9043 .8903 .8498 .8932 .8766 .9030 .9016 .9342 .9105 .8911 1.0189 .8789 .8743 .8826 .9069 .8509 .8864 .9926 .9554 .9592 1.0119 .9028 16. 5 14 18.5 22 26.5 8 25. 5 10 11 19 10 10.5 10 19. 5 23 18 21 15.5 17 10 10 11.5 8.5 13. 5 13.5 21.5 20 16.5 24 13.5 9 9 19 14. 5 14 7.5 18 10 24 16 20 20 8.5 21 21 14 14.5 1.5433 1.5172 1.4944 1.4559 1.4547 1.4851 1.4561 1.4965 1.4843 1.4601 1.4829 1.5566 1.5274 1.5022 1.4625 1.4614 1.4921 1.4611 1.5031 1.4911 1.4671 1.4903 1.4784 1.4918 1.5748 1.5035 1.4731 1.4659 1.4665 1.5312 1.4652 1.5011 1.4834 1.4749 1.4788 1.4718 1.4714 1.4648 1.4727 1.4705 1.4837 1.4712 1.4772 1.4840 1.4822 1.4680 1.5278 1.4676 1.4741 1.4709 1.4818 1.4699 1.4774 1.5162 1.5050 1.5040 1.5132 1.4670 1.6118 1.5628 1.5420 1.4779G 1.4760G. 1.5172 1.4778 15204G. 1.5144 1.4886 1.5142 1.5158 1.6243G. 1.5238 1.4952 1.4866 1.4875 1.5666 1.4805G. 1.5160G. 1.5072 1.4965 1.5021 1.4909 1.4868G. 1.4862 1.4946 '1.5642" 1.4901 1.4971 1.5015G. 1.5037 1.4879 1.5472G. 1.4835G. 1.4831F. 1.4934 1.5053 1.4916 1.4980 1.5417G. 1.5194G. 1.5183G. 1.5202F. 1.4854 1 + 7 6 + 23 + 40 + 38 + 43.5 + 42? + 63 + 26 + 3 + 156 4 1 4 + 21 ? + 206 + 14.5 -136 + 4 - 4 - 20 + 164 + 3? + 26 + 11 -116 - 13 + 21 -136 + 15 + 28 + 44 + 9 + 32? + 216 - 9 -120 - 72 Atlierosperma moschatum Bay . ' ' Florence Birch-bark Calamus " Hamburg Caraway " Hamburg, 1st dist. " " 2d dist. 1.4844 1.5602 1.4978 1.4671 1.4599 1.4604 1.5213 1.4592 1.4953 1.4764 1.4686 1.4717 1.4661 1.4653 1.4585 1.4667 l!4756 1.4665 1.4710 1.4767 1.4756 1.4623 1.5196 1.4614 1.4673 1.4644 1.4749 1.4633 1.4707 1.5068 1.4990 1.4980 1.5074 1.4612 Cedar Cedrat Citronella . . " Penang Cloves Coriander Cubebs Dill Elder Eucalyptus amygdalina. . *' oleosa Indian Geranium Lemon Lemon grass . ... " Penang Melaleuca ericifolia " linarifolia Mint Myrtle Myrrh Neroli Nutmeg " Penang Orange-peel . " " Florence Parsley Patchouli " Penang " French. Peppermint . THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 183 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, ETC., OF ESSENTIAL OILS (Continued). CRUDE OILS. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 15.5 C. REFRACTIVE INDICES. ROTATION. Temp. A. D. H. Peppermint, Florence .9116 .8765 .8912 .9080 .9064 .9750 .8843 .8727 .8812 1.1423 .9122 14 21 25 16.5 17 24 19 13 20 15 18 1.4628 1.4536 1.4567 1.4632 1.4843 1.4959 1.4695 1.4672 1.4791 1.5163 1.4631 1.4682 1.4600 1.4627 1.4688 1.4903 1.5021 1.4754 1.4732 1.4870 1.5278 1.4688 1.4867 1.4808 1.4835 1.4867 1.5113 1.5227 14909G. 1.4938 1.5059G. 1.5737 1.4756F. - 44 + 26 IJ- + 17 - 16 - 50 - 79 - 6 + 3 Rose . . .... Rosemary Sandalwood Thyme Verbena Wintergreen Wormwood SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, BOILING POINTS, AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROCARBONS FROM ESSENTIAL 01 LS.* (GLADSTONE.) SOURCE OE HYDROCARBON. <' 3'>Ss S-12 02O tuo B-tJ 3 l Refractive Index A at 20 C. i s* Sensitive- ness. 0> o > fjjjZ |! i 8460 174 C 14645 0277 .0048 .549 + 154 " " Florence. 8468 174 14650 0281 .0049 5491 + 260 Cedrat 8466 173 1 4650 0280 .0049 5492 + 180 Lemon .8468 173 14660 0280 .0049 .5502 + 172 Bergamo! . . 8466 175 14619 0295 0049 5456 + 76 8464 176 1 4602 0287 .0048 5437 + 82 8466 173 14614 0291 .0047 .5450 + 76 Petit grain . . . 8470 174 1 4617 0282 0046 5439 + 60 Caraway, Hamburg, Istdist. Dill .8466 8467 176 173 1.4645 1.4646 .0286 0288 .0048 .0046 .5486 .5486 + 180 + 242 8467 172 1.4652 0305 .0049 .5494 + Elder 8468 172 14631 0269 0047 .5468 +15 Bay. . 8508 171 1.4542 0260 0047 .5338 -22 Gaultherilene . 8510 168 1 4614 0271 0049 .5422 Nutmeg 8518 167 14630 0284 0047 .5435 + 49 . " Penang Carverie .8527 8530 166 166 1.4634 14610 .0274 0261 .0049 0048 .5434 .5440 + 4 20 " Hamburg, 2d dist. \Vormwood . .8545 8565 160 1.4641 14590 .0263 0253 .0048 0047 .5431 .5359 + 86 + 46 Terebene 8583 160 1 4670 0275 .0048 .5440 Anise 8580 160 1 4607 0268 .9047 .5368 Mint . ... 8600 160 14622 0255 0048 .5374 + 30 Peppermint . .8602 175 1.4577 .0267 .0047 .5321 -60 184 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, ETC., HYDROCARBONS (Continued.) SOURCE OP HYDROCARBON. ggo g oROa i II Refractive Index A at 20 C. Dispersion at 20 C. Sensitive- ness. Specific Refractive Energy. Rotation. Laurel turpentine 8618 160 1 4637 0260 0047 RJQQA i 04 Thyme 8635 160 14617 0282 0048 ftjQAft 75 Turpentine I 8644 160 1 4612 noptn 004-7 Ftqqrr , 40 II 8555 160 1 4590 025(1 0047 KQfi*; 07 III 8614 160 1 4621 0249 fcQfU Q0 IV 8600 160 1 4613 0254 0047 5364 QQ Eucalyptus amygdalene . . . Myrtle 8642 8690 171 163 1.4696 1 4565 .0323 0248 .0049 0047 .5434 RortQ -142 a 4-fi4- Parsley 8732 160 1 4665 noqi 004fi *i355 44- Rosemary 8805 163 1 4583 0241 0046 )X005 4-8 9041 249 14898 0284 0045 5417 Rosewood .9042 249 1 4878 0277 0045 5395 11 Cubebs 9062 260 1 4950 0302 0041 pjAfiO 5Q Calamus ... 9180 260 1 4930 0322 0042 5370 + 55 " Hamburg. . 9275 260 1 4976 0337 0043 5365 + 22 Cascarilla 9212 254 1 4926 0307 0042 5347 + 72 Patchouli 9211 254 1 4966 0274 0042 5391 (< Penang . 9278 257 1 4963 0275 0044 534Q on " French 9255 260 1 5009 0262 .0042 5412 Colophene . . . 9391 315 1 5084 0309 0041 5413 * This table exhibits the densities and optical properties of a consider- able number of polymeric hydrocarbons. The oils are arranged according to their specific gravities at 20 C. The column headed "Dispersion at 20 C.," gives the difference between the refractive indices of the lines H and A. The "sensitiveness" is the amount of diminution of the refrac- tive index when the temperature rises 10; it is calculated for the line A. The "Specific refractive energy" is the refractive index minus unity, divided by the density. In this table it is taken for A ; that is, the column represents . -^. (Watt's Die. Chem., vol. iv, p. 187.) Gladstone proposes (Chem. Soc. J. [2], x, i) to distinguish the several hydrocarbons by the following names : Hydrocarbon from Bay Laurylene. " " Calamus Calamene. " Dill Anethene. " " Elder Sambucene. " " Eucalyptus amygdalina . Eucalyptene. " " Myrtle Myrtene. ' " Nutmeg Myristicene. " " Rosewood Rhodine. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 185 TABLE OF OFFICIAL TESTS FOR IMPURITIES IN PHARMACOPGEIAL PREPARATIONS, ATTFIELD'S TABLE. NAME OF PREPARATION. IMPURITIES. TEST. Acaciss Gummi Starch Iodine. j- Quantitative Analysis. Sulphuretted Hydrogen. BaCl 2 orBa2NO 3 . AgN0 3 . Nascent Hydrogen. Nascent Hydrogen. Insolubility in Alcohol. H 2 S. Acetate of K. BaCl 2 or Ba2N0 3 . Incineration. Gelatine. BaCL or Ba2NO 3 . H 2 S. Nascent Hydrogen. BaCU or Ba2NO 3 . AgNO 3 insoluble in HN0 3 . Evaporation and ignition. BaCl 2 or Ba2NO 3 . AgN0 3 . Incineration. H S. BaCl 2 or Ba2No 3 . AgN0 3 and HNO 3 . Albumen. FeSo 4 and H 2 SO 4 . Corrosive Sublimate. Evaporate and ignite. FeS0 4 . H 2 S. Incineration. H 2 S. CaS0 4 . Ammonia Oxalate. a < i Incineration, Incineration. AgN0 3 . Iodine. Boiling-point and Sp. Gr.. Sp. Gr. Opalescence on dilution. Anhydrous CuSO 4 . Boiling-point and Sp. Gr. Yellow or Red Prussiate. Acetum More than one thou- Acidum Aceticum Acetic Acid | sanatn rl 2 r>U 4 Traces of Pb or Cu. . . H.,80, HC1 Acid. Acetic. Glac Acidum Boracicum . . . Acidum Citricum j Acidum Gallicum Sulphurous Acid. Sulphurous Acid .... Alkaline Salts Traces of Cu. or Pb. . Tartaric Acid Sulphuric Acid Mineral Matter. . . . Tannic Acid Acidum Hydrochlori- cum . Sulphuric Acid Arsenic . Sulphurous Acid Acidum Hydrocyani- cum Dilutum Hydrochloric Acid . . . Mineral Matter Acidum Nitricum , . . Acidum Oxalicum .... Acidum Phosphori- cum Dilutum Sulphuric Acid Hydrochloric Acid . . . Mineral Matter Pb or Pt Sulphuric Acid Hydrochloric Acid . . . Meta phosphoric Acid. Nitric Acid Acidum Sulphuricum Acidum Tannicum Acidum Tartaricum . -j Aconitia Phosphorous Acid. . . . Mineral Matter As or Pb Mineral Matter Metallic Matter, as Pb Oxalic Acid . . Calcium Tartrate Calcium Sulphate. . . , Mineral Matter . . . Mineral Matter Adeps Preparatus . . . | Mtlier NaCl Starch (flour) ^Jtlier purus Alcohol and Water . . Resin or Oil Alcohol Amylicum Alum. . Water Other Spirit. Matter . Iron (Sulphate). . 186 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. NAME OF PREPARATION. IMPURITIES. TEST. Ammonia Benzoas. . . . Fixed Salts . . . Non-volatility I Fixed Salts Non-volatility Ammoniae Carbonas.. < Ammonia? Chi or id um Ammonium Sulphate. Chloride. Fixed Salts BaClo or Ba2N0 3 . AgN0 3 . Non-volatility ( Alkaline Matter Red Litmus Amylum < ( Antimonium Nigrum Silica Blue Litmus. Insoluble in HC1 Antimonii Oxidum. . . . Antimoniu.ni Tartrate. Higher Oxides of Sb.. General Tartrate of K. Quantitative Analysis Aqua Aurantic Floris. Pb.Cu.Sn H 2 S Fixed Salts Evaporation and Ignition. Sn, Pb, andCu Calcium Salts H,S! Ammonium Oxalate Aqua Distillata J AgNO 3 . BaClo orBa2NO 3 . [ Carbonates Lime \Vater Argenti Nitras . ... Other Nitrates etc . . Quantitative Analysis Metallic Silver Effervescence with HN0 3 . Argenti Oxidum -j General . Quantitative Analvsis Argentum Purificatum Copper . ... NH 4 HO to HNO solution Atropia Mineral Matter . . Incineration Atropia3 Sulphas . . . . Mineral Matter Incineration. Balsamum Peruvia- j Fixed Oil... j Invisibility with Alcohol. num. ... "/ Alcohol . . . . j Non-diminution of volume Beberise Sulphas . Mineral Matter when mixed with Water. Incineration. Bismuth Carbonas. . . < Bismuth Subnitras. . -j Bismuthum Purifica-) Bi3NO 3 orNH 4 NO 3 .. Lead Carbonate Oxy chloride of Bi .... Oxynitrate of Pb Oxychloride of Bi.... Indigo Sulphate. Dilute H 3 S0 4 . AgN0 3 . Dilute H 3 S0 4 . AgNO 3 . NH 4 HO to HNO 3 solution. Borax General Quantitative Analysis General Sp Gr Boilino-- point. Bromum > ( Zinc Iodide ( KHO in excess then sul- Cadmii lodidum phydrate of NH 4 Quantitative Analysis. Ca Hypochlorite Quantitative Analysis Calcii Chlpridum Carbonic Oxide HC1 Calcis Carbonas Pre- j Al 2 O 3 ,FeO and Phos- phates Saccharine solution of CaO to solution in HNO cipitata "j A r,.~M"ri i "trivn ( Calcis Phosphas . < Carbonate of Ca. ..... Effervesces with Acids. Solution of Potash Sand Insoluble in Acids Calx -j Carbonate of Ca .... J Effervesces with Acids. Saccharine solution of Lime Calxchlorata A1. 2 3 , FeO, etc j General . to solution in Acids. Quantitative Analysis Camboeria . Starch. . Iodine (ffreen). THE CHEMIST'S MANUAL. 187 NAME OF PREPARATION. IMPURITIES. TEST. Camphora . . . Fixed Salts Non-vol atility Carbo Animalis Puri- { Earthy Salts . \ Incineration by help of red oxide of Kg. Carbo Ligni ... More than 2% Ash Incineration Catechu Pallidum .... Starch Iodine. Cera Alba Soft Fats . . . . Melting point Soft Fats Melting point Soluble in Alcohol. Flour Insoluble in Turpentine. Iodine /~1 QT .i rWalaa Carbonate and Oxa- j lates ( Ash, soluble in acids with effervescence. Alumina ( Ins. of Hydrate in NH 4 HO I General -\ More or less of 48 per cent Soft Fats Ash. Melting point. ( Specific Gravity Chloroform . . . . . < Hydrocarbons . Sulphuric Acid Copaiba/. . . . Non-volatile matter. . , Wood Oil ] Residue on evaporation. Gelatinous at 270 F. Carbolic Acid -j Incomplete sol. in Benzol. Oxidation. Non-vol. at 212 F. Dextro rotation of Polar- Cupri Sulphas . . Ferrous SulphatB ized ray. Crystallization on cooling. HNO 3 and NH 4 HO I Chalk Effervesces with Acids. Elatrium < ( Fel Bovinum Purifi-) catum ) Mucus, crude bile. . . . Incomplete sol. in Spirit. Ferri Arsenias ] ' Sodium Sulphate. . . . General BaCl 3 or Ba2N0 3 . Quantitative Analysis Ferri Carbonas Saccha- UNH-^SO- BaCl 3 or Ba2NO rata ( General Quantitative Analvsis Tartrate of Fe and( NH, . . 1 Ebullition with KHO and saturated with H 2 0. 5 = Citras 1 KHC 4 H 4 6 . K or Na Salts Alkalinity of Ash. r K or Na Salts Alkalinity of Ash. General Quantitative Analysis. Ferri Oxidum Magneti- Other Alkaloids.... j- Insolubility of precipitated Alkaloid in Ether. Effervesces with Acids. cum } General Quantitative Analysis. Ferri Peroxidum Hu- miduin . j Ferrous Hydrate ( Ferric Oxy hydrate. . Acid solution. Insol. in cold, dilute HC1. Ferri Phosphas -\ Ferri Arsenias j Slip of Cu in Acid solu- tion. General Quantitative Analvsis. 188 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. NAME OF PREPARATION. IMPURITIES. TEST. Ferric Sulphas . . . . ^| f Ferric Oxysulphate. Insoluble in H 2 O. Ferri Sulphas . / I Ferric Compounds. ] Precipitate of S in aqueous Granulata . . . . J [_ Copper, &c solution by H 2 S. H 2 S. Less than 50$ Quantitative Analysis Ferrum Tartaratum. -I Ferrous Compounds.. Ammoniacal Salts. . . . General Red Prussiate to Acid soL Soda. Quantitative Analysis Specific Gravity. Hydrargyri lodidum) Fixed Salts Non-volatility Rubrum . . f Hydrargyri lodidum} Red Iodide Insoluble in Ether Viride j Hydrargyri Oxidum Rubrum . . Fixed Salts, Nitrate) Non- volatility. Orange va- por on heating in tube. Hydrargyri Subchlo- ridum .... Corrosive Sublimate.. Fixed Salts Treatment with Ether. Non-volatility. Hydrarffyri Sulplias Fixed Salts Non-volatility. Hydrargyrum Hydrargyrum Ammo ) Pb, Sn, Zn, Bi, Cu . . . Fixed Salts Non-volatility. Non-volatility niatum . . . . . C Hydrargyrum Cum [ Mercuric Oxide ] Stannous Chloride to solu- Creta ) tion in HC1. Fixed Salts Non-volatility Cyanide of Iodine .... Physical characteristics. General Quantitative Analysis Resin . . . . Soluble in Turpentine Limonis Succus -j Deficiency of Citric ) Acid J Quantitative Analysis. General Sp Gr and Quant Anal General impurity or ) deficiency \ Sp. Gr. and Quant. Anal. (NH,)-CO,. Lime Water. Calcium Salts Oxalate of Ammonia. Liquor Ammoniae J Iron Salts Sulphydrate of Ammonium. Fortior Sulphur Salts j NH 4 C1 Ammonio Sulphate of Cop- per. AgNO s to Acid solution. (NHA,S(X. Bad 2 to Acidified solution. Liquor Antimonii Chlo- ridi Liquor Arsenicalis. . . . Liquor Arsenici Hydro- cliloricus ....... [General impurity ) f or deficiency. . . . ) Specific Gravity and Quan- titative Analysis. Liquor Bismutlii et Ammonise Citrate. , . Li< i uor Calcis Deficiency in strength Quantitative Analysis. Liq. Calcis Chloratae. ) Liquor Calcis Saccha- s General impurity or ) deficiency . . . . f Specific Gravity. Quantitative Analysis. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 189 NAME OP PREPABATION. IMPURITIES. TEST. General quality Specific Gravity. Fixed matter . . . Residue on evaporation Liquor Ferri Perchlo- ride Fort Deficiency in strength Quantitative Analysis. Liquor Ferri Perni- trates i- General impurity ) Specific Gravity and Quan- Liquor Ferri Persul- phates or deficiency j" titative Analysis. Liquor Hydrargyri ) Nitric Acid . J Deficiency in strength Mercurous Salts Specific Gravity. Liquor Lithiae Eifer- [ vescens \ General impurity or [ Specific Gravity. Quantitative Analysis. Liquor Magnesia Car- {_ bonas Other Mg Salts j Bitter taste (MgCl 2 or MgSOA Liquor Plumbi Sub- acetatis General impurity or ) deficiency C Quantitative Analysis. General impurity or ) deficiency C Specific Gravity and Quan- titative Analysis. General impurity or [ deficiency f Specific Gravity and Quan- titative Analysis. K 2 CO 3 Effervesces Acids CaSHO. Liquor PotasssB < Calcium Salts Oxalate of Ammonia. Liquor Potassse Ef- ] [Silica More than ! g } } tracesof ] Chlorides [Alumina. Deficient in strength. Na Bicarbonate \ Insoluble in Acid after 1 evaporation. BaCl 2 or Ba2NO 3 . AgNO 3 to Acid solution. Ammonia to Acid solution. Quantitative Analysis. Tartaric Acid, etc. Gen imp or def .... Sp. Gr. and Quant. Anal. Ammonia Oxalate. Na CO Eflerves. Acids and Ca2HO. More f Silica Insol. in Acids after evap. Liquor Sodse Chlo- ( than J Sulphates traces j Chlorides. . . . of [ Alumina Salts of K or NH 4 . . . Gen imp or def . Bad 2 to Acid solution. AgN0 3 to Acid solution. Ammonia to Acid solution. Perchloride of Pt to Acids. Sp. Gr. and Quant. Anal. ratas 1 Calcium salts ....... Ammonia Oxalate. Liquor Sodae Effer- j vescens ( Deficient in strength . Quantitative Analysis. LitliiaB Carbonas . < Gen. imp. or def Quantitative Analysis. Ammonia Oxalate, etc. Lime-water, etc. Lithiae Citras Deficient in strength. Quantitative Analysis. MgCo s Effervesces with Acids. Magnesia j Magnesia Levis . . . . ") Ca2HO or CaCO 3 Ammonia Oxalate, etc. f MgSO 4 orNa 2 SO 4 ... Ammonia to Acid solution. Magnesia Carbonas . . I MgS0 4 orNa 2 SO 4 ... OaCO Bad 2 to Acid solution. H 9 O.O to NH jHO solution. Magnesia Carb. Levis j Fe Pb etc HoSto Acid sol. + NH 4 HO. ( Gen. imp. or def Quantitative Analysis. 190 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. NAME OF PBEPABATION. IMPUKITIES. TEST. I CaSo 4 .. Ammonia Oxalate Magnesias Sulphas < FeS0 4 Chlorinated NaO General impurity. . . . Deficiency of Mannite Quantitative Analysis. Quantitative Analysis Mel Starch (flour) Iodine Morphiae Hydrochlo- ) General impurity Quantitative Analysis. ( Fixed oil j Permanent greasy stain on Olea Distillata -< paper. Alcohol < Loss in volume on shaking Opium . . Deficient in Morphia with water. Quantitative Analysis General Quantitative Analysis Plumbi Carbonas -j Potassa Caustica Potassa Sulphurata. . PbS0 4 , BaSO 4 , or) Silicates J Calcium (chalk). . . . j More than j Chlorine, traces of ( Sulphate. Gen. imp., H 2 O, etc. . Excess of Carbonate [ or Sulphate . ( Insoluble in Acetic Acid. Ammonia Oxalate, after re- moving the Pb. AgNO 3 to Acid solution. BaCl 2 to Acid solution. Quantitative Analysis. More than 25% insoluble in Spirit Fe etc Ammonium Sulphydrate. Kro J Effervesces with Acids. In- Potassas Bicarbonas . . . ^^s 1 sol. in Spirit. Alkalinates, Quantitative Analysis. Potass93 Carbonas. . . - More ( Silicates. . . than -j Sulphate . . traces of ( Chloride. . . General Insol. in Acids after evap. Bad 3 to Acid solution. AgN0 3 to Acid solution. Quantitative Analysis. KC1 AgNO 3 . Potassae Cliloras CaClo Ammonia Oxalate. PotasssB Citras . . . General Quantitative Analysis. ( K 9 S0 4 Bad,. Potassa? Nitras , Kf 1 ! i Potassas Permanganas. Quantitative Analysis. KHSO 4 Test Paper. Potass33 Sulphas ....] CaSO 4 Ammonia Oxalate. Potassae Tartras j. Quantitative Analysis. Potassaa Tart. Acida. J j Free Bromine Odor. Potassii Bromidum . . ~\ KI , Chlorine Water and StarcK General . Quantitative Analysis. Potassi Ferridcyanide. ( Ferrocyanide of K. . . Ferric Salt. H,O.T and Starch. Potassii lodiduni < KC1 AgNO 3 , etc. ' KpCOo.. Sacc. solution of Lime. ( Salicin H,S0 4 . Quiniaa Sulphas i Quantitative Analysis. Rhei Radix.. Turmeric Boracic Acid. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 191 NAME OF PREPARATION. IMPURITIES. TEST. 'I Mineral Matter Incineration. Earthy, Soap, etc Oil Insoluble in Spirits. Oil stain, Paper. K compounds Deliquescence of Ash SapoMollis \ Earthy, Soap, etc Oil Insoluble in Spirits. ( Scammonise Resina. . Resin of Guaiacum.. . Resin of Jalap CaCo.,, MgC0 3 Inner surf, of potato paring. Insoluble in Ether. Effervesces with Acids. Sinapis Starch (flour) Starch (flour) Solution of Iodine. Solution of Iodine Soda Caustica .... < More than ( Chloride . traces of ") Sulphate AgN0 3 to Acid solutions.. Soda Tartarata Gen. imp., Water, &c. General Quantitative Analysis. Quantitative Analysis Sodae Acetas ! Acid or Alkaline imp. Na S0 4 orCaS0 4 .... NaCl or CaCl 8 Test Paper. Bad 3 to Acid solution. AgNO to Acid solution Sodse Arsenias < Excess of H 2 O of) crystallization. . . . f General .... Quantitative Analysis. Na 2 C0 3 Mercuric Chloride Sodse Hyposulphic .... More than j Chlorides traces of } Sulphates General AgN0 3 to Acid solution.. BaCl 2 to Acid solution. Quantitative Analysis NaCl AgN0 3 Sodse Nitras -J Na^S0 4 . . BaCl or BaSNO f More than traces of ) Sulphates ) BaCl 2 to Acid solution. Sodse Phosphas 4 Sodse Sulphas . . < Del of H 2 O of crys- / tallization or excess J Ammonium Salts. . . ) Ferric Salts . j" Quantitative Analysis. Solution KHO heated. General Quantitative Analysis. Sodae Valerianas NaO or Na 2 CO 3 j Test Paper. Insoluble in Spirits. Sp Gr Spiritus JStheris Ni % trosi. ... " More than trace of Acid Free Acid j Effervesces with Bicarbon- ( ate of Soda. j More than feeble efferves. Deficiency of Nitrite of Ethyl ( with Bicarb, of Soda. [ Quantitative Analysis. Spiritus Ammonio "| Aromat 1 Specific Gravity. Spiritus Chlorofor- f mii . j Spiritus Tenuior Gen. (excess of H 2 O). Brucia Specific Gravity. Nitric Acid. Mineral Matter Gen. (excess of H 2 ). . . Resin or Oil Incineration. Specific Gravity. Opalescence on dilution* Spiritus Rectificatus. < More than trace of) Fusel Oil,., AgN0 3 . 192 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. NAME OP PBEPAKATION. IMPUBITIES. TEST. Sulphur Precipitatum. CaS0 4 . j Appear, under microscope f Earthy Matter ( residue on ignition. Incineration. Sulphur Sublimatum < Sulphuris lodidum H 2 S0 4 orH 2 S0 3 .... Sulphide of Arsenicum Deficiency of Iodine... Deficiency of Sugar Litmus-paper. Ammonia. Quantitative Analysis. Specific Gravity Tamarindus Traces of Cu .... Iron Veratria Incineration. Sulphates . Bad g or BaSNO Chlorides Ae;NO, As Cd Cu, Pb H 2 S Acetate of Iron HNO 3 +NH 4 HO NH 4 HO Chlorides A*NOq to Acid solution Zinci Carbonas . . . . Sul phates . . BaClo to Acid solution Copper Carbonate As Cd Cu Pb NH 4 HO to Acid solution. H 2 S BaCl 2 or Ba2N0 3 . CaCL Ammonium Oxalate. Zinci Chloridum Fed 2 Ferridcyanide of K Fe 2 Cl fi Ferrocyanide of K ZnCO, Effervesces with Acids. Na 3 S0 4 or ZnS0 4 . . . Chlorides, BaCl 2 to Acid solution. AgNO,, to Acid solution. Copper Oxide NH 4 HO to Acid solution As, Cd, Cu, Pb, H 2 S. Zinci Sulphas Iron Sulphate Tincture of Galls Copper Sulphate CuS0 4 add NH HO ZnSO 4 BaCl 3 or BaSNO Zinci Valerianas Butyrate of Zinc Acetate of Cu etc THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 193 INFLUENCE OF FIXED ORGANIC SUBSTANCES ON THE PRECIPITATON OF METALLIC OXIDES FROM SALINE SOLUTIONS BY ALKALIES. The following results have been obtained by H. Grothe (J. pr. Chem., xcii. 175) : 1. The alteration produced in the reactions of different metallic solutions with alkalies by the presence of fixed organic bodies, exhibit great diversities, scarcely any two metallic bodies being similarly affected ; so that these alterations do not afford properties characteristic of groups of metallic oxides, but rather of individual oxides. 2. Of non-volatile organic substances, citric acid acts most strongly in modifying these reactions ; then follows tartaric acid ; then sugar, starch, and gum, which, however, act but feebly, and require to be added in large excess. 3. The pre- cipitating action of ammonic hydrate is diminished by these bodies much more than that of sodic carbonate. 4. Solutions which are not precipitated in presence of fixed organic bodies by alkaline hydrates or carbonates, are for the most part pre- cipitated by alkaline orthophosphates, pyrophosphates, arse- nates, and borates. 5. Sodic orthophosphate may be used as a reagent in nearly all the cases in which the precipitation of a metallic oxide is hindered by the presence of non-volatile organic substances. The following table exhibits the reactions of the more im- portant metallic salts with ammonic hydrate, and with sodic carbonate, borate, phosphate, pyrophosphate, arsenate, and borate, in presence of tartaric acid, citric acid, and sugar: p denotes perfect precipitation ; *, imperfect precipitation ; a dash, no precipitation : 13 194 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Ammonic Hydrate. 1 5 i" Sodic Ortho- phosphate. Sodic Pyro- phosphate. i <2 .sS (U 1 o Ta.taric Acid Aluminium Salts. . Citric Acid ' P- P- Sugar Tartaric Acid ' P- j P p Ma.nffa.nous Salts . . Citric Acid ? P- P- Su0*ar ' P- Manganic Salts Tartaric Acid Citric Acid p. P- P- P- P- P- P- I Sucrar. ' \ P- F- i \ Zinc Salts Citric Acid Sugar P- P' Tartaric Acid ; f Nickel Salts .... Citric Acid ] i Sugar i j i i Tartaric Acid 1 j ] i i Cobaltous Salts . Citric Acid i 1 1 Sugar Tartaric Acid Uranic Salts Citric Acid Sugar . . Ferrous Salts Tartaric Acid i. p- P- p- p- Suo"ar . Tartaric Acid. . Ferric Salts Citric Acid p* Su"ar T). i r) Cupric Salts . . Citric Acid Suo*ar. . . j -i) Tartaric Acid j [' F- T) Cadmium Salts .... Citric Acid i p. 1* T) Tartaric Acid i T) Lead Salts Citric Acid i - F Suo-ar i Tartaric Acid Bismuth Salts Citric Acid P. Suo*ar p. Tartaric Acid. i i Chromic Salts. . . . Citric Acid __ (Green solution.) Sugar i. ( Tartaric Acid Chromic Salts ! Citric Acid (violet solution.) f Sugar. . . p. i). D. D. D. p. 196 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 1 O CD ,-H O 00 S 6 fl r-H 3 s I gf ^ nd o ' ; CD ^ H 8 r 'o tjO K*~4 *"* a s ^ '. *H p2 r2 "o 'd 'o T: r2 r2 r2 CD 'CD 'CD , . gjgjggllll^ " " h h I'l^'S'S'S 1 ^ 5 i PI I 1 + J >ffi 2 ^ ill S .1 CD CD CD 1=1 fl fl 'C 2 '3 'C ,0 .S S o THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 197 S0 2 , soda ; rotten horsedis white, volatile ri incandescence ; garlic smell ; op spar, siskin-green teel needle No. 9, b effervescence. 3 skeleton, heated 3 "o 'B ^ ^ d Jt'Msl H 3 !"^ IrTr^ JH d 0> ^ ^ 5 ..13 3 9 39 d "-< ^ ^ d^ 03 jr| 03 llWll s .P!^-r iiiilli ?6!fr!$. ^^1^ lo y ite yell gra whi mer soft red brit wi m rs. c5 oJ urple fl ellow fl flame. me. p in po te ; p te ; y green fla fl of lly b p ammonia va no precipitat , no precipitat ble salts ; pale- ble salts ; crims ble alts ; pale-red f a. SJ>, salt nera S ^.l,! 1 o o o s o o 'o a d d d d d OOOOOOO 88 i^'Eo's U-55 obalt obalt th so h so h so solu solu solu nate f pot , Nit wit wit , wit tates tates tates rbo o te jr^.-s.-g8ji -^^^ p.pHp.CC'^^ 1^^-s-s-s-?^ ^ S .2 CD .2 M rd ll 198 TABLE OF VOLATILE ELEMENTS FROM ^ATATT'S DICT. METALLIC FILM. OXIDE-FILM. OXIDE-FILM WITH STANNOUS CHLORIDE. OXIDE -FILM WITH STANNOUS CHLORIDE AND SODA. OXIDE-FILM WITH ARGENTIC NITRATE AND AMMONIA. Te. Black; thin part brown. White. Black. Black. Yellowish, white. Se. Cherry red ; thin part brick red. White. Brick-red. Black. White. Sb. Black ; thin part brown. White. White. White. Black ; insoluble in Ammonia. As. Black ; thin part brown. White. White, White. Lemon-yellow or reddish-brown; soluble in Ammonia. Bi. Black ; thin part brown. Yellowish- white. White. Black. White. Hg. Gray; non-coherent thin film. Fe. Black; thin part brown. White. White. White. White. Pb. Black ; thin part brown. Yellow-ochre color. White. White. White. Cd. Black ; thin part brown. Blackish- brown ; thin part white. White. White. White ; in the thin part turns bluish-black. Zn. Black ; thin part brown. White. White. White. White. Sn. Black ; thin part brown. Yellowish- white. White. White. White. 199 WHICH CAN BE REDUCED AS FILMS. OF CHEMISTRY. IODIDE-FILM. IODIDE-FILM WITH AMMONIA. SULPHIDE-FILM. SULPHIDE -FILM WITH AMMONIC SULPHIDE. REMARKS. Brown : disappears for a time on breathing. Disappears altogether on blowing. Black to blackish-brown. Disappears for a time. Elements whose reduc- tion-films are scarcely dissolved in dilute Nitric Acid. Brown ; does not wholly dis- appear on breathing. Does not disappear on blowing. Yellow to orange. Orange and then disappears for a time. Orange-red to yellow ; disappears on breathing. Disappears altogether on blowing. Orange. Disappears for a time. Orange-yellow ; disappears for a time on breathing. Disappears altogether on blowing. Lemon colored. Does not disappear. Bluish -brown ; thin parts pink ; disappears for a time on breathing. Pink to orange ; chestnut colored when blowing. Burnt umber color to coffee color. Does not disappear. 1 Elements whose reduc- tion-films ! are with ' difficulty dissolved in dilute Nitric Acid. Carmine-colored and lemon -yellow ; does not. disappear on breathing. Disappears for a time on blowing. Black. Does not disappear. Lemon-yellow ; does not disappear on breathing. Does not disappear on blowing. Black ; thin parts bluish -gray. Does not disappear. Orange-yellow to lemon color ; does not disappear on breathing. Disappears for a time on blowing. Brownish-red to black. Does not disappear. Elements whose reduc- tion-films are instantly dissolved in dilute Nitric Acid. White. W T hite. Lemon colored. Does not disappear. White. White. White. Does not disappear. Yellowish-white. Yellowish- white. White. Does not disappear. 200 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SCHEME* FOR THE QUALITATIVE DETERMINATION OF SUBSTANCES BY THE BLOWPIPE, The substance may contain As, Sb, S, Se, Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni, Pb, Bi, Ag, Au, Hg, Zn, Cd, Sn, Cl, Br, I, C0 2 , Si0 2 , HN0 3 , H 2 0, etc. v 1. Treat on Ch (charcoal) in the O.F. (oxidizing flame) to find volatile substances such as, As, Sb, S, Se, Pb, Bi, Ag, Zn, Cd, etc. (p. 66, et seq.) [This number, and all others, refer to the pages of Plattner's Manual, translated by II. B. Cornwall, 1872. Owing to the additions to this scheme, as also Casa- major's table on the preceding page, reference to Plattner's Manual will be unnecessary.] a. If there are volatile substances present, form a coating and test it with S.Ph (salt of phosphorus) and tin on Ch for Sb (p. 99), or to distin- guish between Pb and Bi (p. 280). b. If there are no volatile substances present, divide a part of the substance into three portions and proceed as in A. a. Yellow coat, yielding with S. Ph a black bead ; disappearing with blue flame, no part of it yielding green Sb flame ; Pb and Bi. &. Yellow coat, generally with white border, yielding black or gray bead with S. Ph, disappearing with blue flame ; also the border disappearing with green flame ; Pb and Sb. c. Yellow coat, very similar to 6, but yielding no blue flame ; Bi and Sb. (See note at end of Scheme.) 2. If As, Sb, S, Se are present, roast a large quantity thoroughly on Ch (p. 77). Divide the substance into three portions and proceed as in A. A. TREATMENT OF THE FIRST PORTION. Dissolve a very small quantity in borax on platinum- wire in the 0. F. and observe the color produced. Yarious colors will be formed by the combination of the oxides. Saturate the bead and shake it oif into a porcelain dish ; repeat this once or twice (p. 79). a. Treat these beads on Ch with a small piece of lead, silver or gold in a strong R. F. (reducing flame), p. 113. * Scheme is by T. Egleston, E. M., with a few additions by Author. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 201 b. Fe, Mn, Co, etc., remain in the bead (p. 115). If the bead spreads out on the Ch, it must be collected to a globule by continued blowing. Make a borax-bead on platinum- wire and dissolve in it some of the fragments of the bead, reserving the rest for accident. c. Ni, Cu, Ag, Au, Sn, Pb, Bi are reduced, and collect by the lead-button (p. 115). Remove the lead-button from the bead while hot, or by breaking the latter, when cold, on an anvil between paper, carefully preserving all the fragments. d. If Co is present the bead will be blue. If a large amount of Fe is present, add a little borax to prove the presence or absence of Co (p. 222). If Mn is present, the bead, when treated on platinum- wire in the O.F., will become dark- violet or black. e. If no Co is present, the bead will be almost colorless. Look here for Cr, Ti, Mo, U, W, V, Ta. Mo will give a cloudy-brown or black with the borax-bead in the R. F., owing to the molybdic acid being reduced. /. Treat the button c on Ch in the 0. F. until all the lead, etc., is driven off, Ni, Cu, Ag, Au remaining behind; or separate the lead with boracic acid (p. 442). g. Treat the residue g on Ch in O.F. with S.Ph bead, removing the but- ton while the bead is hot. h. If Ni and Cu are present, the bead will be green when cold (p. 292). If Ni only, yellow. If Cu only, blue. Prove Cu by treating with tin on Ch in R.F. (p. 293). t. For Ag and Au, make the special test No. 8. B. TREATMENT OF THE SECOND PORTION. Drive off the volatile substances in the O.F. on Ch. Treat with the R.F, or mix with soda, and then treat with R.F. for Zn, Cd, Sn. If a white coating is formed, test with cobalt solution (pp. 251, 256, 276). Tin gives greenish-blue ; zinc, green. If Zn is found, it is not necessary to look for Sn and vice versa, as they very rarely occur together. Cd gives a brown coat and variegated tarnish. C. TREATMENT OF THE THIRD PORTION. Dissolve some of the substance in S.Ph on platinum-wire in O.F., observing whether Si is present or not, and test for Mn with nitrate of potassa and soda (p. 210). 3. Test for As with soda on Ch in the R.F., or with dry soda 202 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. in a closed tube (p. 345 et seq.). On charcoal it gives garlic odor ; in the tube, a metallic mirror. 4. Dissolves in S.Ph on platinum- wire in the O.F. (if the sub- stance is not metallic and does not contain any S), and test for Sb on Ch with tin in the R.F. (See 1, a, p. 99.) 5. Test for Se on Ch ; it gives a horse-radish odor (p. 368). 6. In absence of Se, fuse with soda in the R.F., and test for S on silver-foil (p. 365). By moistening the fused mass, and letting it stand on the foil, the latter turns black if S be pres- ent. In the presence of Se, test in open tube (p. 366). 7. Test for Hg with dry soda in a closed tube; a metallic mirror is formed (p. 304). 8. Mix some of the substance with assay lead and borax glass, and fuse on Ch in the R.F. (p. 401). Cupel the lead- button for Ag (p. 407). Test with nitric acid for Au, dissolv- ing the silver (p. 320). 9. Test for Cl and I with a bead of S.Ph saturated with oxide of copper. Cl gives blue flame; I, intense green (pp. 373, 374, 375). 1C. Test for Br with bisulphate of potassa in a matrass, gives brownish-yellow fumes ; test also for Cl (p. 374). 11. Test for H 2 in a closed tube ; drops collect on the in- terior (p. 353). 12. Test for borates : dip substance in glycerine and hold in flame green color. If barium is present, remove the same, then apply the test. Discovered by Mr. lies. (See Amer. Chem., Apr. 1876.) 13. Test on platinum-wire, or in platinum-pointed forceps, for coloration of the flame (p. 72 et seq.). 14. Test for C0 2 with hydrochloric acid, letting the gas pass over lime-water (p. 360). 15. Test for HN0 3 with bisulphate of potassa in a matrass; yellow-colored fumes and acid reaction (p. 354). 16. Test for Te in an open tube; forms a grayish-white sublimate, which fuses to clear transparent drops when strongly heated. Te burns with a bluish-green flame (p. 354). THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 203 DETECTION OF BISMUTH IN THE PRESENCE OF LEAD AND ANTIMONY. By H. B. CORNWALL, E. M. One part teroxide of bismuth, fifty parts oxide of lead, and fifty parts teroxide of antimony are mixed with an equal volume of sulphur, and treated B.B. in a deep cavity on coal with the blue flame for a few minutes. The resulting fused sulphides remove to a flat coal, and treat alternately with O.F. and R.F. until the antimonial fumes cease to come off, and an impure blue lead flame appears. Powder the residue and treat a portion of it with iodine mixed on coal. No bismuth will be detected. But if the other portion is treated in an open tube (4 in. long and not less than J in. wide, over a Bunsen gas-burner) with a mixture of 5 parts sulphur and 1 part iodide of potassium by weight ; and about equal volumes of this and of the metallic oxide, a distinct bis- muth sublimate will be formed about one- third of an inch above the lower edge of the yellow sublimate. The bismuth sublimate forms a red ring. If sulphides are under treatment, remove the excess of antimony on coal. Care must be taken not to confound with the bismuth sub- limate a sublimate of iodine, which may condense on the upper part of the tube, but at a greater distance from the assay. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF POWDERS OR SMALL SOLIDS. (Brand and Taylor's Chemistry.) The specific gravity of solids in powder or in small pieces may conveniently be determined by the bottle. Thus : weigh the powder, pour it into the bottle, and fill it with water at 62 F., taking care to dislodge all adhering bubbles of air. Then weigh it and deduct the known weight of the bottle; the remainder is the conjoint weight of the powder and water. Deduct from this last sum the found weight of the powder, and the difference is the weight of the water ; deduct this dif- ference from the known weight of the water required to fill the bottle, and the remainder is the weight of a volume of water equal to the volume of the solid in powder ; then as this is to the known weight of water, required to fill the bottle : : Sp. Gr. water : Sp. Gr. powder. Example : Grains. Weight of water iii the bottle 1000 " of native platinum grains (in air) 40 1040 Weight of water and platinum in bottle 1037.5 Difference = Volume of water displaced 2.5 40 -*- 2.5 = 16 Sp. Gr. of native platinum. When the substance is soluble in water, another liquid of known specific gravity which does not act upon the solid, must be employed. Alcohol, oil of turpentine, or olive oil may be used, or, in some cases, the substance may be coated with varnish. Example Required Sp. Gr. of Sugar : Grains. Weight of sugar in air 400 " " in oil of turpentine 182.5 Weight of an equal bulk of oil 217.5 Known Sp. Gr. of turpentine 0.870 Then 0.870 : 1000 : : 217.5 : 250, and 400 -r- 250 = 1.6, which is the Sp. Gr. of the sugar. 208 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS HEAVIER THAN WATER. (Brand and Taylor's Chemistry.) Weigh the solid in air, then suspend it by a fine thread (horse-hair) to one arm of a balance ; exactly counterpoise it, and immerse the solid so counterpoised in distilled water at 62 F., and note how much less it weighs now than when weighed in air. The difference between the two is the weight of a volume of water, exactly equal to that of the immersed solid. Divide the weight of the solid in air by this differ- ence, and the result is the Sp. Gr. of the solid. Thus in refer- ence to a small bar of aluminum : Grains. Weight of Aluminum in air 46.3 " of " in water 29.0 Difference =Volume of water 17.3 46.3 -f- 17.3 = 2.6 Sp. Gr. of Aluminum. A knowledge of the Sp. Gr. of solids enables a chemist to ascertain the weight of bodies from their volume. A cubic foot of water contains 1728 cubic inches, arid weighs 1000 ounces (strictly 998 ounces 62.4 pounds Av.) ; hence a cubic foot of sulphur (Sp. Gr. 1.957) would weigh 1957 ounces, and a cubic foot of marble (Sp. Gr. 2.5) would weigh 2500 ounces. A cubic foot of air weighs 535.161 grains. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS LIGHTER THAN WATER. (Brand and Taylor's Chemistry?) 1. Find the weight of the solid (a) in air. 2. Take a piece of metal heavy enough to make (a) sink in water, and find its weight in air and in water. 3. Tie together (a) and the metal, and find the weight of the compound mass in water. The difference between the weight of the metal in air and in water is the weight of a volume of water equal to that of the metal ; deduct this from the difference between the weights in air and in water of the compound mass, and the remainder is the weight of a volume of water equal to (a). JSTow divide the THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 209 weight of (a) by the remainder, and obtain the Sp. Gr. Thus with reference to beef-fat : Grains. Weight of fat in air 117.3 Add brass weight to sink it 1000.0 Weight of compound mass in air 1117.3 Grains. Loss of weight by the compound mass in water. . , 245.5 " " brass weight (1000) in water 119.4 Weight of the water displaced by the fat 126.1 Hence 117.3 -r- 126.1 = 0.930 Sp. Gr. of beef-fat. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF GASES. The weighing of the air and gas should take place at the same temperature and pressure, or a calculation should be made. In reference to gases and vapors, air is taken as the standard of unity. Gases. A light glass flask, of about forty or fifty cubic inches capacity is employed. This is capable of being screwed to the air-pump plate, and of being suspended to a scale-beam and accurately balanced. The flask is exhausted, balanced, filled with dry air, and again balanced. The increase in weight represents the weight of the volume of dry air in the flask, at the pressure and temperature at which it was filled. The ex- periment is repeated with the dry gas, the Sp. Gr. of which it is proposed to determine. The following is the Sp. Gr. of car- bonic oxide (C0 2 ) : Grains. Weight of the flask with dry air 2033.8 " exhausted 2021.4 Weight of dry air in flask 12,4 Grains. Weight of the flask with dry carbonic oxide 2040.24 " exhausted 2021.40 Weight of dry carbonic oxide in flask 18.84 Hence, 18.84 -=- 12.4 1.520 Sp. Gr. of carbonic oxide. The weight of 100 cubic inches of any gas may be found by multiplying the specific gravity of the gas or vapor by 31 [one 210 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. hundred cubic inches of dry air at a mean temperature of (62 F.), and a mean pressure (30 inches), are considered to weigh 31 grains]. Thus, nitrogen has a Sp. Gr. of 0.967 and 0.967 X 31 = 29.98 grains, the weight of a hundred cubic inches of the gas. A knowledge of the Sp. Gr. of gases ena,bles a chemist to control the results of an analysis of a compound gas. Thus, if 2 volumes of ammonia consist of one volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen, it follows that the sum of the spe- cific gravities of its constituents, divided by 2, should exactly represent the Sp. Gr. of the gas. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VAPORS. (Brand and Taylor's Chemistry.} The weights of equal volumes of vapor and air are com- pared under the same temperature and pressure. A thin glass globe of about three inches diameter is drawn out at its neck to a narrow tube, six or seven inches long, the point of the tube being cut across with a file, but not sealed. The globe is then weighed, and the temperature and pressure at the time observed. In order to introduce a volatile liquid, the globe is warmed so as to expel a portion of its air, and the end of the tube is then dipped into the liquid. As the globe cools, the air within contracts and the liquid is forced into it by atmos- pheric pressure. "When a sufficient quantity (from 100 to 150 grains) of liquid have entered, the globe is finally enclosed in a wire-holder, and immersed in a bath of water, oil, or other medium, heated to 50 or 60 above the boiling point of the liquid in the globe. Under these circumstances, a stream of vapor rushes rapidly through the orifice, carrying with it the air of the globe. When this ceases the point of the tube is sealed by a blowpipe flame, the temperature being observed at the same minute. The globe is removed from the bath, and when cool is cleaned and weighed. The next point to be determined is the capacity of the globe. For this purpose the neck is broken under the surface of water or mercury, when THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 211 the cold fluid enters the globe and fills it completely, if the operation has been properly conducted, and all the air has been expelled by the vapor. By pouring out the water or mercury into a graduated vessel, the capacity of the globe is accurately ascertained. The data necessary for the calculation is thus obtained : 1. The weight of the globe full of air at the common tem- perature and pressure. 2. The weight of the globe, and of the vapor filling it, at the temperature of the bath, and under the same pressure. 3. The capacity of the globe. Having these results, there can be obtained by calculation : 4. The weight of the empty globe. 5. The weight of the vapor filling the globe at the tempera- ture of the bath, as well as its volume at this or at any other temperature that may be required. Let it be assumed that the object is to determine the specific gravity of the vapor of chloroform. 1. The weight of the globe full of air at 60 F. and bar. 30, is found to be 2012.4 grains. 2. The liquid chloroform having been introduced into the globe in the manner described, the globe is maintained at a temperature of 200 in the bath until nothing but vapor re- mains in the interior. The aperture of the small tube is then sealed. The globe, when dry and cooled to 60 F., is found to weigh 2040 grains. This gives the weight of the globe and vapor together. 3. The capacity of the globe is determined by breaking the point of the tube under water. The liquid rushes in and entirely fills the vessel. When this liquid is poured into a graduated glass, it is found that at 60 F. there are 40 cubic inches ; hence, 40 cubic inches of air were contained in the globe at common temperature and pressure. 4. The weight of this air would be 12.4 grains (100 cubic inches : 31 grs. : : 40 cubic inches : 12.4 grs.), and as the globe and air weighed together 2012.4 grains, then 2012.4 12.4 = 2000 grains, the weight of the empty globe. 212 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 5. The weight of the vapor filling the globe may now be determined. The globe was found to weigh, on cooling, 2040 grains ; hence, 2040 2000 = 40 grains, the weight of the vapor. It is now necessary to determine either the weight .of the air which would fill the globe at the temperature of the bath, or the volume of vapor which, by calculation, would be contained in the globe when cooled to 60 F. The reduction of the volume by cooling from 200 F. to 60 F. is the more sim- ple process. Thus 40 cubic inches at 60 F. (648 : 508 : : 40 : 30.78). According to Gay-Lussac, 1000 volumes of air at 32 are increased to 1375 volumes at 212 F. Hence, the increase is -f f~| or 2.08, for each degree between 32 F. and 212 F. ; and 1000-^2.08 = 480. Hence, the increase for each degree is equal to l-480th part of the volume at 32 F. ; or, assuming that the volume of gas at this temperature is 480 cubic inches, there will be an addition of one cubic inch for every degree of increase of temperature up to 212 F. The mean temperature is taken at 60 F., and 480 cubic inches at this temperature would become (60 32 -f 480) 508 cubic inches. The number 32 is deducted from the temperatures, because it is from this degree (32 F.) that the rate of expan- sion, on which the calculation is based, commences. Hence, assuming that chloroform vapor was cooled to 60, and could still exist as vapor at that temperature, it is obvious that its specific gravity would be determined by ascertaining the weight of 30.78 cubic inches of air at the same temperature and pressure. 100" cubic inches of air weigh 31 grains ; hence, 100 : 31 : : 3078 : 9.54. Hence, at the same temperature, 60, 30.78 cubic inches of chloroform would weigh only 9.54 grains ; and 40 -f- 9.54 = 4.19, which is nearly the specific gravity of the vapor of chloroform, as determined by calculation from its elementary composition. The following is a summary of the results: Capacity of the globe at 60 = 40 cubic inches. Weight of the globe with dry air =: 2012.4 grains. " " air by calculation = 12.4 t( Weight of the globe without air = 2000 " THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 213 Weight of the globe with chloroform vapor = 2040 grains. " " chloroform vapor =40 " 40 cubic inches of air or vapor at 200, reduced to 30.78 cubic inches at 60. Weight of 30.78 cubic inches of air at 60 = 9.54 grains. " " chloroform vapor at 60 = 40 Hence, Wt. of air. Wt. of chlor. vapor. Sp. Gr. air. Sp. Gr. chlor. vapor. 9.54 ; 40 :: 1.000 : 4.192. It may be observed that the ascertained Sp. Gr. of chloro- form vapor is 4.20 ; and the Sp. Gr. of the vapor calculated from its elementary composition is 4.1805 ; differences which are comparatively unimportant. SPECIFIC GRAVITY Corresponding to Degrees of BAUME'S HYDROMETER. 14 R. 17.5 C. (Sp. Gr. = 144 144 -B correct.) DEGREE. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. DEGREE. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. DEGREE. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. .0 1.0000 24.5 1.2050 48.5 1.5079 0.5 1.0035 25.0 1.2101 49.0 1.5158 1.0 1.0070 25.5 1.2152 49.5 1.5238 1.5 1.0105 26.0 1.2203 500 1.5319 2.0 1.0141 26".5 1.2255 50.5 1.5401 2.5 1.0177 270 1.2308 51.0 1.5484 3.0 1.0213 27.5 1.2361 51.5 1.5568 3.5 1.0249 28.0 1.2414 52.0 1.5652 4.0 1.0286 28.5 1.2468 52.5 1.5737 4.5 1.0323 29.0 1.2522 53.0 1.5824 5.0 1.0360 29.5 1.S576 53.5 1.5911 5.5 1.0397 30.0 1.2632 54.0 16000 6.0 1.0435 30.5 1.2687 54.5 1.6089 6.5 1.0473 31.0 1.2743 55.0 1.6179 7.0 1.0511 31.5 1.2800 55.5 1.6271 7.5 1.0549 32.0 1.2857 56.0 1.6363 8.0 1.0588 32.5 1.2915 56.5 1:6457 8.5 1.0827 33.0 1.2973 57.0 1.6551 9.0 1.0667 33.5 1.3032 57.5 1.6647 9.5 1.0703 34.0 1.3091 58.0 16744 10.0 1.0746 34.5 1.3151 58.5 1.6842 10.5 1.0787 35.0 1.3211 59.0 16941 11.0 1.0837 35.5 1.3272 59.5 1.7041 11.5 1.0868 36.0 1.3333 60.0 1.7142 12.0 1.0909 36.5 1.3395 60.5 1.7245 12.5 1.0951 37.0 1.3458 61.0 1.7349 13.0 1.0992 37.5 1.3521 61.5 1.7454 135 1.1034 38.0 1.3585 62.0 1.7560 14.0 1.1111 -38.5 1.3649 62.5 .7668 14.5 1.1120 39.0 1.3714 63.0 '. .7777 15.0 1.1163 39.5 1.3780 63.5 .7888 15.5 1.1206 40.0 1.3846 640 .7999 16.0 1.1250 40.5 1.3913 . 64.5 .8112 16.5 1.1294 41.0 1.3981 65.0 1.8227 17.0 1.1339 41.5 1.4049 65.5 1.8343 17.5 1.1383 42.0 1.4118 ' 66.0 1.8461 18.0 1.1429 42.5 .4187 66.5 . 1.8580 18.5 1.1475 43.0 .4267 67.0 1.8701 19.0 1.1520 43.5 .4328 67.5 1.8828 19.5 1.1566 44.0 .4400 68.0 1.8947 20.0 1.1613 44.5 .4472 68.5 1.9071 20.5 1.1660 45.0 .4545 69.0 1.9200 21.0 1.1707 45.5 .4619 69.5 1.9328 21.5 1.1755 46.0 1.4694 70.0 1.9459 22.0 1.1803 46.5 1.4769 70.5 1.9591 225 1.1852 47.0 1.4845 71.0 1.9726 23.0 1.1901 47.5 1.4922 71.5 1.9862 88.5 1.1950 48.0 1.5000 72.0 2.0000 24.0 1.2000 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 215 SPECIFIC GRAVITY FOR LIQUIDS LIGHTER THAN WATER. 144 144 - 134 - B ' = Sp. Gr. B + 134 TABLE BY DR. W. H. PILE. DEGREES OF HYDROM- ETER. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Baume). DEGREES OF HYDROM- ETER. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Baume). DEGREES OF HYDROM- ETER. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Baume). DEGREES OF HYDROM- ETER. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Baume). 10 1.0000 27 .8917 44 .8045 61 .7329 11 .9929 28 .8860 45 .8000 62 .7290 12 .9859 29 .8805 46 .7954 63 .7253 13 .9?90 30 .8750 47 .7909 64 .7216 14 .9722 31 .8695 48 .7865 65 .7179 15 .9655 32 .8641 49 .7821 66 .7142 16 .9589 33 .8588 50 .7777 67 .7106 17 .9523 34 .8533 51 .7734 68 .7070 18 .9459 35 .8484 52 .7692 > 69 .7035 19 .9395 36 .8433 53 .7650 70 .7000 20 .9333 37 .8383 54 .7608 71 .6965 21 .9271 38 .8333 55 .7567 72 .6930 22 .9210 39 .8284 56 .7526 73 .6896 23 .9150 40 .8235 57 .7486 74 .6863 24 .9090 41 .8187 58 .7446 75 .6829 25 .9032 42 .8139 59 .7407 76 .6796 26 .8974 43 .8092 60 .7368 77 .6763 DEGREES TWADDLE'S HYDROMETER AND THE CORRESPONDING SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. DEGREES. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. DEGREES. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. DEGREES. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. DEGREES. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 1 1.005 8 1.040 15 1.075 22 1.110 2 1.010 9 1.045 16 1.080 23 1.115 3 1.015 10 1.050 17 1.085 24 1.120 4 1.020 11 1.055 18 1.090 25 1.125 5 1.025 12 1.060 19 1.095 26 1.130 6 1.030 13 1.065 20 1.100 27 1.135 7 1.035 14 1.070 21 1.105 28 1.140 216 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. PROPORTION OF ABSOLUTE ALCOHOL BY WEIGHT IN 1OO PARTS OF SPIRIT, OF DIFFERENT SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AT 60 F. (15.5 C.) (FOWNES. Phil. Trans., 1847.) ALCOHOL PERCENT. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. ALCOHOL PERCENT. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. ALCOHOL PER CENT. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. ALCOHOL PERCENT. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 1.0000 25 .9652 51 .9160 76 .8581 .9991 26 .9638 52 .9135 77 .8557 1 .9981 27 .9623 53 .9113 78 .8533 2 .9965 28 .9609 54 .9090 79 .8508 3 .9947 29 .9593 55 .9069 80 .8483 4 .9930 30 .9578 56 .9047 81 .8459 5 .9914 31 .9560 57 .9025 82 .8434 6 .9898 32 .9544 58 .9001 83 .8408 7 .9884 33 .9528 59 .8979 84 .8382 8 .9869 34 .9511 60 .8956 85 .8357 9 .9855 35 .9490 61 .8932 86 .8331 10 .9841 36 .9470 62 .8908 87 .8305 11 .9828 37 .9452 63 .8886 88 .8279 12 .9815 38 .9434 64 .8863 89 .8254 13 .9802 39 .9416 65 .8840 90 .8228 14 .9789 40 .9396 66 .8816 91 .8199 15 .9778 41 .9376 67 .8793 92 .8172 16 .9766 42 .9356 68 .8769 93 .8145 17 .9753 43 .9335 69 .8745 94 .8118 18 .9741 44 .9314 70 .8721 95 .8089 19 .9728 45 .9292 71 .8696 96 .8061 20 .9716 46 .9270 72 .8672 97 .8031 21 .9704 47 .9249 73 .8649 98 .8001 22 .9691 48 .9228 74 .8625 99 .7969 23 .9678 49 .9206 75 .8603 100 .7938 24 .9665 50 .9184 In this table every alternate number is the result of a direct synthetical experiment ; absolute alcohol and distilled water being weighed out in the proper proportions, and mixed by agitation in stoppered bottles ; after a lapse of three or four days, each specimen was brought exactly to 60 F., and the specific gravity determined with great care. THE CHEMIST'S MANUAL. 217 TABLE OF THE PROPORTION BY VOLUME OP ABSOLUTE OR REAL ALCOHOL or 100 VOLUMES OF SPIRITS OF DIFFERENT SPECIFIC GRAVITIES (GAY- LUSSAC) AT 59 F. (15 C.). 100 VOLUMES OF SPIRITS. 100 VOLUMES OF SPIRITS. 100 VOLUMES OF SPIRITS. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. CONTAIN VOLUMES OF REAL ALCOHOL. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. CONTAIN VOLUMES OF REAL ALCOHOL. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. CONTAIN VOLUMES OF REAL ALCOHOL. 1.0000 09608 34 0.8956 68 .9985 1 .9594 35 .8932 69 .9970 2 .9581 36 .8907 70 .9956 3 .9567 37 .8882 71 .9942 4 .9553 38 .8857 72 .9929 5 .9538 39 .8831 73 .9916 6 .9523 40 .8805 74 .9903 7 .9507 41 .8779 75 .9891 8 .9491 42 .8753 76 .9878 9 .9474 43 .8726 77 .9867 10 .9457 44 .8699 78 .9855 11 .9440 45 .8672 79 .9844 12 .9422 46 .8645 80 .9833 13 .9404 47 .8617 81 .9822 14 .9386 48 .8589 82 .9812 15 .9367 49 .8560 83 .9802 16 .9348 50 .8531 84 .9792 17 .9329 51 .8502 85 .9782 18 .9309 52 .8472 86 .9773 19 .9289 53 .8442 87 .9763 20 .9269 54 .8411 88 .9753 21 .9248 55 .8379 89 .9742 22 .9227 56 .8346 90 .9732 23 .9206 57 .6312 91 .9721 24 .9185 . 58 .8278 92 .9711 25 .9163 59 .8242 93 .9700 26 .9141 60 .8206 94 .9690 27 .9119 61 .8168 95 .9679 28 .9096 62 .8128 96 .9668 29 .9073 63 .8086 97 .9657 30 .9050 64 .8042 98 .9645 31 .9027 65 .8006 99 .8633 32 .9004 66 .7947 100 .9621 33 .8980 67 218 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. QUANTITIES OF ABSOLUTE ALCOHOL BY WEIGHT, IN MIXTURES OF ALCOHOL AND WATER OF THE FOL- LOWINO SPECIFIC ORAVITIES. (DRINKWATER.) SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 60 F. (15.5 C.) ALCOHOL BYW'GHT IK 100 PARTS. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 60 F. (15.5 C.) ALCOHOL BYW'GHT IN 100 PARTS. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 60 F. (15.5 C.) ALCOHOL BYW'GHT IN 100 PARTS. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 6U F. (15.5 C.) ALCOHOL BYW'GHT IN 100 PARTS. 1.0000 0.00 0.9959 2.22 0.9918 4.64 0.9877 7.30 .9999 0.05 .9958 2.28 .9917 4.70 .9876 7.37 .9998 0.11 .9957 2.34 .9916 4.76 .9875 7.43 .9997 0.16 .9956 2.39 .9915 4.82 .9874 7.50 .9998 0.21 .9955 2.45 .9914 4.88 .9873 7.57 .9995 0.26 .9954 2.51 .9913 4.94 .9872 7.64 .9994 0.32 .9953 2.57 [ .9912 5.01 .9871 7.71 .9993 0.37 .9952 2.62 .9911 5.07 .9870 7.78 .9992 0.42 .9951 2.68 .9910 5.13 .9869 7.85 .9991 0.47 .9950 2.74 .9909 5.20 .9868 7.92 .9990 0.53 .9949 2.79 .9908 5.26 .9867 7.99 .9989 0.58 .9948 2.85 .9907 5.32 .9866 8.06 .9988 0.64 .9947 2.91 .9906 5.39 .9865 8.13 .9987 0.69 .9946 2.97 .9905 5.45 .9864 8.20 .9986 0.74' .9945 302 .9904 5.51 .9863 8.27 .9985 0.80 .9944 3.08 .9903 5.58 .9862 8.34 .9984 0.85 .9943 3.14 .9902 5.64 .9861 8.41 .9983 0.91 .9942 3.20 .9901 5.70 .9860 8.48 .9982 0.96 .9941 3.26 .9900 5.77 .9859 8.55 .9981 1.02 .9940 3.32 .9899 5.83 .9858 8.62 .9980 1.07 .9939 3.37 .9898 5.89 .9857 8.70 .9979 1.12 .9938 3.43 .9897 5.96 .9856 8.77 .9978 1.18 .9937 3.49 .9896 6.02 .9855 8.84 .9977 1.23 .9936 3.55 .9895 6.09 .9854 8.91 .9976 1.29 .9935 3.61 .9894 6.15 .9853 8.98 .9975 1.34 .9934 3.67 .9893 6.22 .9852 9.05 .9974 1.40 .9933 3.73 .9892 6.29 .9851 9.12 .9973 1.45 .9932 3.78 .9891 6.35 .9850 9.20 .9972 1.51 .9931 3.84 .9890 6.42 .9849 9.27 .9971 1.56 .9930 3.90 .9889 649 .9848 9.34 .9970 1.61 .9929 3.96 .9888 6.55 .9847 9.41 ,9969 1.67 .9928 4.02 .9887 6.62 .9846 9.49 .9968 1.73 .9927 4.08 .9886 6.69 .9845 9.56 .9967 1.78 .9926 4.14 .9885 . 6.75 . .9844 9.63 .9966 1.83 .9925 4.20 .9884 6.82 .9843 9.70 .9965 1.89 .9924 4.27 .9883 6.89 .9842 9.78 .9964 1.94 .9923 4.33 .9882 6.95 .9841 9.85 .9963 1.99 .9922 4.39 .9881 7.02 .9840 9.92 .9962 2.05 .9921 4.45 .9880 7.09 .9839 9.99 .9961 2.11 .9920 4.51 .9879 7.16 .9838 10.07 .9960 2.17 .9919 4.57 .9878 7.23 This Table is founded on synthetic experiments, in which eleven differ- ent mixtures of alcohol and water were made, containing respectively 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 per cent of alcohol by weight : the alcohol em- ployed had a specific gravity of 0.7938 at 60 F. or 15. 5 C. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 219 TABLE* OF THE QUANTITY OF REAL ALCOHOL CONTAINED IN 100 PARTS OF AQUEOUS ALCOHOL BY WEIGHT AND BY VOLUME AT DIFFERENT DENSITIES. (Temperature, 15 C.) SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 100 VOLUMES CONTAIN : 100 PAJJTS BY WEIGHT CONTAIN : SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 100 VOLUMES CONTAIN : 100 PARTS BY WEIGHT CONTAIN : Alcohol Water. Alcohol. Alcohol Water. Alcohol. .7951 100 0.00 100.00 .9348 50 53.72 42.53 .8000 99 1.28 98.38 .9366 49 54.70 41.59 .8016 98 2.54 96.83 .9385 48 55.68 40.66 .8089 97 3.77 95.35 .9403 47 56.66 39.74 .8130 96 4.97 93.89 .9421 46 57.64 38.82 ,8169 95 6.16 92.45 .9439 45 58.61 37.90 .8203 94 7.32 91.08 .9456 44 59.54 37.00 .8242 93 8.48 89.72 .9473 43 60.58 36.09 ,8277 92 9.62 88.37 .9490 42 61.50 35.18 .8311 91 10.76 87.04 .9506 41 62.46 34.30 .8344 90 11.88 85.74 .9522 40 63.42 33.40 .8377 89 1301 84.47 .9538 39 64.37 32.53 .8409 88 14.12 83.22 .9553 38 65.32 81.63 .8440 87 15.23 81.96 -9568 37 66.S6 30.75 .8470 86 16.32 80.72 .9582 36 67.20 29.88 .8500 85 17.42 79.51 .9595 35 68.12 29.01 .8530 84 18.52 78.29 .9607 34 69.04 28.14 .8559 83 19.61 77.09 .9620 ' 33 69.96 27.27 .8583 82 20.68 75.91 .9633 32 70.89 26.41 ,8616 81 21.76 74.75 .9645 31 71.80 25.56 .8644 80 22.82 7359 .9657 30 72.72 24.70 .8671 79 23.90 72.43 .9668 29 73.62 23.85 .8698 78 24.96 71.30 .9679 28 74.53 23.00 .872.5 77 23.03 70.16 .9690 27 75.43 22.16 .8752 76 27.09 69.04 .9700 26 76.83 21.31 .8778 75 23.15 67.93 .9711 25 77.23 20.47 .8804 74 29.20 66.82 .9721 24 78.13 19.63 .8830 73 30.26 65.72 .9731 23 79.09 18.79 .8855 72 31.30 64.64 .9741 22 79.92 17.96 .8880 71 32.35 63.58 .9751 21 80.81 17.12 .8905 70 33.39 62.50 .9761 20 81.71 16.29 .8930 69 34.44 61.43 .9771 19 82.60 15.46 .8954 68 35.47 60.38 .9781 18 83.50 14.63 .8978 67 36.51 59.33 .9791 17 84.39 13.80 .9002 66 37.54 58.29 .9801 16 85.29 12.98 .9026 65 38.58 57.25 .9812 15 86.19 12.15 .9049 64 39.60 56.23 .9822 14 87.09 11.33 .9072 63 40.63 55.21 .9833 13 88.00 10.51 .9095 62 41.65 54.20 .9844 12 88.90 9.69 .9117 61 42.67 53.19 .9855 11 89.80 8.87 .9139 60 43.68 52.20 .9867 10 90.72 8.06 .9161 59 44.70 51.20 .9878 9 91.62 7.24 .9183 58 45.72 50.21 .9890 8 92.54 6.43 .9205 57 46.73 49.24 .9902 7 93.45 5.62 .9226 56 47.73 48.26 .9915 6 94.38 4.81 .9247 55 48.74 47.29 .9928 5 95.30 4.00 .9267 54 49.74 46.33 .9942 4 96.24 3.20 .9388 sa 50.74 45.37 .9956 3 97-17 2.40 .9308 52 51.74 44.41 .9970 2 98.11 1.60 .9328 51 52.73 43.47 .9985 1 99.05 0.80 * Exam. Med. Chemicals, Hoffmann, p. 119. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. TABLE* OP THE QUANTITY BY WEIGHT OP HYDROCHLORIC-ACID GAS CONTAINED IN 100 PARTS BY WEIGHT OP AQUEOUS HYDROCHLORIC ACID AT DIFFERENT DENSITIES. (Temperature, 16 C) SPECIFIC GRAVITY. PER CENT OP HYDRO- CHLORIC ACID. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. PER CENT OF HYDRO- CHLORIC ACID. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. PER CENT OF HYDRO- CHLORIC ACID. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. PER CENT OF HYDRO- CHLORIC ACID. 1.2013 41 1.1551 31.25 1.1056 21.5 1.0573 11.75 1.200.2 40.75 1.1539 31 1.1044 21.25 1.0561 11.5 1.1991 40.5 1.1526 30.75 1.1031 21 1.0549 11.25 1.1930 40.25 1.1513 30.5 1.1019 20.75 1.0537 11 1.1969 40 1.1501 30.25 1.1007 20.5 1.0524 10.75 1.1918 39.75 1.1488 30 1.0994 20.25 1.0512 10.5 1.1917 39.5 1.1475 29.75 1.0982 20 1.0500 10.25 1.1936 39.25 .1462 29.5 1.0969 19.75 1.0488 10 1.1925 39 .1450 29.25 1.0957 19.5 1.0475 9.75 1.1913 38.75 .1437 29 1.0945 19.25 1.0463 9.5 1.1902 385 .1424 28.75 1.0932 19 1.0451 9.25 1.1890 38.25 .1412 28.5 1.0920 18.75 1.0439 9 1.1878 38 .1399 28.25 1.0907 18.5 1.0427 8.75 1.1867 37.75 .1386 28 1.0895 18.25 1.0414 8.5 1.1855 37.5 .1373 27.75 1.0883 18 1.0402 8.25 1.1841 37.25 .1361 27.5 1.0870 17.75 1.0390 8 1.1833 37 1348 27.25 1.0858 17.5 1.0378 7.75 1.1831 36.75 .1335 27 1.0845 17.25 1.0366 7.5 1.1810 36.5 .1323 26.75 1.0833 17 1.0353 7.25 1.1798 36.25 .1310 26.5 1.0821 16.75 1.0341 7 1.1787 38 .1297 26.25 1.0807 16.5 1.0329 6.75 1.1775 35.75 .1284 26 1.0795 16.25 1.0317 6.5 1.1763 35.5 .1272 25.75 1.0783 16 1.0805 6.25 1.1752 35.25 .1259 25.5 1.0770 15.75 10292 6 1.1739 35 1.1246 25.25 1.0758 15.5 1.0280 5.75 1.1727 34.75 1.1234 25 1.0746 15.25 1.0268 5.5 1.1714 34.5 1.1221 24.75 1.0733 15 1.0256 5.25 1.1702 34.25 1.1208 24.5 1.0721 14.75 1.0244 5 1.1689 34 1.1196 24.25 1.0709 14.5 1.0231 475 1.1877 33.75 1.1183 24 1.0696 14.25 1.0219 4.5 1.1664 X 33.5 1.1170 23.75 1.0684 14 1.0207 4.25 1.1652 33.25 1.1157 23.5 1.0672 13.75 1.0195 4 1.1639 33 1.1145 23.25 1.0859 13.5 1.0170 3.5 1.1637 32.75 1.1132 23 1.0647 13.25 1.0146 3 1.1614 32.5 1.1119 22.75 1.0635 13 1.0122 2.5 1.1652 32.25 1.1107 22.5 1.0622 12.75 1.0097 2 1.1589 32 1.1094 22.25 1.0610 12.5 1.0073 1.5 1.1577 31.75 1.1081 22 1.0598 12.25 1.0048 1 1.1564 31.5 1.1069 21.75 1.0585 12 1.0024 0.5 * Taken from " Manual Chem. Anal.," by Fred. Hoffmann, p. 87. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 221 The density of the aqueous acid being decreased by an increase of tem- perature, and increased by a decrease of temperature, the consequent change of the specific gravity amounts for each degree of the Centigrade thermometer in either direction For acids of a specific gravity of 1.1739 to those of 1.1386 to about 0.0005 1.1335 " 1.0982 " 0.0004 1.0932 " 1.0635 " 0.0003 For instance : An acid of a specific gravity of 1.1234 at 16 C., containing 25 per cent of hydrochloric-acid gas, will have at 18.5 C. a specific gravity of (1.1234 - 0.004 x 2.5 = ) 1.1224, and at 13.5 C. a specific gravity of (1.1234 + 0.004 x 2.5 =) 1.1244. TABLE* OF THE QUANTITY BY WEIGHT OP NITRIC OXIDE (N 2 O 5 ) AND OF MONO- HYDRATED NlTRIC ACID CONTAINED IN 100 PARTS BY WEIGHT OF AQUEOUS NITRIC ACID AT DIFFERENT DENSITIES. (Temperature, 17.5 C.) SPECIFIC GRAVITY. PER CENT OF N 2 5 . PER CENT OF N 2 O 5 + H 3 0. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. PER CENT OF N 2 5 . PER CENT OF N,0 5 +H 2 b. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. PER CENT OF N 2 5 . PER CENT OF NoO s + H.,0. 1.523 85 99.16 1.472 72 84.00 1.417 59 68.83 1.521 84.5 98.58 1.470 71.5 83.41 1.414 58.5 68.25 1.519 84 98.00 1.469 71 82.83 1.412 58 67.66 1.517 83.5 97.41 1.467 70.5 82.24 1.409 57.5 67.08 1.516 83 96.83 1.465 70 81.66 1.406 57 66.50 1.514 82.5 96.24 1.462 69.5 81.08 1.403. 56.5 65.91 1.512 82 95.66 1.460 69 80.50 1.400 56 6533 1.510 81.5 95.08 1.458 68.5 79.91 1.397 55.5 64.75 1.508 81 94.50 1.456 68 79.33 1.394 55 64.16 1.506 80.5 93.91 1.454 67.5 78.75 1.392 54.5 63.58 1.504 80 93.33 1.451 67 78.16 1.389 54 63.00 1.502 79.5 92.74 1.449 66.5 77.58 1.386 535 62.41 1.500 79 92.16 1.447 66 77.00 1.383 53 61.83 1.498 78.5 91.58 1.444 65.5 76.41 1.380 52.5 61.25 1.496 78 91.00 1.442 65 75.83 1.377 52 60.66 1,494 77.5 90.41 1.440 64.5 75.25 1.374 51.5 60.08 1.492 77 89.83 1.438 64 74.66 1.371 51 59.50 1.490 76.5 89.24 1.436 63.5 74.08 1.368 50.5 58.91 1.488 76 88.66 1.434 63 73.50 1.364 50 58.33 1.486 75.5 88.08 1.432 62.5 72.91 1.361 49.5 57.75 1.484 75 87.50 1.430 62 72.33 1.358 49 57.16 1.482 74.5 86.91 1.428 61.5 71.75 1.355 48.5 56.58 1.480 74 86.33 1.426 61 71.16 1.352 48 56.00 1.478 73.5 85.74 1.424 60.5 70.58 1.349 47.5 55.41 1.476 73 85.16 1.422 60 70.00 1.345 47 54.83 1.474 72.5 84.58 1.419 59.5 69.41 1.342 46.5 54.25 * Taken from "Man. Chem. Anal.," by Fred. Hoffmann, 1873, p. 94. 222 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SPECIFIC GRAVITY PER CENT OF N 2 5 . PER CENT OF N 3 5 + H 2 0. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. PER CENT OF N 2 5 . PER CENT OF IS.^O. + H 2 0. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. PER CENT OF N 2 5 . PER CENT OF N.O 5 + H 2 O. 1.338 46 53.66 1.236 32.5 37.91 1.132 19 22.16 1.334 45.5 53.08 1.232 32 37.33 1.129 18.5 21.58 1.330 45 52.50 1.228 31.5 36.75 1.125 18 21.00 1.327 44.5 51.91 1.224 31 36.16 1.122 17.5 20.41 1.323 44 51.33 1.220 30.5 35.58 1.118 17 1983 1.319 43.5 50.75 1.217 30 35.00 1.114 16.5 1925 1.315 43 50.16 1.213 29.5 34.41 1.111 16 18.66 1.312 42.5 49.58 1.209 29 33.83 1.107 15.5 18.08 1.308 42 49.00 1.205 28.5 33.25 1.104 15 17.50 1.304 41.5 48.41 1.201 28 32.66 1.100 14.5 16.91 1.301 41 47.83 1.198 27.5 32.08 1.096 14 16.33 1.297 40.5 47.25 1.194 27 31.50 1.092 13.5 15.74 1.294 40 46.66 1.190 26.5 30.91 1.089 13 15.16 1.290 39.5 46.08 1.186 26 . 30.33 1.086 12.5 1458 1.287 39 45.50 1.182 25.5 29.74 1.082 12 14.00 1.283 38.5 44.91 1.178 25 29.16 1.078 11.5 13.41 1.279 38 44.33 1.174 24.5 28.58 1.075 11 12.83 1.275 87.5 43.75 1.170 24 28.00 1.071 10.5 12,25 1.271 37 43.16 1.167 23.5 27.41 1.C68 10 11.66 1.267 36.5 42.58 1.163 23 26.83 1.064 9.5 11.07 1.263 36 42.00 1.159 22.5 26.25 1.060 9 10.50 1.259 35.5 41.41 1.155 22 25.66 1.056 8.5 991 1.255 35 40.83 1.151 21.5 25.08 1.C53 8 9.33 1.251 34.5 40.25 1.147 21 24.49 1.050 7.5 8.84 1.247 34 39.66 1.143 20.5 23.91 1.045 7 8.16 1.243 33.5 39.08 1.140 20 23.33 1.038 6 7.00 1.239 33 38.50 1 1.136 19.5 22.74 1.C32 5 5.83 NOTE. With the decrease and increase of temperature, the density of Nitric Acid suffers a corresponding increase or decrease, amounting for each degree of the Centigrade thermometer in either direction For acids of a sp. gr. of 1.492 to those of 1.476 to 0.00213 in the average. 1.472 1.454 1.430 1.406 1.377 1.345 1.308 1.271 1.232 1.194 1.155 For instance: An acid of 1.178 specific gravity at 17.5 C., containing 25 per cent of anhydrous, or 29.16 per cent of monohydrated, Nitric Acid, will have, at- 20 C., a specific gravity of (1.178 - 0.00072 x 2.5 =) 1.762, and at 15 C. ( quantity of iron. ) f CalO 14; Mg 5 23; J M 515; Fe 329; [ Si 4055. Actinolite Beryl . . . 7.5-8 67 33.2 2.632.76 3.333.5 (CaMgFe)Si. (iBe 3 + W8i,. (MgFe) a Si. j Si 55 59; Mg 9-24; { Ca 9-21 ; Fe 311. Be 14.1 ; Al 19.1 ; Si 66.8. Mg 50.28 ; Fe 9.36 ; Si 40.75. Chrysolite Willemite 5.5 3.894.18 Zn 2 Si. Zn 72.9 ; Si 27.1. PheDacite Garnet 7.58 6.5-7.5 2.963 3.15-^.31 3.7-3.76 Be 2 Si. (R 3 ) 2 Si 3 + RJ3i 3 . j[HMgCaFeMn) 3 | "I + t^] a Si,. f Be 45.8; Si 54.2. |-Mg 13.43; 'A! 22.47; Ca j 6.53 ; Fe 9.29 ; Mn 6.27 ; [ Si 42.45. Pyrope Gro3sularite . . 3.4-3.7 aCa,iiJ),Sl,. Ca 37.2 ; Al 22.7 ; Si 40.1. Almandite.... (iFe 3 + ^Al) a Si 3 . F* 43.3 ; M 20.5 ; Si 36.1. Spessartite.... - 3.7-4.4 [i(MnFe) 3 + ^ti] 2 Si s . {Mn 30.96; Fe 14.93; Al 18.06; Si 35.83. Ouvarovite.... Zircon 7.5 7.5 6.5 3.413.52 4.05-4.75 3.49-3.45 GCa 3 + tr) a Si s . ZrSi. j[f (CaMgFe) 3 + } 1 l(Affe)] 2 Si 3 . ) Zr 67 ; S 33. j Ca 27-38 ; Mg 0-10 ; Fe 1 0-16; Al 10-26; Si 35-39. Versuvianite . 304: THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. THE PRINCIPAL SILICON MINERALS (Contin ued.) MINERAL. HARDNESS. SP. GR. FORMULA. COMPOSITION. - ( Ca 16-30 ; 'M 14-28 ; Upidote 67 3.253.5 ( 3 Ca 3 + 10PeAl) a si 3 . ! ... | Fe 7-17 ; Si 36-57. ( Mg 8.8 ; Fe 7.9 ; Al 33.9 ; lolite 77.5 2.562.67 2(MgFe)s'i + Al i s'i 1 ( Si 49.4. Biotite 2.53 2.73.1 j [i(K Mg Fe) 3 + I j Mg 425 ; Fe 0-20 ; A4 1 KAlFe)] 2 Si 3 . 1 1 1121; ?e4 25; Si 3644 Muscovite 2-2.5 2.753.1 j [K 3 (A4Fe)] 2 Si 3 + 1 liS'i. 1 j K 512 ; Al 31-39 ; 1 'Fe 1-8 ; Si 4350. Lepidolite.... 2.5-^ 2.843 j [(KLi) 3 (A4Fe)] a 1 Si 3 + 881. I ( K 414; Li 1-5; A4 ( 1438; Fe 0-11; Si 4254. Wernerite .... 5-6 2.632.8 j [ 3 (CaNa) 3 + |Ai] a 1 (Na 5; Ca 18.1; Al 28.5; ( Si 3 + Si. 1 Si 48.4. Nephelite 5.5-6 2.52.65 j (Na 3 K 3 ) 2 Si 3 + j 3Al a Si 8 + 3Si. ! j Na 16.9 ; K 5.2 ; Al 33.7 ; ( Si 44.2. ( Na 0-12; Ca 1-23; Lapis-Lazuli. . 5-5.5 2.38-2.45 Na,Ca,Al,Fe,Si,S, 8. J Al 1143; Fe 0-4; [s'i40 66; S 5 ; S 4. Hauynite 5.5-6 2.4-2.5 j (|Na 3 + IADs | Si 3 + CaS'! \ iNa 16.5 ; 'Al 27.4 ; Si 32 ; Ca 9.9 ; S 14.2. Leucite 5.56 2.442.56 "K"tti , !AJQ: XVOl T TXlQl.3. K 21.5 ; Al 23.5 ; Si 55. Anorthite 67 2.662.78 GCa, + |Al) a Si 3 . Ca 20 ; Al 36.9 ; Si 43.1. iNa 4.5 ; Ca 12.3 : Al 30.3 ; Labradorite... 6 2.672.76 (Na,Ca)Si + AlSi 2 . .. Si 52.9. Oligoclase 67 2.56-2.72 j i(Na,Ca) 3 + |A1) 1 Si 3 + 3fSi. \ j Na 212 ; Ca 0.55 ; ( Al 19.24 ; Si 5964. Albite 67 2.592.65 j (iNa s + SA&Si, \ Na 11.8 ; Al 19.6 ; Si 68.6. | + 6Si. \ 4 j (ik 3 + fAl) 2 Si 3 ) Orthoclase 6-6.5 2.442.62 \ K 16.9 ; Al 18.8 ; Si 646. | + 6Si. | ( One sample gave Mg 54.5 ; Chrondrodite. 6-6.5 3.1183.24 Mg 8 Si 3 . ( Fe 6.75 ; Si 33.19 ; Fe 5.56. fNa 05 ; K 0-4 ; Ca 02. f[(Na, K, Ca, Mg, 1 ... Mg 015 ; Fe 017 ; Fe Tourmaline .. 77.5 2.94-3.3 Fe) 3 (Pe,'Al,B)] 8 011 ; Al 3044 ; B4 11 ; Si 9 . J > Si 3540. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 305 THE PRINCIPAL SILICON MINERALS (Continued}. MINERAL. HARDNESS SP. GR. FORMULA. COMPOSITION. Andalusite. . . 7-5 (for] trans- J parent). 1 1 3.13.2 f (for opaque) J 3.053.35 AlSi. A4 63.2 ; Si 36.8. f M 63.2 ; S.36.8 (Al may be Fibrolite 67 3.23.3 &8L J replaced by W'M or 0.8^ [ Mg. H may be present.) Cyanite 57.25 3.45-3.7 A&. M 63.2 : 8 36.8. Topaz 8 3.43.65 MSi(Fl). j Si 15.17 ; Al 29.58 ; O 34.67; | Fl 28.58. Euclase 7.5 3.098 QH S + |Be 3 + A4)S*i. {Be 17.4 ; A4 35.3 ; Si 41.1 ; H6.2. Datolite 5-5.5 2.83 (Ca,,H a ,B)SL jCa 35.0; H 5.6 ; B 21.9; | Si 37.5. Titanite 5-5.5 3.4-3.56 (Ca,Ti)Si. Ca21 28; Ti 33-43; Si 30.35. Staurolite 7-7.5 3.43.8 J v t..* . g + ! ( 3^6)., |Al) 1 Si 3 . ) (H1.7; Mg 2.5; Fe 15.8; | A4 51.7 ; Si 28.3. Pectolite 5 2.682.78 (1-H + Na + Ca)Si. j H 2.7 ; Na 9.3 ; Ca 3a8 ; | Si 54.2. Laumontite... 3.5-4 2.25-2.36 &&*+*. (Call.9; A121.9; Si 50.9; ( H 15.3. Dioptose 5 3.2783.48 CuSi + H. Cu 50.4 ; Si 38.2 ; H 11.4 Chrysocolla. . . Calamine 24 4.5-5 6-6.5 2-2.38 3.16-3.9 2.82.95 CuSi + 2H. Zn a Si + H. Cu 45.3 ; H 20.5 ; Si 34.2. Zn 67.5 ; H 7.5 ; Si 25. j Ca 27.1 ; H 4.4 ; Al 24.9 ; 1 Si 43.6. Prehnite... . Chlorastrolite. 5.5-6 3.18 j (Ca,Na,) a Si a -f | (Na 5.2; Ca 18.7; Fe 6.4; |2(A4,Fe) 2 Si 3 + 6H. f 1 Al 24.6 ; Si 37.6 ; H 7.5. Apophyllite... 4.55 2.32.4 1 Si + HSi. ) | H 16.7 ; K 4.8 ; Ca 23 ; 1 Si 55.5. Natrolite 55.5 2.172.25 NaAi,3Si,2H. Na 16.3 ; A4 27 ; Si 47.2 ; . H 9.5. Analcite 55.5 2.222.29 Na,*Al,4Si,2H. Nal4.1; M23.3; Si 54.4 ; H 8.2. 306 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. THE PRINCIPAL SILICON MINERALS (Continued). MINERAL. HARDNESS. SP. GR. FORMULA. COMPOSITION. Chabazite 4.5 2.02.19 j [jCa + KNa,K)] | ( Al,4Si,6H. | f Ca 411 ; Na 04 ; J K 0.172.58 ; Al 1721 ; [ Si 45 52; H 19 22. Ba23.7; & 15.9; Si 46.5; Harmotome. . . 4.5 2.44-2.45 Ba,AJ,5Si -f 5H. H 13.9. When it contains Ca7.4; M 20.5; Si 47.9; Stelbite 3.54 2.0942.205 K 6.3 ; H 17.9. jCa 8.9; "M 16.5; Si 57.4; ( H 17.2. Ca,Al,6Si,6H. Henlandite Talc. 3.54 1.15 22.5 2.2 2.5652.8 Ca,Al,6Si,5H. (fMg + lH)Si. Mg 2 Si 3 + 2H. j Ca 9.2 ; Al 16.9 ; Si 59.1 ; ( H 14.8. Mg 33.5 ; Si 62.8 ; H 3.7. Mg27.1; H12.1; Si 60.8. Sepiolite Serpentine - (pIg+iH) 2 Si + ,jH. Mg 42.97; Si 44. 14; H 12.89. Prochlorite.. . . 12 2.782.96 j tt(Mg,Fe) 3 + fAl] ) 1 SiH. j" (Mgl5.3; Fe 27.5 ; Al 19.7; | Si 26.8; H 11.7. QUARTZ. The composition of Quartz is pure silica or silicon 46.67, oxygen 53.33 (Si0 2 ). The many different varieties of quartz may be regarded as allotropic modifications. " Quartz may be massive ; coarse or fine granular to flint-like or crypto-crystal- line. Sometimes mamillary, stalactitic, and in concretionary forms." Colorless when pure ; often various shades of yellow, red, brown, green, blue, and black. Streak is white, with pure varieties ; if impure, often the same as color, although paler. Transparent, opaque. Hardness = T. Specific gravity = 2.5-2.8 ; 2.6413-2.641 (Bendant) ; 2.663 (Deville). It acquires vitreous electricity by friction, but loses it very quickly. Tough, brittle, friable. Polarization circular, there being a colored centre instead of a central cross, and the rings of color THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 307 around enlarging as the analyzer is turned to the right in the right-handed crystals, or left in the left-handed ; and colored spirals are seen, which rotate to the right or left, when the incident light and emergent light are polarized, one circularly and the other plane. It is infusible before the blowpipe. "With soda it unites, with effervescence; with salt of phosphorus no action takes place. It is not acted upon by any acid except hydrofluoric. The varieties of quartz are quite numerous, and may be con- sidered as follows : " CRYSTALLIZED QUAETZ. " CONCRETIONARY QUARTZ, AGATE, or CHALCEDONY. " JASPER. " SILEX or FLINT, which is more easily attacked by alkalies than the other varieties. It is never pure. " EARTHY QUARTZ, sometimes in the shape of flour, and in every way analogous to the silicic acid produced in the labo- ratories. It is often formed of the skeletons of infusoria. " QUARTZITES and SAND." With respect to CRYSTALLIZED QUARTZ, the form is a rhombo- hedron of 94 15', but this primitive form is rarely found, and is always in very small crystals. The most general form is the combination of two rhornbohedra, by which the prism is appar- ently terminated by a hexagonal pyramid. The rhombohedron with the hexagonal prism is a form sometimes found. Quartz is found penetrated by various minerals, " as topaz, chrysoberyl, garnet, different species of hornblende and pyrox- ene groups, kyanite, zeolites, calcite and other carbonates, rutile, stibnite, hematite, gothite, magnetite, fluorite, gold, silver, anthracite, etc." CONCRETIONARY QUARTZ, AGATE, or CHALCEDONY is less pure than crystallized quartz. A gray chalcedony from Hun- gary gave, according to Redtenbaher (Ramm. Min. Ch., 1007), Si 98.87, '-Fe 0.53, CaC 0.62 = 100.02. Heintz analyzed a car- nelian, which was a clear red, and found the red color to be 308 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. due to ferric oxide fie 0.050, Al 0.081, Mg 0.028, K 0.043, Na 0.075. Klaproth analyzed a specimen of chrysoprase which was apple-green, and found in that of Silesia (Beitr, ii, 127), Si 96.16, 'A 0.08, fe 0.08, Ni 1.0, Ca 0.83, H 1.85 = 100. The color was due to the presence of nickelous oxide. Redtenbacher has analyzed a brown-banded agate with the following results : Si 98.91, fe 0.72, CaC 0.31 = 99.94. Some agates which are remarkable for their colors are made use of in the arts, such as the blue variety called sapphirine. Besides the carnelian, which is clear red, and the chrysoprase, which is clear apple-green, mentioned above, the phrase, which is dark- green, and the sardine-stone, which is dark-brown, are much used in the arts. When agates are used for cameos, they must have parallel layers of different colors. These are often pro- duced artificially. The zone or ribbon agate is much used in the arts. When the zones or strata are in parallel layers, and the colors in great contrast, this variety is called onyx. JASPER is the name given to impure, opaque-colored quartz. The red jasper is colored by ferric oxide the brownish or ochre-yellow jasper is colored by hydrated ferric oxide, which when heated loses water and becomes red. It may also be dark-green and brownish-green ; grayish blue and blackish or brownish-black. Striped or ribbon jasper has the colors in broad stripes ; Egyptian jasper in nodules, which are zoned in brown and yellowish colors. Jasper admits of a high polish, and is used for vases, boxes, etc. Porcelain jasper is nothing but baked clay, and differs from true jasper in being, before the blowpipe, fusible on the edges. Red porphyry, or its base, resembles jasper, but is also fusible on the edges, being usually an impure feldspar. Jasper is used extensively in the manufacture of Florentine mosaics. In the variety of quartz called SILEX or FLINT, there is no trace of crystallization to be distinguished, not even under the microscope. The colors are not so bright as in chalcedony. Lustre is barely glistening. Subvitreous. It breaks with a THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 309 deeply conchoidal fracture, and a sharp cutting edge. It con- tains more impurities than the agate. There is usually one per cent, or so of alumina and peroxide of iron, with one or two of water. The coloring matter of the common kinds is mostly carbonaceous matter. EARTHY QUARTZ. This variety is another distinct allotropic modification. It is sometimes called Flowers of Silica, and is almost entirely soluble in alkalies. SAND is the name applied to quartz in a finely-divided state. Sand may be of different kinds ; sometimes each grain is a complete crystal, sometimes it is rounded or concretionary, and sometimes it appears to have no form, but made up of frag- ments of crystals. When the grains of sand are united by a cement, such as ferric oxide or lime, large and round fragments are formed called pudding-stones. If the fragments are angular, it is called breccia. When the cement is silicic acid, it forms a rock which is called QUAETZITE. At Fontainebleau, the sands contain sufficient lime to cause them to crystallize with the form of calcite, even when they contain as much as 80-85% of silicic acid. Quartz is found all over the United States. Quartz crystals are sometimes found of enormous size. A group in the Museum of the University of Naples weighs nearly half a ton. A crystal belonging to Sig. Rafelli, of Milan, measures 3^ ft. in length and 5^- in circumference, and its weight is estimated at 870 Ibs. Another in Paris 3 feet in diameter and weighs 8 cwt. A group from Moose Mountain, N. H., at Dartmouth College, weighs 147-J Ibs. and contains 48 crystals, four of them from 5 to 5-J inches in diameter, ten from 4 to 4| inches. A crystal from Waterbury, Vt., is 2 ft. long and 18 inches through, and weighs 175 Ibs. OPAL The composition of Opal is Si, the same as quartz, but it contains a varying quantity of water, from 3 to 310 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. The following are a few analyses of opal : LOCALITIES. Si. H. At. E. CA. NA. 0. 0.90 0.16 K. 34 0.80 0.19 Mo. 1.48 0.86 0.47 0.30 's. 0.31 0.31 ORO. 2.28 1. Czerwenitza (precious opal) 2. Zimapan (fire opal) 90 92 88.73 90.20 93.01 96.94 91.56' 87.58 87.86 94.00 10 7.75 7.97 2.73 4.12 3.06 5.76 8.89 8.43 5.00 0.99 1.86 0.12 1.04 2. 0.13 0.25 4.11 0.37 0.18 04 0.73 5 0.49 0.33 1.09 0.75 ~~ 3. Faroe (fire opal) 4 Schift'enberg (semi-opal) 5. Oberkassel (wood opal). 6. Waltsch, Bohem. (hyalite^. 7 Iceland (geyserite) 8 Bilin (tripolite) 9. Luneberg (infusorial earth) 10. Paris (Q. nectique floatstone) . . Analysis No. 1 by Klaproth (Beitr., ii, 151). 2 " u (L c., iv, 156). 3 " Forchhammer (Pogg., xxxv, 331). 4 Wrightson (Ann. Ch. Pharm., liv, 358). 5 " R. Brandes (Nogg. Geb. Rh. Westph., i, 338). 6 " Damour (Bull. G. Fr., II, v, 163, 1848). 7 " Bickell (Ann. Ch. Pharm., Ixx, 290). 8 " Baumann (Ramm. Min. Ch., 136). 9 " Haustein and Schultz (Ann. Ch. Phann., xcv, 292) 10 " Bucholz (Leouk. Ta&ch., vi, 5, 8). Opal may have the following colors : white, yellow, red, brown, green, and gray; the colors are generally pale. It often has a very bright play of colors. Streak is white. Lustre is vitreous, pearly, or resinous. Transparent, translucent, opaque. Its 'hardness is from 5.5 to 6.5. Specific gravity = 1.9-2.3. It is infusible before the blowpipe, but loses water and becomes opaque. In some varieties the transparency may be made to reappear by plunging it into water. When the colors are very dark, they arise from foreign ad- mixtures; in such cases, sulphuric acid will turn it black, owing to organic matter. Some yellow varieties, containing oxide of iron, turn red. It is soluble in alkalies. In a vacuum it loses its water and becomes entirely opaque. The variety known as precious opal is generally found dis- seminated in trachytic or porphyritic rocks. Such opals are greatly prized as objects of ornament. The play of colors of the opal seems to depend on the hydration of the silicic acid ; THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 311 for if an opal is heated it loses fire, but often regains it to a less degree if plunged into water. Precious opal occurs in porphyry at Czerwenitza, near Kashaw, in Hungary ; also in Honduras. Fire opal occurs at Zimapan, in Mexico. Common opal is abundant at Telke- banya, in Hungary ; in Moravia, Bohemia, Iceland, the Giant's Causeway, and the Hebrides. Hyalite occurs at Schemnitz, in Hungary. Wood opal forms large trees in the pumice con- glomerate of Saiba ; also in Hungary, Faroe, and Tasmania. The Luneberg earth contains many species of infusoria, and is 10 to 18 feet thick. In the United States, hyalite occurs sparingly in New York, rarely in North Carolina, and in Georgia and Florida. In Wash- ington County, Georgia, good fire opals have been found. BERYL The composition of Beryl is silica 66.8, alumina 19.1, glu- cina 14.1 (JBe 3 + -J&) Si 3 . There are two prominent groups of beryl depending on the color, the color varying as chromium or iron is present. When the color is bright emerald green, it is owing to the presence of chromium and is called Emerald. All other specimens are called Beryl) and owe their color to iron. The following are a few analyses : Si. 'At. BE. FE CA. MG. 1. Rosenbach, Beryl 65.51 20.71 11.46 1.33 0.23 0.12 2. Fossum 67.00 19.64 12.56 0.53 0.18 - 3. Goshen, Mass., " 66.97 17.22 12.92 2.03 ttn, tr. 4 Muso EmeTdld 68.50 15.75 12.50 1.00 CrO.30, CaO.35. Analysis No. 1, by Hofmeister (Ib., Ixxxi, 1). No. 2, by Schcerer (Pojrg., x lix, 533). No. 3, by Mallet (Am. J. Sci., II, xvii, 180). " No. 4, by Klaproth (Beitr., iii, 215). The colors of beryl are very variable; they are emerald green, pale green, passing into light blue, yellow and white. 312 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Streak is white. Brittle. Lustre vitreous or resinous; the opaque varieties, however, have no lustre. Double refraction feeble ; axis negative. Hardness = 7.5-8. Specific gravity = 2.63-2.76. At a high temperature before the blowpipe the edges become rounded. Fuses at 5.5 (Kobell). The colored varieties become white when heated and lose in weight, which would seem to indicate that the color is due to organic matter. Glass with borax clear and colorless for beryl, a fine green for emerald. Unacted upon by acids. Emeralds are found in clay-slate near Muso, New Grenada. A perfect hexagonal crystal from this locality, two inches long, is in the cabinet of the Duke of Devonshire. Emeralds of less beauty but of large size are found in Siberia, Mount Zalora, and in Upper Egypt. Transparent beryls are found in Sibe- ria, Hindostan and Brazil. Beryls of gigantic size have been found in New Hampshire and in Massachusetts. One beryl from Grafton, N. H., weighs 2.900 pounds ; it is 32 inches through in one direction and 22 in another. It is also found in Maine, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. GARNET. Garnet is a unisilicate, of sesquioxide and protoxide bases, having the general formula (JF^ + i^S's or (Rg^Sia+^S's' The following are the varieties (with the exception of the last) which blend together more or less completely, through varieties containing combinations of the protoxide bases and also of the sesquioxide bases : A. Grossularite or Lime-alumina garnet. B. Pyrope or Magnesia-alumina garnet. C. Almandite or Iron-alumina garnet. D. Spessartite or Manganese-alumina garnet. E. Andradite or Lime-iron garnet. F. Bredergite or Lime-magnesia-iron garnet. G. Ouvarovite or Lime-chrome garnet. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 313 The following are a few analyses of the different varieties : Si. A*. PE. FE. MN. Ma. CA. 1 Sludianka K Gross , . 4099 1490 10.94 98 3294 2 Wilni Grossularite 38.25 19.35 7.33 050 240 31 75 3 Pyrope 41 35 2235 9 94 2 59 15 00 5 29 Cr 4 17 4 Fahlun Almo/tidite. 3966 19.66 3968 1 80 5. Haddam, Ct., Spessarfite 6. Westmoreland, Andradile. . . 7. Sala, Bredergite 35.83 37.55 36.73 18.06 2.78 31.35 25.83 14.63 30.96 4.70 1244 26.74 21 79 8. Bissersk, Ouvarovite 37.11- 5.88 2.44 22.54 1.10 30.34, H 3.01 Analysis No. 1, by Ivanoff (Kokscb. Min. Russl., iii, 79). " No. 2, by Karsten (Karat. Arch. Min., iv, 388). ** No. 3, by Moberg (J. pr. Ch., xliii, 122). No. 4, by Hisinger (Schw. J., xxi, 258). ** No. 5, by H. Seybert (Am. J. Sci., vi, 155, 1823). " No. 6, Hisinger (Jahresb., ii, 101). " No. 7, Bredberg (Ak. H. Stockh., i. 63, 1822). " No. 8, Kourouen (Vech. Min. Ges. St. Pet., 1841-55). Color of garnet may be red, brown, yellow, white, apple- green, black ; some of the red and green colors are often bright. Streak is white. Transparent, translucent, opaque. Fracture conchoidal or uneven. Garnet is generally found crystallized, faut the crystals are very often distorted. Hard- ness 6.5-7.5. Specific gravity = 3.15-4.3.. It is brittle and sometimes friable ; when granular, massive ; very tough, when compact ; cryptocrystalline. In the reducing flame of the blowpipe most varieties fuse to- a light- brown or black gloss, and often becomes magnetic, owing to the presence of iron. The dark-red varieties are easily fusible to a magnetic scoria, as they contain more iron. Some varieties are partially decomposed by acids ; all except ouvarovite are after ignition decomposed by hydrochloric acid, and generally with separation of gelatinous silica. Decom- posed on fusion with alkaline carbonates. Common garnet is found in Sweden and Norway. Alman- dite or precious garnet is found in Ceylon, Peru, Brazil and Greenland. Other varieties are found in Bohemia, Saxony, Hungary, and in the Urals. In the United States, in Maine, beautiful yellow crystals or 314: THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. cinnamon stones (with idocrase) are found. Garnets are also found in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and California ; also found in Canada and New Mexico. LAPIS LAZULI. The composition of Lapis Lazuli is silicate of soda, lime and alumina, with a sulphide, probably, of iron and sodium. The following are a few analyses : Si. At. FB. CA. NA. H. S. 1. Orient 46.0 14.5 3.0 17.5 2.0 4.0, C10.0. 2. Bucharei 45.50 31.76 Tr. 3.52 9.09 0.12 5.89, Fe 0.86, Ci 0.42, S 0.95. 3. Andes 45.70 25.34 1.30 7.48 10.55 4.32, S 3.96, K 1.35. Analysis No. 1, by Klaproth (Beitr. i, 189). " No. 2, by Varrentrapp (Pogg., xlix, 515). No. 3, by Schultz. Color of lapis lazuli is azure-blue, violet-blue, red, green, or colorless. Streak, same as color. Translucent, opaque. Fracture uneven. Hardness, 5-5.5. Specific gravity, 2.38-2.45. When heated in a closed tube, gives off moisture; the variety from Chili glows with a beetle-green light, but the color of the mineral remains blue on cooling. Fuses easily at 3 with intumescence, and gives a bluish bead. In acids it is more or less easily attacked, and gelatinizes, evolving at the same time a little H 2 S. The action of acids is frequently to decolorize it ; sometimes it is not attacked by acids except after calcination. It is usually found in syenite or crylallien limestone, associ- ated often with pyrite and mica in scales. It is found in Siberia, of a dark-blue color ; also in Transyl- vania, Persia, China, Thibet, Tartary, and near the Rio Grande. It is much used by jewelers, especially when it contains pyrite. It was formerly used to make ultramarine, but is now superseded by a cheap artificial preparation. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 315 ORTHOCLASE. The composition of orthoclase or feldspar is (JK 3 + f Al) 2 Si 3 + 6Si, or else with half the excess of silica basic = silica, 64.6 ; alumina, 18.5 ; potash, 16.9, with soda sometimes re- placing part of the potash. The orthoclase of Carlsbad con- tains rubidium. There is a large number of varieties. The following are a few analyses : LOCALITIES. Si. &L. FE. Mo. CA. NA. K. ZN. 1. Lomnitz, Silesia 2. Siberia 3. Radeberg, Sax. (wh.) 4. Schemnitz 66.75 65.32 65.24 64.00 17.50 17.89 20.40 18.00 1.75 0.30 0.53 0,09 0.84 0.31 1.25 0.10 0.78 12.0 2.81 0.27 0.79 13,05, Mn 0.19, Ca tr. 12.35-0.52, Li 0.71 15.43, Pb and Ca 0.32 5. Davidson Co., N. C.. 6. Zircon Syenite 7. Ischia 65.30 66.03 6709 20.20 19.17 18.88 Trace 0.31 1.25 Trace 0.03 0.05 0.20 0.35 0.78 6.83 4.59 4.35 6.96 7.58 0.21 8 Lococlase 6540 1948 1.25 0.20 226 723 2.76 0.76 9. Lochwald 66.37 19.95 Trace 0.40 9.64 3.42 Analysis No. 1 by Rose (Scheerer's J., yiii, 248). " " 2 " Abich (Pogg., li, 528 ; B. H. Ztg. Jahrg., 19). " " 3 " Jenzsch (Pogg., xcv, 304). " 4 " C. Bischof (Bischof, Lehrb. Qeol., ii, 2171-2187). " " 5 " F. A. Genth (Keller and Tied, iii, 486). " " 6 " Scheerer (Pogg., cviii, 426). " " 7 " G. Bischof (Lehrb. Geol., 1. c.). ' " 8 " Smith and Brush (Am. J. Sci., II, xvi, 43). " " 9 " F. Sandberger (Geol. Beschr. Baden, Carlsruhe, 181, 48). The color of orthoclase is flesh-red, white-gray, greenish or bright-green. Streak colorless. Transparent, translucent, opaque. Fracture conchoidal, uneven. Lustre vitreous on cleavage; surface sometimes pearly. Hardness, 6-6.5. Spe- cific gravity, 2.44-2.62 ; mostly, 2.5-2.6. Before the blowpipe, the colored varieties whiten. In thin scales it is fusible between 4 and 5 to white glass. With borax it gives a transparent glass, and with salt of phosphorus a silica skeleton. It is not acted on by acids. Orthoclase is an essential constituent of many rocks. It is found in fine crystals at Carlsbad and Elbogen in Bohemia ; also in Siberia, 316 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Norway, Silesia, and Cornwall, etc. In the United States, orthoclase is found in crystals in Maine, Connecticut, New York, North Carolina, etc. Massive orthoclase is abundant in the above places, as also in Mt. Desert, Me. ; Rockport, Mass. ; Norwich, Conn. Kaolin at Andover, Mass., and abun- dantly in New Milford, Kent, and Cornwall, Conn., etc. Under the influence of atmospheric agencies the silicates undergo a peculiar decomposition. When decomposition has taken place in a rock, the elements of which are well separated as large-grained granites and pegmarites, the quartz is unaltered and the mica is not decomposed ; the feldspar or orthoclase only has undergone decomposition. The mica, however, undergoes certain changes, and takes on a silvery look, which it did not have in the unaltered rock. The products of decomposition may be separated as follows : 1. KAOLINS or porcelain clays, resulting from the decom- position of rocks in places. 2. ORDINARY CLAYS, formed as sediments. 3. CLAYS, produced by chemical' decomposition. KAOLIN. In the decomposition of orthoclase to form kaolin, it loses IK -f -fSi. Part of the silica set free may go off with more or less of the potash, or may form opal, quartz, or siliceous sinter. Kaolin is generally a simple hydrous silicate of alumina, expressed by the formula Al Si 2 + 2H = silica 46.3, alumina 39.8, water 13.9. It is usually white, and somewhat plastic, not very coherent, earthy, and without argillaceous odor when breathed upon. It is easily separated from the accompanying undecomposed materials by crushing and washing. It is very much sought for, when free from iron, for the manufacture of porcelain. For this purpose, it is indispensable that all the mica should be washed out. Brougniart analyzed a great number of kaolins used in the arts, and arrived at the following limits : THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 317 Si 23-46; metallic oxides 0.5-1; Si 21-43 ; Ca, MgO-6; alkalies 0-05 ; H 5-12 : residue not argillaceous 0-3. ORDINARY CLAYS. " Clays seem to have been formed from the product of decom- position, carried off by water and deposited in beds in the stratified formations. They do not have any well-deiined character. When dry, they rapidly absorb water, which they lose easily, and then contract and crack in every direction." Lustre is somewhat pearly or waxy, to dull. Color white, grayish, greenish, bluish, reddish. When taken from the earth, they are sometimes somewhat translucent on the edges, and have a soapy look and a slight lustre. When breathed upon, they give a peculiar odor, called argillaceous, like the smell of ground after a rain. Fracture is conchoidal. Hardly plastic. Hardness = 1-2. Specific gravity = 1.8-2.4. The composition of clays is very variable, but they can all be arranged around two types, represented by the following compositions : I. II. Si 4550 6066 Al 3438 1825 H 915 915 These may be represented by the formulae : M Si 5 + 4H ; Si 51.83, Al 35.36, H 12.46, and Al Si 5 + 3H ; Si 65.64, Al 22.54, H 4.82. " These clays are generally plastic enough to allow their use in moulding and for pottery. When they contain but little iron, they can be used for fire-brick. They absorb water rap- idly, and have a very distinct argillaceous odor, and are only partially acted on by acids." 318 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. CHEMICAL CLAYS. Under this head is considered the varieties known as fuller's earth or smectic clay. Their composition is as follows : LOCALITIES. ft. At. FE. MG. CA. H. 1 Cilley (smectite) . 51 21 12 25 207 489 2.13 2789 2. Riegate (fuller's earth).. 53.00 10.00 9.75 1.25 0.50 24.00, Ki!r,NaCl 0.10 3. SteindOrfel (malthacite). 50.17 10.66 3.15 0.25 35.83 Analysis No. 1 by Jordan (Pogg., Ixxvii, 591). 11 2 " Klaproth (Beitr., iv, 338). " " 3 " O. Meissner (1. c.). Color is white, gray, and various shades of green to moun- tain green and olive green, or brownish. Softens in water. In the fracture their lustre is quite bright ; they may even be translucent on the edges. They do not absorb water as easily as kaolin and ordinary clays, but they unite with fats, even when cold, and saponify. They are largely used for soap in the countries where they are found. Before the blowpipe the malthacite is infusible; but the smectite and the Riegate fuller's earth, owing to the impurities present, fuse rather easily. They are decomposed by hydro- chloric acid. Malthacite is found at Steindorfel, in Lausitz; and Beraun, in Bohemia. Smectite is found in Cilley, in Lower Styria. TOPAZ. The composition of Topaz is silicon 15. IT, aluminium 29.58, oxygen 34.67, fluorine 20.58 [Al (J8i0 2 + iSiF 2 )]. The following are a few analyses : LOCALITIES. Si. L. P. 1. Auerbach, Saxony 34.24 57.45 14.99 2 Brazil (yellow) 3401 58 38 1506 3 Finbo (pyrophysalite) . .... 3436 57 74 15 02 4. Trumbull Conn 3539 55 96 1735 5. Altenberg (pycnite) 35.00 48.00 165 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 319 Analyses No. 1, 2, 3, by Berzelius (Schweig J., xvi, 423 ; At handl., Lv, 236). Analysis No. 4 by Forchhammer (J. pr. Ch., xxx, 400). " " 5 " Bucholz (Schw. J., i, 385). The color of topaz may be blue, green, yellow, orange- yellow, red, and colorless. The colors vary with the locality and crystalline form, and appear to be generally owing to organic substances. Streak colorless. Hardness = 8. Spe- cific gravity = 3.4-3.65. Lustre vitreous. Pyro-electric. Transparent, subtranslucent. Crystallizes as a right rhombic prism of 124 IT. It is infusible before the blowpipe. The yellow varieties, when heated, take a pink or red color, and are then known as burnt topaz. Fused in the open air with salt of phosphorus gives the reaction for fluorine. Only partly attacked by sul- phuric acid. Fine topazes come from the Urals, near Katha- rinenburg and Miask ; in Nertschinsk, beyond L. Baikal, in the Adun-Tschilon Mountains, etc., one crystal from near the River Urulga, now in the imperial cabinet at St. Petersburg, being llf in. long, 6J in. broad, weighing 22|- Ibs. Av., and magnificent also in its perfect transparency and wine-yellow color. Found also in Kamschatka; Yilla Rica, in Brazil; Aberdeenshire ; Altenberg, Norway ; Broddbo, Sweden. One crystal found at this last place weighed 80 pounds. In the United States it is found at Trumbull, Middletown, and Willimantic, Conn. ; also in North Carolina and Utah. TALC. Syn. Steatite, soapstone, or potstone. The composition of talc in some cases may be represented by the formula (-f Mg + ^H) = silica 62.8, magnesia 33.5, water 3.7. In other cases (|Mg + H) Si + ^H = silica 62 -> magnesia 33.1, water 4.9. The formula is commonly written, Mg 6 Si 5 + 2H. The following are* a few analyses : 320 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. LOCALITIES. Si. A3L. FE. Mo. H. 1 Chamouni (foliated talc) . . . 62.58 1.98 3540 0.04 6329 053 227 31 92 78 Mn 23 3. Canton, N. Y. (Rensselaerite) . . 4 Rhode Island (talc) 59.75 61.75 3.40 1 70 32.90 31 68 2.85, Ca 1.00 383 5 Pottou Canada (steatite) 59.50 0.40 4.50 29.15 4 40 M tr Analysis No. 1 by Marignac (Bibl. Univ., 1844). " " 2 " J. Schneider (J. pr. Ch., xliii, 316). " " 3 " Beck (Min. N. Y., 297). " " 4 " Delesse (Rev. Scientif., etc.). " 5 " T. S. Hunt (Rep. G. Can., 1857, 454). The color of talc may be green, white, red, and gray. Streak white, or lighter than color. It is flexible, but not elastic, which allows of its being distinguished from mica. Its touch is unctuous and soapy, on account of the large quantity of magnesia it contains. Lustre is pearly. Sectile in a high degree. Hardness=l-1.5. Specific gravity =2.565-2.8. Crys- tallizes in a right rhombic prism of 120. Before the blowpipe it whitens, swells, and sometimes decrepitates a little, fusing with difficulty on the edges. With nitrate of cobalt it gives the reaction for magnesia. Not decomposed by acids. Rensselaerite is decomposed, though, by concentrated sulphuric acid. Talc, or steatite, is a very common mineral, and constitutes beds in some regions. Apple-green talc occurs in the Greiner Mountain, in Saltzburg; in Saltzburg, Yalais, Cornwall, Scotland, Ireland, and Shetland Islands, etc. In the United States, it is found in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, Staten Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina, Also in Canada. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 321 24. SILVER. The principal Silver minerals are : MINERAL. HAKD- NESS. SP. GB. FORMULA. COMPOSITION. Native silver 2.43 335 10.111.1 10.514 Ag (when pure) AgHgo Ag 100. Ag 34.8 ; Hg 65.2. Argentite 225 7.1967.365 AgS Ag 87.1 ; S 12.9. Pronstite Pyrargyrite 22.5 22.5 5.4225.56 5.75.9 3AgS + As 2 S 3 3AgS + Sb 2 S 3 Ag65.4; S19.4; As 15.2. Ag59.8; Sb22.5; S 17.7 Stephanite 22.5 6.269 5AgS + SboS s Ag68.5; S16.2; Sb 15.3. 2 3 6214 9 (Ag u) S + (Sb, As) 2 S 3 jAg64.7; Cu9.8; S14.3; Cerargyrite 115 5315.43 AgCl | Sb 9.7. Ag 75.3 ; 1 24.7. Bromyrite Embolite 23 11.5 5.8-6 5.315.81 AgBr Ag (Cl, Br) Ag57.4; Br42.6. Ag 69.28; Br 14.30; Cl 16.42 lodyrite 11.5 5.55.71 Agl Ag46; 154. NATIVE SILVER. The composition of Native Silver is silver, with some copper, gold, and sometimes platinum, antimony, bismuth, and mer- cury. The varieties are : 1. AURIFEROUS. Rust elite contains 10-30 per cent, of sil- ver. Color is white to pale brass-yellow. The name ktistelite was given to an ore in Nevada. Hard- ness = 2-2.5. Specific gravity = 11.32-13.10. Eichter found in it silver, lead, and gold. 2. CUPRIFEROUS. Contains sometimes 10 per cent, of copper. 4. ANTIMONIAL. John found in silver from Johanngeorgen- stadt (Chem. Tint., i, 285) 1 per cent, of antimony, and traces of copper and arsenic. The color of native silver is white, but is subject to tarnish and to become grayish-black. Streak silver-white. Ductile, sectile. Lustre metallic. Hardness = 2.5-3. Specific grav- ity = 10.1-11.1; when pure, 10.5. 21 322 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Native silver has all the characteristics of silver on charcoal ; fuses easily to a metallic globule. In the oxidizing flame gives a brown coating. Soluble in nitric acid, and deposited again by metallic copper, or precipitated by hydrochloric acid as argentic chloride. The mines of Konigsberg, in Norway, have furnished mag- nificent specimens of native silver. A mass weighing 60 Ibs. was obtained from the Himmelsfurst mine, near Freiberg, which had a gravity of 10.840. It is also found in the Harz, Hungary, Dauphiny, and in some of the Cornish mines. Mexico and Peru have been the most productive countries in silver. A Mexican specimen from Batopilas weighed, when obtained, 400 Ibs. ; and one from Southern Peru (mine of Huantaya) weighed over 8 cwt. In the United States, it is disseminated through the copper mines at Michigan. It has .also been found in New York, New Jersey, California, Nevada, and Idaho. Also found in Canada. ARGENTITE. The composition of Argentite,, often called vitreous silver and silver glance, is sulphur 12.9, silver 87. 1 (AgS). The following are a few analyses : LOCALITIES. S. AG. 1 Joachimsthal 15 85 2 Himmelsfiirst. . 14.7 853 3 Joachimsthal .. 14 46 77 58 P b 3 68 Cu 1 53 Fe 2 02 Analyses No. 1 and 2 by Klaproth (Beitr., i, 158). Analysis No. 3 by Lindaker (Vogl's Min. Joach., 78). Color, deep iron-black, with very little lustre on the natural faces. The lustre is, however, bright on the fracture. Streak same as color, and shining. Opaque. Perfectly sectile. Hardness = 2-2.5. Specific gravity = 7.196-7.365. Argentite melts when held in a flame, without the aid of a THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 323 blowpipe. In the oxidizing flame it is roasted ; in the reduc- ing flame gives a metallic globule. Soluble in nitric acid. It is found as amorphous masses disseminated in gangues, which are usually limestones. It is a very valuable ore of silver, and is found at Freiberg, Annaberg, Joachimsthal of the Erzgebirge ; at Schemnitz and Kremnitz, in Hungary ; in Norway, in the Urals, Cornwall, Bolivia, Peru, Chili,. and Mexico. Occurs in Nevada, at the Comstock lode, at different mines, along with stephanite, native gold, etc. ; in the vein at Gold Hill ; common in the ores of Reese River ; probably the chief ore of silver in the Cortez district ; in the Kearsarge district, silver sprout vein. PYRARGYRITE. The composition of Pyrargyrite is sulphur 17.7, antimony 22.5, silver 59.8 (3AgS + Sb 2 S 3 ). The following are a few analyses : LOCALITIES. S. SB. AG. 1 Mexico 180 21 8 602 2. Chili 17.45 23 16 59.01 3. Andreaeberg 16.61 22.85 58.95, gangue 0.30. Analysis No. 1 by WOhler (Ann. d. Pharm., xxvii, 157). u 2 u F- Field ( Q ! Ch Soc . ? xU> 18)> " 3 " Bonsdorff (Ak. H. Stockh., 1821, 338). The color of pyrargyrite is black or very dark red. Streak cochineal-red. Lustre metallic, adamantine. Translucent. Opaque. Fracture conchoidal. Hardness = 2-2.5. Specific gravity = 5.7-5.9. In a closed tube, gives a red sublimate of sulphide of anti- mony ; in an open tube, sulphurous fumes are evolved, and a white sublimate of oxide of antimony. On charcoal it fuses and coats the coal. Heated for some time in the oxidizing flame, or with soda in the reducing flame, a globule of silver is 324: THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. obtained. Decomposed by nitric acid, with separation of sul- phur and antimonious acid. It is found at Andreasberg, in the Harz ; also in Saxony, Hungary, Norway, in Spain and in Cornwall. In Mexico, it is worked extensively as an ore of silver. It is also found in Nevada, at "Washoe, in Daney Mine ; and at Poorrnan lode, Idaho, in masses sometimes of several hundredweight, along with cyrargyrite. It is a valuable ore of silver. STEPHANITE. The composition of Stephanite is (5AgS + Sb 2 S 3 ) sulphur 16.2, antimony 15.3, and silver 68.5. The following are two analyses : LOCALITIES. S. SB. AG. FE. Cu. 1 Sclicuiiiitz .... 16.42 1468 6854 084 2 Andreasberg 1651 1579 6838 014 Analysis No. 1 by Rose (Pogg., xv, 474). " 2 " Kerl (B. H. Ztg., 1853, No. 2). The color and streak of Stephanite is black. Lustre metallic. Fracture uneven. Hardness = 2-2.5. Specific gravity = 6.269 (Pryebrain). In a close tube, it decrepitates and fuses, and after long heat- ing gives a faint sublimate of sulphide of antimony. On charcoal it decrepitates and fuses, giving the rose-colored coat- ing of silver and antimony. After long treatment, a globule of silver is obtained. It is found at Freiburg, Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, in the Harz, Mexico, and Peru. It is an abundant ore in Nevada, in the Comstock lode; it is also found in Idaho. It is a valuable ore of silver. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. CERARGYRITE. The composition of Cerargyrite (called also Horn Silver) is chlorine 24.7, silver 75.3 (AgCl). The color is white, gray, grayish-green, or colorless when perfectly pure. Streak color- less and shining. Transparent, feebly translucent. Fracture somewhat conchoidal. Sectile. Lustre resinous, passing into adamantine. Hardness = 11.5. Specific gravity = 5.552 ; 5.31-5.43 (Domeyke). In a closed tube fuses without decomposition. Fuses in a flame of a candle. On charcoal, gives a globule of silver. Insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. The largest masses, particularly green, are found in Peru, Chili and Mexico. It is also found in Norway, Brittany, Nevada, California, Idaho and Arizona. It is mined as an ore in South America. 25. SODIUM. The principal Sodium minerals are : MlNEKAL. HARDNESS. S?. GB. FORMULA. COMPOSITION. Soda Nitre.... 1 1.937 NaN' Na36.5; 'N63.5. Thenardite 2-3 2.5-2.7 NaS. Na 56.3 ; S 43.7. Mirabilite 1.5-2 1.481 Na's + 10H. Na 19.3 ; *S 24.8 ; H 55.9. Glauberite.... 2.53 2.64-2.85 (JNa + |Ca)S. S57.5: Ca20.1; Na 22.4. Halite ... 2.5 2.1_2 257 NaCl Na 39 3 Cl 60 7. Borax 2.25 1.716 NaB 3 + 10H Na 16 2 B 36 6 ; H 47 2 Natron 11.5 1.423 NaC + 10H. Na 18.8 : C 26.7 ; H 54.5. SODA NITRE. The composition of Soda Nitre is nitric acid 63.5, soda 36.5 (NaN). Hochstetter obtained from the Chilian minerals (v. Leonh., 1846, 235) NaS 94.291, NaCl 1.990, KS 0.239, K N 0.426, MgN 0.858, insoluble 0.203, II 1.993. The color of soda nitre is white ; also reddish-brown, gray. 326 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. and lemon-yellow. Lustre vitreous. Fracture indistinctly conchoidal. Taste cooling. Crystals strongly double refract- ing. Transparent, translucent, or opaque. Deflagrates on charcoal ; colors the flame yellow. Dissolves in three parts of water at 60 F. It is found in Peru in great abundance ; also in Chili and India. GLAUBERITE. The composition of Glauberite is sulphate of soda 51.1, sulphate of lime 48.9 (JNa + jCa)S. The following are a few analyses : *& CA. NA. CL. FE. 1. Villa Rubia 565 20. 2 23.3 g. Ischl 57 52 20 37 21 87 31 3. Turapaca.. . 5722 2068 21 32 14 Analysis No. 1, by Brougniart. " No. 2, by v. Hauer (Ber. Ac. Wien). " No. 3, by Hayes (J. Nat. H. Soc. Bost., iv, 498). The color of glauberite is generally yellow, somewhat gray, but when -Fe is present it is red. Streak is white. Fracture conchoidal ; brittle. Taste slightly saline. Hardness 2.5-3. Specific gravity 2.64-2.85. Decrepitates and melts into a bead, which is transparent when hot, but opaline when cold. Water separates the sul- phates by dissolving the sulphate of soda. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid. Glauberite is found at Yilla Rubia near Ocana in New Castle, also at Ausse in Upper Austria, and in Bavaria. Near Madrid a large mass of glauberite was found fourteen to fif- teen miles thick and several leagues square. HALITE. The composition of Halite (common salt) is chlorine 6017, sodium 39.3 (Nad). THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 327 The following are a few analyses : NACL. MoCL. CAS'. NAS. MG'S. 1 Vic white 99.3 0.5 Clay 0.2. 90.3 50 2.0 lv 1.9. 3 " red 99.8 _ " 0.2. 4. " yellow 5" green 96.70 96.27 0.23 0.27 1.21 1.09 - 0.66 0.80 Analyses No. 1-6, by Berthier (Ann. d. M., x, 259). The colors of halite are very variable. When pure it is colorless, but generally it is colored by some earthy or organic matter. It may be gray, red, violet, blue or green. The cause of these colors is not very well understood ; they may be owing to traces of Ni, Co, Cu, or organic matter. Streak is white. Lustre vitreous. Hardness = 2.5. Specific gravity 2.1-2.257 ; of pure crystals 2.135 (Hunt). Transparent, trans- lucent. Fracture conchoidal. Rather brittle. It is soluble, and has its own peculiar saline taste. When heated it at first decrepitates and then melts; when fused, colors the flame deep yellow. Halite or common salt occurs in irregular beds in rocks of various ages. At Durham, Northumberland, and Leicester- shire, England, salt springs rise from the carboniferous series ; in the Alps, some salt works are supplied from oolitic rocks. In the United States, the brines of New York come from upper silurian; those of Ohio, Pennsylvania and Virginia mostly from Devonian and subcarboniferous beds. Salt also occurs as efflorescences over the dry prairies and shallow ponds or lakes of the Rocky Mountains and California. The principal mines of Europe are at Wieliczka, in Poland ; at Hall, in the Tyrol ; Stassfurt, in Prussian Saxony. Also in Bavaria, Salz- berg, Transylvania, Upper Silesia, France, Valley of Cardona and elsewhere in Spain, forming hills 300 to 400 feet high. Also occurs, forming hills, near Lake Oromiah, the Caspian Lake, etc. It is also found in Algeria, Abyssinia, India, China and Russia. In the United States, it has been found in 328 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Virginia, Oregon and Louisiana. Brine springs are very numerous in the Middle and Western States. These springs are worked at Salina and Syracuse, "N. Y. ; in the Kanawha Valley, Va. ; Muskingum, Ohio ; Michigan at Saginaw and elsewhere, and in Kentucky. 26. STRONTIUM. The principal Strontium minerals are : MINERAL. HARDNESS. SP. GR. FORMULA. COMPOSITION. Celestite 3 3 5 3 923 975 Sr's" Sr 56 4 S 43 6 Strontianite 35 4 3 6053 713 SrC Sr 70 2 C 29 8 CELESTITE. The composition of Celestite is sulphuric acid 43.6, strontia 56.4 (SrS). The following are a few analyses : LOCALITIES. S. SB. BA. CA. F. 1. Frankstovvn, Pa 2 Siintel Hanover. .... 42 42.74 58 55.18 086 0.31 04 CaC 02, H 0.05 3 Dehrself 4294 5501 0.64 0.65 Si 0.11 HO 25. 4 Dom.bu.rg 42.95 56.26 0.03, '=y 05, CaC 0.10, H, Bit 15 Analysis No. 1 by Klaproth. " Nos. 2, 3, and 4 by Stromeyer (Unters., 203). The color of celestite is white, often faint bluish, and inclin- ing to pearly. Streak is white. Hardness = 3-3.5. Specific gravity = 3.92-3.9T5 ; 3.9593, crystals (Bendant) ; 3.973, fr. Tharaud (Breith) ; 3.96 fr. Kingston (Hunt). Its lustre is very bright, often pearly. Fracture is lamellar and sometimes conchoid al. Decrepitates and fuses, coloring the flame red. Insoluble in acids. It is found in Sicily, Spain, France, Hungary, Hanover, THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 329 Austria, Yorkshire, and New Grenada. It is found about Lake Huron, particularly about Strontian Island; and at Kingston, Canada; also in Chaumont Bay, Schoharie, and Lockport, N. Y. Celestite is used in the arts for making nitrate of strontia, which produces the red color in fireworks. STRONTIAN ITE. The composition of Strontianite is carbonic acid 29.8, and strontia 70.2 (SrC). The strontia is often replaced in a small degree by lime. The following are a few analyses : LOCALITIES. C. SB. CA. EB. MN. H. 1. Strontian . . .... 30.0 69.5 05 2. Braunsdorf, Saxony 3 Strontian .... 29.94 30.66 67.52 65.53 1.28 3.52 0.01 0.09 0.07 4 " 3031 6560 347 o 07 007 ' Analysis No. 1 by Klaproth (Beitr., i. 270; ii, 84). " " 2 " Stromeyer ^Inters, i, 193). " u 3 u Thomson (Min., i, 108). " " 4 " Stromeyer (1. c.). The color of strontianite may be gray, white, yellow, brown- ish, and pale green. Streak white. Hardness = 3.5-4. Spe- cific gravity = 3.605-3.713. Lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous on uneven faces of fracture. Transparent, translu- cent. Fracture uneven. Brittle. Before the blowpipe it swells, arboresces, and fuses on the thin edges, and colors the flame red. With soda, on charcoal, the pure mineral fuses to a clear glass, and is entirely absorbed by the coal. Soluble in hydrochloric acid. It is found at Strontian, in Argyleshire, in Yorkshire, England ; in Ireland, Harz, Saxony, and Saltzburg. In the United States, it occurs at Schoharie, N". Y. ; at Muscalonge Lake ; Chaumont Bay ; and Theresa, in Jefierson County, New York. Strontianite is used for pyrotechnics. 330 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 27. SULPHUR. The composition of Native Sulphur is pure sulphur, which is often contaminated with clay and bitumen. When it is quite pure, it is of a yellow color, called sulphur- yellow, sometimes having a greenish tint. It is sometimes of a reddish color, which has been attributed to traces of selenium. Streak is sulphur-yellow, reddish, or greenish. Hardness = 1.5-2.5. Specific gravity = 2.072, of crystals from Spain. Lustre is resinous. Transparent, subtranslucent. Fracture conchoidal, more or less perfect. Sectile. Crystallizes as a right rhombic prism, 101 40'. Heated in a closed tube it fuses and volatilizes, leaving no residue, if it is pure. In an open tube, it burns with a blue flame, and gives off sulphurous fumes. Becomes strongly electrified by friction. Insoluble in water, and not acted on by acids. The great repositories of sulphur are either beds of gypsum and the associated rocks, or the region of active or extinct volcanoes. It occurs in the valley of Noto, and Mazzaro in Sicily ; at Con.il, near Cadiz, in Spain ; at Bex, in Switzerland. Also at Hanover, Egypt, Tuscany, and in the Chilian Andes. Sulphur is found near the Sulphur Springs of New York, and in Virginia, in limited quantities ; also in North Carolina and Nevada. 28. TIN. The principal Tin minerals are : MINERAL. HARDNESS. SP. GR. FORMULA. COMPOSITION. Cassiterite Stannite 6-7 A 6.47.1 4.34.522 So. 2(Cu,Fe,Zn)S 4- SnS 2 . Sn 78.67, O 21.23. j Sn 27.2, Cu 29.3, Fe, C.5, \ Zn 7.5, S 29.6. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 331 CASSITERITE. The composition of Cassiterite is tin 78.67, oxygen 21.33 (Sn). The following are a few analyses : LOCALITIES. SN. 'tA. E. MN. Si. L. 1 Finbo 936 2.4 1.4 0.8 2 Wicklow Ireland 9526 2.41 084 3 Tipuani Bolivia (buh) 91 81 1. )2 6.48 0.73 Analysis No. 1 by Berzelius (Afh., iv, 164). " 2 " Mallet (J. G. Soc., Dubl., iv, 276). 3 " Forbes (Phil. Mag., iv, xxx, 140). Cassiterite is sometimes found colorless, in a few localities, but generally its color is of every gradation, intermediate between gray, white, and yellow. The color is generally in bands not equally diffused. Streak white, grayish, or brown- ish. Hardness = 6-7. Specific gravity = 6.4-7.1. Lustre is adamantine, and crystals usually splendent. Nearly transpa- rent, opaque. Fracture subconchoidal, uneven. Brittle. It is infusible before the blowpipe. In the reducing flame it is with difficulty reduced ; but if soda be added, the reduction is facilitated. With borax it melts easily, and becomes the base t/ s of an enamel. It is only slightly acted on by acids. It occurs in remarkable crystals in Cornwall. It is found in Ireland, Bohemia, Saxony, Greenland, Sweden, and in Fin- land. In the East Indies it is found near Borneo, and in Australia. In Bolivia, S. A., at Oruro tin mines ; in Bolivia, and in Mexico. In the United States, found sparingly at Paris, Maine ; in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Virginia, and California. 332 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 29. ZINC. The principal Zinc minerals are : MINERAL. HAKDNESS. SP. GB. FORMULA. COMPOSITION. Zincite 44.5 5.435.7 Zn Zn 80 26 O 19 74 Sphalerite 35 4 3942 ZnS Zn 67 S S3 Goslarite 225 2036 ZnS -t- 7H Zn 28 2 S 27 9 H 43 9. Smithsonite 5 4-^.5 ZnC Zn 64.8, C 35.2. Hydrozincite 225 3.583.8 ZnC+2ZnH Zn 75,3, C 13.6, H 11.1. ZINCITE. The composition of Zincite is oxygen 19.74, zinc 80.26 (Zn). The following are a few analyses : VARIETIES. ZN. MN. $N. E. 1 Bed 92 g g. " 88 l 2 3 " 9348 550 0.36, scales Fe 0.44. 4 Yellow 9947 0.68 ign. 0.23. Analysis No. 1 by Bruce. ' " 2 u Berthier (Ann. d. M., iv, 483). " " 3 " A. A. Hayes (Am. J. Sci., xlviii, 261). " " 4 t* Wt P Blake (Mining Mag., II, ii, 94, 1860). Color of zincite is characteristic ; it is a deep red, sometimes orange-yellow. Streak orange-yellow. Translucent, subtrans- lucent. Fracture subconchoidal. Brittle. Hardness =4-4. 5. Specific gravity = 5.43-5.7 ; 5.684, orange-yellow crystals (W. P. Blake). Bleaches if heated in a closed tube, but on cooling resumes its natural color. In the reducing flame it gives metallic zinc, which volatilizes, oxidizes, and forms a white ring. Gives a green color with nitrate of cobalt. Shows reaction for manganese. Soluble in acids. It occurs with Franklinite at Stirling Hill and Mine Hill, Sussex County, N. J. It is used as an ore of zinc. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 333 SPHALERITE. The composition of Sphalerite is sulphur 33, zinc 67" (ZnS). The following are a few analyses : LOCALITIES. S. ZN. FB. CD. 1. Przibram (fibrous) 2 New Jersey (white) 33.15 3222 61.40 67.46 2.29 1.50 Trace. 3. Clausthal (black) 33.04 65.39 1.18 0.79, Cu 0.13, Sb 0.63. 4 Corinthia Raibel (rh. crystal). 5. Cb.rystopb.ite (black) 32.10 3357 64.22 44.67 1.32 18.25 Trace ; Sb and Pb 0.72, H 0.80. 0.28, Mn 2.66, Sn trace. Analysis No. 1 by Leowe (Pogg., xxxviii, 161). " 2 " T. H. Henry (Phil. Mag., IV, i, 23). " 3 " C. Kuhlemann (Zs. nat. Ver. Halle, viii, 499). " " 4 " Kersten (Pogg., Ixii, 132). u " 5 " Heinichen (B. H. Ztg., xxii, 27). The color of sphalerite is very variable ; it is rarely color- less, but is generally honey-yellow, brown, black, red, and green. When pure it is generally white or yellow. Streak is white, reddish-brown. Hardness = 3.5-4. Specific grav- ity = 3.9-4.2 ; 4.063, white, New Jersey. Lustre resinous to adamantine. Transparent, translucent. Fracture conchoidal. Brittle. In the open tube it gives off sulphurous fumes, and generally changes color. In the oxidizing flame it gives off sulphurous fumes and often a cadmium coating. The roasting is long and difficult, and after it, in the reducing flame, it gives a coat of zinc, which is yellow when hot and white when cold. Soluble in hydrochloric acid. With nitric acid, very little red vapor is given off, but much sulphydric gas. Occurs in Derbyshire, Cumberland, Cornwall, Transylvania, Hungary, Harz ; Salila, in Sweden ; Raliebozitz, in Bohemia, etc. Abounds with the lead ores of Missouri, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois. Found in New York, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Tennessee. Sphalerite is one of , the most abundant ores of zinc. 334 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SMITHSONITE. The composition of Smithsonite is carbonic acid 35.2, oxide of zinc 64.8 (ZnC). The following are a few analyses : LOCALITIES. C. ZN. FE. PB. Si. 1. Somersetshire 2 Altenber 01 35.2 35 13 64.8 6456 - 16 015 3 Moresnet Belgium 3378 6306 0.34 1 58 H 1.28. 4. Altenberg (w. cryst.) .... ZNC. 98.24 FEC. 0.52 MNC. 0.15 MoC. 0.23 CAC. 0.20, insol. 0.07. 5. Algiers... 90.10 1.74 j 2.30, PbC 0.44, As 3.30, 6. Albrarradon, Mex 93.74 150 0.29 ( Fe 1.50, sand 0.45. 1.48, CuC 3.42. Analysis No. 1 by Smithson (Nicholson's J., vi, 76). " " 2 " Heidiugsfeld (Ramm., 5th Suppl.) " " 3 " Schmidt (J. pr. Ch.. ii, 257). " 4 " H. Risse (Verrh, nat. Ver. Bonn., 86, 1865). " " 5 " Marigny (Ann. d. M. V., xi, 672). " " 6 " Genth (Am. J. Sci., xx, 119). Color of smithsonite may be white, green, yellow, or brown. Streak white. Hardness = 5. Specific gravity = 4-4.45 ; 4.45 (Levy); 4.42 (Haidinger). Lustre vitreous, inclining to pearly. Subtransparent, translucent. Fracture uneven, im- perfectly .conchoidal. Brittle. Crystallizes in rhombohedra of 107 40'. In a closed tube, when heated, loses its carbonic acid. Infusible. On charcoal, with soda, gives vapors which are yellow while hot and white when cold. Soluble in hydro- chloric acid with effervescence. It is found at Hertschinsk in Siberia, at Dognatzka in Hun- gary, Altenberg near Aix la Chapelle, at Ciguenza, in Scot- land, and in Ireland. In the United States it is found at Brookfield, Conn., in "New Jersey at Mine Hill, in Pennsylvania at Lancaster, in "Wisconsin, Minnesota, Missouri, and Arkansas. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 335 30. ZIRCONIUM. The principal Zirconium mineral is Zircon. ZIRCON. The composition of Zircon is zirconia 67, silica 33 (ZrSi). The following are a few analyses : LOCALITIES. Si. ZN. FE. CA. H. 1. Ceylon 325 645 1 5 2. Fredericksvaru ?) 33.85 64.81 1.55 0.88 3. Buncombe Co., N. C 33.70 65.30 0.67 0.41 Analysis No. 1, by Klaproth (Beitr., v, 126). " No. 2. by Heuueberg (J. pr. Ch., xxxviii, 508). " No. 3, by C. F. Chandler (Am. J. Sci., H, xxiv, 131). Zircon may be colorless, pale yellow, brownish-yellow, yel- lowish-green, reddish-brown, gray or blue. Streak colorless. Hardness =7. 5. Specific gravity =4.05-4.75. Lustre adaman- tine. Transparent to subtranslucent and opaque. Fracture conchoidal, brilliant. Double refraction strong, positive. It is infusible. The red varieties before the blowpipe lose their color without losing their transparency, and the dark-colored varieties become white. It is thought possible, therefore, that the color is due to organic matter. Acids do not affect it, but it is decomposed by fusion with alkaline carbonates. It is found in the alluvial sands in Ceylon, in the gold regions of the Ural near Miask, at Arendal in Norway, in Transylvania, in Bohemia, Tyrol, France, Scotland, Ireland, Greenland and Australia. In North America it is found in Maine at Litchfield, in Vermont, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina and California. 336 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. COAL Coal is produced by the spontaneous distillation of wood, etc., after life lias left the material acted on. The following is the Coal Series. VEGETABLE TISSUE, EITHEB HERBACEOUS OR LIGNEOUS. PEAT. LIGNITE. BITUMINOUS. SEMI BITUMINOUS. ANTHRACITE. GRAPHITIC ANTHRACITE. I GRAPHITE. COAL SERIES. 4 OHIO RIVER. CUMBERLAND. A = Bituminous Coal, containing 50$ of Volatile Matter. B = Semi " " " 17-25$ C = Inflammable Anthracite " 10-20% D=Lehigh " " 3-10$ E = Newport Coal, " 0-7$ COAL MEASURES. The following sections, general and local, as shown on p. 337, will serve to give an idea of the mode of occurrence of coal in the carboniferous rocks, and of the nature of the asso- ciated strata. (J. S. dewberry, Johnson's Cyc., Article Coal.) The Brier Hill coal is the best bituminous coal in this country ; it has the following composition : BRIER HILL COAL. Water 1 to Volatile Combustible. . 30 to Fixed Carbon 62 to 65$. Ash 1.5 to 3%. Sulphur 6 to 1$. The Brazil coal is the best coal in Indiana. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 337 Carboniferous strata W. Pennsylvania and Ohio. Coal Measures N. Ohio. 338 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 1 O i-l 1O CO 00 T-I OJ C3 OS C- co'od t> ooj TH O3 CO O O J> CO CO 1C OO CO C CO CO CO OCOCO-rHlOl> TH O ^^ ^ J > OC5 TH CD iO oco co m K w I ^ K QQ K 5 O CO TH 1 CO OOrH' I O *>TH TH rf Q 0000 T* TH GO OS 000 1C CO GO OS GO i> tO CO 0^ W CO CO t- v o "^H J>* . CO 1O O %* $ J> CD OS 00 1C OS O CO 1 CO TH ^ CO i> OS 1C 00 c> w 1 1C CO r o 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 PI M d ^ 1H ' O^ ^3 Q^ c g ,-Q ,fl S ^ P 200,000 Great Britain . ... . ... . 5400 - France 984 Belgium 510 Rhenish Prussian Saarbriicker coal-field. . ... 960 Westphalia 380 - 8964 Bohemia 400 Saxony 30 Spain 200 Russia 100 Assuming a thickness of 20 feet of coal over 200,000 square miles, North America would contain 4,000,000,000,000 tons of coal. 340 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ANALYSIS OF COALS. ANTHRACITE. LOCALITIES. C. H. 0. N. s. ASH. 1 Piesberg Hanover 8796 1 97 81 931 o 91 14 208 681 3 Pennsylvania 9045 243 245 467 4 " 92.59 263 1.61 0.92 225 5 " 8498 245 1 15 1 22 1020 Nos. 1 and 2 by Hilkenkamp and Kempner ; 3 by Renault ; 4 and 5 by J. Percy. BITUMINOUS. CAKING COAL. LOCALITIES. C. H. 0. N. S. ASH. 1 Zweckan 7227 4.16 10.73 0.34 088 1250 2 Northumberland 7865 465 1421 055 249 3 " 8242 482 11 97 086 079 4 River-de-Gier 8745 514 393 170 1 78 5. Alais 8927 485 447 141 No. 1 by Stein ; 2 and 3 by Dick ; 4 and 5 by Regnault. LIGNITE OR BROWN COAL. LOCALITIES. C. H. 0. N. s. ASH. Dax France .... 7049 559 18 93 499 Bovey 6631 563 2286 057 236 227 Irkutsk 4746 456 3302 1495 No. 1 by Regnault ; 2 by Vaux ; 3 by Woskressensky. NON-CAKING COAL. LOCALITIES. C. H. 0. N. S. ASH. 1. S. Staffordshire 72.13 4.32 17.11" 054 644 2 ' .... 7640 462 1743" 055 155 3 Scotland 8098 521 1091 157 063 675 4 Mous France 8295 542 1093 070 5. Valenciennes 90.54 3.66 270 310 - Nos. 1 and 2 by Dick ; 3 by Rowney ; 4 and 5 by Marsilly. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 341 CANNEL COAL. LOCALITIES. C. H. o. N. s. ASH. 1 Wigan 8407 571 782 o 4A 2 " ... 8007 553 810 212 1 50 o 70 3 Tyneside 78.06 580 3 12 1 85 222 a 04 No. 1 by Regnault ; 2 by Vaux ; 3 by Taylor. NOTE. ( n ) signifies that the nitrogen is included in the oxygen. The following table is taken from " Report on Coals to Con- gress, 1844," by Prof. W. E. Johnson : LOCALITIES. SPECIFIC GBAVITT. VOLUME COMBUST. MATTER. FIXED CABBON. ASH AND CLINKEKS Pennsylvania (anthracite) 1 590-1 610 3 84 87 45 7 37 Maryland (free-burning bitum. coal). Pennsylvania " " Virginia Pittsburg (bituminous coal) 1.3-1.414 1.3-1.407 1.29-1.45 1 252 15.80 17.01 36.63 36 76 73*01 68.82 50.99 54 93 9.74 13.35 10.74 7 07 Cannelton Ind 1 273 33 99 FJQ 44 4 Q7 Pictou Nova Scotia ... 1 318 27 83 56 98 1Q QQ ti 1 325 25 97 60 74 12 51 ANALYSIS OF THE ASHES OF COAL (Percentage of ash in the coal was 1.99.) (By KREMER.) Silica 15.48 Alumina 5.28 Peroxide of iron 74.02 Lime 2.26 Magnesia 0.26 Potash 0.53 Soda Sulphate of lime 2.17 Total.. . 100.00 \ 342 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. DURABILITY OF DIFFERENT WOODS. Experiments on this subject have been made on various kinds of wood, of which sticks 2 feet long and 1 J inches square were cut, and driven into the ground until but 1 inches projected. The results were as follows : KIND OP WOOD. CONDITION AFTER 2j YRS. CONDITION AFTER 5 YEARS. Chestnut oak Very good ... . j Most specimens moderately, Canada chestnut oak Oak from Memel. . . . Very much attacked. . ( some very much attacked. Very bad, rotten. The same. Oak from Dantzic. . . The same Exceedingly bad. Hard, mahogany Good Tolerable Soft mahogany Much attacked . . Verv bad entirely rotten. Cedar of Lebanon. Good Tolerable ( Very good, the same as when The same ( first put in. Somewhat soft but good. Fir Much attacked Much rotted Pine Very much attacked The same Virginia pine . Attacked . The same Hard pine j $ in. attacked, the | j inch attacked, the rest tol- Soft pine ( rest good j" Much rotted ( erable. Much rotted ( ^ in. on the surface ) -( attacked had lost > f inch much, the rest a little 1 attacked. English, elm Much rotted . . Entirely rotten Canadian elm The same Rotten The same The same Acacia . . .... j Good, except loss ^ j inch rotted, the rest as i in weifrht . . . C i sound as when first put in THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 343 PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM DISTILLATION OF COAL. Gas, illuminating, etc. Tar ... Ammonia Water. Coke, for fuel. Oils, Naphtha ROIO J Benzole i j Used to make Benzole -j Tomol f-j AniliDe> Naphtha Used for Varnishes. Xylole ...... Used for Small Pox. FUBNISHES .Carbolic Acid | , Used for CresylicAcidP fectants ' Naphthalene Dyes, etc. Pitch, 1Q%. { ( Anthracene, Dead Oil I Chrysene No use as yet. Used for Roofing and Pavements. The following is a list of the products from the distillation of coal (Chandler*) : I. COKE. Per cent. 1. Carbon 9095 2. Sulphide of iron (Fe 7 S 8 ) 310 3. Ash 315 II. AMMONIA WATER. 1. Hydro-ammonic carbonate NH 4 HCO 3 . 2. Ammonic hydrosulphate NH 4 HS. 8. Ammonic sulphocyanide NH 4 CNS. 4. Ammonic cyanide NH 4 CN. 5. Ammonic chloride NH 4 C1. III. TAR. 1. Hydrocarbons. Formula. Sp. Or. Boiling Points. 1. Benzol C 6 H 6 . ... . .850 .... 82C.= 179.6F. 2. Toluol, methyl-benzol.... C 7 H 8 870 .... 111 = 231.8 3. Ethyl-benzol.... C 8 H 10 .... .... 132 = 269.6 4. Xylol, di-methyl-benzol. . . C 8 H, 867 .... 140 = 284 5. Cumol, propyl-benzol C 9 H, 2 870 . . . 153 = 307.4 6. Methyl-ethyl-benzol C 9 H 12 .... 160 =320 Johnson's Cycl., Article Gas-Lighting. 344 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Formula. Sp. Gr. Boiling Points. 7. Tri-methyl-benzol (pseu- documol, mesetylene. C 9 H 12 166C.= 330.8F. 8. Isobutyl-benzol C, Hi 4 159 = 318.2 9. Cymol, metliyl-propyl- benzol C 10 H 14 861.... 178 - 352.4 10. Di-ethyl-benzol C, H 14 178 = 352.4 11. Di-methyl-ethyl-benzol (ethyl-xylol) C IO H I4 .... .... 184 = 363.2 12. Amyl-benzol C^ ,H, 6 859 .... 193 = 379.4 13. Methyl-amyl-benzol C, 2 Hi 8 213 = 415.4 14. Di-methyl-amyl-benzol (amyl-xylol) C, 3 H 2 232 = 449.6 15. Phenylene C 6 H 4 .... 91 = 195.8 16. Cinnamene, styrolene... C 8 H 8 924 145 =293 17. Naphthalene C, H 8 .... 1.153 220 = 428 18. Di-phenyl C, 2 H, .... .... 240 = 464 19. Anthracene C, 4 H 10 ....1.147.... 300 =572 20. Pyrene C 16 H JO .... 21. Chrysene .. C 18 H 12 22. Benzerytherene .... And probably : 23. Quintane C 5 H 12 ....0.60 .... 30 = 86 24. Sextane C 6 H 14 669.... 68 = 154.4 25. Other paraffines C n H 2 n+2 26. Quintene, amylene C 5 H, .... 35 = 95 27. Sextene C 6 H 12 .... .... 68 = 154 .4 28. Other olifines C n H 2n 29. Quintine, valerylene . . . . C 5 H 8 .... 46 = 114.8 30. Sextine, diallyl C 6 H, .... .... 58 = 136.4 31. Other acetylenes C n H 2n -2 ... 32. Dipropyl (C 3 H 7 ) 2 678.... 68 = 154.4 33. Dibutyl (C 4 H 9 ) 2 706 .... 106 = 222.8 34. Diamyl (C 8 H M ) 2 741.... 158 = 316.4 35. Dicaproyl (C 6 H 13 ) 2 757.... 202 = 395.6 36. Other alcohol radicals. . . (C n H 2 n+i) 3 2. Alcohols. 1. Phenol, carbolic acid. . . . C 6 H 5 OH .... 1.065 180 = 356 2. Cresol, cresylic acid C 7 H 7 OH . . . . 200 = 392 3. Phlorol, phlorylic acid. . C 8 H 9 OH .... 1.037 .... 195 = 383 4. Xylenol C 8 H 9 OH.... .... 213.5 = 416 5. Thymol C 10 H 13 OH.... .... 220 = 428 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 345 Formula. Sp. Gr. Boiling Points. 6. Methyl-thymol CnH^OH .... 7. Ethyl-thymol C 12 H 17 OH.... .... 8. Amyl-thymol (^ 6 H 3 3 OH 3. Acids. 1. Acetic H.C 2 H 3 O 2 1.062 117.2 = 243 2. Butyric H.C 4 H 7 O 2 9817 164 = 327.2 3. Rosolic C 20 H 16 O 3 .... .... 4. Brunolic ? .... 4. Bases. 1. Ammonia H 3 N .... Gas .... 2. Methylamine. CH 5 N Gas 3. Ethylamine C 2 H 7 N 696.... 19 = 16.2 4. Diethylamine C 4 HuN .... 57.5 = 135.5 5. Aniline, phenylamine... C 6 H 7 N 1.028 ' 182 = 359.6 6. Toliudine C 8 H 9 N . . . . 205 = 401 7. Xylidine CgH^N 215 -419 8. Oumidine C 10 H 13 N 952 225 =437 9. Cynudine C n H 15 N.... 250 =482 10. Pyridine C 8 H 5 N 985.... 117 = 242.6 11. Picoline C 6 H 7 N 961 .... 133 = 271.4 12. Lutidine C 7 H 9 N 946 .... 154 = 309.2 13. Collidine C 8 H,,N 921.... 179 = 354.2 14. Parvoline C 9 H, 3 N 188 = 370.4 15. Coridine C 10 H 15 N.... 211 = 411.8 16. Rubidine C lt H I7 N .... 1.017 .... 230 = 446 17. Viridine C 12 H 19 N .... 1.017 .... 251 = 483.8 18. Pyrrol C 4 H 5 N .... 1.077 .... 133 = 371.4 19. Leucoline, chinoline C 9 H 7 N 1.081 .... 238 = 460 .4 20. Iridoline, lepidine. C IO H 9 N 21. Cryptidine, dispoline C^HuN 273.9 = 525 5. Pitch. Oxidized bituminous bodies, whose nature has not been accurately de- termined. IV. GAS. 1. Luminants. Formula. Density. 1. Vapors of paramnes C n H 2n +2 2. Propyl (C 3 H 7 ) 2 3. Other alcohol radicals (C n H 2n +i2) 346 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Formula. Density. 4. Olefiant gas, ethene C 2 H 4 976 5. Propene C 3 H 6 1.490 6. Butene C 4 H 8 1.940 7. Vapors of other olifines C n H 2n 8. Acetylene C 2 H 2 920 9. Vapors of other acetylenes (?) C n H 2n -2 10. Valelene (?) . CnH 2n _ 4 11. Benzole C 6 H 6 2.71 12. Vapors of toluol, xylol, etc C n H 2n -6 13. Phenylene, etc. (?) C n H 2n _ 8 14. Cuinamene, etc. (?) CnHsn 10 15. Naphthalene d H 8 16. Diphenyl, etc. (?) C 12 H 10 17. Anthracene (?) C, 4 H, 18. Pyrene(?) C I6 H 10 - 19. Chrysene(?) C 18 H 12 20. Phenol, etc. (Alcohols) C n H 2n _7OH 21. Bases above mentioned 2. Diluents. 1. Hydrogen H 0691 2. Marsh-gas, methene CH 4 . . , 5594 3. Carbonic oxide CO 9727 3. Impurities. 1. Sulphuretted hydrogen H 3 S 1.1747 2. Ammonic sulphydrate NH 4 HS 3. Carbon di-sulphide CS 2 4. Carbon oxysulphide CSO 5. Sulphurous oxide SO 2 6. Mercaptan, etc C 2 H 5 HS 7. Sulphur bases, etc 8. Ammonic sulpho-cyanide NH 4 CNS 9. Ammonic cyanide NH 4 CN 10. Ammonic mcwo-carbonate NH 4 HC0 3 11. Carbonic oxide C0 2 1.5240 12. Nitrogen N 9760 13. Oxygen O 1.1026 14. Aqueous vapor (water) H 2 6201 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 347 PRODUCTS OF COAL (MOLESWORTH.) PRODUCTS. NEWCASTLE. From. To. CANNEL. From. To. Cube feet of gas per ton of coal. . 9,500 10,000 11,500 15,000 Pounds of coke 1,500 1,540 715 720 Pounds of tar 70 90 710 720 Pounds of ammoniacal liquor 80 120 Fuel required for retorts, about 20 Ibs. per cwt. AVERAGE EVAPORATING POWER. (MOLESWOKTH.) 1 lb. of coal evaporates 9 Ibs. of water.* 1 lb. of coke " 9 1 lb. of slack * 4 1 lb. of oak (dry) " 4fc " 1 lb. of pine " 2i " Coal loses about one-third of its weight in coking, but increases in bulk one-tenth. PEAT. IN 100 PARTS. C. H. O AND N. ASH. H a O. SP. GR. Condensed Peat. ... 47.2 4.9 22.9 5.0 20.0 1.20 Wood.. 39.6 4.8 34.8 0.8 20.0 0.75 Anthracite 91.3 2.9 2.8 3.0 1.40 (Taken from a book on Peat and its Uses, by S. W. Johnson, A. M.) HEATING POWER OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL (JOHNSON.) (The comparison is made in units of heat,f and refers to equal weights of the materials experimented on.) Air-dried wood 2800 " " peat 25003000 Perfectly dry wood 3600 * Feed- water supplied at 212 F. f The amount of heat that will raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree of the Centigrade thermometer, is agreed upon as the unit of heat. 348 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Perfectly dry peat 30004000 Air dry lignite or brown coal 33004200 Perfectly dry lignite or brown coal 40005000 Bituminous coal 38007000 Anthracite . . 7500 Wood charcoal 6300-7500 Coke.. 65007000 PETROLEUM, COAL. COAL. Conglomerate. \ LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. \ \ Flag Eock. OIL CREEK REGION. / Conglomerate. LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. Flag Rock. Shale. I T *" Shale. Sandstone No. 1. Sandstone No. 1. Shale. d Shale. Sandstone No. 2. \ i ) Sandstone No. 2. Shale. Shale. Sandstone No. 3. s ) Sandstone No. 3. Shale. Shale. Sandstone No. 4. x- - ? Sandstone No. 4. Portage. Portage. PETROLEUM CAVITY. If a petroleum cavity be struck at (A), it often happens that the gas rushes out with such a velocity that all the tools are blown out of the shaft. If struck at (B), petroleum oil will THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 349 rush out, having a specific gravity at the bottom of the shaft of 50 B. ; and at the top 29 B. One cavity has been known to give 100,000 barrels of oil before dry. If the cavity is struck at (c), water will first come out, then oil. The town of Fredonia, N. Y., has been lighted by gas obtained from a petroleum cavity for the last 40 years. Several buildings at Erie, N". Y., are also lighted from gas wells. PETROLEUM is found all the time by the decomposition of animal and vegetable substances. The formation of petroleum may be noticed around the edges of stagnant pools, etc. PRODUCTS OF THE DISTILLATION OF CRUDE PETROLEUM. (BY C. F. CHANDLER.) Price in Bulk, 14 cents per Gallon. ft PRICE PER. t> tt Q GALLON. 3* 1 P-3 U OM NAME. |1 GRAVITY, UNCONDENSED, Loss. 4 Gases. E* BEAUME. c j 1 115 B. to 105 B. (Cymogene .. 110 ( Condensed by pump, made i < by one firm only for an ice >- ( machine, boils at 32 F. ) $1 50 105 B. ( Condensed by ice and salt, ) to > Rhigolene . 100 < used as an anaesthetic > $1 00 95 B. 1 boils at 65 F. ' f 95 B. to 80 B. L Gasolene 11 85 to 90 C Condensed in worm by cold ~) j water, used in "air gas i machines " and gas lk car- f [ bonizers." J 35 cts. to 18 cts. f For oil cloths, cleaning, etc. ; 1 80 B. to 65 B. vNapltha 10 71 to 76 so-called " Safety oil," I u Danforth's oil," "Amer- 1 ~\ ican Safety Gas," etc. ; f for adulterating kerosene; 7 cts. to Sets. 18 cts. to 20 cts. [ cleaning oil wells. J 65 B. to 60 B. [Benzine 4 62 to 65 For paints and varnishes < 16 cts. to 12 cts. 20 cts. to 16 cts. 60 B. to OOO T> OO -D. (Kerosene or ) Refined [ Petroleum. ) 55 46 Ordinary oil for lamps < 20 cts. to 25 cts. 30 cts. to 40 cts. 38 B. to 25 B. I Paraffin oil * 39 f Semi-solid when cold. 'I I Chilled and pressed to 1 | separate paraffin, oil used f (_ for lubricating J 18 cts. to 14 cts. Coke, gas, and loss . 10 Total 100 350 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SCALE OF HARDNESS. (MOHS.) 1. TALC. Laminated light-green variety. Easily scratched by the nail. 2. GYPSUM. Crystallized variety. Not easily scratched by the nail. Does. not scratch a copper coin. 3. CALCITE. Transparent variety. Scratches and is scratched by a cop- per coin. 4. FLUOR. Crystalline variely. Not scratched by a copper coin. Does not scratch glass. 5. APATITE. Transparent variety. Scratches glass with difficulty. Easily scratched by the knife. 6. ORTHOCLASE. White cleavable variety. Scratches glass easily. Not easily scratched by the knife. 7. QUARTZ. Transparent variety. Not scratched by knife. Yields with difficulty to the file. 8. TOPAZ. Transparent variety. Harder than flint. 9. SAPPHIRE. Cleavable varieties. Harder than flint. 10. DIAMOND. Harder than flint. THE HARDNESS OF A FEW SUBSTANCES ARRANGED. Diamond 10 Euby 9 Cymophane 8.5 Topaz 8 Spinel 8 Emerald 8 Garnet 7.5 Dicroite , 7.5 Zircon 7 Peridote 7 Quartz 7 Tourmaline 7 Opal 6.5-5.5 Lapis Lazuli 6 Feldspar 6 Amphibole 5.5 Phosphorite . . . 5 Fluorspar 4 Coelestine 3.5 Barytes 3.5 Carbonate Lime 3. Mica 2.5 Gypsum 2 Chlorite 1.5, Talc. . 1 V STOICHIOMETRICAL CALCULATIONS. Exam/pie.* What is the percentage composition of calcic sulphate, CaS0 4 ? Molecular weight = m. Atomic " of any constituent = a. Number of atoms of that constituent = n. Percentage amount = x. m : an : : 100 : x. By the formula, the molecule contains of Calcium, one atom (atomic weight, 40) ..... 40 Sulphur, " " X atorm ' c weight, 32) ..... 32 Oxygen, four atoms (atomic weight, 16) ..... 64 Molecular weight of calcic sulphate ....... 136 T-, an x 100. From above proportion. x = - m Substituting in this formula, the quantity of Calcium in 100 parts is - -- = 29.41. Sulphur " = 23.53. lob Oxygen = 47 ' 06 100.00 Example. What is the forjmstLa. of quartz, its molecular weight being 60, and its percentage composition being : Silicon ......... ............. 46.67 Oxygen ...................... 53.38 100.00 * All the following examples are from Barker's Chemistry. 354 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. The atomic weight of silicon is 28 ; hence the number of atoms of ,,-.'/ rnx \ 60 x 46.67 Silicon would be (n = ^-l- / mx v60 x 53.33 Oxygen " (n= T75 r-)- ?7 r S ^ =2 The molecular formula of quartz is therefore Si0 2 . Example. The molecular weight of argentic nitrate is 170 ; it contains 63.53 per cent, of silver, and has but one atom of silver in a molecule. What is the atomic weightof silver f mx 170 x 63.53 We have a = - - or - - = 108. 100 x 1 Hence the atomic weight of silver is 108. Example. Salt contains 39.32 per cent, of sodium, whose atomic weight is 23. In a molecule of salt there is but one atom of sodium. What is the molecular weight of salt f an x 100 23 x 1 x 100 We have m - or -- . Q - = 58.5. X OO.OA The molecular weight of salt is therefore 58.5. Again, ferric oxide contains three atoms of oxygen, or 30 per cent. What is its molecular weiahLf * Therefore 160 is the molecular weight. Example. Ammonic nitrate NH 4 N0 3 , breaks up under the influence of heat into one molecule of nitrogen oxide, N 2 O, and two molecules of (H 2 0) 2 . How much nitrogen oxide in 100 parts of ammonic hydrate f In formula using (a) to indicate the weight of the group, and (n) the number of such group in the molecule an x 100 44 x 1 x 100 -- = formula, we have - - 55. m 80 Hence ammonic nitrate yields 55 per cent, of nitrogen oxide. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 355 Example. How much iodine may be obtained from 236 grams of potassic iodide (Kl), the atomic weight of iodine being 127, and the molecular weight of potassic iodide 166 ? By proportion. As 166 parts of Kl give 127 of I, it is obvious that the quantity given by 236 parts would be given by the proportion : 166 : 236 : : 127 : y. y = 180.5. Answer, 180.5 grams iodine. , f , au x z 127 x 236 By formula, y=- -\ substituting therefore y = = 180.5. Hence 236 grams potassic iodide yield 180.5 grams iodine. Example. How much potassic iodide would be required to yield 78 grams of iodine ? s = -- -j substituting z = =-= = 102. Answer, 102 grams potassic iodide. CALCULATION FROM EQUATIONS. Examples. Nitric acid is prepared by the action of sul- phuric acid upon potassic nitrate (KN0 3 ), according to the fol- lowing equation : KN0 3 + H 2 S0 4 =HN0 3 + HKS0 4 . 101 + 98 = 63 + 136. Problem 1st. 125 grams of nitre yield 77.97 grams of HN0 3 , whose molecular weight is 63. WAatj&.t/ie. molecular weight of potassic nitrate f Representing by M, the molecular weight of substance given, by "W, the absolute weight of this substance given in the problem, by m, the molecular weight of the substance re- quired, and by w,. the absolute weight of this substance, then, M : W : : m : w ; from which the following formulas may be derived : ... ^ M^,_. Mw /0 . raW (1); W.= (2); ,71 = -- (3); ^ = --(4) . 356 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. In Problem 1st, m = 63, W equals 125, and w = 77.97; , r 63 x 125 hence M = ^,-^=- = 1 01, Answer. i < / 1 Problem %d. The molecular weight of nitre is 101, and that of nitric acid is 63 ; how much nitre would be required to yield 77.97 grams nitric acid ? Here the quantities being represented as before, we have : w 101 x 77.97 W = - - = 125,- Answer. Do Problem 3d. 125 grams of nitre yield 77.97 grams nitric acid. The molecular weight of nitre is 101. What is the molecular weight of HN0 3 ? 101 x 77.97 In this problem, m = - - = 63, Answer. Problem kth .The molecular weight of nitre is 101, and that of HN0 3 is 63. How much HN0 3 would 125 grams of nitre yield ? ^ r , 63 x 125 We have w = -. = 77.97 grams, Answer. Problem 5th. How much nitre is necessary to yield 36 grams of HN0 3 ? _ M w ^ 101 x 36 W = - - ; W = -- -^ =57.7 grams, Answer. 1)1 to O Prollem th. How much sulphuric acid required in last problem ? Here M = 98 ; hence W = -^ = 56 grams, Answer. tod Problem 7th. How much hydropotassic sulphate will be produced in Problem \st f M = 136 ; hence W = gg - - = 77.7 grams, Answer. The last three problems w^ere solved by formula (2) ; the following ones will be solved by formula (4). Formula (2) and (4) are usually employed. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 357 Problem Sth. How much nitric acid may be produced from 500 grams of KN0 3 2 mW 63 x 500 it) = -r- = zj-r- = 311.88 grams, Answer. Problem 9th. How much H 2 S0 4 will be required to de- compose 500 grams of nitre ? Here m = 98 ; hence w = - = 485.15 grams, Answer. Problem 10th. How much hydropotassic sulphate would be yielded by the decomposition of 500 grams of KN0 3 by H 2 S0 4 ? In this problem, m = 136 ; hence w = --TJTJ -- = 673.27 grams, Answer. VOLUME CALCULATIONS Problem 1st. How much carbonic dioxide is formed by combustion of 1 litre of carbonous oxide ? As 4 volumes carbonous oxide yield 4 of carbonic dioxide, 1 volume will yield 1 volume, and 1 litre of course 1 litre, Answer. Problem %d. How much oxygen is needed to convert 2 litres carbonous oxide to carbonic dioxide? 4 volumes by the equation require 2 of oxygen; hence 2 litres will require 1 litre of oxygen," Answer. Problem 3d. To form 100 cubic centimetres of carbonic dioxide, how much carbonous oxide must be burned ? 4 volumes of carbonic dioxide require the combustion of 4* of carbonous oxide ; 100 cubic centimetres will require its own volume therefore, or 100 cubic centimetres, Answer. RELATION OF WEIGHT TO VOLUME. Example 1st. What volume is occupied by 6.08 grams of oxygen gas ? The weight of 1 litre of oxygen is 1.43 grams ; hence in 6.08 grams there will be as many litres as 1.43 is contained times in 6.08 ; or 4.25 litres, Answer. 358 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Example 2d. What is the weight of 25 litres of nitrogen i 1 litre of nitrogen gas weighs 1.2G grams ; 1.26 x 25 = 31.5 ; hence 25 litres of nitrogen weigh 31.5 grams, Answer. SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. Example. What is the specific gravity of chlorine gas ? The molecular weight of chlorine is 71 ; its density there- fore is -^ or 35.5. 35.5 x 0.0693 = 2.46 (0.0693 Sp. Gr. of 2i hydrogen gas). Chlorine gas is therefore 2.46 times heavier than air. Problem. The specific gravity of ammonia gas is 0.589. What is its molecular weight? If the specific gravity is 0.589, its density is 0.589 -f- 0.0693, or 8.5. Hence its molecular weight is 8.5 x 2 or 17. GASEOUS VOLUMES FOR PRESSURE. Example. What is the true volume which 250 cubic centi- metres of hydrogen measured at 742 millimetres would have, if measured at 760 millimetres ? If the volume of a gas under" the height H of the barometric column be represented by Y, and under any other height H' by V, then Y : V : : II' : H ; whence YH = Y'H' or Y' = Substituting in the formula 742 V = 250 x rt = 244 cubic centimetres, Answer. Example. A certain volume of nitrogen dioxide gas, under a pressure of 781 millimetres, measured 542 cubic centimetres. What is its true volume, measured at 760 millimetres ? Substituting in formula 781 Y' = 542 x = 578.3 cubic centimetres, Answer. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 359 GASEOUS VOLUMES FOR TEMPERATURE. In general, if Y represent the known volume, V the un- known volume, and t the number of degrees the temperature is raised or lowered, the formula for calculating an increase of volume will be : V'= Y x (1 x t x -003665). For lower temperature : V Y= (T+ t x -003665)* Example. A gas measures 15 cubic centimetres at 0. What will it measure at 60 ? Substituting in formula, V'=_- 15 x (1 + 60 x -003665) = 18.298 c.c., Answer. Example. What will a gas measure at 0, which, at 100, measures 40.1 cubic centimetres ? 40 1 V = (1 + 100 x -003665) = 29 ' 345 C ' C " AnSWer ' A gas measures 560 cubic centimetres, at 15. What will it measure at 95 ? Here t= 95 15 = 80. Hence, V'= 560 x (1 + 80 x -003665) = 724.2 c.c., Answer. 360 TABLE* OF W or w soluble in water. A or a insoluble in water, soluble in acids (HC1,HNO 3 but soluble in acids. W-I sparingly soluble in water and acids. A-I- insoluble in refer to notes, p. 362. 1 C3 >> fij . .3 "H j ,a d p . 2 1 O B .1 | p 1 i Q 1 1 S Cu S 1 3 a <3 "p = Carbon. or Water 9 = Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Ammonio-bichloride of platinum x 0.06269 = nitrogen. Platinum x 0.1415 = nitrogen. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 365 TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CONSTITUENT SOUGHT FOR ONE PART OF THE COMPOUND FOUND. ELEMENTS. FOUND. SOUGHT. 1. Aluminium.. Alumina, Aluminium, 0.53398 A1 2 O 3 . A1 8 . (Ammonium Chloride of Ammonium, Ammonia, 0.31804 NH 4 C1. "NH 3 . j Ammonio-bichloride of ) ( Platinum, f Oxide of Ammonium. 0.11644 NH 4 Cl,PtCl 2 . NH 4 0. j Ammonio-bichloride of ) ( Platinum, j" Ammonia, 0.07614 NH 4 Cl,PtCl 3 . NH 3 . Antimony . . Teroxide of Antimony, Antimony, 0.83562 Tersulphide of Antimony, Sb. " Antimony, 0.71765 SbS 3 . Sb. . Antimonious Acid, Teroxide of Antimony, 0.94805 SbO 4 . Sb0 3 . Arsenic Arsenious Acid, Arsenic, 0.75758 As0 8 . As. Arsenic Acid, Arsenic, 0.65217 AsO 5 . As. Arsenic Acid, Arsenious Acid, 0.86087 As0 5 . AsO 3 . Tersulphide of Arsenic, Arsenious Acid, . 0.80488 AsS 3 . AsO 3 . Tersulphide of Arsenic. Arsenic Acid, 0.93496 AsS 3 . As0 5 . ( Arseniate of Ammonia ^ ( and Magnesia. ( Arsenic Acid, 0.60526 2MgO,NH 4 O,As0 5 + Aq. As0 5 . j Arseniate of Ammonia ) I and Magnesia. C Arsenious Acid, 0.52105 2MgO,NH 4 0,As0 5 +Aq. As0 3 . Barium Baryta Barium 80542 BaO. ' Ba. v/ Ot/clrfrw Sulphate of Baryta, Baryta, 0.65665 BaO, SO 3 . BaO. Carbonate of Baryta, Baryta, 0.77665 BaO, CO 2 . Silico-fluoride of Barium, BaO. Baryta, 0.54839 BaFl,SiFl 2 . BaO. Bismuth Teroxide of Bismuth, Bismuth, 0.89655 Bi0 3 . Bi. Boron Boracic Acid Boron 314^0 B0 3 . B. v OlTbvi/ Bromine. . . . Bromide of Silver, Bromine, 0.42560 AgBr. Br. Cadmium. . . Oxide of Cadmium, Cadmium, 0.87500 CdO. Cd. 366 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ELEMENTS. FOUND. SOUGHT. Calcium. . Carbon... Chlorine. . Chromium Cobalt Lime, CaO. Sulphate of Lime, Copper. Fluorine. . Hydrogen Iodine . . . Iron Lead. Carbonate, of Lime, CaO, CO 2 . Carbonic Acid, C0 2 . Carbonate of Lime, CaO,C0 2 . Chloride of Silver, AgCl. Chloride of Silver, AgCl. Sesquioxide of Chromium, Cr 8 3 . Sesquioxide of Chromium, Cr s 3 . Chromate of Lead, PbO,CrO 8 . Cobalt, Co. ( Sulphate of Protoxide of ) \ Cobalt, \ CoO. SO 3 . j Sulphate of Cobalt + Sul- \ phate of Potassa, } 2(CoO,S0 8 ) + (KO.SO B ). j Sulphate of Cobalt + Sul- ) 1 phate of Potassa, \ 2(CoO,S0 3 ) + 3(KO.S0 3 ). Oxide of Copper, CuO. Subsulphide of Copper, Cu 2 S. Fluoride of Calcium, CaFl. Fluoride of Silicon, SiFl 2 . Water, HO. Iodide of Silver, Agl. Protiodide of Palladium, Pdl. Sesquioxide of Iron, Fe 2 3 . Sesquioxide of Iron, Fe. 2 3 . Sulphide of Iron, FeS. Oxide of Lead, PbO. Sulphate of Lead, PbO,S0 3 . Calcium, Ca. Lime, CaO. Lime, CaO. Carbon, C. Carbonic Acid, C0 2 . Chlorine, Cl. Hydrochloric Acid, HC1. Chromium, Cr 2 . Chromic Acid, 2Cr0 3 . Chromic Acid, Cr0 3 . Protoxide of Cobalt, CoO. Protoxide of Cobalt, CoO. Protoxide of Cobalt, 2CoO. Cobalt, 2Co. Copper, Cu. Copper, 2Cu. Fluorine, Fl. Fluorine, 2F1. Hydrogen, H. Iodine, I. Iodine, I. Iron, 2Fe. Protoxide of Iron, 2FeO. Iron, Fe. Lead, Pb. Lead, Pb. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 367 ELEMENTS. FOUND. SOUGHT. 1. Lead Sulphate of Lead, Oxide of Lead 0.73597 PbO,S0 3 . PbO. Sulphide of Lead, Oxide of Lead, 0.93305 PbS. PbO. Lithium Carbonate of Lithia, Lithia, 0.40541 LiO,CO 2 . Sulphate of Lithia, LiO. Lithia, 0.27273 LiO,S0 3 . LiO, Basic Phosphate of Lithia, Lithia, 0.38793 3LiO,P0 5 . 3LiO. Magnesium . Magnesia, Magnesium, 0.60030 MgO. Mg. Sulphate of Magnesia, Magnesia, 0.33350 MgO,S0 3 . MgO. Pyrophosphate of Magnesia, Magnesia, 0.36036 2MgO,PO 5 . 2MgO. Manganese . Protoxide of Manganese, Manganese, 0.77465 MnO. Mn. { Protosesquioxide of Man- ) Manganese, 0.72052 r ganese. \ MnO + MrioO 3Mn. Sesquioxide of Manganese, Manganese, 0.69620 TVTn O 2Mn lYin 2 vy<> . j Sulphate of Protoxide of ) ( Manganese, j JJ.LI1. j Protoxide of Man- ) ( ganese. J 0.47020 MnO, SO 3 . MnO. Sulphide of Manganese, j Protoxide of Man- ) ganese. 0.81609 MnS. MnO. Sulphide of Manganese, Manganese, 0.63218 MnS. Mn. Mercury . . . Mercury, Suboxide of Mercury, 1.04000 Mercury, Hg 2 0. Oxide of Mercury, 1.08000 Hg. HgO. Subchloride of Mercury, Mercury, 0.84940 Hg 2 Cl. Hg . Sulphide of Mercury, Mercury, 0.86207 HgS. Hg. Nickel Protoxide of Nickel Nickel, 0.78667 NiO. Ni. Nitrogen. . . . ( Ammonio - bichloride of ) Platinum, f Nitrogen, 0.06071 NH 4 Cl,PtCl 2 . N. Platinum, Nitrogen, 0.14155 Pt. N. Sulphate of Baryta. Nitric Acid, 0.46352 BaO,80., N0 5 . Cyanide of Silver, Cyanogen, 0.19410 AgC 2 N. C 2 N. Cyanide of Silver, AgC 2 N. Hydrocyanic Acid, HC 2 N. 0.20156 Oxygen Alumina, Oxygen, 0.46602 A1 3 3 . 3O. 368 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ELEMENTS. FOUND. SOUGHT. 1. Oxygen Teroxide of Antimony, Oxygen, 0.16438 SbO 3 . 30. Arsenious Acid, Oxygen, 0.24242 As0 3 . 30. Arsenic Acid, Oxygen, 0.34783 As0 5 . 50. Baryta, Oxygen, 0.10458 BaO. 0. Teroxide of Bismuth, Oxygen, 0.10345 Bi0 3 . 30 Oxide of Cadmium, Oxygen, 0.12500 CdO. 0. Sesquioxide of Chromium, Oxygen, 3.31381 Cr,0 3 . 30. Protoxide of Cobalt, Oxygen, 0.21333 CoO. O. Oxide of Copper, Oxygen, 0.20151 ' CuO, 0. Protoxide of Iron, Oxygen, 0.22222 FeO. 0. Sesquioxide of Iron, Oxygen, 0.30000 Fe 2 3 . Oxide of Lead, 3O. Oxygen, 0.07175 PbO. 0. Lime, Oxygen, 0.28571 CaO. 0. Magnesia, Oxygen, 0.39970 MgO. Protoxide of Manganese, Oxygen, 0.22535 MnO. 0. j Protosesquioxide of Man- ) ganese, f Oxygen, 0.27947 MuO + Mo0 3 . 40. Sesquioxide of Manganese, Oxygen, 0.30380 f Mn 2 3 . 30. Suboxide of Mercury, Oxygen, 0.03846 Hg a O. O. Oxide of Mercury, Oxygen, 0.07407 HgO. 0. Protoxide of Nickel, Oxygen, 0.21333 NiO. 0. Potassa, Oxygen, 0.16982 KO. 0. Silicic Acid, Oxygen, 0.53333 SiO*. ' 20. Oxide of Silver, Oxygen, 0.06898 AgO. 0. Soda, Oxygen, 0.25810 NaO. 0. Strontia, Oxygen, 0.15459 SrO. 0. Binoxide of Tin, Oxygen, 0.21333 SnO 2 . 20. Water, Oxygen, 0.88889 HO. O. THE CHEMIST'S MANUAL. 369 ELEMENTS. FOUND. SOUGHT. 1. Oxygea Oxide of Zinc, Oxygen, 0.19740 ZnO. O. Phosphorus. Phosphoric Acid, P0 5 . Phosphorus, 0.43662 Pyrophosphate of Magnesia, Phosphoric Acid, 0.63964 2MgO,P0 5 . P0 5 . j Phosphate of Sesquiox- ) | ide of Iron, Phosphoric Acid, 0.47020 Fe,0,,POw. P0 5 . Phosphate of Silver, Phosphoric Acid, 0.16949 3AgO,P0 5 . P0 5 . ( Phosphate of Sesquiox- ) 1 ide of Uranium, -V Phosphoric Acid, 0.19910 2Ur 2 3 ,P0 5 . P0 5 . Pyrophosphate of Silver, Phosphoric Acid, 0.23437 2AgO,P0 5 . P0 5 . Potassium . . Potassa, Potassium, 0.83018 KO: K. Sulphate of Potassa, Potassa, 0.54080 KO,S0 3 . KO. Chloride of Potassium, Potassium, 0.52445 KC1. K. Chloride of Potassium, Potassa, 0.63173 KC1. KO. j Potassio-bichloride of ) ( Platinum, ) Potassa, 0.19272 KCl,PtCl 2 . KO. ( Potassio-bichloride of ) Platinum, \ Chloride of Potassium, 0.30507 KCl,PtCl 8 . KC1. Silicon Silicic Acid, Silicon, 0.46G67 Si0 2 . Si. Silver Chloride of Silver, Silver, 0.75276 AgCl. Ag. Chloride of Silver, Oxide of Silver, 0.80854 AgCl. AgO. Sodium Soda, Sodium, 0.74190 NaO. Na. Sulphate of Soda, Soda, 0.43658 NaSO 3 . NaO. Chloride of Sodium, Soda, 0.53022 NaCl. NaO. Chloride of Sodium, Sodium, 0.39337 NaCl. Na. Carbonate of Soda, Soda, 0.58487 NaO,C0 2 . NaO. Strontium.. . Strontia, Strontium, 0.84541 SrO. Sr. Sulphate of Strontia, Strontia, 0.56403 SrO,S0 3 . SrO. Carbonate of Strontia, Strontia, 0.70169 SrO,C0 2 . SrO. Sulphur Sulphate of Baryta, Sulphur, 0.13734 BaO,S0 3 . S. 370 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ELEMENTS. FOUND. SOUGHT. l. Sulphur Tin Tersulpliide of Arsenic, AsS 3 . Sulphate of Baryta, BaO,S0 3 . Binoxide of Tin, Sulphur, s,. Sulphuric Acid, SO 3 . Tin, 0.39024 0.34335 0.78667 Zinc Sn0 2 . Binoxide of Tin, SnO,. Oxide of Zinc, Sn. Protoxide of Tin, SnO. Zinc, 0.89333 0.80260 ZnO. Sulphide of Zinc, ZnS. Sulphide of Zinc, ZnS. Zn. Oxide of Zinc, ZnO. Zinc, Zn. 0.83515 0.67031 WEIGHT OF SWEDISH FILTER- PAPER ASH. ACID. ALKALINE. No. 1 (3 in.) .0.0003 grms 0.0010 gnns. No. 2 (4 in.) 0.0006 grms 0.0020 grms. No. 3 (5 in.) 0.0008 grms 0.0030 grms. SCHEMES FOR THE 44 OF THE JJOST FREQUENTLY OCCURRING COMPOUNDS. SCHEME FOR THE QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF AN IRON ORE OR SLAG. The ore is sampled and prepared as described under ASSAY OF IRON ORES. The ore may contain Na 2 0, K 2 0, CaO, MgO, A1 2 3 , Cr 2 3 , Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni, Co, Cu, As, S0 3 , P 2 5 , Ti0 2 , Si0 2 , V 2 5 , W0 3 , C0 2 , Cl, Fe, H 2 ORGANIC MATTER. Make a qualitative examination for Cr 2 3 , Cu, As, and Ti. I. SPECIAL DETERMINATIONS. A B C In 1 gram deter- mine H 2 by direct weight. (Fres. Quant. An., 36.) In 1 gram deter- mine CO 3 by direct weight. (Fres., 139, II. e.) For special determinations of K 0, Na 3 0, Cr 8 O, FeO, As, S, S0 3 , Ti0 2 , V 2 5 , W0 3 , Cl, Fl ORGANIC MATTER. (See Appen- dix.) II. MAIN ANALYSIS, Pulverize five grams to impalpable powder and fuse thoroughly in platinum crucible (Note 2) with 20 grams Na 2 C0 3 (increase to 30 grams as the ore contains more Si0 2 and SILICATES) and 2 grams NaN0 3 (increasing to 5 grams as the. ore contains more FeO, SULPHIDES, or ORGANIC MATTER). After cooling, treat crucible and fused mass in a small beaker with boiling water, until the mass is thoroughly dis- integrated (Note 3). If the solution has a decided green color, digest with a little alcohol ; filter and wash with hot water. (Fres., 160, 10, a, and Note 4.) 374 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. I. WATER SOLUTION. It must be clear, but may be colored. It may contain A1 2 3 , ZnO, Si0 2 , S0 3 , P 2 5 , Cr0 3 , As 2 5 . Add excess of HC1; evap- orate to dryness (Note 5) ; moisten residue thoroughly with HC1 ; digest with hot water; filter, and wash with hot water. KESIDUE a. FILTRATE a. Dilute to 500 c.c., and divide in three portions. SiO S) etc., to be added to and re- fused with Residue b. SOLUTION a 1 300 c.c. (If the ore contains As, see Note 6.) Put into a large flask (to be after- wards com binedwitli solu- tion d ] ) after determining O 3 3 , if present (Note 7). SOLUTION a 2 100 c.c. Add BaCl 2 , and determine S0 3 as BaS0 4 . (Fres., 132 and Note 8.) SOLUTION a 3 100 c.c. Add to solu- tion d >} , as a lit- tle Fe often en- ters the water solution. II. INSOLUBLE RESIDUE. It may contain CaO, Mg0. A1 2 3 , MnO, ZnO, NiO, CoO, Fe, As, CuO, P 2 5 , Si0 2 , Ti0 2 (atad Pt from crucible). Dry the residue; transfer it to a casserole ; dry and burn the filter and add its ashes; moisten with H 2 ; treat with HC1; evaporate to dryness, and add HC1 (Note 9). Warm and digest with hot water, with occasional stirring. "When dissolved to a clear solution, filter and wash. (Fres., 140.) THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 375 RESIDUE b. FILTRATE b OR HYDROCHLORIC ACID SOLUTION. It may contain Combine with Filtrate c. Saturate thoroughly with H 2 S gas. SiO. 2 , TiO.j, and other substances. Combine it with RESIDUE a. Wash PRECIPITATE FILTRATE d. thoroughly with hot water ; ignite may contain Cu, As Pt, Boil with KC1O 3 , dilute to 500 c.c., and divide into three portions. and weigh. Add a little HoSO t + and separated S"Rril tiM*-V NH 4 F1, and heat gently; then ig- nite to constant weight. Loss = SiO 2 . Fuse now with bisulphate of soda, about 10 . .Dull wll-Q Aqua JRegia; idd NH.CI; evaporate to dryness; treat with H 2 O and alcohol; filter and wash. SOLUTION d 1 300 c.c. Combine in a large flask; add (NH 4 ).,CO :) almost to neutralization and acetate of sodium in excess; dilute very largely (Note 11), and boil. (Fres., 113* 1, d.) SOLUTION $ 2 . 100 c.c. Add 100 c.c. from RESIDUE 6. (When the ore contains TiO 2 , see SOL. d 3 . 100 c.c. to be re- serv'd for grams, adding a little more near the end. When crucible is per- fectly cold, dis- polve in a large amount of H 2 O 400 c.c. ; when dissolved to clear liquid, dilute to 500 c.c., and di- vide. Give 100 c.c. to SOLUTION d\ and 300 c.c. to SOLUTION d 1 . (Fres., 124, b,a.) The precipitate contains Pt 'rom crucible, AsN a H 4 Cl, Pt01 4 ; satu- rate filtrate with H 2 S gas ; filter dry; burn filter, and put in crucible; add cone. HNO 3 ; dry ignite Note 10.) De- termine the TiO 2 as in Note 10, then the Fe volu- metrically. (Fres., 112, 2, and Note 18.) acci- dent. PRECIPITATE e may contain Fe 2 O., andA! 2 O :) (as basic acetates), and perhaps P 2 O S and Ti0 2 . Dissolve in HC1 and divide in two portions. SOL'N SOLUTION e 1 . e*. 1 FILTRATE e may contain Mn, Zn, Co, Ni, Ca, Mg. Concentrate to small bulk ; transfer to flask; add NH 4 C1 + (NH 4 )HO to alka- line reaction and (NN,)HS until odor is decided, & color yellowish. Fill flask with Add Add(NH 4 ) water, and set CuO. a cone. HO in ex- aside overnight, (Fres., 119,1, d, and 164 B, HN0 3 ; evap- cess, and (NH 4 ) 2 (Fres., 161 ,'3, and Note 11.) 3, andB,8, b.) orate CO 3 to . until HC1 is expell- ed, and deter- prec. Fe 2 3 + Al, O 3 +P 2 5 (Ti0 2 ). Boil till PRECIPITATE / may contain Mn, Zn, Co, and Ni (as sul- phides). Dissolve on the filter with a very FILTRATE / may contain CaO and MgO. Acidulate with acetic acid ; mine all free dilute HC1, and wash. boil and filter. bv * NH, is ex- pelled; (Note 17.) uy (NH ) filter and MoO t . wash thor- RESIDUE SOLUTION PREC. FILT. Fres., oughly, g g h. h. etc. may con- may contain Com- Precipi- b, /), (Fres. tain Ni Zn and Mn. bine tate and 105 and and Co as Boil; add with CaO as Note 113 1, a, sul- Na 2 CO 3 in RESI- CaC 2 4 12.) and Note 13.) phides ; combine excess ; filter and DUE g. and MgO as From this weight deduct P 2 O, found in e 1 . and Fe,O, calcu- lated from d*, and difference = A1,O ,( + Ti6 2 ). If TiO 2 is present, deduct its weight, Calculate from SOLUTION d. Remainder = Al a O 8 . with prec. h; trans- fer to cru- cible ; add HNO s and H 2 S0 4 ; wash. (Fres., 108 and 109, and Note 16.) Dry precip- itate and (Fres,, 104, 2.) digest ; ignite strongly to constant evapo- weight. Tl icn dis solve in rate; dry; HOI; add acetate of so- ignite ; clinm ; satu rate w th H..S and weigh gas ; filter and wash. Dis- as sul- solve ZnS in HC1 ; precipi- phates. tate with ] ST<| OQ ; filter, (Note 15.) wash, etc. (Fres 3 . . 108.) Deduct, this weight "from the former, and d inference = Mn as Mn 3 O 4 . 376 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. NOTES. [The references to Fresenius's Quantitative Analysis refer to London edition of 1865.] NOTE 2. Preliminary fusion. Thoroughly mix the ore and its fluxes on glazed paper ; put about a third of the mix- ture in a two-ounce platinum crucible, and heat over a Bun- sen burner until the greatest violence of the effervescence has ceased. Then add and treat the rest in the same way. Finally, heat strongly over a blast-lamp until mass is in complete and quiet fusion. NOTE 3. Removal of the fused mass. Let crucible cool until just below red-heat, and place it on a clean and dry iron plate, whose lower part is immersed in cold water. When crucible is cold enough to hold in hand, put it in a small beaker in which it can lie on its side, and digest with boiling water. Heat over a water-bath until fused mass all comes out of crucible, or will come out by inverting it. Remove the crucible ; wash it ; treat it in a small beaker with a little con- centrated HC1 to remove any adhering particles, and add this to that of the INSOLUBLE RESIDUE (2). NOTE 4. Reduction of H 2 Mn0 4 . If alcohol is added, heat over a water-bath. If there was no bluish-green tint, no alco- hol need be added. NOTE 5. Reparation cf Si0 2 . In order to render Si0 2 entirely insoluble, the evaporation should be carried to perfect dryness, until no odors of HC1 can be detected, and the mass is hard and crumbly. As the residue is to be re-fused with Residue , the drying may be conducted at a temperature somewhat higher than 100 C. NOTE 6. Removal of As. The As has already been mostly or completely volatilized in the foregoing evaporation. If a trace still remains, saturate with H 2 S gas, filter, wash, add a little KC10 3 to filtrate, and boil until S is completely oxi- dized. NOTE 7. Determination of O 2 3 . Add KHO in excess, THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 377 and boil with sufficient Br. Cool, add HN0 3 almost to neutrali- zation, acidulate with acetic acid, add some sodium acetate in excess and boil. Filter out liot the basic aluminium acetate precipitate, wash with hot water, containing a little sodium acetate. To filtrate, add barium acetate in slight excess, filter and wash. This last filtrate and the precipitate of alumi- nium acetate contain all the P 2 5 and A1 2 3 in the WATER SOLUTION. The latter is to be dissolved in HC1, the former to be freed from the excess of barium acetate with dilute H 2 S0 4 , and both to be added to SOLUTION d l . Digest the precipitate of BaO0 4 and BaS0 4 with concentrated H 2 S0 4 ,boil, filter and wash. Boil the filtrate with concentrated HC1 and alcohol to reduce OH 2 4 to O 2 3 and precipitate the latter with(NH 4 ) 2 0. (Fres.,106, 1, a.) NOTE 8. Precipitation of BaS0 4 . Add 5 cubic centimetres of BaCl 2 at first to hot solution ; when precipitate settles, add a little more to see if there is any H 2 S0 4 present. Filter, digest with HC1, wash with hot water. NOTE 9. Separation of Si0 2 . Evaporate as in Note 5. Then add HC1 pretty freely and warm for some time before adding any water, as the high heat may have produced anhy- drous Fe 2 3 , forming an oxychloride which is very slow to dissolve, especially in dilute acid. If acid added be too dilute, concentrate by evaporation, add concentrated HC1, and digest at a moderate heat. NOTE 10. Determination of Ti0 2 . Pass H 2 S gas into SOLUTION d 2 until it is saturated, boil for an how; occasion- ally adding H 2 S water. Filter off the precipitate and wash. Add a few grains of KC10 3 to the filtrate and boil. Precipi- tate the iron with (NH 4 )HO. Dissolve it in H 2 S0 4 acid, warm dilute, etc., and test volumetricall^for Fe. (Note 18.) The precipitate obtained by boiling with H 2 S was Ti0 2 + S. Dry, ignite, and weigh = Ti0 2 in one gram of ore. NOTE 11. Precipitation of the .Basic Acetates. Dilute the solution to about one litre for each gram of the sesquioxide present. It is sufficient to boil from ten to fifteen minutes for 378 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. the complete precipitation of the acetates. The filtering should be done as quick as possible through a rib-filter. Wash the precipitate with boiling water, containing a little sodium acetate. Should any basic acetate separate upon concen- trating the filtrate, add some sodium acetate^ boil, filter, dis- solve the precipitate in HC1 and unite to the solution of the main body. NOTE 12. Determination of P 2 5 . The following method may be employed for the removal of HCl. Add (NH 4 )HO suddenly in large excess, filter, wash once, and redissolve in boiling HN0 3 . The solution containing concentrated HN0 3 in large excess, and no more than a trace of HCl must be diluted to about 400 cubic centimetres and heated to boiling. Then add solution of (H 4 N) 2 Mo0 4 in large excess; with most ores 100 cubic centimetres are sufficient. Keep near the boiling point several hours and set aside over night in a warm place. Then decant on a rib-filter, if the supernated liquid is colorless, and transfer precipitate to filter by means of small portions of the filtrate. Rinse the beaker and wash the precipitate once with the diluted precipitant. Heat the filtrate and washings to boiling, add a little more of the preci- pitant and set aside to determine if any more P 2 5 will be precipitated. Dissolve the precipitate back into the original beaker by pouring dilute (NH 4 )HO through the filter. [If a red residue of oxide of iron remains undissolved, pour dilute HN0 3 upon it, allow it to pass into (NH 4 )HO solution, acidu- late with HN0 3 , boil, add more of the precipitant, and set aside as before, filter and wash several times with the diluted pre- cipitant, then dissolve the precipitate on the filter and adhering to the beaker in as little dilute (NH 4 )HO as possible into a small beaker.] Add from one to ten cubic centimetres of magnesia mixture (Fres., 62, 6,) and continue as in (Fres., 134, l,b,a.). NOTE 13. Washing of Fe 2 3 .6H 2 0. Wash this precipitate by boiling up with water and decanting until the wash- water shows very little alkaline reaction with litmus-paper and THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 379 gives very little precipitate with solution of AgN0 3 . Then transfer to filter and wash thoroughly with boiling water. NOTE 14. Precipitation of the Sulphides. Add no more of the yellow ammonic sulphide than is required, as an ex- cess will re-dissolve a portion of the precipitate unless much NH 4 C1 be present. But an excess of the latter reagent will interfere with the concentration necessary to precipitate the MgO in filtrate h. Cork the flask tightly before setting it aside. NOTE 15. Separation of CQ and Ni. Should these constitu- ents be present in considerable quantity, which very rarely happens, it is better, as the nickelous sulphate is likely to be converted into NiO by too strong ignition, to dissolve the sul- phides in aqua-regia, neutralize with KHO, precipitate and determine the CoO by Genth and Gibbs' process (Fres., 160, 12, and 111, 4), and in the filtrate determine the Ni as oxide. NOTE 16. Determination of Mn. (Gibbs' process. Am. Jour. Sci., xliv, p. 216.) To the HC1 solution, free from H 2 S, add (NH 4 )HO in excess and solution of Na 2 HP0 4 in large excess. Then add dilute H 2 S0 4 or HC1 until the white preci- pitate re-dissolves, heat to boiling, and add (NH 4 )HO in excess. Digest near the boiling point about an hour, when the precipi- tate, at first white and gelatinous, becomes crystalline in rose- colored scales. Filter and wash with hot water. If tinged red, re-dissolve the precipitate in dilute HC1 and repeat the process. On ignition the precipitate is converted into M n 2 P 2 7 , a nearly white powder. If Zn is present, it must first be separated as ZnS, as in the Scheme. NOTE 17. Precipitation of dissolved NiS. A trace of NiS, which is somewhat soluble in ammonic sulphide, is often car- ried through into this filtrate, but is completely thrown down, along with the excess of S, by this acidulation. NOTE 18. Volumetric determination of Fe. Put solution ^ 2 , after treating it according to NOTE 10, into a flask holding 200 cubic centimetres, cool, dilute with cold water exactly up 380 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. to the mark, mix by pouring back and forth several times from the flask to a beaker, draw out 100 cubic centimetres with a pipette known to deliver that quantity, empty it into a reducing bottle of 250 cubic centimetres capacity, and cover over with a ground plate of glass. Put in each bottle a piece of amalgamated Zn free from iron, and a strip of platinum- foil resting on it, add about 10 cubic centimetres of concen- trated H 2 S0 4 , cover, and set aside over night; when reduction is complete the solution will be colorless. Then in each of two flasks, holding about 75 cubic centimetres, introduce exactly two grams of fine iron wire, add an excess of dilute H 2 S0 4 , and immediately adjust corks (having bent tubes attached, with their ends immersed in small beakers of warm water) and heat until the complete solution of the wire. By this water-valve arrangement the entrance of the air and oxida- tion of the FeCl 2 solution are avoided, and when the water begins to run back, after the evolution of H has ceased, its warmth prevents the too sudden reduction of the temperature and condensation of the vapors in the flask. After cooling, pour and wash out the contents of each flask with the beaker of water attached, into a large beaker, add dilute H 2 S0 4 in excess, dilute to about one litre, and titrate successively and rapidly with the solution of K 2 Mn 2 8 , to determine its strength. Now pour and wash the contents of each reduction bottle into a large beaker, add dilute H 2 S0 4 , dilute to about one litre and titrate successively as before. (In a HCl solution all pos- sible excess of that acid must be avoided, and the solution must be diluted to two litres.) Better evaporate the solution previous to reduction with an excess of H 2 S0 4 and drive off HCl. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 381 APPENDIX. SPECIAL DETERMINATIONS. ALKALIES. Mix 5 grams of ore, very finely pulverized, with 30 grams of CaC0 3 and about 3 grams NH 4 C1; calcine at a bright-red heat in platinum crucible for thirty to forty minutes; boil the cinter mass with water for two to three hours, replacing the loss from evaporation; filter and wash. (Fres., 140, II, b, 8.) Separate all CaO by addition of (NH 4 ) HO and (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 in excess, and then a few drops of am- monic oxalate ; filter and wash. In the filtrate the alkalies occur as chlorides, and -may be separated in the usual way. (Fres., 152, 1, a.) CHKOMIUM. Fuse, etc., as in MAIN ANALYSIS, obtain filtrate a of the WATER SOLUTION, and determine the Cr as in Note 7. But if the ore be chromic iron, either employ Hunt's method (Fres., 160, 10 , a) or that of Gibbs (Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxix, p. 59), as follows : Fuse over blast-lamp with 10 to 15 parts KF, HF; digest with H 2 S0 4 until F is expelled; add hot H 2 filter, and in the filtrate separate Cr 2 3 from A1 2 3 , and de- termine it as in Note 7. FERROUS OXIDE. Digest one gram of ore, finely pulverized, in a flask with concentrated HC1, passing a current of carbonic anhydride. After complete decomposition, cool in carbonic anhydride, and immediately titrate the solution of FeCl 2 , with- out removing the insoluble residue, with K 2 Mn 2 8 (Note 18). The presence of organic matter and of the higher oxides of Mn will interfere with the accuracy of the process. For a special determination of the entire amount of Fe in an ore, either this method may be employed, omitting the use of carbonic anhydride, or the ore may be decomposed by fusion, as in the MAIN ANALYSIS, without the use of Na 2 N0 3 , or Clarke's method may be employed as follows (Am. Jour. Sci., xlv, 178): Thoroughly mix 1 gram of ore with 3 grams of NaF or pure powdered cryolite, put in large platinum cru- cible, and cover with 12 grams of coarsely-powdered KHS0 4 . 382 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Fuse about twenty minutes ; Cool; add concentrated H 2 S0 4 ; fuse to homogeneous paste ; cool, and dissolve in cold water. When cryolite is used, a bulky white residue of CaS0 4 gener- ally remains. Reduce the solution obtained by either of these methods and titrate in usual way. ARSENIC. Fuse 5 grams of ore as in MAIN ANALYSIS and obtain the WATER SOLUTION, in which the As will be present as sodium arseniate. Add a little Na 2 S0 4 and HC1 to slight acid reaction ; boil a few minutes until all the As 2 5 has been re- duced to As 2 3 ; saturate the warm solution with H 2 S gas ; filter, and wash with H 2 S water. Dry filter and contents, and oxidize them in a beaker with fuming HN0 3 . Dilute, warm gently with a little KC10 3 , to oxidize organic matter, and pro- ceed as in Fres., 127, 2. SULPHURIC ACID. Boil 5 grams ore with 50 c.c. HC1 + 50 c.c. H 2 + 10 c.c. alcohol. Filter and precipitate with BaCl 2 in the filtrate. The difference between the sulphuric an- hydride thus found and the total found in the MAIN ANALYSIS will give the amount equivalent to the S actually existing in the ore as metallic sulphide. TITANIC ACID. The ore must be decomposed and the Ti0 2 brought into solution in cold water by Clarke's method, de- scribed under FERROUS OXIDE. Then proceed as in Fres., 107 and 235, and Note 10. YANADIC AND TUNGSTIC ACIDS. These acids, which occur in very small quantities in some European ores, may be separated and detected as follows: Treat Residue , obtained from 10 to 20 grams of ore, like Residue c in the Scheme, until all Si0 2 is expelled. Any residue which remains may contain A1 2 3 , Ti0 2 , V 2 5 , and W0 3 . Ignite and weigh, fuse it with Na 2 C0 3 , dissolve in HC1, boil, add NH 4 HO in excess, and saturate with H 2 S gas. A red color will denote the presence of V 2 5 , and a brown precipitate that of W0 3 (Pogg. Anal., 21, 47. H. Rose's Handb. d. Anal. Chem., ii, 764). CHLORINE. Proceed as in Fres., 167, 3, c. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 383 FLUORINE. Proceed as in Fres., 166, 5, a, or if the ore contains apatite, as in Fres., 166, 6. ORGANIC MATTER. Roast 1 gram in an open crucible, at a red heat, and (when the protoxide of iron, the higher oxides of manganese, sulphur, and arsenic are absent) the loss dimin- ished by the amounts of carbonic anhydride and H 2 present, will be approximately equivalent to the amount of organic matter. ANALYSIS OF A. BEOWN HEMATITE OB LIMONITE. HEMATITE OK SPECTTLAR OKE. MAGNETIC IBON OKB. Ferric oxide 90 05 Ferric oxide 95.16 Ferric oxide . . . 62 20 Ferrous oxide. Ferrous oxide. Ferrous oxide 17 32 Manganous oxide. . .0.88 Alumina 0.14 Manganous oxide.. 0.24 Alumina 06 Manganous oxide. . .0.14 Zinc oxide Lime 06 Lime 07 Alumina 3 81 Magnesia 20 Magnesia Lime 5 52 Potash Potash. Magnesia . 1 82 Silica 0.92 Soda. Potash and Soda 10 Titanic acid Silica 5 66 Silica . 9 66 Carbonic acid. Phosphoric acid 0.09 Sulphuric acid) , Iron pyrites \ Carbonic acid. Phosphoric acid ) Sulphuric acid >- traces. Iron pyrites ) Carbonic acid. Phosphoric acid 0.10 Sulphuric acid. Iron pyrites . . . 17 WfltPr \ hygroscopic jT ) combined.. 9.22 Organic matter. Percentage oflron.GSM Water ^yg^opic ( combined. Organic substance. Percentage oflronM.lQ Water j combined. . .0.28 er 1hygroscopic.0.34 Insoluble in acid. Percentage ofIron.57M In the foregoing analysis, it may be seen that (for instance) the magnesia in the given analysis of hematite does not exist, neither the potash in the limonite or the zinc oxide in the magnetite ; but in some ores these substances are present, in an appreciable amount. The MAGNETITE of this state most always, if not always, contains Ti0 2 . 384 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. CAST OR PIG IRON ANALYSIS, Total carbon : Rogers' process (see J. Chem. Soc., London, May 1869). To 2.5 grams borings or filings add 50 c.c. of a solution of CuS0 4 (1 salt to 5H 2 0) ; heat gently for ten min- utes. Fe dissolves, and Cu separates ; carbon remains. Now add 20 c.c. of CuCl 2 (1 to 2) + 50 c.c. strong HC1, and heat for some time nearly to boiling until Cu dissolves ; filter through broken glass and asbestos; wash thoroughly with boiling water, and finally wash with small jet into flask (c 1 ), and add three grams Cr0 3 , and arrange apparatus as shown in the FIGURE. Then add 30 c.c. of strong H 2 S0 4 , little at a time, shaking constantly, closing cock of funnel tube each time. Finally heat gently to boiling, not allowing more than three bubbles of gas to pass per second. Boil one minute; attach guard-tube (a)' and aspirator to guard tube (&) and draw air (3 bubbles per second). Increase weight of tube (/)=C0 2 , etc. APPARATUS USED. Pumice and H a SO 4 Guard Tube f Soda Lime to absorb CO a g = Pumice and H a SO, THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 385 GRAPHITE AND SILICON. Eggertz process. (Chem. News, Am. Reprint, vol. iv, p. 25.) Add 5 grams of fine borings to 10 cubic centimetres of H 2 S0 4 + 50 cubic centimetres H 2 ; boil one-half hour, evaporate one-third and cool. Add 10 cubic centimetres HN0 3 , boil one-quarter hour, evaporate on water-bath until no vapors pass off, to dry or nearly dryness, add 75 cubic centi- metres H 2 -f- 13 cubic centimetres HCl and boil one-quarter hour. Add more HCl if anything remains undissolved. (Filter through a filter washed with acid, dried and weighed.) Wash first with cold water until no more iron appears in wash- ings, then w r ith boiling water -f 5 per cent HN0 3 . Dry at 100 C. and weigh. Ignite strongly and weigh again. Loss = GRAPHITE. Expel Si0 2 with NH 4 F. Loss = Si0 2 . NOTE. Si0 2 dried at 100 C. contains 6 per cent H 2 0, which goes off on ignition, and must be deducted from GRAPHITE after Si0 2 is determined. SULPHUR. By Eggertz process. (Chem. News, Am. Reprint, vol. iii, p. 1.) Dissolve 10 grams KC10 3 in 200 cubic centimeters H 2 and add 5 grams of borings ; boil and add 60 cubic centimetres HCl (little by little), boil until Fe dissolves. Evaporate, dry on bath to ensure oxidation of sulphur. Thorough dryness not necessary, as Si0 2 does not interfere in acid solutions. Now add 10 cubic centimetres HCl -f- 30 cubic centimetres H 2 and leave on bath until all Fe 2 Cl 6 is dissolved. Then add 20 cubic centimetres H 2 and wash thoroughly. Add 2- cubic centimetres saturated solution of BaCl 2 (enough for H 2 S0 4 from 0.100 S) ; after cooling, add 5 cubic centimetres (NH 4 )HO, stir and leave for twenty-four hours. Filter and wash by decantation with cold water, two or three times, and then with hot water. If precipitate shows iron after ignition, treat with HCl, etc. 386 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. PHOSPHORUS. Dissolve as in sulphur determination. Dry at 140 C., some anhydrous Fe 2 3 will be left with Si0 2 . Fuse with a little K 2 S 2 7 (bisulphate of potash), soften with H 2 S0 4 , and dissolve in water. Filter out Si0 2 and determine it as a check on regular determination. Add filtrate to main one, dilute largely and precipitate sesquioxides + P 2 5 by large excess of (NH 4 )HO cold, wash by decantation two or three times with cold water, and then on a large filter. Dissolve on the filter with' hot dilute HN0 3 . Boil out any Cl remaining in the solution, and precipitate P 2 5 , as in Note 12 of Iron Ore Scheme. IRON. Dissolve 0.200 grams in H 2 S0 4 , reduce with Zn and Pt, and titrate with KMn0 4 ; when oxidation is nearly complete, use solution one-tenth strength. Note 18, Iron Ore Scheme. BASES OF GROUPS II, III AND IV. Dissolve 10 or 20 grams in HC1. Extract Si0 2 , and proceed as in Iron Ore Analysis. It is better to determine aluminum separately. ANALYSIS OF FOREIGN MALLEABLE IRON. -SWEDISH.- Iron 99.863 99.220 98.78 Carbon 0.054 0.087 0.84 Silicon 0.028 0.056 0.12 Sulphur* 0.055 0.632 .... Phosphorus Trace 0.005 .... Manganese Trace O.G5 Copper 0.07 Arsenic Trace 0.02 Total, 100.00 100.00 99.8S Sulphur determinations are prohab'y too high. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 387 ANALYSIS OF CAST IRON. Ore used< Fuel used | Analyst -J Spa- thic. Char- coal. Fre- senius. Mag- netic. Char- coal. Henry. Clay Iron Ore of Coal Measure. Coke. Woolwich Arsenal. Iron ^ ^ j Combined.. Carbon 1 Graphite... Silicon 82.860 4.323 0979 0.014 0.059 10.707 0.066 0.077 0.091 0.045 92.906 4.809 0.176 Trace. 0.122 1.987 100.00 Cold Blast. No. 3 Pig. No. 1 Pig. Forge Pig. Sulphur Phosphorus. Manganese Copper Aluminum Iron 92.91 0.04 310 2.16 0.11 0.63 0.50 0.05 94.69 3.40 1.36 0.07 0.29 0.28 94.83 j 2.37 1.09 0.73 0.76 0.22 Calcium n a ,^/ J Combined . Carbon ] Graphitic.. Silicon Magnesium Total 99.245 Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese Nickel and Cobalt... Total 99.50 100.09 100.00 ANALYSIS OF SLAG FROM BLAST FURNACE. Works, Ore used, Fuel used, Dowlais. Dudley. Clay Iron Ore of Coal Measure. Coke. Kind of Iron, White Forge Pig. Gray Pig. Hot Blast. Analyst, Riley. Forbes. Percy. Ferrous ox Manganous de . . 6.91 1.67 15.51 23.81 4.38 1.98 44.88 0.43 0.59 0.47 0.76 1.62 15.13 32.82 7.44 1.92 38.48 0.15 1.23 I 0.99 f 0.93 2.79 13.01 31.43 7.27 2.60 37.91 3.65 1.27 0.40 14.11 35.70 7.61 1.85 38.05 0.82 oxide Lime Magnesia Potash Silica . . Phosphoric Calcium acid Sulphur Total 100.63 100.54 99.59 99.81 Percent age Iron 5.37 0.60 0.62 0.99 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. CHROMIC IRON ANALYSIS. T. S. HUNT and (F. A. GENTH. Zeitschrift f. Anal. Chem., i., 498.) Take 0.5 gram of the impalpable powder, and fuse in a capacious platinum crucible with 6 grains potassic hydrosul- phate for fifteen minutes, at a temperature scarcely above the fusing of the latter ; then raise the heat somewhat, so that the bottom of the crucible may just appear red, and keep it so for fifteen or twenty minutes. The fusing mass should not rise higher than half-way up the crucible. The mass begins to fuse quietly, and abundant fumes of sulphuric acid escape. At the expiration of twenty minutes the heat is increased as much as necessary to drive out the second equivalent of sul- phuric acid, and even to decompose partially the iron and chromic sulphate. To the fused mass now add 3 grams pure sodic carbonate ; heat to fusion, and add a small portion from time to time during an hour of 3 grams nitre, maintaining a gentle red heat all the while ; then heat for fifteen minutes to bright redness. Treat the cold mass with boiling water ; filter hot ; wash the residue with hot w^ater ; then digest in the heat with hydrochloric acid. If anything remains undissolved, it is a portion of the ore undecomposed, and must be subjected again to the above operation. To weigh such a residue and deduct it from the ore first taken, is not good, as it never possesses the composition of the original substance. The alkaline solution, which often con- tains, besides the chromic acid, also some silicic, titanic, and manganic acids and alumina, is evaporated with excess of am- monic nitrate on a water-bath nearly to dryness, and till all free ammonia is expelled. On addition of water, the silicic acid, alumina, titanic acid, and manganic oxide, remain undis- solved, while the chromic acid passes into solution. Filter and thoroughly wash residue. To filtrate, add HCl and al- cohol, when the chromic acid is converted into chromic oxide (sesquioxide of chromium) by heating the solution for some time. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 389 All the alcohol must be expelled by heat. Then to the solu. tion, which must not be concentrated, heated to 100 in a beaker, is added ammonic hydrate in slight excess, and the mixture exposed to a temperature approaching boiling-point, until the fluid over the precipitate is perfectly colorless, presenting no longer the last shade of red ; let the solid particles subside ; wash three times by decantation, and lastly on a filter, with hot water, dry thoroughly and ignite and weigh as Cr 2 3 (chromium sesquioxide). This method is very accurate. ANALYSIS OF CHROMIC IRON. CHESTER Co., PA. FeO 35 14 1 FeO ALTIMORE. ;. 30.04 Mo-0 MgO. . . ;.. Cr O 51 56 CrOo 63.37 Al 9 72 Alo0 1.95 SiO gf) CaO . .. ... 2.02 Total QQ QO Si0 2 . 2.21 Total, 99.59 390 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF PIG LEAD. (See FRES., Zeit. Ann. Ch.) Determine the SILVER by cupellation, or wet way, in 200 grams. For other metals present in the lead, dissolve 200 grams in 1.5 litres of water + 550 c.c. strong nitric acid, using a large flask and filtering, should the solution be turbid. RESIDUE a. Sb 2 O 3 SnO 2 may be left. Tf so, dissolve it in HC1, pass in H,S gas, filter and reserve the prec. to go with PBEC. r. (.Note 1.) SOLUTION a. Add 65 c.c. of pure H 2 SO 4 , shake and r.llow to stand till settled. Then filter and wash thoroughly. PRECIPITATE b. Equal PbSO 4 . Reject. PRECIPITATE c = PbSO 4 and perhaps Sb. Dissolve in HC1, add 10 volumes H 2 S water, pass H 2 S gas in, and filter, etc. SOLUTION d. Reject it. PRECIPITATE d = Sb 2 S 3 + PbS, add it to PRECIPITATE /. (Note 2.) SOLUTION b. Evaporate until fumes of sul- phuric acid appear ; cool, and add 60 c. c. of water ; filter and wash with hot water. SOLUTION c. Dilute to 200 c.c. , heat to 70 C., pass H 2 S gas in, allow to stand 12 hours, filter, etc. 12 hours for precipitate to settle ; filter, etc. SOLUTION /. Evaporate to 500 c. c., add (NH 4 HO + (NH 4 )HS, fill flask and al- low it to stand PRECIPITATE g = FeS, ZnS, CoS, NiS. Treat on the filter with a mixture of 6 parts H 2 S water + 1 part dilute HC1, pouring back several JPRECITATE k times so as to avoid bulk ; filter, etc. SOLUTION g. Acidulate with HC 2 H O a and boil to recover NiS ; filter, etc. RESIDUE h =CoS, NiS. Dry, ignite to oxides r, test with the pipe blow- SOLUTION h = FeS, ZnS. Add HNO 3 , boil ; then add(NH 4 )HO in excess ; filter, etc. SOLUTION i. Add (NH 4 )HO + (NHJHS in a flask and allow to stand for twenty- four hours ; filter, etc. SOL. j. I PRECIPITATE,; = ZnS. Dis- I solve in HC1 and boil with Na a CO, in excess ; filter, etc., ignite and weigh as ZnO. PREC. i. = Fe 2 3 . RESIDUE I = Bi,S,. CuS, CdS/Pbs. Spread the fil- ter in a dish, and treat nearly to boiling with HNO 3 ; when dissolved, fil- ter, wash, dry and burn filter; throw the ash into the HNO 3 solution. Then add 2 c.c. H 2 SO 4 and evaporate till white fumes appear ; add H 2 O and allow to set- tle ; filter, etc. PRECIPITATE m. PbSO 4 ; reject. =NiS,addto PREC. g. FILTRATE k. Reject. PRECIPITATE / = Sb. 2 S 3 , As 2 S 3 , SnS 2 , Bi,S 3 , CuS, CdS, PbS, etc. Add PREC. d. Treat with K 2 S, filter, etc. (Note.) SOLUTION m. Neutralize nearly with pureKHO; addNa 2 CO 3 and a little KCy (free from K 2 S); filter, etc. (N.B. Note 4.) PRECIPITATE n = Bi 2 3 . Dissolve in dilute HNO 3 and prec. with (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 as above. SOLUTION n. Add a little more KCy and then a few drops K 2 S ; filter and wash. Have SOL. o and PREC. o. SOLUTION I = AsoS 3 , Sb 2 S 3 , SnS 2 in K,S solu- tion. Add HC1 and filter. PREC. r. SOL. r. Reject. Sb.,S 3 , As 2 A 3 , SnS 2 . Add precip. from RESIDUE a dry, treat with Cfc?.,, and dry again. Evapo- rate after adding fuming HNO ; ,, until paper is destroyed and most of the acid gone. Then dilute a little and add Na 2 CO 3 to alkaline reaction, and then NaNO 3 and evapo- rate to dryness, and heat carefully to fu- sion. After cool- insr. extract the cake with water, etc. (Spe Fres., q. a., p. 427.) THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 391 SOL. s. As, Sb, Sn. Evaporate off alcohol, add dilute H 2 S0 4 , evaporate until no fumes of HN0 3 are perceptible and pass H 2 O gas in at 70 C. and filter, wash , etc. Dissolve in K 2 S and add large excess solution of sulphurous acid, and digest for some time in a water- bath, and then boil until two-thirds of water and all SO 3 is gone, filter, etc. SOLUTION o. PBECIPITATE o RESIDUE *. Add a little HNO 3 + H 2 SO 4 + HC1, and evaporate until no = Ag a S, CdS. Wash with dilute HNO 3 . (Note3.) NaSb0 3 . Dissolve odor of KCy is perceptible. in HC1 + Filter if necessary. Precipitate RESIDUE x SOLUTION x the Cu with H a S. = Ag 2 S. Re- = CdS. Evap- and pass 1-. TT u jected as Ag, is determined sep- arately. orate nearly to dryness and add Na 2 CO 3 . If no precipi- tate appears, rash ; filter with in r! 2 o Sb 2 S 3 + S, oxidize withHN0 3 and weigh as SbO a . Add result from RESI- add KHO, and if one then appears, filter and v NH t N0 3 and burn = CdO. DUE t. RESIDUE t. Sb 2 S 3 + SnSo. The Sb 2 S 3 here will only be a trace. Oxidize in a crucible with HNO S and weigh ; then ignite in hydrogen to expel the 8bO,, and oxidize again with HNO 3 and weigh the SnO a . The loss, SbO 2 . SOLUTION t. A8oS 3 . Pass in H 2 S gas, filter and wash, oxidize with fuming HNO 3 , dilute a little, warm gently with KC1O 3 and precipitate as ammonio-magnesic arseniate. The washing must be with NaCl, and the latter displaced by (NH 4 )C a H 2 O a , the latter washings being rejected. NOTE x. In case no CdS be present, Bi and Cu may be separated by (NH 4 )HO and (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 . NOTE 1. There will not (probably) be any Sn in the lead. Should there be any it must be looked for in FILTRATE s. NOTE 2. If precipitate d contained much Pb, better treat separately to the point of oxidizing with HN0 3 , and then add to PRECIPITATE r. NOTE 3. Better dissolve thoroughly PRECIPITATE r. The Cd with (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 , which will not dissolve the same. NOTE 4. If the KCy contains K 2 S, the precipitated car- bonate may contain sulphides. Filter, wash, and dissolve in boiling HN0 3 . Filter out any separated sulphur. Again pre- cipitate with (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 in slight excess and boil. Ag will not be precipitated. Cd may be. Filter and wash with water and then with a little KCy. The CdC0 3 is so readily soluble in KCy that it will be carried through the filter into the solution. 392 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ANALYSIS OF PIG LEAD. Harz. Havre. Copper 0.00476 0.0022 Antimony 0.00317 0.0052 Iron 0.00163 0.0007 Zinc 0.00265 Silver 0.00060 0.0006 Lead.. . 99.98716 .. . 99.9913 Total 100.00000 100.0000 SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF A NICKEL ORE. Fuse 2 grams of finely-powdered niccolite (niccolite arsenide 4- cobalt 4- iron) with 2 parts of potassic nitrate and 2 parts of carbonate of soda, in a platinum crucible, the bottom and sides of which have been previously lined with Na 2 C0 3 ; the mass is then ignited for some time, and when cold, digested in water ; the oxides formed are filtered off and thoroughly washed. The solution contains all the arsenic in the form of arsenates of the alkalies ; it is supersaturated with HC1, then mixed with (NH 4 )HO and MgS0 4 . Let the precipitate stand for twenty-four hours, then filter through a weighed filter washed with dilute (NH 4 )HO ? dried at 100 and weighed. The oxides are dissolved in concentrated HCl, and the cop- per and bismuth, precipitated, by H 2 S. The filtrate from H 2 S treatment is heated to boiling, and mixed with some KC10 3 in order to peroxidize the iron, which may then be separated from the nickel and cobalt in the same manner as from manga- nese, by baric carbonate. From the liquid separated from the baric carbonate, the dissolved baryta is precipitated by H 2 S0 4 , and filtered. The filtrate contains the nickel and cobalt, which are precipitated from a hot solution by potassic hydrate. The precipitate containing the hydrated oxides of Ni and Co is gradually mixed with potassic cyanide (free from cyanate), and a gentle heat applied until dissolved. By this process the cobaltous and potassic cyanide, KCy,CoCy 2 , in the solution THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 393 is converted into potassio-cobaltic cyanide (K 6 Co l2 Cy 2 ), whilst the nickelous-potassic cyanide remains unaltered. Add to the solution, while hot, levigated mercuric oxide. By this method the nickelous-potassic cyanide is decomposed, and all the nickel precipitated, partly as oxide and partly as cyanide. Filter and wash ; ignite ; with excess of air, leaves pure oxide of nickel behind, which weigh. Neutralize the filtrate with HN0 3 and solution of mercurous nitrate, as neutral as possible, added as long as it produces a precipitate of mercurous-cobaltous cyanide. After being filtered (through a weighed filter), washed, and dried, it is ignited with excess of air, when it is converted into cobaltic oxide, w r hich, after weighing, must be reduced by hydrogen to metallic cobalt. ANALYSIS OF NICCOLITE. As. Ni 54.05 43.50 . . . . 54.89 . . . . 43.21 . . . 52.71 45 37 Fe. Pb 0.45 , . . . 0.54 . . . . Co 032 Sb 005 S. . Gii 2.18 igue 20 . . , . . . 1.35 .... 0.48 . Cu 144 Total 100 75 9999 100 03 Analysis by. . . EBELMEN. GBUNOW. SCIINABEL. SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF A COPPER ORE. Weigh out 2 grams of the powdered ore (impalpable powder), and put into a beaker. Add concentrated H 2 S0 4 +HN0 3 . Cover with convex cover; heat gently until effervescence ceases; remove the cover, and expel all the HN0 3 over a water-bath by evaporation, until fumes of H 2 S0 4 are given off. Wash down the sides of the beaker with hot water, then filter into a weighed platinum dish; after diluting with water, throw in a piece of zinc (soluble in hydrochloric acid without residue), and add, if necessary, a little more acid. Cover the dish with a watch-glass, which is afterwards rinsed into the 394 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. dish. The separation of the copper commences immediately. Heat, if necessary. After an hour or two test a portion of the snpernated liquid with H 2 S water; if no brown tint is imparted, the copper is all precipitated. Press the copper together with a glass rod, decant the clear fluid; wash; precipitate with boiling H 2 0, and decant again; rinse the dish with strong alcohol; heat over water-bath ; when Cu is dry, let it cool, and weigh. The precipitation may be done in a porcelain or glass dish, but it will take longer. ANALYSIS OF COPPER PYRITES. S 35.87 36.10 33.88 Cu 34.40 3285 3265 Fe 30.47 29.93 32.77 Quartz 0.27 0.32 Mn Trace. Pb... 0.35 . Total 101.01 99.23 99.62 Analysis by ROSE. SMITH. FOBBES. SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF A ZINC ORE. The ore may contain Zn, Fe, A1 2 3 , CaO, MgO, PbO, Si0 2 , S, H 2 0, C0 2 . Dissolve 2 grams of pulverized ore in a mixture of 5 c.c. of HN0 3 + 5 c.c. of HC1 at a gentle heat, then add 5 c.c. of N 2 S0 4 and evaporate until fumes of sulphuric acid are given off; then add boiling H 2 and filter. PRECIPITATE. Si0 2 +PbSO 4 . Weigh; then boil with ammonic citrate and filter. Res- idue will be SiO 8 . The filtrate will be Pb in solution ; add H 3 S and the precipitate will be PbS ; put in cru- cible, add HNO 3 +H 2 S0 4 , and ignite, which will give PbSO 4 , which weigh. The filtrate will contain in solution Zn, CaO, MgO. Add H 2 S water; then pass in the solution H 2 S gas until Zn is all FILTRATE. Fe 2 O 8 , A1 2 O 8 , ZnO, CaO, MgO, in solution ; neutralize with Na 2 Co 3 ; add sodic acetate and boil. Precipi- and A1 2 O 3 ; filter off. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 395 precipitated as ZnS. Filter and wash with H 2 S water. Dis- solve ZnS in HCl on filter; then wash into beaker with boiling H 2 ; add a few crystals of KC10 3 and boil; filter off the sul- phur which may separate ; then add Na 2 C0 3 , and the Zn will be precipitated as ZnC0 3 ; filter and wash ; ignite in a porce- lain crucible and weigh as ZnO, from which the Zn may be calculated. The solution filtered from ZnS will contain CaO and MgO. Precipitate CaO as oxalate, and MgO as MgNH 4 P0 4 . Make special determinations for S, H 2 and C0 2 . The above analysis is principally for the determination of Zn. ANALYSIS OF ZINC BLENDE. s 32.10 33.82 Zn Fe .. . 64.22 1.32 64.39 Cd Trace. 0.98 Cu 0.32 Pb*. . . . Mn 0.72 0.78 080 2 33.82 54.17 11.19 0.82 0.88 Total ........ 99.10 ........... 100.29 .......... 100.88 Analysis by KERSTEN. SMITH. SCHEEREB. ANALYSIS OF PYROLUSITE FOR ITS COMMERCIAL VALUE. The following analysis is founded on the fact that when oxalic acid comes in contact with manganese in presence of water and sulphuric acid, manganous sulphate is formed, and carbonic acid is evolved. Each equivalent of available oxygen, or, what amounts to the same, each 1 eq. manganese dioxide = 43.5, gives 2 eq. carbonic acid = 44. As 44 parts by weight of C0 2 correspond to 43.5 of manga- nese dioxide, the C0 2 found need simply be multiplied by 43.5 and the r>roduct divided by 44, or the COo may be multi- * Sb and Pb. 396 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 43 5 plied by -^- = 0.9887 to find the corresponding amount of manganese dioxide. Take (0.9887) x 2 or 3 grains of ore, which is finely pulver- ized, and introduce into a weighed flask A (capable of holding 120 c.c. up to the neck) ; now add 5-6 grams of sodic oxalate or 7.5 grams potassic oxalate, in powder, and enough water to fill the flask two-thirds full. Insert the cork into A and see that it does not leak. A = 120 c.c. to neck. B = 100 c.c. to neck. B for sulphuric acid. A for ores, etc. a is closed at b with wax ball. Note. Exact weight of A and B must be known after they are charged that is, before C0 2 is allowed to come off. Now make some H 2 S0 4 flow from B to A, by applying suction to d by means of a rubber-tube. C0 2 goes oft* imme- diately ; when it ceases, let some more H 2 S0 4 pass in, and complete this until the manganese ore is completely decom- posed. Take five to ten minutes. Let the apparatus be weighed again after becoming cool. The loss will equal C0 2 . The number of centigrams lost, divided by 2 or 3, according to the multiple of 0.9887 gram used, expresses the percentage of manganese dioxide in the ore treated. ANALYSIS OF PYROLUSITE. Mn, Mn 83.56 O BaO Si0 2 H 3 14.58 1.86 Total 100.00 . Analysis by ARFVEDSON. 85.62 11.60 0.66 0.55 1.57 100.00 TURNEB. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 397 SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF ILMENITE. Fuse 1 gram with 3 grams of NaF -f 12 grams K 2 S 2 7 thoroughly. Dissolve in large volume of cold water. If there is any residue, fuse and dissolve as before. Neutralize with Na 2 C0 3 until a slight precipitate appears, which dissolve in H 2 S0 4 , so the fluid will be slightly acid. Saturate with H 2 S gas ; boil one hour, adding from time to time H 2 S water. Filter off the precipitate, and wash with water containing H 2 S. The precipitate will be Ti0 2 + S. Ignite and weigh =Ti0 2 . If the precipitate contains iron, fuse over again, etc. ANALYSIS OF ILMENITE. Ti0 2 (Hystatite.) 24 19 (Ilmenite.) 4667 (Hystatite.) 2528 Fe s 3 FeO MnO .. 53.01 .. 19.91 . 11.71 . 85.37 239 51.84 22.86 MgO OaO SiO, Cr O .. 0.63 . . 0.33 . . 1.77 . 0.60 . 0.25 . . . . . 2.80 038 Total . . . . 99.89 10017 9998 Analysis by MOSANDEB. MOSANDER. KENDALL. SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF NATROLITE. Moisten 2 grams of the pulverized mineral with water, and digest in concentrated HC1 ; heat, evaporate over water-bath ; break up residue with stirring-rod, and get a pow T der. It must neither be under or over heated. Cover with paper and put in air-bath, heat to 125 C. Let it dry for two or three hours, moisten with concentrated HC1 and let stand a few minutes. Warm gently, then add water. The bases go into solution and Si0 2 separates, which is weighed. 398 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Divide filtrate into two parts : IST PAKT. To determine Na 3 0, add caustic baryta, which precipitates Al, Fe, Mg. The filtrate will contain BaO, CaO, and alkalies. To remove BaO and CaO add (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 and filter. Test to see if CaO is present and burn off (NH 4 )HO. Wash out evap- orating dish with smallest amount of water, add HC1 and evaporate in a weighed dish, and the residue will be NaCI, which weigh. 2D PART. To determine Fe, Al, Mg, treat this 2d part in the usual manner. Precipitate the Fe and Al by (NHJHS, etc. ANALYSIS OF NATROL1TE. SiO 4800 4721 4450 Al,0 3 Fe O .. 24.25 1 75 25.60 135 30.05 098 CaO 0.83 NaO 1650 1612 13 52 H O 9 00 8 88 , 993 Total Analysis by. , . . 99.50 . . . KLAPBOTH. 99.16 FUCHS. 99.81 SCHEEBEB. SCHEME FOR FELDSPAR OR ORTHOCLASE ANALYSIS, Mix the finely-powdered mineral, dried at 200, with four or five parts of baric carbonate ; this is then exposed to an intense white heat by a blowpipe. When the contents are aggregated into a cinder-like mass, the mass is then turned out of the crucible into a capacious dish, a quantity of water poured over it, and hydrochloric acid added in slight excess until it is completely dissolved, with the exception of some gelatinous Si0 2 which separates. The whole solution is then evaporated to perfect dryness; then moisten with HC1 and dis- solve in H 2 and filter off Si0 2 , which weigh. Precipitate the baryta in the filtrate with H 2 S0 4 (very lit- THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 399 tie); filter, and concentrate the filtrate, add (NH 4 )HS and precipitate the A1 2 3 , and filter. Evaporate the filtrate to dryness, and ignite it to expel ammonia salts. The residue is sulphate of potash, and is weighed. If soda is present it must be separated. ANALYSIS OF FELDSPAR (ORTHOCLASE). SKX 66.75 67.01 65.10 A1 3 3 17.50 18.60 ) 3013 17.50 1.75 MgO. CaO. 18.60 0.85 0.19 125 0.56 ) 12.00 Total 99.25 Analysis by . . . ROSE. 11.41 100.63 DUEKRB. 2.42 12.80 100.44 HAYES. SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF DOLOMITE OR MARBLE. It may contain CaO, MgO, Si0 2 , A1 2 3 , Fe 2 3 . Dissolve 1.5 grams in HC1 + HN0 3 , evaporate to dryness, moisten with HC1, add H 2 and filter. RESIDUE. Si0 2 and silicates fuse in platinum crucible with Na 2 C0 3 ; moisten with A FILTRATE + B. Warm, add NH 4 C1 + (NH 4 )HO, and filter. H 2 O, add an exce rate, dissolve in H 2 RESIDUE. . SiO a , weigh. 33 of HC1, evapo- O and filter. B FILTRATE. Add to first Fil- trate A. PRECIPITATE. A1 2 O 3 + Fe 2 3 (CaO, MgO?). Wash with a lit- tle hot water, dis- solve in HC1, re- E FILTRATE + C. CaO, MgO. Concentrate if too bulky ; acid- ify with HC1 if cloudy ; then add (NH 4 )HO + (NH 4 ) 2 C 2 4 ; al- low the precipi- tate to stand over precipitate, filter, add Filtrate (C) to Filtrate (E\ The precipitate = A1 2 O 8 +"Fe;,O 3 , which weigh or separate. night ; pour the clear liquid through the filter ; wash the precipitate in the beaker once or twice with H,0 ; pour the clear liquid through the filter and dissolve the precipitate in HC1. Reprecipitate with (NH 4 ) 8 C 8 4 and filter. 400 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. PRECIPITATE. CaC 3 O 4 . Moisten with H 2 SO 4 = 2CaSO 4 and ignite in platinum cru- cible ; cautiously moisten with dilute H 8 S0 4 ; heat and weigh. FILTRATE. MgO. Concentrate if too bulky, and acidify if cloudy with HC1. Add an excess of (NH 4 )HO, then add Na 8 HP0 4 . Filter off precipitate = MgHP0 4 ; wash with [1(NH 4 )HO + 3H 2 0] ; dry and weigh. For C0 2 determination take about 1.5 grams, use apparatus which is used in Pyrolusite. For S and P0 5 determinations, digest 6 grams in HN0 3 and divide. ANALYSIS OF DOLOMITE. (Jena,cryst.) (Miemite.) CaC0 3 55.22 57.91 .. MgC0 3 44.77 38.97 . . FeC0 3 1.74 ) MnC0 3 0.57 ) H 2 .. FeO . . (La Valenciana.) , . . . 53.18 . 84.35 Total 99.99 ... Analysis by SUCKOW. 93.19 .. RAMMELSBERG. 10.46 1.22 0.22 99.43 ROTH. SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF WHITE LEAD. The substances likely to be found are BaS0 4 , clay, ZnO, PbS0 4 , PbC0 3 , CaC0 3 , CaS0 4 , H 2 + oil. Digest 10 grains of the material in a flask with ether ; filter and wash. Weigh out of the powder 2 grams, and dissolve in HN0 3 ; boil and filter. FILTRATE A. ZnO, PbO, CaO ; treat with H 8 S in presence of considerable acid, and filter. SOLUTION B. Zn + CaO in solution; add (NH 4 ) HO + (NH) 4 HS ; filter and wash. FILTRATE C. RESIDUE A. BaSO 4 , clay ; weigh, and separate if desirable. PRECIPITATE B. = PbS ; weigh as PbS0 4 . RESIDUE C. = ZnS ; convert into ZnC0 3 , and weigh as ZnO. CaO; add (NH 4 ) S C 2 O 4 , and the precipitate will be CaC 2 4 . THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 401 To determine S0 3 in the shape of PbS0 4 + CaS0 4 , dissolve 3 grams in boiling dilute HCl; add a little ammonic citrate or acetate ; filter and determine S0 3 as usual. This scheme will apply also to zincic pigments. SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF TYPE METAL May contain Sb, Pb (Sn, Zn, Fe). Dissolve I gram of metal in HN0 3 + tartaric acid at a gentle heat; filter and wash. SOLUTION. RESIDUE. Sb, Pb (Zn + Fe); add H 2 SO 4 to Sn0 2 may contain a little Pb and solution ; heat to boiling, and filter. Sb 2 ; ignite the residue and weigh. Fuse with Na 2 CO 3 + S ; dissolve in SnO 2 may contain a little Pb and Sb ; ignite the residue and weigh. Fuse with Na 2 C0 3 +S; dissolve in hot H 2 O and filter. Residue = PbS. hot H 2 O, and filter. Residue = PbS. Heat in a porcelain crucible with HNO 3 which gives PbS0 4 ; ignite and weigh. Add to Residue A. Heat in porcelain crucible with HNO 3 SOLUTION. which gives PbS0 4 ; ignite and weigh. Add HCl ; precipitate=Sb 2 S 3 SnS 3 ; Add to Residue A. oxidize with HN0 3 ; fuse with NaHO RESIDUE A. Will be PbS0 4 ; in silver dish. Dissolve mass in 3 , alcohol + IH 3 Oa n d filter. Sb, Pb (Zn and dry and weigh. .Fe); pass in H 3 S ! RESIDUE. SOLUTION. PRECIPITATE. gas and filter, NaSbO 3 ; warm Sn as Na 2 Sn SbS 3 +PbS; di- washing w i t h j with HCl ; dilute 3 ; acidulate with gest with yellow sulphide of ammo- nia and filter. RESIDUE. H 2 S water. SOLUTION. Add(NH 4 )HS; precipitate = Fe and Zn. with H 2 O and precipitate with H 2 S the Sb as Sb 2 S 3 ; treat as before. HCl ; precipitate by H 2 S = SnS 2 ; ignite with Sn0 2 , and weigh. Will be PbS; heat in a porce- SOLUTION. lain crucible with HNO 3 , which gives PbSO 4 ; ig- nite and weigh, (NH 4 )HS, Sb 2 S 3 ; precipitate with HCl = SbS 3 + S ; evaporate NOTE. The above schemes show only how to separate the constitu- ents. For further information, see and add to Resi- with HNO 3 in a resenius. due A. porcelain cruci- ble ; burn filter paper with NH 4 NO 3 and add ; ig- nite the whole and weigh as Sb0 4 . 402 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ANALYSIS OF TYPE METAL METALS. >, 1 1 | S Bismuth. I Type metal 15.5 69 15.5 Printing characters 20 80 Babbitt metal .... 7.3 37 89 50 25 . White metal 56.8 _ 74 984 74 Pewter 14 86 Metal that expands in cooling 167 75 83 SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF A SILVER COIN. It contains Au, Ag 2 S, Ag, Pb, Cu. Boil in KHO to clean it ; then weigh, dissolve in HN0 3 (free from Cl), and filter. PRECIPITATE. Au, Ag 2 S. Dry; weigh; wrap in a piece of Pb and cupel. This de- stroys the AgS. Add also a little piece of silver (the weight of which must be known) ; dissolve the button in HNO 3 , and filter. RESIDUE. Au. FILTRATE. AgNO 3 ; add to Filtrate A. FILTRATE A. AgN0 3 ,Pb(N0 3 ) 2 ,Cu(N0 3 ) J HC1 and filter. add PRECIPITATE. AgCl. FILTRATE. PbCl 2 + CuCl 2 ; add about 10 c.c. ofH 2 SO 4 ; evaporate to dryness ; dis- solve in H 2 O ; filter and wash with water containing a little alcohol. PRECIPITATE. = PbS0 4 . FILTRATE. = CuS0 4 . Precipitate with KHO, and test fil- trate with HS. ANALYSIS OF SILVER COIN.* Ag 51.49 Cu.... 47.91 Pb 63 Au.. .02 Total 100.05 * Poor, Spanish coin. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 403 SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. Aspirator NITROGEN TUBE. Fertilizers owe their value to P 2 5 (soluble and insoluble to NH 3 and K 2 0). 1st. Those that furnish insoluble P 2 5 ; as bone ash, bone black, rock guanos, apatite, green marl. 2d. Those that furnish insoluble P 2 5 + NH 3 ; as bones, meat scraps, dried blood, and almost all animal matter. 3d. Those that furnish NH 3 . 4th. Those that furnish soluble P 2 5 , as superphosphates. To determine insoluble P 2 5 , weigh out 2 grams, place in a porcelain dish and evaporate with HN0 3 , and bring into solu- tion. To destroy organic matter, add KC10 3 . Divide the solution in halves, and heat with Mo0 3 . Wash the yellow precipitate with Mo0 3 and dissolve it in (NH 4 )HO, and repre- cipitate with magnesia mixture. To determine the soluble P 2 5 , take 1.5 grams, pulverize finely, and dissolve in cold H 2 0, and determine P 2 5 as usual. The determination of the nitrogen is conducted by mixing the substance with soda-lime and heating. The H which is formed goes to the N, and to C, by splitting H 2 0. The nitrogen tube, as shown in the figure, -is placed in a gas furnace, or in a charcoal furnace. Determine NH 3 with PtCl 4 or with a normal HC1 solution. Multiply the determined value of P 2 5 in bone phosphate by 2.18 = Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 . 404 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. COMPLETE ANALYSIS. May contain : Si0 2 , A1 2 3 , Fe 2 3 , CaO, MgO, K 2 0, Na 2 0, C0 2 , NH 3 , insoluble P 2 5 , soluble P 2 5 , H 2 S0 4 , H 2 0, organic matter. Use special methods for total P 2 5 , soluble P 2 5 , K 2 0, Na 2 0, NH 3 , H 2 0, C0 2 . For Si0 2 , A1 2 3 , Fe 2 3 , CaO, MgO, H 2 S0 4 , dissolve 5 grams in HC1, evaporate to dryness, moisten with HC1, add water, and filter. RESIDUE A Si0 3 , ignite and weigh. SOLUTION A. Dilute to 500 c.c. Divide in four parts. 1st. 200 c.c. Precipitate CaO by H 2 S0 4 and alcohol. (Not too much alcohol nor 3d. 100 c.c. Determine Fe with K 2 Mn 2 8 . 3d. 100 c.c. Determine H 2 SO 4 with BaCl" 2 . 4th. 100 c.c. Determine A1,O 3 by adding a solu- tion of 4 grams of NaC 2 H 3 Oo. The metallic iron to liquid + Na 2 Co 3 4 too little. About 2 vols. alcohol to 1 of solution was with this solution. Precip. = CaS0 4 . Test after weigh- ing for A1 2 O 3 and Fe 2 3 . precipitate = Al.,0 3 + Fe 2 O 3 + P 2 3 . Ignite and weigh, and deduct Fe 2 3 + P 3 O 5 . To filtrate from 1st part add NaHP0 4 and (NH 4 )HO, and precipitate = MgNH 4 PO 4 . Ignite and weigh as Mg 2 P 2 O 7 , and determine MgO. ANALYSIS OF WATERS. BRIEF RULES WITH REGARD TO MINERAL WATERS. I. If the water reddens blue litmus-paper before boiling, but not afterward, and the blue color of the reddened paper is restored upon warming, it is a carbonate. II. If it possesses a nauseous odor, and gives a black precip- itate with acetate of lead, it is sulphurous. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 405 III. If, after the addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid, it gives a blue precipitate with yellow or red potassium prussiate, the water is a chalybeate. IY. If it restores the blue color to litmus-paper after boil- ing, it is alkaline. Y. If it possesses neither of the above properties in a marked degree, and leaves a large residue on evaporation, it is saline water. COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF MINERAL WATERS, WHEN CONTAINING ALKALINE CARBONATES. FOE TOTAL SOLIDS. Evaporate 0.5 litre in weighed Pt dish ; dry to constant weight at 130 C., and weigh. FOE Fe 2 3 + Al 2 3 + CaO + MgO Si0 2 , acidulate 1 litre and evaporate to dryness in Pt dish ; moisten with HC1 and treat with hot water; filter, wash, etc. Dry residue, ignite and weigh. Then expel Si0 2 with NH 4 F1, and weigh again. The loss is Si0 2 . Should any residue be left, examine it in the SPECTEOSCOPE. Treat the filtrate with (NH 4 )HO and NH 4 C1 ; boil to precipi- tate Fe 2 3 , A1 2 3 , and P 2 5 ; filter, etc. Dissolve the pre- cipitate, and reprecipitate ; add the filtrate and washings to the first, and in the combined filtrates determine the CaO, MgO as usual. FOE S0 3 , acidulate 1 litre with HC1, evaporate to small volume in a porcelain dish, and precipitate with BaCl 3 as usual. FOE SODIC CAEBONATE, evaporate 1 litre of the water to dryness ; treat with water and test with a standard solution of H 2 S0 4 or other acid+Na 2 C0 3 -f Li 2 C0 3 ; or evaporate 1 litre to dryness, dissolve in water, filter, wash. The sodic or lithic carbonate go into solution. To the filtrate add a mix- ture of CaCl 2 + (NH 4 )HO [prepared by dissolving 60 grams CaCl 2 in 250 c.c. water, adding 100 c.c. (NH 4 )HO] in excess; filter and wash rapidly. 406 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. The CO 2 goes to the lime ; the soda and lithia are washed out as chlorides. Dissolve the CaC0 3 on the filter with HC1, then precipitate as oxalate; either determine as CaS0 4 or ignite to CaO, and estimate the corresponding amount of CaC0 3 ; from this calculate the Na 2 C0 3 by the proportion, At. "Wt. CaC0 3 : At. Wt. Na 2 C0 3 : : CaC0 3 found : Na 2 C0 3 . FOE POTASSIC OXIDE. Take 1 litre of water ; evaporate nearly to dryness in a silver dish; filter, wash with boiling water, evaporate in Pt or porcelain dish with slight excess of HC1 + PtCl 4 to dryness, or nearly so, on water-bath. Then dissolve in a mixture of 2 parts alcohol and 1 part ether. Filter out KC1, PtCl 4 ; wash very completely with the same ; dry, trans- fer to crucible, and ignite with oxalic acid. (See Fresenius.) TOTAL CHLORINE. Test yj^ gallons with standard solution AgN0 3 (1 c.c. = 0.1 grain NaCl). FOR CARBONIC ACID. Take 200 c.c. of the water previously treated at the spring with " CaCl 2 -f(NH 4 )HO preparation," being careful to clear the neck of the bottle from all fat, etc. Keep the bottle in boiling water until the effervescence ceases ; then filter out the CaC0 3 , rinsing the bottle thoroughly with water. Keep the bottle for after treatment. Wash the CaC0 3 on the filter, as long as the wash-water gives a reaction with (NH 4 ) 2 C 2 4 . This washing should be done rapidly, to avoid the forma- tion of CaC0 3 by the C0 2 in the atmosphere, acting on the CaH 2 2 present. Then dissolve the CaC0 3 adhering to the bottle with a little HC1, and wash into a beaker. Then punch a hole in the filter and wash the CaC0 3 into same beaker, cleansing the filter with HC1. Boil to expel C0 2 , and deter- mine the lime as oxalate or caustic, and calculate the C0 2 . MAIN ANALYSIS. Evaporate 10-20 gallons of the water to dryness in large porcelain dishes (perfect dryness is not necessary). Treat the residue in the dishes with water ; boil ; decant through a filter, THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 407 repeating the operation a number of times ; finally bring the insoluble residue on the filter; wash with boiling water until the residue gives only a faint trace of lithia in the spectroscope (in case lithia is present). TREATMENT OF THE RESIDUE. Insoluble in hot water (in case lithia be not present in such quantity or in such a form as not to be completely removed by hot water). Dissolve residue in HC1; evaporate to dry ness; add concentrated HC1 to the dry mass ; dilute with water and filter off residue, which consists of Si0 2 and perhaps BaS0 4 , in case S0 3 and BaO are present in the water. Divide filtrate from Si0 2 into three equal parts. Treatment of first one-third part of solution for PHOSPHORIC ACID. Drive off excess of HC1 from solution, and then remove it entirely by boiling with concentrated HN0 3 ; precipitate with (NH 4 ) 2 Mo0 4 and proceed as usual. Treatment of second one-third part of solution for IRON. Precipitate the iron with NH 4 HO and NH 4 C1, as usual ; filter, wash, and re-dissolve the precipitate in HC1 (or perhaps better H 2 S0 4 ) ; reduce with amalgamated zinc and Pt, determine volumetrically with K 2 Mn 2 8 . Treatment of third one-third part of solution for BARYTA AND STRONTIA. Dilute solution with water and add dilute H 2 S0 4 ; boil (enough acid should be added to precipitate a little lime, or else some SrO may remain in solution). The precipitate, con- sisting of (BaS0 4 ) SrS0 4 , CaS0 4 , should be treated with a 408 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. strong solution of (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 , which converts the CaS0 4 and SrS0 4 into carbonates, while the BaS0 4 is unaffected. The carbonates are then dissolved away from the BaS0 4 on the filter with hot HC1. The HC1 solution, containing CaCl 2 and SrCl 2 , is evaporated to dryness ; the chlorides converted into nitrates; the calcic nitrate dissolved out by digesting with a mixture of alcohol and ether. (See Fres.) The Sr(N0 3 ) 2 is dissolved in water and precipitated as SrS0 4 with dilute H 2 S0 4 . All the precipitates should be examined in the spectroscope, to ascertain if the operations have been perfect. TREATMENT OF THE RESIDUE, insoluble in hot water. In case lithia be present in such quantity, or in such a form, as not to be completely removed by boiling water, divide the HC1 solution into four equal parts, and take one part for the determination of lithia, using the other three as already stated. Precipitate out with (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 and proceed according to Fresenius, 209, p. 564, in order to free the lithia from all other bases precipitable by NaP0 3 . TREATMENT OF WATER SOLUTION resulting from the diges- tion with hot water of the residue obtained by evaporation of 10 to 20 gallons. Evaporate to dryness, pulverize the residue, and weigh ; divide into two portions, one for lithia, and one for iodine and bromine. DETERMINATION OF LITHIA. Moisten the dry salt with HC1 and evaporate on the water- bath to dryness, in order to convert the lithia into the chloride. Place the salt in a glass flask and agitate with absolute alco- hol, decanting solution through a filter until the salt gives no reaction for lithia in the spectroscope. Evaporate oif the alco- hol on a water-bath ; dissolve the residue in water. Treat the solution thus obtained according to Fresenius ( 101, p. 159), in order to separate lithia. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 409 DETERMINATION OF IODINE AND BROMINE. Place the dry salt in a flask, boil on a water-bath repeatedly with 70% alcohol, until the salt gives no reaction for bromine when treated with chlorine water and carbon disulphide. Evaporate the alcoholic solution upon the water-bath; dissolve the residue in water. Add PdCl 2 to a slight excess and heat ; allow the whole to stand for some time, then filter o^t the precipitated Pdl 2 , wash with warm water, dry and ignite. Divide the filtrate from the Pdl into two equal portions. Precipitate each with AgN0 3 . Filter off the AgCl -f- AgBr; wash, dry, ignite one precipitate, and weigh. Place the other precipitate of AgCl + AgBr in a beaker and digest in the heat for 1 hour, with a solution of KBr(lKBr + 9H 2 0), whereby the AgCl is completely converted into AgBr. From these data estimate the amount of bromine in the first precipitate. About as much KBr is required for the conversion as there is AgCl in the precipitate. See " Wittstein Zeitschrift fur Aualytische Chemie," 1863, S. 159. CaCl 2 + (NH 4 )HO MIXTURE. 60 grams CaCl 2 in 250 c.c. H 2 0. Add 100 c.c. (NH 4 )HO, boil, filter, add 100 c. c. (NH 4 )HO, dilute to 500. c.c. NOTE I. In case H 2 S0 4 be present in a water, the residue insoluble in HC1 may contain BaSO 4 , and perhaps SrSO 4 . Treat residue with pure NH 4 F1, to expel Si0 2 , weigh, and test the residue in the spectroscope. GRAMS IN U. S. GALLON (231 cubic inches). 58318 1 116636 2 174954 3 233272 4 291590 . . .5 349908 6 408226 7 466544 8 524862 9 583180... 10 410 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. METHOD OF CALCULATING WATER ANALYSIS. United States gallon contains 231 en. inches = 58318 grains of distilled H 2 at 60 Fah. Suppose an analysis of a litre of water gave the following. Required the number of grains of each substance in a gallon. 1 Litre. Grains in a Gallon. Na 2 0.031 1.807 CaO 0.173 10.089 Cl 0.172 10.030 Si0 2 0.250 14.579 Multiply each substance by 58318 and divide each by 1000. TO CALCULATE HOW ACIDS AND BASES COMBINE. ORDINARY DRINKING WATERS. Na 2 0. K 2 0., CaO.. MgO.. Cl. . . . SO,.. SiO,.. 1 U. S. Gallon. . . . . 0.326 , . . . 0.097 , . . . 0.988 . . . . 524 . . . 0.243 . . . . 0.322 0.621 Organic and volatile matter. 0.670 CO S (calculated) 1.302 Total. . 5.093 Combined. K 2 S0 4 179 NaCl 400 Na 2 S0 4 .263 CaS0 4 156 CaCO 3 1.650 MgC0 3 1.100 SiO 2 621 Org. and volatile matter. . .670 Total.. 5.039 7th. Give SO, to CaO. 1st. Give S0 3 to K 2 0. 2d. " Cl " remainder K 2 0. 3d. " " " Na. 4th. " " Mg. 5th. " " " Ca. 6th. " S0 3 " Na 2 O. 5.093 .054 (amount of oxygen in Na used to make NaCl) 5.039. 8th. 9th. 10th. llth. " " MgO. C0 2 " Na a O. " " CaO. < MgO. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 411 ANALYSIS OF A MINERAL WATER. HATIIORN SPRING, SARATOGA SPRINGS. By G. F. Chandler. Sodic Chloride 509.968 grains. Potassic Chloride 9.597 " Sodic Bromide 1.534 " Sodic Iodide 198 " Calcic Fluoride A trace. Lithic Bicarbonate 11.447 " Sodic Dicarbonate 4.288 " Magnesic Dicarbonate 176.463 Strontic Bicarbonate A trace. Baric Bicarbonate 1.737 " Ferrous Bicarbonate 1.128 " Potassic Sulphate None. Sodic Phosphate 006 <: Sodic Biborate A trace. Aluminic Oxide 131 " Silicic Oxide 1.260 " Organic Matter A trace. Total solid contents 888.403 grains. Carbonic oxide (C0 2 ) in 1 gal., 375.747 inches ; density 1.009. ANALYSIS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN (By VON BIBRA) AND OF THE DEAD SEA (By the HEREPATHS). Atlantic Ocean. Dead Sea. Specific Gravity 1.0275 1.17205 Sodic Chloride 1671.34 6702.73 Potassic Chloride 682.63 Ammonic Chloride 3.35 Calcic Chloride 1376.75 Magnesic Chloride 199.66 4457.23 Aluminic Chloride 31.37 Ferrous Chloride Trace 1.50 Manganous Chloride . . . . , 3.35 Sodic Bromide... 31.16 156.53 Carried forward 1903.18 13416.61 412 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL Atlantic Ocean. Dead Sea. Brought forward 1903.18 1341 6.61 Sodic Iodide. Trace Trace. Potassic Sulphate 108.46 i Magnesic Sulphate 34.99 '. Calcic Sulphate 93.30 38.07 Sodic Phosphate Trace Calcic Carbonate Trace Trace. Silver Trace Copper Trace. ... Lead Trace Arsenic Trace Silicic Oxide Trace Trace. Organic Matter Trace 34.59 Bitumen Trace. Total in 1 U. S. gallon. . . . 2139.93 gr 1348917^ Per cent, by weight 3.569 19.733 Water 96.431 '. 80.267 Total 100.000 100.00 Weight of 1 gallon. . .59922. grs 68352. grs. POTABLE WATER ANALYSIS. (J. Chem. Society, London, vol. xxi, p. 771.) I. TOTAL SOLIDS. Evaporate J litre to dryness rapidly at 100 C. to constant weight. II. ORGANIC CARBON. To 2 litres in a stoppered bottle add 60 c.c. saturated solution sulphurous acid ; J of this (1 litre) sulphurized water is boiled for two or three minutes (unless it contains a considerable amount of carbonates) ; then add 0.200 grams sodic sulphite to secure saturation of S0 3 formed during subsequent evapora- tion. To secure expulsion of N, existing as nitrate, add 2 drops FeCl 2 or Fe 2 Cl 6 . Then evaporate boiled water to dryness in glass capsule of 100 c.c. capacity, keeping capsule without a lip, covered with paper stretched on a hoop to keep out dust ; there should be no (N H 4 )HO in the atmosphere ; when dry, a few grams plumbic chromate, powdered, are added, and triturated THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 413 with contents in an agate mortar ; when the mixture is com- plete the contents are transferred to a combustion tube six- teen inches long sealed at one end, and the capsule rinsed with PbCr0 4 , and the tube charged with CuO and about three inches bright copper turnings. Then draw out open end and connect with a Sprengel pump, letting the ends of glass tubes touch inside of rubber tube, and plunge the joint under water. The furnace is lighted around the forward end of combustion tube and the pump worked for five or ten minutes. The de- livery end of the pump dips into a mercury bath, and a tube filled with mercury is placed over it. The combustion is con- ducted as usual. When the organic matter begins to burn, the operation proceeds slowly until the vacuum is impaired or carbonic oxide will be formed. Combustion lasts forty-five minutes to one hour. Generally no gases will have passed into the mercury tube unless the residue is very rich in organic matter. The pump is now worked for ten minutes, when all the gases will be transferred to the inverted tube. The gases are C0 2 , N, and N0 2 . (For separation and determination of these, see J. Chem. Soc., vol. vi, p. 197.) The weights of carbon and nitrogen are deducted from the volumes of these gases, expressed in 100.000 parts of water. The nitrogen may have been present as organic nitrogen or a constituent of NH 3 . The latter is determined in the water directly by Nessler's test. The nitrogen in this deducted from total nitrogen = organic nitrogen. NOTE. CO 2 is determined by solution of K 2 O of 1.3 specific gravity, and oxygen by solution of pyrogallic acid (1 acid to 6 water). A correction is made by boiling distilled water for 24 hours with alkaline potassic permanganate, and then distilling it; refusing the distillate as long as it shows any reaction for (NH 4 )HO by Nessler's test, and then slightly acidulating it with H 2 S0 4 , and rectifying it. A litre of this is acidified with 15 c. c. H 2 S0 4 , containing about 1.100 grams recently ignited NaCl, and evaporated. The residue must now be burned in 414 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. FIG. 2. PbCrO,. CuO made by oxidizing pure sheet copper in muffle not from Cu2N0 3 . PbCrO 4 to be heated to redness for 2 hours, and transferred to stoppered bottle. MERCURY TROUGH. vacuo, and the carbon and nitrogen obtained deducted from that obtained from the water analyzed. N. B. See J. Ch. Soc., London, vol. xxi, for apparatus for measuring gases, also without absorbing same, and tables for calculating weight of nitrogen, etc. See particularly Russell on Gr. Analysis, J. Chem. Soc., London, vol. xxi, p. 128. 3. NITRATES AND NITRITES. The solid residue of J litre of water is treated with a small quantity of distilled water a very slight excess of Ag 2 S0 4 added, to convert chlorides into sulphates. The filtered liquid concentrated in a small beaker to 2 or 3 c. c. This is trans- ferred to a tube with a cup and stop-cock (see Fig. 2) filled with mercury and standing in a mercury-trough the beaker being washed once or twice with a little recently-boiled dis- tilled water, finally with pure H 2 S0 4 in greater volume than THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 415 solution and rinsings. If air gets in, push tube down in mer- cury and draw it out. Finally, close the tube firmly at the bottom with the thumb, and shake ; resisting the flowing out of the mercury between the acid liquid and the thumb. In 3 to 5 minutes the reaction is complete, when the gas is trans- ferred to a measuring apparatus over mercury. Half the volume of N0 2 in tube=N; the weight calculated from the volume. Miller proposes to estimate the nitrates by the K 2 Mn 2 8 solution, of which 1 c.c. = 0.0023T grams N 2 3 . He adopts Pugh's process for nitrates. Or, J. Ch. Soc., vol. xii, p. 35. MILLER'S METHOD OF K 2 Mn 2 8 . 1 c.c. =0.0001 gram oxygen requiring 0.395 gram to 1 litre water. Test it with a solution of oxalic acid containing 0.7875 gram to 1 litre water ; 100 c.c. of this, warmed with a very dilute solution of H 2 S0 4 should decolorize 100 c.c. K 2 Mn 2 8 solution. 250 c.c. of the water to be tested is placed in a flask with 3 c.c. dilute H 2 S0 4 (1 acid + 3 water). Add the K 2 Mn 2 8 solution in successive portions of 0.5 c.c. until the color disappears, and until after the last addition no change takes place for one-half hour. After it is found that no change takes place, the last 0.5 c.c. added is subtracted as excess. ORGANIC MATTER IN WATER. (Permanganate Test.} Solution made is that 1 c.c. yields 0.0001 gram oxalic acid, then 1 litre yields 0.100 gram oxalic acid. H 2 C 2 4 and 2H 2 = 126 requires 1 At. = 16. 16 : 126 : : 0.100 : .7875 = oxalic acid. Then .7875 oxalic acid requires 0.100 oxygen. 416 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Then .7875 oxalic acid dissolved in 1 litre H 2 require for each c.c. jVFff = .0001 oxygen. Permanganate is diluted until 1 c.c. oxidizes 1 c.c. oxalic acid solution; so 1 c.c. K 2 .Mn 2 8 carries 0.0001 available oxygen. AMMONIA. If the (N H 4 )HO be not alone one part in 10,000,000, which is obtained by distillation alone or with Na 2 C0 3 , use Hadow's modification of Nessler's test. If it be alone this, Nessler's test must be applied directly to the water. The water must be colorless, free from carbonates of magnesia and lime. Any tint in a column six or eight inches deep is fatal. In this case add a few drops of concentrated solution of calcic chloride to one-half litre water, and precipitate with slight excess Na 2 C0 3 ; filter after an hour ; use 100 c.c. of the filtrate. To this volume 1 c.c. of the Messier solution is added, and the color observed. See Miller on Potable Waters, J. Ch. Soc., vol. xviii, p. 125. Use a cylinder of such diameter that 100 c.c. form a column seven inches deep ; place it near a window. AMMONIA. (MILLER'S METHOD ) Into a capacious retort one litre water is introduced, and the retort connected with a Liebig's condenser ; 25 c.c. of baric hydrate is then added ; 250 c. c. water distilled over. The residue in the retort is filtered and separated from salts of baryta (carbonate and sulphate) and evaporated for deter- mination of nitrates by Pugh's method. The distillate is divided into two equal portions ; one for Nessler's test, as practised by Hadow. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 417 NESSLER'S SOLUTION. Make a concentrated solution of 40 grams corrosive subli- mate (HgCl 2 ). Dissolve 62.5 grams Kl in 300 c.c. water, and add to this the mercurial solution until the mercury iodide ceases to be dissolved on agitation. Next dissolve 150 grains K 2 in its own weight of water and add it gradually to the iodized mercurial solution, stirring while mixing ; then dilute to one litre ; let it stand for a day or two until the brown color disappears, and it becomes clear. Decant the clear liquid. About 3 c.c. of the above solution is added to the half of the distillate, same as one-half litre. If (NH 4 )HO be present, a yellow color will appear; if the NH 3 be ^-gu^^u part, make a solution of NH 4 C1 0.317 grams to one litre of water, which is equal to 0.1 gram NH 3 in one litre. Place 3 c.c. of this solution in a beaker of same size used for the distillate ; dilute with 150 c.c. water ; add 3 c.c. test liquor. If the colors coincide then, calculate the quantity of NH 3 . When the NH 3 exceeds 0.6000 milligram per litre, it must be determined by neutralizing with a test acid solution. The other one-half of the distillate is used. The solution contains 2.882 grams H 2 S0 4 in one litre water ; 1 c.c. = 0.001 NH 3 , as usual with litmus solution. NITRIC ACID. (FuCH's ZdocU Anal Chem., vi, 175.) Concentrate two litres water, adding K 2 Mn 2 8 to pink color. Filter ; concentrate fluid ; add pure H 2 S0 4 and distil into a flask containing BaC0 3 suspended in H 2 until H 2 S0 4 goes over. Filter and determine the Ba existing as Ba(N0 3 ) 2 and BaCl 2 . Determine Cl elsewhere and calculate the HN0 3 . 4:18 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. TOTAL RESIDUE. (WANKLYN.) Evaporate 100 c. c. in a small platinum dish holding about 125 c.c. The dish is heated, covered, to 130 C., cooled on a thick piece of cold iron (still covered). Evaporate over steam so as not to allow the dish to come in contact with the boiling water. Use a can with a funnel in it, the dish standing in the funnel. When dry, wipe, transfer to air-bath ; dry at 130 C., at first with lid on, afterwards without it ; cool the dish, cov- ered, as at first, on cold iron, and w r eigh. If the air-bath is at a temperature of 130 when the dish is put in, the determina- tion can be made in \\ hours. Liability to error on account of dust; destruction of organic matter on account of long dry- ing, avoided. SOAP TEST. Dissolve marble in HC1; dry; fuse in a weighed crucible; weigh. Difference = CaCl 2 . Dissolve with water; from known weight calculate water necessary to make solution so that 1 litre = 1.110 grams CaCl 2 ; each cubic centimetre = 0.001 = 1 c.c. CaCl 2 = 1 c.c. CaC0 3 . Take 2 parts lead plaster and 1 K 2 C0 3 ; pound together a little at a time. Extract with 90^ alcohol, 30 times as much as the lead plaster ; allow to stand for some time ; filter ; dilute with its own volume of water. If this cannot be obtained, use good potash soap. Measure accurately 10 c. c. of the soap solution, put it into a bottle with 70 c.c. water, and add CaCl 2 solution until frothing stops. Shaking up properly, from this calculate how much dilution is necessary to make IT c. c. of soap solution consume 16 c. c. CaCl 2 solution ; dilute accordingly with alcohol of 40$, and verify. [N. B. IT c. c. standard soap test should neutralize 16 c. c. of standard CaCl 2 solution, in presence of TO c. c. pure water. Each c. c. of soap solution will then be equal to 1 mil- ligram CaC0 3 , or its equivalent, or 0.010 grains per litre.] THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 419 Take 70 c. c. of the water, put it into a bottle, add soap solution until it lathers ; each c. c. of soap = 1 gram in an English gallon. To get it in litres, take 100 c.c. water ; each c.c. soap = 10 milligrams CaC0 3 per litre. (This is not abso- lutely exact.) If more than 17 c.c. of soap is required in 70 c.c., dilute the water with its own volume of distilled water, and go on, etc. Wanklyn claims that 70 c.c. distilled water have a soap- destroying power = 1 milligram CaC0 3 . NITRATES AND NITRITES. 100 c. c. water are introduced into a non-tubulated retort ; 50-70 c. c. solution of NaHO added (100 grams Na 2 to 1 litre water). Distil until not more than 100 c. c. remain, and until no NH 3 comes over. Now cool, and introduce a thin sheet of aluminium. Then incline neck upwards ; close it with a cork through which passes the narrow end of a small tube 2 or 3 inches long, filled with broken tobacco clay-pipe moistened with dilute HC1, connected with a second tube holding pumice sat- urated with H 2 S0 4 ; allow to stand for some hours ; then wash the contents of the pipe-clay tube back into the retort with a little water and distil down one-half into 80 c.c. water. Make the distillate up to 150 c.c. To 50 c.c. of this add Nessler's solution. If the color is not too strong, the estimation may be made directly. If it is too strong, dilute the remainder, test, etc. TO DETERMINE NH 3 BY TITRATION. Use 1 litre evaporated to small bulk ; treat in same way as above, receiving the distillate in standard acid instead of water. Soda may be purified from nitrates by dissolving aluminum in cold solution, and boiling. 4:20 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. WITHOUT DISTILLATION. Prepare soda by dissolving 100 grams solid soda, diluting to 1 litre ; dissolve a very little Al in it, to decompose nitrates. 1st. Then to 200 c. c. of this add 200 c. c. of the sample of water and add a little more Al. This contains original ammo- nia and that from nitrates. 2d. Take 200 c.c. of the soda ley, dissolve in it a little Al as before, then add 200 c.c. water, and allow to subside. This will have the nitrates unreduced. Decant, and determine NH 3 by Nessler's solution. Test in both 1st and 2d. Difference = nitrates. E".B. To both samples of water, before mixing with soda ley, add a little CaCl 2 to get an appreciable precipitate. ANALYSIS OF THE "CROTON WATER." (Calculated for 100,000 parts water.) CaH 2 C 2 O 6 (Calcic Bicarbonate) 4.53 MgH 2 C 2 O 6 (Maguesic Bicarbonate) 3.25 Si0 2 1.05 Fe 2 O 3 Trace. Al a 3 Trace. CaS0 4 0.26 Na 2 S0 4 044 K 2 S0 4 0.30 NaCl 0.68 Organic Matter 1.13 Total. . 11.64 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 421 PURITY OF CITY WATERS.* Impurities contained in one wine gallon of 231 cubic inches expressed in grains. CITY. SOURCE. INORGANIC MATTER. ORGANIC AND VOLATILE MATTER. TOTAL SOLIDS. New York Croton 1869 411 067 478 Well 8th Ave . . 3895 459 4354 Brooklyn Ridgewood, 1869 3.37 0.59 3.92 Jersey City . 458 286 744 Trenton 2.93 055 348 Philadelphia Schuylkill River 230 120 350 Boston Cochituate Lake 240 0.71 311 Albany 8.47 2.31 1078 Troy Hydrant . . 609 134 743 Schenectady Well State St 4688 2.33 49.21 Utica Hydrant 5.50 0.96 6.46 Syracuse New Reservoir 12.13 1.80 13.93 Rochester Genesee River 1202 123 1325 Cleveland Lake Erie 474 1.53 627 Chicago Lake Michigan 5.62 1.06 6.68 Dublin Lough Valley . . 1 77 134 311 London Thames River 15.55 083 1638 tt Paris Well, Leadenhall St. . . River Seine 90.38 7.83 9.59 100 99.97 883 Amsterdam River Vecht 14.45 2.13 1658 Well . 6455 438 6893 * Taken from Lee. on Mineralogy by T. Egleston, E. M. COAL ANALYSIS. In the ordinary analysis there is determined moisture ; volatile and combustible matter; fixed carbon (coke), and sulphur. (a.) Determination of moisture.* Pulverize the coal finely ; heat one or two grains in a covered platinum or porcelain crucible, fifteen minutes in an air-bath at 212 to 240 F. Cool and weigh, repeat until weight is constant or begins to rise. Loss = MOISTURE. (b.) Determination of volatile and combustible matter. * See " Notes on Assaying," p. 95, by Ricketts, Ph.D. 422 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Heat the same crucible, with contents, to bright redness, over a Bunsen burner or alcohol lamp, exactly three and one-half minutes, and then three and one-half minutes over a blast- lamp. Cool and weigh. Loss = volatile and combustible matter. This includes one-half of sulphur of any sulphide of iron contained in the coal. ( reckoned to 100 parts, gives : Carbon 42.11 Hydrogen 6,43 Oxygen 51.46 100.00 438 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Fra. 10. Fusible fatty and wavy substances, and volatile concrete bodies, as camphor, are placed in little boats of glass or plat- inum. Cupric oxide, which has been used, may be easily restored by moistening with nitric acid and igniting to redness ; it be- comes, in fact, rather improved than otherwise, as, after fre- quent employment, its density is increased, and its troublesome hygroscopic powers diminished. For substances which are very difficult of combustion, from the large proportion of carbon which they contain, and for com- pounds into which chlorine enters as a constituent, fused and powdered lead chromate is very advantageously substituted for the cupric oxide. Plumbic chromate freely gives up oxygen to combustiole matters, and even evolves, when strongly heated, a little of that gas, which thus ensures the perfect combustion of the organic body. ANALYSIS OF AZOTIZED SUBSTANCES. The presence of nitrogen in an organic compound is easily ascertained by heating a small portion with solid potassic hydrate in a test-tube ; the nitrogen, if present, is converted into ammonia, which may be recognized by its odor and alka- line reaction. In determining the carbon and hydrogen in such bodies, by combustion with cupric oxide, as above described, a longer tube than usual must be employed, and four or five inches of its anterior position filled with copper turnings rendered per- fectly metallic by ignition in hydrogen. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 439 This serves to decompose any nitrogen oxides formed in the process of combustion, which, if suffered to pass off unde- composed, would be absorbed by the potash, and vitiate the determination of the carbon. The nitrogen may be estimated either by converting it into ammonia, by igniting the substance with an alkaline hydrate, as above mentioned, or by evolving it in the free state and measuring its volume. 1. By conversion into ammonia: Will and Yarrentrapp's method. An intimate mixture is made of 1 part sodic oxide and 2 or 3 parts quicklime, by slaking lime of good qual- ity with the proper proportion of strong sodic oxide, drying the mixture in an iron vessel, and then heating it to redness in an earthen crucible. The ignited mass is rubbed to powder in a warm mortar, and carefully preserved from the air. The lime is useful in many ways ; it diminishes the tendency of the alkali to deliquesce, facilitates mixture with the organic substance, and prevents fusion and liquefaction. A proper quantity of the substance to be analyzed, namely, from 5 to 10 grains, is dried and accurately weighed out ; this is mixed in a warm porcelain mortar with enough of the soda-lime to fill two- thirds of an ordinary combustion-tube, the mortar being rinsed with a little more of the alkaline mixture, arid, lastly, with a small quantity of powdered glass, which completely re- moves everything adherent to its surface; the tube is then filled to within an inch of the open end with the lime-mixture, and arranged in a chauffer in the usual manner. The am- monia is collected in a little apparatus of three bulbs (Fig. 11), containing moderately strong hydrochloric acid, attached by a cork to the combustion-tube. Matters being thus adjusted, fire is applied to the tube commencing with the anterior extremity. When it is ignited throughout its whole length, and when no gas issues from the apparatus, the point of the tube is broken, and a little air drawn through the whole. The acid liquid is then emptied into a capsule, the bulbs rinsed into the same, first with a little alcohol, and then repeatedly with 440 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. FIG. 11. distilled water ; an excess of pure platinic chloride is added ; and the whole evaporated to dry ness in a water-bath. The dry mass, when cold, is treated with a mixture of alcohol and ether, which dissolves out the superfluous platinic chloride, but leaves untouched the yellow crystalline ammonic chloro- platinate. The latter is collected upon a small weighed filter, washed with the same mixture of alcohol and ether, dried at 100, and weighed ; 100 parts correspond to 6.272 parts of nitrogen. Or, the salt with its filter may be very carefully ignited, the filter burned in a platinum crucible, and the nitrogen reckoned from the weight of the spongy metal, 100 parts of that substance corresponding to 14.18 parts nitro- gen. The former plan is to be preferred in most cases. Bodies very rich in nitrogen, as urea, must be mixed with about an equal quantity of pure sugar, to furnish inconden- sable gas, and then diminish the violence of the absorption which otherwise occurs; and the same precaution must be taken, for a different reason, with those which contain little or no hydrogen. A modification of this process has been suggested by Peli- got, which is very convenient if a large number of nitrogen- determination is to be made. By this plan, the ammonia, instead of being received in hydrochloric acid, is conducted into a known volume (one-half to one cubic inch) of a standard solution of sulphuric acid contained in the ordinary nitrogen- bulbs. After the combustion is finished, the acid containing the ammonia is poured out into a beaker, colored with a drop of tincture of litmus, and then neutralized with a standard solution of soda in water, or of lime in sugar-water, the point THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 441 of neutralization becoming perceptible by the sudden appear- ance of a blue tint. The lime solution is conveniently poured out from an alkalimeter. The volume of lime-solution neces- sary to neutralize the same amount of acid that is used for condensing the ammonia, having been ascertained by a pre- liminary experiment, it is evident that the difference of the quantities used in the two experiments gives the ammonia collected in the acid during the combustion. The amount of nitrogen may thus be calculated. If, for instance, an acid be prepared containing 20 grams of pure hydrogen sulphate (H 2 S0 4 ) in 1000 grain-measures, then 200 grain-measures of this acid, the quantity introduced into the bulbs, will correspond to 1.38 grains of ammonia, or 1.14 grains of nitrogen. The alkaline solution is so graduated that 1000 grain-measures will exactly neutralize the 200 grain- measures of the standard acid. If we now find that the acid, partly saturated with the ammonia disengaged during the com- bustion of a nitrogenous substance, requires only TOO grain- measures of the alkaline solution, it is evident that -^y^f--* 1 = 60 grain-measures were saturated by the ammonia, and the quantity of nitrogen is obtained by the proportion, 200 : 1.14 60 : a 1 , wherefore x = :L ^f^ SL = 0.342 grains of nitrogen. 2. By measure as free nitrogen. When the nitrogen exists in the organic substance in the form of an oxide, as in nitro- benzine, C 6 H 5 (N0 2 ), ethyl nitrate, C 2 H 5 (NO)0, etc., the pre- ceding method cannot be employed, because these nitrogen oxides are not completely converted into ammonia by heating with alkaline hydrates : it fails also in the case of certain organic bases. In such cases the nitrogen must be evolved in the free state by heating the organic body with cupric oxide, and its volume determined by collecting it over mercury in a graduated jar. There are several ways of effecting this : the one most frequently employed is that of Dumas, as simplified by Melseus : A tube of Bohemian glass, 28 inches long, is securely sealed at one end ; into this enough dry hydrosodic carbonate is put 442 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. to occupy 6 inches. A little pure copper oxide is next intro- duced, and afterwards the mixture of oxide and organic sub- stance ; the weight of the latter, between 4.5 and 9 grains, in a dry state, having been correctly determined. The remainder of the tube, amounting to nearly one-half of its length, is then filled up with pure cupric oxide and spongy metal, and a round cork, perforated by a piece of narrow tube, is securely FIG. 12. adapted to its mouth. This tube is connected by means of a caoutchouc joint with a bent delivery-tube, #, and the com- bustion-tube is arranged in the furnace. A few coals are now applied to the farther end of the tube, so as to decompose a portion of the hydrosodic carbonate; the remainder tff the carbonate, as well as of the other part of the tube, being pro- tected from the heat by a screen, n. The current of carbonic oxide thus produced is intended to expel all the air from the apparatus. In order to ascertain that this object, on which the success of the whole operation depends, is accomplished, the delivery-tube is depressed under the level of a mercurial trough, and the gas which is evolved, collected in a test-tube filled with concentrated potash-solution. If the gas be per- fectly absorbed, or, if after the introduction of a considerable quantity only a minute bubble be left, the air may be con- sidered as expelled. The next step is to fill a graduated glass jar two-thirds with mercury and one-third with a strong solu- tion of potash, and to invert it over the delivery-tube, as represented in Fig. 12- THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 4=4:3 This done, fire is applied to the tube, commencing at the front end, and gradually proceeding to the closed extremity, which still contains some undecomposed hydrosodic car- bonate. This, when the fire at length reaches it, yields up carbonic oxide, which chases forward the nitrogen lingering in the tube. The carbonic oxide generated during the com- bustion is wholly absorbed by the potash in the jar, and nothing is left but the nitrogen. When the operation is at an end, the jar with its contents is transferred to a vessel of water, and the volume of the nitrogen read off. This is properly cor- rected for temperature, pressure, and aqueous vapor, and its weight determined by calculation. When the operation has been very successful, and all precautions minutely observed, the result still leaves an error in excess, amounting to 0.3 or 0.5 per cent, due to the residual air of the apparatus, or that condensed in the pores of the cupric oxide. A modification of the process, by which this error is con- siderably diminished, has been devised by Dr. Maxwell Simpson.* The method just described is applicable to the estimation of nitrogen in the oxides and oxygen-acids of nitrogen, in metallic nitrates and nitrites, and, in fact, to the analysis of all nitrogenous bodies whatever. ANALYSIS OF CHLORINATED COMPOUNDS. The case of a volatile liquid containing chlorine is of very frequent occurrence, and may be taken as an illustration of the general plan of proceeding. The combustion with cupric oxide must be very carefully conducted, and two or three inches of the anterior portion of the tube kept cool enough to prevent volatilization of the cupric chloride into the cal- cic-chloride tube. Plumbic chromate is much better for the purpose. The chlorine is correctly determined by placing a small * Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, vi, 299. 444 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. weighed bulb of liquid in a combustion-tube, which is after- wards filled with fragments of pure quicklime. The lime is brought to a red heat, and the vapor of the liquid driven over it, when the chlorine displaces oxygen from the lime, and gives rise to calcic chloride. When cold, the contents of the tube are dissolved in dilute nitric acid, the liquid is fil- tered, and the chlorine precipitated by silver nitrate. Bromine and iodine are estimated in a similar manner. ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING SULPHUR. When a body of this nature is burned with cupric oxide, a small tube containing plumbic oxide may be interposed between the calcic-chloride tube and the potash apparatus, to retain any sulphurous acid that may be formed. It is better, how- ever, to use plumbic chromate in such cases. The proportion of sulphur is determined by oxidizing a known weight of the substance with strong nitric acid, or by fusion in a silver ves- sel with ten or twelve times its weight of pure potassic hydrate and half as much nitre. The sulphur is thus con- verted into sulphuric acid, the quantity of which can be deter- mined by dissolving the fused mass in water, acidulating with nitric acid, and adding a barium salt. Phosphorus is, in like manner, oxidized to phosphoric acid, the quantity of which is determined by precipitation as ammonic-dimagnesic phosphate, or otherwise. EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA. A chemical formula is termed empirical when it merely gives the simplest possible expression of the composition of the substance to which it refers. A molecular formula, on the contrary, expresses the absolute number of atoms of each of its elements supposed to be contained in the molecule, as well as mere numerical relations existing between them. The em- pirical formula is at once deduced from the analysis of the sub- stance, reckoned to 100 parts. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 445 The case of sugar already cited, may be taken as an ex- ample. This substance gives by analysis: Carbon ................. ... ............. 41,98 Hydrogen .............................. 6.43 Oxygen ......... ....................... 51.59 100.00 If each of these quantities be divided by the atomic weight of the corresponding element, the quotient will express the relations existing between the numbers of atoms of the three elements ; these are afterwards reduced to their simplest ex- pression. This is the only part of the calculation attended with any dif- ficulty. If the members were rigidly correct, it would only be necessary to divide each by the greatest divisor common to the whole ; but as they are only approximative, something is of necessity left to the judgment of the experimenter. In the case of sugar, we have or 350 atoms carbon, 643 atoms hydrogen, and 342 atoms oxygen. Now it is evident, in the first place, that the hydrogen and oxygen are present nearly in the proportion to form water, or twice as many atoms of the former as of the latter. Again, the atoms of carbon and hydrogen are nearly in the proportion of 12 : 22, so that the formula C| 2 H 22 j 0, , appears likely to be correct. It is now easy to see how far this is admissible, by reckoning it back to 100 parts, comparing the results with the number given by the actual analysis, and observing whether the difference falls fairly, in direction and amount, within the limits of error of what may be termed a good ex- periment, viz. : two or three tenths per cent, deficiency in the carbon, and not more than one-tenth or two-tenths per cent. excess in the hydrogen : 446 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Carbon 12 x 12 = 144 Hydrogen 1 x 22 = 22 Oxygen 10 x 11 = 176 342 342 : 144 = 100 : 42.11 342 : 22 = 100 : 6.43 342 : 176 = 100 : 51.46 To determine the molecular formula, several considerations must be taken into account namely, the combining or satu- rating power of the compound; if it is acid or basic, the num- ber of atoms of any one of its elements (generally hydrogen) which may be replaced by other elements ; the law of even numbers, which requires that the sum of the numbers of atoms of all the perissad elements (hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, etc.) contained in the compound shall be divisible by 2 ; and the vapor-density of the compound (if it be volatile without de- composition), which, in normally constituted compounds, is always half the molecular weight. The molecular formula may either coincide with the em- pirical formula, or it may be a multiple of the latter. Thus, the composition of acetic acid is expressed by the formula CH 2 0, which exhibits the simplest relations of the three ele- ments ; but if we want to express the quantities of these, in atoms, required to make up a molecule of acetic acid, we have to adopt the formula C 2 H 4 2 ; for only one-fourth of the hydrogen in this acid is replaceable by metals to form salts, C 2 H 3 K0 2 , for example; and its vapor-density, compared with hydrogen, is nearly 30, w T hich is half the weight of the mole- cule, C 2 H 4 2 = 2 . 12 + 4 . 1 + 2 . 16. Again, the empirical formula of benzine is CH ; but this contains an uneven num- ber of hydrogen atoms ; moreover, if it expressed the weight of the molecule of benzine, the vapor-density of that com- 12 + 1 pound should be ~ = 6.5, whereas experiment shows that it is six times as great, or equal to 39 ; hence the molecular formula of benzine is C 6 H 6 . THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 447 Organic acids and salt-radicals have their molecular weights most frequently determined by an analysis of their lead and silver salts, by burning these latter with suitable precautions in a thin porcelain capsule, and noting the weight of the lead oxide or metallic silver left behind. If the lead oxide be mixed with globules of reduced metal, the quantity of the latter must be ascertained by dissolving away the oxide with acetic acid. Or the lead salt may be converted into sulphate, and the silver compound into chloride, and both metals thus estimated. An organic base, on the contrary, has its molec- ular weight fixed by observation of the quantity of a mineral acid or organic salt-radical, required to form with it in com- pound having the characters of neutrality. It is scarcely necessary to observe that the methods just de- scribed for determining the empirical and molecular formula of an organic compound from the results of its analysis, to- gether with its physical properties and chemical reactions, are equally applicable to inorganic compounds. SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF BLOOD. (STRECKER HANDW. D. CHEM., ii [2], 115.) WATER DETERMINATION. Evaporate a weighed quantity; dry the residue at 120-130 C., and weigh. FIBKINE DETERMINATION. The blood, as it runs from a vein, is received in a tared vessel, and stirred from five to ten minutes with a glass rod, the weight of which is included in the tare, till the fibrine is completely separated. The blood, together with the separated fibrine, is then weighed, strained through linen, and the fibrine which remains thereon is placed for some time in water, then dried, well boiled with alcohol and ether, to free it from fat, and weighed after drying at 120 C. (Bacquerel and Epdier.) ESTIMATION OF ALBUMEN AND OTHER MATTERS COAGULABLE BY HEAT. A weighed quantity of blood, slightly acidulated with acetic acid, is added by drops to boiling water, the liquid 448 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. is poured through a weighed filter, and the coagulum collected thereon ; it is then washed on the filter with boiling water, and dried, first at a gentle heat, afterwards at 120 to 130 C. The residue may be freed from fat by treatment with boiling ether. If the blood had not been previously freed from fibrine, the weight of that substance, determined as above, must be deducted from the total weight of the coagukim. ESTIMATION OF THE EXTRACTIVE MATTER. The filtrate obtained in the last determination is evaporated on a water- bath in a tared platinum basin, the residue dried at 120 C., weighed, and burnt in a muffle at as low a heat as possible. The weight of the ash, deducted from that of the total dried residue, gives approximately the amount of extractive matter. ESTIMATION OF FAT. A quantity of blood (which need not be weighed) is dried at 100 C. ; the residue is pulverized and dried at 120 C., and a weighed portion thereof is treated with ether in a flask ; the ether is passed through a small filter into a tared platinum capsule ; and the treatment of the residue with ether is repeated several times. The collected ethereal solution is carefully evaporated, and the residue dried at 100 C. As the weight of the solid constituents of the blood have been previously determined, the quantity of blood from which this fat has been obtained may be calculated from that of the residue which was subjected to treatment with ether. ESTIMATION OF MINERAL CONSTITUENTS. A weighed quan- tity of the blood is dried, mixed with ignited sodic carbonate, then dried and incinerated in the muffle at the lowest possible temperature, then treated according to scheme for the analysis of ash. SEPARATE ESTIMATION OF THE SERUM AND COAGULUM, WITH THEIR CONSTITUENTS. The fresh blood is collected in a tared cylindrical vessel, having a ground edge, and not too shallow ; it is covered with a glass plate and left to stand till the coagu- lation is complete, after which the edge of the clot is detached from the sides of the vessel by means of a needle. The blood is then weighed, and after the clot has contracted as much as THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 449 possible, the serum is poured off, and the quantity of albumen, etc., contained in it is determined as above described. The clot and the inner surface of the vessel are then freed from serum as completely as possible by wiping with bibulous paper, and the clot is weighed on the vessel. This weight deducted from the total weight of the blood, gives the propor- tion of serum,. The clot contains the blood-corpuscles, the fibrine, and a certain quantity of serum ; the amount of water contained in it may be determined by drying at 120 to 130 C. ; but there is no known method of directly estimating the amount of the blood-corpuscles. Prevost and Dumas estimated it approxi- mately, on the assumption that the water contained in the clot is all due to adhering serum, and accordingly deducted from the weight of the dried clot an amount of serum-constituents corresponding to the quantity of water in the clot, together with the amount of fibrine separately determined. As, however, the blood-corpuscles themselves contain water, this method necessarily makes the quantity of dried corpuscles too small. The separation of hematin from globulin cannot be effected ; but if the quantity of iron in the dried coagulum be determined, the amount of blood pigment may be calculated on the sup- position that this pigment contains 6.64 per cent, of iron. (See Analysis of Man.) 450 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SCHEME FOR THE ANALYSIS OF URINE* The following method is designed more particularly for the analysis of the urine of herbivorous animals, but it may be applied in the examination of that of carnivorous animals and man also. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Determine this by comparing the weights of equal volumes of the urine and of water, or with the urometer, a species of hydrometer constructed expressly for this purpose ; when this instrument is used, all foam must be carefully removed from the surface of the liquid by filter- paper. A difference of 4 C. in the temperature of the liquid usu- ally makes a difference of about 1 in the reading of the urometer. The specific gravity of urine ranges between 1.01 and 1.04. 1. TOTAL AMOUNT OF DRY SUBSTANCE IN SOLUTION. Deter- mine this by evaporating a weighed quantity in a current of dry hydrogen in such a manner as to estimate the ammonia that is expelled at the same time. Take 4-6 c.c. of the urine, accurately weighed ; the evaporation to dry ness is completed in 4-5 hours. In human urine, that has an acid reaction due to acid sodic phosphate, the ammonia may be assumed to have been driven from urea, and by multiplying the amount of it by 1.765 the corresponding amount of urea will be obtained. But in the urine of herbivorous animals, the ammonia resulting from this decomposition must be estimated by the difference between the ammonia set free on evaporation to dryness and that found in the urine by direct determination. Generally, however, * Taken from Agric. Chem. Anal. Caldwell. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 451 these quantities of ammonia are very small, and can be left out of consideration. 2. The NON-VOLATILE MATTER in this residue left on evap- oration, is determined by evaporating a fresh quantity of 100 c.c. of the urine in a platinum dish, and igniting the resi- due ; determine carbonic acid in the ash. 3. CARBONIC Aero (free and combined). Determine this in two portions of 100 c.c. of the fresh urine. To one portion add baric chloride containing ammonic hydrate in excess, and to the other baric chloride alone ; heat both mixtures nearly to boiling ; collect the precipitates on dried and weighed fil- ters; wash, and dry them at 100; weigh, and determine carbonic acid in 1-2 grams of each precipitate ; the first pre- cipitate contains the total carbonic acid, the second only the combined. 4. NITROGEN. The residue left from (1) may be used for the determination of nitrogen, or another portion of 5-10 c.c. of the urine may be acidified with oxalic acid, mixed with ignited gypsum, and evaporated to dryness. In the former case this second residue will contain only so much of the nitrogen as was not expelled in the form of ammonia during the desiccation ; in the latter, the oxalic acid will prevent the escape of any nitrogen as ammonia. The dry substance may be completely rinsed oif the sides of the dish with some of the soda-lime used in the combustion. Or, this method of Voit may be used : Weigh out about 5 c.c. of the urine ; mix it in a shallow dish with a sufficient quantity of fine quartz-sand to absorb it all ; put the dish under the receiver of an air-pump, and exhaust the air ; the whole becomes quite dry in a few hours and may be pulverized easily, and completely loosened from the sides of the dish and mixed with the soda-lime. The combustion may be performed in a short combustion- 452 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. tube, and very rapidly, without fear of losing any of tlie ammonia. 5. ACTUAL AMMONIA. Determine this by Schlossug's method in 20 c.c. of the urine, after filtration to remove slimy or sedi- mentary matters. In the fresh urine of horned cattle, the actual ammonia does not amount to more than 0.009-0.01 per cent., but in human urine it ranges as high as 0.078-0.143 per cent. 6. COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF THE ASH. Evaporate 200-500 grams of the urine to dryness ; incinerate the residue, and examine the ash for its constituents in the usual manner. The ash of the urine of herbivorous animals is poor in alkaline earths, and 8-10 grams will be required for their determina- tion. In the urine of ruminants, phosphoric acid is found in hardly deterrninable quantity ; while in that of swine, and often of calves, it is present in large quantity and should be estimated. % 7. CHLORINE AND UREA. These are determined with the aid of the standard solution of mercuric nitrate. The urine must first be freed from phosphoric and hippuric acids. Acid- ify 200 c.c. with nitric acid; boil the mixture to expel the carbonic acid ; neutralize the nitric acid with freshly ignited magnesia, and cool the liquid to the temperature of the room, by immersing the flask in cold water ; transfer the liquid to a graduated cylinder, rinse the flask into the cylinder and bring the volume of its contents to 220 c.c. ; add 30 c.c. of an aque- ous solution of ferric nitrate of such a degree of concentration that, with this quantity of the solution added, the salt will be slightly in excess ; the excess may be recognized by a weak reaction of the solution on a slip of filter-paper soaked in a dilute solution of potassic ferrocyanide ; too large an excess of the ferric salt will be indicated by a re-solution of the precipi- tate that was formed at first on its addition ; filter the liquid immediately through a large, dry, ribbed filter, and to 150 c.c. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 453 of the filtrate add 50 c.c. of a solution of baryta mixed with a little calcined magnesia ; filter again, and for each determina- tion of sodic chloride and urea take 15 c.c. of this filtrate, corresponding to 9 c.c. of urine. (a.) Chlorine (common salt). Acidify exactly 15 c.c. of the liquid with a drop of nitric acid, and allow the standard solu- tion of mercuric nitrate to flow in from the burette, with constant stirring, until a permanent turbidity appears. A mere opalescent appearance of the liquid, which may be pre- sented even in the beginning, is easily distinguished from the cloudy turbidity which is the real indication of saturation. Estimate the amount of sodic chloride, or of chlorine, on the basis of the standard of the solution already determined. (&.) Urea. In a second portion of 15 c.c. of the liquid, proceed to determine urea with the same standard solution. Subtract from the total amount of solution required, the amount used in one ; and also make the correction required for dilution of the solution. 8. HIPPTIRIC ACID. Evaporate 200 c.c. of the urine down to 50 c.c., and precipitate the acid with hydrochloric acid, etc. It may be well to first digest the urine with animal charcoal in the proportion of two grams of charcoal to 10 c.c. of the liquid, in order to decolorize it. There are usually only traces of uric acid in the urine of herbivora, and it cannot be estimated ; but in the urine of carnivora the proportion of uric acid generally exceeds that of the hippuric. According to the process of Meissner and Shepard, for separating these two acids, evaporate the urine until it begins to crystallize ; add so much absolute alcohol to the hot liquid that a further addition causes no more precipitation ; let the mixture cool, and filter it; the best absolute alcohol must be used, and it must not be spared, else succinic acid may remain in solution with the hippuric and cause trouble. Evaporate the alcoholic solution, at first in a flask on the water-bath, 454 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. until all the alcohol and the water are expelled and only a brown syrup remains, that solidifies to a crystalline mass on cooling ; extract this mass, while yet warm and liquid, with ether and a few drops of hydrochloric acid added after the ether; agitate the mixture violently, and repeat the process two or three times with fresh portions of ether. If the alco- hol and water were not carefully removed in the preceding evaporation, some of the urea will pass into this ethereal solution. Collect the ethereal extracts, distil off most of the ether, and let the rest evaporate spontaneously in the air. Hippuric acid appears then in the form of handsome crystals. If the crystals are not colorless, or they are not readily formed, dilute the residue, left by the evaporation of the ether, with water, boil the mixture with lime-water, filter, concentrate the colorless filtrate, and precipitate the hippuric acid by hydro- chloric acid in excess. 9. PHOSPHORIC ACID. (a.) This may be determined directly in the urine, with the standard uranic solution. Filter the urine, if necessary, add 5 c.c. of sodic acetate to 50 c.c. of the filtrate, and titrate the mixture with uranic acetate. (b.) To obtain a more accurate determination, add the mag- nesia mixture to 50 c.c. of the clear urine, collect and wash the precipitate in the usual manner, dissolve it, without dry- ing, in acetic acid in not to great excess, dilute the solution to 50 c.c. with water, add 5 c.c. of the solution of sodic acetate, and titrate as before with the uranic solution. (c.) To determine the phosphoric acid that is combined with alkaline earths only to 100-200 c.c. of the urine, according to its strength, add ammonic hydrate until alkaline reaction ensues, let the mixture stand twelve hours, and collect and treat the precipitate in the manner described in (I). In another precisely equal quantity of urine, the precipitate by ammonic hydrate is ignited and weighed; the amount of magnesic pyrophosphate in this mixture may be estimated by multiplying the amount of phosphoric acid in it, as determined THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 455 above, by 2.1831, subtracting the sum of the phosphates from this product, and multiplying the remainder by 2.5227. It' it is desired to determine lime and magnesia directly, dissolve the mixture of the phosphates, obtained above by precipitating with ammonic hydrate, without drying it, in as small a quan- tity of acetic acid as possible ; precipitate the lime by ammonic oxalate, and the magnesia as phosph'ate again by excess of ammonic hydrate. 10. SULPHURIC ACID. Heat 50-100 c.c. of the urine, add some nitric acid, and then baric chloride in slight excess. 11. SULPHUR. To determine the total sulphur, mix 50 c.c. of the urine in a silver crucible with solid potassic oxide and a little saltpetre ; evaporate the mixture cautiously to dryness, ignite the residue strongly until it is quite white, exhaust it with water, and determine sulphuric acid in the filtered solu- tion, in the usual manner. 12. CARBON AND HYDROGEN. Absorb 10 c.c. of the urine by fine quartz-sand that has been previously boiled with acid, washed and ignited, dry the mixture, and burn it with plumbic chromate. The following is an analysis of healthy urine, by Marchand : Water 933.199 Urea 32.675 Uric acid 1.065 Lactic acid 1.521 Extractive matters 11.151 Mucus 0.283 Potassic sulphate 8 587 Sodic sulphate 3.213 Ammonic diphosphate 1.552 Sodic chloride 4.218 Ammonic chloride 1.652 Calcic and magnesic phosphate 1.210 Lactates 1.618 1000.000 456 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. The following analyses are by Yernois and Becquerel, show- ing the comparative composition of male and female urine : CONSTITUENTS. MEAN COMPOSITION OF THE UEINE OF FOUR HEALTHY MEN. MEAN COMPOSITION OF THE URINE OF FOUR HEALTHY WOMEN. GENERAL MEAN. Specific gravity 1 0189 1 01512 1 01701 Water 968 815 975 052 971 935 Solid constituents Urea 31.185 13 838 24.948 10366 28.066 12 102 Uric acid 0391 0406 398 Other organic matters .... 9261 8033 8 647 Fixed salts 7695 6143 6 919 Consisting of Chlorine 502 Sulphuric acid .... 855 Phosphoric acid . . 317 Potassic oxide 1 300 Sodic, calcic, and magnesic ) oxide ' 3.944 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 457 SCHEME FOR THE QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF MILK. Evaporate to dry ness at a gentle heat over a water-bath 5 grains of milk ; heat the same in an air-bath to 105 C., until constant weight. Loss IN WEIGHT will equal the WATER. WEIGHT OF RESIDUE ll equal the MILK- SOLIDS. TREATMENT OF THE MILK SOLIDS. Moisten with alcohol and disintegrate the mass ; then boil with ether two or three times to extract the fat. Evaporate the ether-extract over a water-bath at a moderate heat to expel the ether ; transfer to the air-bath and increase the heat to 105 C. to expel any traces of water or alcohol. Weigh the residue, which will equal the FAT. If the first residue, after extracting the fat with ether, be heated to expel any ether and alcohol it may contain, and weighed, the differ- ence in weight of the milk-solids and this weight will equal \ksfat extracted. Heat the residue, after extracting the fat and evaporating to expel ether, with alcohol (95 per cent.), then add 25 c.c. of boiling water, and filter through a weighed filter-paper ; filter a little at a time, keeping the remainder hot over a water-bath. When solution is all filtered, wash the casein on the filter- paper with a little boiling water. Add to filtrate five to ten drops of acetic acid, and evaporate to a small volume, by which means all the casein remaining in the filtrate is coagu- lated ; filter through the same filter-paper, and wash the casein again on the filter-paper with hot water. The filter-paper will then contain the casein and some in- soluble salts. Heat in an air-bath until dry. The weight of the same, minus the weight of the filter-paper, will equal the casein and some insoluble salts ; ignite and subtract the weight of ash. The remainder will equal the CASEIN. 458 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Evaporate the filtrate from the casein over a water-bath, then heat in the air-bath to constant weight (note the weight). Ignite the dry mass and weigh (note the weight) ; subtract the last weight from the first, and the remaining weight will equal the MILK-SUGAR. To determine the inorganic salts evaporate to dryness and ignite to constant weight about 5 grams of milk. The weight obtained will equal the inorganic salts. The following very convenient method for the analysis of milk is adopted by Chandler : Water is determined by evaporating a weighed portion of milk in a flat platinum dish (about half an inch deep and one and a half inches in diameter) at 212 F. The loss in weight is the WATER. The salts are determined by carefully inciner- ating the solid residue left after the evaporation of the water. For the determination of the other constituents a platinum dish is nearly filled with pure quartz-sand ; the whole weighed ; a small quantity of the milk is added, which is at once soaked up by the sand, and the whole again weighed to find the weight of milk taken. The whole is then dried at 212 F., the con- tents of the dish extracted with anhydrous ether, and again dried ; the loss in the weight of sand, etc., indicates the per- centage of BUTTER. The butter may be weighed directly by evaporating the ethereal solution in a weighed beaker. The residue, after removing the butter, is washed with warm water, to the first of which a few drops of acetic acid is added to remove the SUGAR. The difference between the original weight of the sand and of the sand and casein indicates the percentage of casein. A correction must be made in the weights of the sugar and casein on account of the salts, which are w r ashed out with the sugar. By evaporating and igniting the sugar solution, the salts washed out will be determined ; they must be deducted from the percentage of sugar ; the re- mainder of the salts (ash) must be deducted from the casein. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 459 oo < ^ z O ri" S; o 10* co s o o o CO CO CO ^t 1 CO r-i (M CO rj? CO* TH CO 07 ci O 10 460 THE CHEMISTS' MAXUAL. The following table contains the average composition of the products obtained from milk in making butter (Alex. Muller) : CONSTITUENTS. NEW MILK. SKIMMED MILK. CREAM. BUTTER- MILK. BUTTER, t BRINE. $ Fat 400 055 3500 167 8500 000 Albuminoids* 325 3.37 2/20 3.33 051 039 Milk-Sugar 4.50 4.66 3.05 4.61 0.70 3 84 Ash 075 078 50 077 C 12 86 Water ... . 8750 9064 59.25 89.62 1367 9491 Total 100.00 10000 100 00 100 CO 10000 100 00 * Casein and albumen. t Unsalted. % Brine that separates on working after salting ; salt not included. The following table contains analyses of cheese by E. Hornig (1869) : CONSTITUENTS. DUTCH CHEESE. RAMADOUX CHEESE. NEUF- CHATEL CHEESE. GORGON- ZOLA CHEESE. BRINGEN or LIPTACE CHEESE. SCHWERZ- ENBERG CHEESE. LIMBURG CHEESE. Water 33.65 20.14 34.90 6.17 0.13 100.00 56.60 17.05 18.76 6.78 0.81 51.21 9.16 33.63 6.01 0.02 57.64 20.31 18.51 3.51 0.04 100.00 36.72 as.69 25.67 3.71 0.21 34.08 28.04 23.23 5.58 0.03 59.28 10.44 24.09 6.17 0.02 100.00 49.34 20.63 24.26 5.45 0.32 100.00 Fatty Matters Casein Salts .Loss 100.00 100.00 10000 100.00 The following analyses of cheese are given by Yoelcker : I ^ t 3 1 pad (z; CONSTITUENTS. 3p 11 fc o O o I Q fij S Water 32 59 2027 3032 3244 28 10 07 on Butter 32.51 43.98 35.53 30.17 3368 35.41 Caseine 26.06 ) 28.18 31.75 30.31 25.87 Sugar of Milk. . . ) Lactic Acid \ 4.53 V 33.55 ) 1.66 1.22 3.72 6.21 Mineral Matter . . . 4.31 2.20 4.31 4.42 4.19 5.22 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Nitrogen 417 389 451 ft 10 A QPt 414 Common Salt 1.59 0.29 1.55 1.42 1.12 1.97 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 461 The composition of whey is as follows (Vcelcker) : Water. 89.65 Butter 0.79 Casein 3.01 Milk-Sugar 5.72 Mineral Salts . . 0.83 100.00 The following analyses are by Dr. E. Waller (made in January, 18T5): AMERICAN. EAGLE. NEW YORK. NATIONAL. Fat 1 Q G7 Casein lu.Jiy 14. Jo .^o lo.vt 1 A. no Suo-ar .4>\) lo.Oi lo.Uo ll.Uo 1 ft A. A. Salts 1U. 04 .04 lo.yu 200 Water .77 2.10 2.00 .OO p-Q C\4 5d.04 56. 80 55.86 O.<4: 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 462 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SUGARS AND SOME ALLIED BODIES. (MlLLEB.) VARIETY AND ORIGIN OP SUGAR. Sucrose, or cane-sugar, ^12^22^11 from sugar- cane. PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES. Crystallizes in four or six-sided rhomboidal prisms, is very soluble in water, less so in diluted alcohol, sp. gr. 1.6, fuses at about 320 F. (160 C.), is not preci- pitated by subacetate of lead, but is so by an ammo- niacal solution of acetate of lead, does not reduce an alkaline solution of potassio cupric tartrate on boiling, produces r^Mianded rotation = 73. 8, undergoes alco- holic fermentation with yeast, combines with alkalies, yields dextrose and levulose when boiled with dilute acids, with nitric acid yields saccharic and oxalic acids. Inverted cane-sugar, C 6 H 12 6 ; from many recent fruits. Is not crytallizable, is soluble in dilute alcohol, is not precipitated by subacetate of lead, reduces an alka- line solution of potassio-cupric tartrate by boiling, pro- duces ^-handed rotation = 26 at 59 F. (15 C.), undergoes alcoholic fermentation with yeast, turns brown when treated with alkalies, is partially con- verted into grape-sugar by boiling with dilute acids. Dextrose, or grape-sugar, C 6 H la 6 ,H 2 0; from dried fruits, or from starch, altered by acids. Crystallizes in cubes or square tables, is less soluble in water than cane-sugar, but more soluble in alcohol, yields a precipitate with ammoniacal acetate of lead, reduces potassio-cupric tartrate and the salts of mer- cury, silver and gold when boiled with them, ferments readily with yeast, produces right-handed rotation = 57.4, becomes brown when treated with alkalies, with nitric acid yields saccharic and oxalic acid. Lactose, or sugar of milk, 19 TL tt llt -R s O from whey of milk. Crystallizes in four-sided prisms, is less soluble in water than grape-sugar, is nearly insoluble in alcohol and ether, is precipitated from its solutions by ammo- niacal acetate of lead, reduces the salts of copper, sil- ver, and mercury, when its alkaline solution is boiled with them, produces r^Mianded rotation = 56. 4, is not directly susceptible of alcoholic fermentation, is converted into galactose by boiling with dilute acids, yields mucic and oxalic acids with nitric acid. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 463 VARIETY AND ORIGIN or SUGAR. PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES. Trelialose, or mycose, ^H^O^^ (Berthelot) ; Turkisli manna, product of insect Larinus nidificans. Crystallizes in brilliant rectangular octohedra or in rliombic prisms, produces right-handed rotation = 220; if heated quickly it fuses at 212, and at 266 (130 C.) loses H 3 O and becomes solid ; may be heated without decomposition to 410 (210 C.), when it melts again ; loses its water of crystallization, is very soluble in water, and in hot alcohol, is sparingly soluble in cold alcohol and ether, is precipitated by ammoniacal ace- tate of lead, does not reduce potassio cupric tartrate, ferments slowly and imperfectly with yeast, yields dextrose when heated with dilute acids, does not give mucic with nitric acid, but when heated with it yields saccharic and oxalic acids. Melezitose, CigH^O^HgO (Berthelot) ; from larch manna. Crystallizes in short, hard, efflorescent rhombic prisms, is very soluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol, either hot or cold, insoluble in ether, has a sweetness about that of glucose, fuses at 280 (138 C.), is precipitated by ammoniacal acetate of lead, does not reduce the alkaline potassio-cupric tartrate, produces n#A-handed rotation = 94. 1, ferments with difficulty, yields dextrose when heated with dilute acids, gives no mucic acid with nitric acid. Melitose, C 12 H 24 12 .2H 2 (Berthelot); from the Eucalyptus. Crystallizes in slender prisms, is freely soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, is feebly sweet, melts and loses water at 260 (127 C.), yields a precip- itate with ammoniacal acetate of lead, does not reduce an alkaline. solution of potassio-cupric tartrate, exerts n^/iMiandecl rotation = 102, undergoes alcoholic fer- mentation with yeast, at the same time half the sugar is separated in an unfermentable form as eucalin, fur- nishes mucic acid with nitric acid, is little affected by alkalies. Eucalin, C 6 H 12 O 6 ,H 2 (Berthelot); from fermentation of melitose. Is not crystallizable, precipitates ammoniacal acetate of lead, and reduces the alkaline potassio-cupric tar trate when boiled with it, produces ngrAUianded rota- tion = about 50, is not susceptible of alcoholic fer- mentation with yeast, becomes brown when treated with alkalies, is not altered by boiling with dilute acids. 464 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. VAKIETY AND ORIGIN op SUGAR. Sorbin, C 6 H 12 6 (Pelouze) ; from berries of service tree, Sorbus aucuparia. PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES. Crystallizes in octohedra with a rectangular base, is very soluble in water, nearly insoluble in alcohol, sp. gr. 1.65, is fusible without loss of weight, gives a white precipitate with ammoniacal acetate of lead, re- duces the alkaline solution of potassio-cupric tartrate on heating it with it, occasions fc/Mianded rotation = 46 C .9, is not fermentable with yeast, but with cheese and chalk slowly yields lactic and butyric acids and alcohol, becomes brown when treated with alka- lies, yields a red solution with oil of vitriol, is con- verted into oxalic and a little racemic acid by nitric acid. Inosin, C 6 H 18 6 ,2H 2 (Scherer) ; from muscular tissue. Crystallizes in radiated tufts, is soluble in water, insoluble in absolute alcohol and ether, loses water by heat, and fuses at 410 (210 C.), has no rotatory power on polarized light, does not reduce the alkaline potas- sio-cupric tartrate when boiled with it, is not suscepti- ble of alcoholic fermentation, but with cheese and chalk yields lactic and butyric acids, is not altered by boiling with dilute acids or alkalies, forms' a precipi- tate with ammoniacal acetate of lead. Mannite, C 6 H 14 6 ; from the juice of Fraxinus ornus. Crystallizes in silky anhydrous four-sided prisms, is soluble in water and alcohol, fuses at 320 (160 C.), gives a precipitate with ammoniacal acetate of lead, reduces the salts of silver or gold by heat, does not reduce the alkaline potassio-cupric tartrate when boiled with it, exerts no rotary power on polarized light, is not easily fermentable, with nitric acid yields saccharic and oxalic acids, is soluble without coloration in oil of vitriol, and in alkaline solutions. Erythrite, C 4 H 10 4 (V. Luynes); from Roccella and other lichens. Crystallizes in broad, voluminous crystals of the pyramidal system, is soluble in water and in alcohol, fuses at 248 (120 C.), has no rotatory power, gives no precipitate with ammoniacal acetate of lead, does not reduce the alkaline potassio-cupric tartrate, yields no mucic acid with nitric acid, is not fermentable. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 465 VARIETY AND ORIGIN OF SUGAR. Dulcite, C 6 H 14 6 (Laurent) ; origin unknown. PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES. Crystallizes in brilliant prisms, is soluble in water and in alcohol, fuses at 356 (180 C.), gives no precip- itate with acetate or subacetate of lead, does not reduce nitrate of silver or chloride of gold, produces no rota- tion on polarized light, is not susceptible of fermenta- tion with yeast, is not affected by dilute alkalies, is converted into mucic acid by nitric acid. Quercite, C 6 H 12 5 ; from acorns. Crystallizes in transparent prisms, is soluble in water and dilute alcohol, is fusible at 420 (215.5 C.), does not reduce the alkaline potassio-cupric tartrate, is not fermentable by yeast, is soluble without change of color in oil of vitriol and in the alkalies, yields oxalic acid with nitric acid. Finite, C 6 H 12 5 (Berthelot) ; from Pinus lumber t tana. Crystallizes slowly in hard, hemispherical radiated masses, has a very sweet taste, is very soluble in water, is sparingly soluble in alcohol, gives a precipi- tate with ammoniacal acetate of lead, does not reduce the alkaline potassio-cupric tartrate, sp. gr. 1.52, pro- duces ng$-handed rotation, is not fermentable, fuses below 480 (249 C.), does not yield mucic with nitric acid. 466 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. CANE-SUGAR. Cane-sugar, or sucrose, is the sugar of commerce, and is prepared from the sugar-cane, Saccharum officinarum* which is a plant of the grass species ; its stalk is round, knotted, and hollow, and the exterior of a greenish-yellow or blue with sometimes violet streaks. It grows from 2.6 to 6.6 metres (8.4 to 22.5 ft.) high, and from 4: to 6 centimetres (1.6 to 2.4 inches) in thickness ; the interior is cellular. The leaves grow to a length of 1.6 to 2 metres (5.2 6.6 feet), and are ribbed. The plant is grown from seed, and also cultivated from cuttings. A hectare (2.471 acres English) of land yields of new sugar : By 15 Months' Cultivation. In 1 Year. From Martinique. . ..2,500 kilos ( 5,510 Ibs. Av.). .2,000 kilos ( 4,408 Ibs. Av.) Guadaloupe... 3,000 " (6,612" ").. 2,400 " ( 5,289 " ") " Mauritius 5,000 " (11,020" ").. 4,000 " (8,816" ") " Brazil 7,500 " (16,530 " " ).. 6,000 " (13,224 " " ) The sugar-cane yields 90 per cent, of juice, containing, ac- cording to Peligot, 18 to 20 parts of crystallized sugar. The following analyses are of the components of sugar-cane : Composition of the Otaheite Cane by Pay en : Water 71.04 Cane-Sugar 18.00 Cellulose, lignite, pectine, and pectic acid 9.56 Albumen and other nitrogenous principles 0.55 Cerosine, wax, fats, resins, coloring matter, essential oils, etc. 0.37 Soluble salts 0.16 Insoluble salts 0.12 Silica. . 0.20 100.00 By PBUOOT. By DUPTTY. By ICERT. Martinique. Guadaloupe. Mauritius. Sugar 18.0 17.8 20.0 Water 72.1 720 69.0 Cellulose 9.9 9.8 10.0 Salts. . . . . 0.4 . . . 0.7-1.2 * See Johnson's Cycl., Article "Sugar" by C. F. Chandler; also Wag- ner's Tech., p. 364. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 467 Out of the 18 per cent, of the sugar found in the cane, as a rule not more than 8 per cent, of crystallized sugar can be realized. The loss may be accounted for thus : 90 per cent, juice is expressed from the cane, from which only about 50 to 60 per cent, can be clarified from the straw, etc. ; a fifth part is ex- hausted by refining ; and finally, two-thirds of the sugar is obtained by boiling, while the rest goes to the molasses. The 18 per cent, sugar may be realized in the following manner : In the refuse sometimes remains 6 per cent. By skimming. 2.5 " " In the molasses 3. " " As raw sugar 6.5 " " 18 per cent. Cane-juice from the Canade la tierra in Cuba, when evap- orated in vacuo at the atmospheric temperature, yields in 100 parts, according to M. Casacca : Crystalline white sugar 20.94 Water 78.80 Mineral substances 0.14 Organic matter, different from sugar 0.12 100.00 In 10 gallons of 231 cu. in. of cane-juice, making 8J B., there are 5| ounces of salts, which consist of: Potassic sulphate 17.840 grams. Potassic sulphate 16.028 " Potassic chloride 8.355 " Potassic acetate 63.750 " Calcic acetate 36.010 " Gelatinous silica... . 15.270 " Total 157.253 gr. = 5.57 oz. Av. VARIETIES OF SUGAR. European and American commerce deals with the following kinds of raw sugars : 1 . West Indian. Cuba, San Domingo or Hayti, Jamaica, \ 468 THE CHEMISTS 5 MANUAL. Porto-Rico, Martinique, Guadaloupe, St. Croix, St. Thomas, Havana. 2. American. Rio Janeiro, Bahia, Surinam, Pernambuco. 3. East Indian. Java, Manila, Bengal, Mauritius, Bour- bon, Cochin-China, Siam, Canton. Of late there has been a distinction between sugar culti- vated by slave and that by free labor ; the latter comes from Jamaica, Barbadoes, Demerara, Antigua, Trinidad, Dominica ; the former from Cuba, Havana, Brazil, St. Croix, and Porto- Rico. Besides the above-named sugar, American commerce deals with New Orleans, Mexico, Honolulu, and sometimes with Egyptian sugars. According to method of preparation, raw sugars have re- ceived, besides the above, the following names : Melado, clay, muscovado, molasses, centrifugal, drone, and potted sugars. The raw sugars come into market packed in hogsheads, tierces, barrels, bags, mats, baskets, and cheeroons. In the French and English colonies sugar is exported in chests covered with fire-clay under the name of chest or tub sugar. The mode of manufacture depends on the foreign constituents of sugar, all of which must be destroyed before the sugar can be refined. According to Mulder, we have in the following sugars from JAVA. 10 Samples. HAVANA. 6 Samples SURINAM. 4 Samples. Cane SuaT" . 98 683 1 97 o 87 3 92 a 85 4 Glucose . .... 5503 37 09 44 i 6 Extractive matter, gum, etc. Ash 3.5 0.5 1.9_ 0.2 4.5 0.4 1 1_ 00 2.1 1.1 Id '0.8 Water . . 63 03 38 09 69 40 Molasses is produced by the long-continued heating of the cane-juice. It is used principally in the colonies for the THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 469 manufacture of rum ; it is soon converted to spirit, and then quickly becomes acetated. West India molasses, according to Dr. Wallace, has the following composition : Cane-sugar 47.0 Glucose 20.4 Extractive and coloring matter, etc 2.7 Salts (ash) 2.6 Water 27.3 100.0 Specific gravity 1.36 SUGAE FROM BEETS. Marggraf, in the year 1747, was the discoverer of sugar in beets, and suggested the manufacture of sugar from this source. The following are the principal sugar beets : Quendlinburg ~beet is a slender, rose-colored root, and very sweet ; it is matured fourteen days before any other kind. Silesian beet is a pear-shaped root, white in the body and light-green on top ; it does not yield as much sugar as the former, but as more beets can be grown on the same amount of ground, it produces more sugar. It is much cultivated in France and Germany. Siberian beet is known as the white-ribbed beet; it is pear- shaped, with very light green ribbed leaves. Percentage of sugar in this beet is less than Silesian beet, although of greater weight. The French or Belgian beet has small leaves and a slender and spiral root, yielding sugar. The Imperial beet is slender, pear-shaped, very white, rich in sugar, but does not yield as well as Silesian beet. The King beet is a biennial ; in the first year the root is merely developed ; in the second it bears seed. 470 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ANALYSES OF SUGAR BEETS.* NAME. i-i ^ is ANALYST. Hohenheim ........ Mceckern || 21bs Bickendorf, li'lba ' Slaudstadt, 2 Ibs Lockwitz, li " Tharaud H u 2 " manured Silesia, manured ................ " with sodic nitrate u " u calcic phos. 81.5 84.1 81.7 79.5 80.0 80.0 79.0 82.7 81.8 82.1 825 84.4 82.7 84.1 0.87 0.82 0.84 0.90 0.70 0.93 1.16 1.14 1.05 1.14 142 1.20 11.90 9.10 11.21 12.07 12.90 13.37 13.32 12.34 10.15 9.25 8.45 9.80 11.57 9.82 3.47 3.90 3.86 5.09 1.05 1.36 1.52 Average . 81.5 0.95 11.6 5.00 | 1.20 Y 5.21 5.53 3.24 5.77 6.36 7.07 396 3.63 4.04 0.99 0.94 0.88 C.70 0.74 0.60 0.79 1.12 1.15 0.93 0.69 0.68 0.77 Wolff. Kitthausen. Grouven. StOckhardt. Bretschnieder 3.7 I 1.3 0.85 * From " How Crops Grow " (Johnson). The following analysis is more elaborate than the above, and is considered a fair average analysis of the sugar beet.* Per cent. Water 82.30 (1.) Insoluble Constituents. Cellulose 0.80 Pectose, pectase, pectic, and pectosic acids ... Metarabic acid Fatty, waxy, and resinous bodies Albuminoids Pectates, parapectates, metapectates, pectosates, oxalates, and phosphates of magnesium, calcium, iron, and man- ganese Silica (2.) Soluble Constituents. Cane-sugar 11.30 Glucose Albumen, casein, etc 1.50 Asparagine (C 4 H 8 N 2 O 3 ) _ Betaine (CgHnNOs) 0.10 Carried forward 96.60 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Brought forward 96.60 Pectine, parapectin, metapectin, and pectase Gummy bodies Cromogene A yellow extractive body Parapectic, metapectic, aspartic, citric, and malic acids Pectates, parapectates, metapectates, ci-trates, malates, ox- alates, aspartates, sulphates, phosphates, nitrates, and chlorides of potassium, sodium, rubidium, and ammo- nium Citrates, malates, asparates, sulphates, nitrates, and chlo- rides of magnesium, calcium, iron, and manganese Silica 100.00 Near Magdeburg, where the beet is extensively cultivated, the general results give : The greatest sugar productions, as 13.3 per cent. That from inferior beets 9.2 " " The average beet yielding 11.2 " " 12 J cwts. of beet yield on an average 1 cwt. of raw sugar. THE ANALYSIS OF CANE-SUGAR. CONSTITUENTS. Oxygen . . Carbon. . . Hydrogen 56.63 42.47 6.90 49.856 43.265 6.875 PROUT. 53.35 39.99 6.66 UBE. 50.33 43.38 6.29 FOWNES. 51.59 41.98 6.43 fil 51.46 42.11 6.43 Formula for Sugar (sucrose), SACCHARIMETRY. There are several methods for determining the amount of saccharine matter contained in the various crude sugar pro- ductions ; the following may be employed : 1. MECHANICAL, 2. CHEMICAL, or 3. PHYSICAL METHOD. * Taken from article on Sugar by C. F. Chandler (Johnson's Cycl.). THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. THE MECHANICAL METHOD is applicable for determining the sugar in beets : " The* middle part of the beet is cut in thin slices to the weight of 25 to 30 grams each and dried. From the differ- ence in weight before and after drying, the quantity of water contained in the root is ascertained. The dry residue is pul- verized, and then treated with boiling dilute alcohol of a specific gravity of 0.83. By this means the sugar is dissolved and the weight ascertained. The insoluble residue gives, after drying, the weight of the cellulose, proteine bodies and min- eral constituents. If the alcoholic solution be placed in a vacuum over caustic lime, it gradually becomes more and more concentrated until, after standing about a day, the sugar, owing to its insolubility in absolute alcohol, may be collected in small colorless crystals, only absolute alcohol remaining. Good sugar-beets give 20 per cent, dry residue, the water amounting to 80 per cent. Of the 20 per cent., 13 per cent. is usually sugar, and the remaining 7 per cent, pectine, cellulose, proteine, and mineral substances. The higher the specific weight of the juice of the beet, the more sugar it con- tains. The juice of a good beet properly cultivated marks 8 and sometimes 9 B." " CHEMICAL METHOD. The chemical method is based on the following facts : a. The known proportional solubility of calcic hydrate in cane-sugar. 1). The capability of a cane-sugar solution to reduce the hydroxides of copper to protoxides, the quantity reduced affording an estimate ; and the conversion by acids of cane- sugar into inverted sugar (a mixture of levulose with dextrose or glucose). c. The fermentation of sugar, giving rise to the formation of alcohol and carbonic acid, the amount of which can be ascertained, 4C0 2 corresponding to one molecule of cane-sugar C|2"22" | |- * Wagner's Technology. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 473 The first of these methods is that of determining the solu- bility of calcic hydrate in a cane-sugar solution. The fluid containing sugar is stirred with calcic hydrate, the quantity of which dissolved, estimated by titration with sulphuric acid, determines the quantity of sugar. The second method is grounded on the researches of M. Trommer, who found (1.) That cane-sugar in an alkaline fluid does not reduce cupric oxide ; but it becomes reduced if the sugar has pre- viously been boiled with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, the acid converting the cane into inverted sugar. (2.) The quantity of the reduced protoxide is proportional to the quantity of sugar. Barreswil and Fehling give a test based on this law. An alkaline solution of cupric oxide is made by dissolving 40 grams of cupric sulphate in 160 grams of water, and adding a solution of 160 grams of neutral potassic tartrate in a little water, with 600 to 700 grams of sodic hydrate of a specific gravity 1.12. The mixture should be diluted to 1154.4 c.c. at 15. A litre of this copper solu- tion contains 34.65 grams of cupric sulphate, and requires for its reduction 5 grams of dextrose or levulose ; or 10 atoms cupric sulphate (1247.5) are reduced by means of one atom of dextrose or levulose (180) to protoxide (34.65 : 5 = 1274.5 : 180 or 6.93 : 1), 10 c.c. of the copper solution corresponding also to 0.050 grams of dry dextrose or levulose. Mulder prefers a solution in which 1 part of cupric oxide corresponds to 0.552 parts of dextrose or levulose of the formula C 6 H I2 6 + H 2 0; by the use of this test-liquor, the amount of sugar can be ascertained with great accuracy. By another method 10 c.c. of this copper solution are heated with 40 c.c. of water, and placed in a sugar solution till all the cupric oxide is reduced. When this point is nearly reached, the precipitate becomes redder and forms more rapidly. Test- ing the filtrate with potassic ferrocyanide, will throw down a yellow precipitate if there be sugar in excess. The copper salts are instantaneously reduced by the sugar in correspond- 474 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ing quantities ; long boiling is not necessary ; 100 parts of dextrose or levulose correspond to 95 parts of cane-sugar." FERMENT TEST. " The third method, the ferment test, as it is generally termed, is grounded on the fact that a solution of sugar may be preserved for an indefinite period in an open or close vessel ; but that if decomposing, azotized matter be acci- dentally or intentionally added, the sugar is converted first into dextrose or levulose, which, suffering vinous fermentation, is converted into alcohol with the evolution of carbonic acid : 1 mol. of cane-sugar ) yields by (4 mols. of carbonic acid = 176, (C^H^Ou =342) f fermentation 1 4 mols. of alcohol = 188. The estimation of the quantity of carbonic acid is easily performed by means of the alkalimetric apparatus of Fresenius and Will. The fermentation being complete, the air is sucked out of the apparatus and the amount of carbonic acid estimated from its loss, which multiplied by -y^ = 1.9432 gives the quantity of cane-sugar ; juM> _ 2.04545 gives the quantity of dextrose." IY. A mixture of one-third volume ether with two-thirds volume absolute alcohol. This is neither charged with acid nor saturated with sugar. SCHEIBLER'S METHOD. This method is founded on the principle of treating samples of sugar with saturated solution of sugar in alcohol ; this solu- tion dissolves and eliminates the impurities of the sample without in the least acting upon the crystallized portion. The necessary reagents for analysis are : I. Alcohol of 85-86 mixed with acetic acid (50 c.c. to each litre of alcohol), and saturated with sugar. For this a good refined sugar is taken, which is powdered and introduced into the bottle ; the above-mentioned solution is poured in, it is hermetically closed, and shaken frequently during several days. II. Alcohol of about 92. III. Alcohol of about 96. Alcohols II and III have no addition of acetic acid, but are saturated with sugar, as was the case with the first solution. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. The apparatus required is shown in the figure. it TU It consists of a 50 c.c. flask ; the neck of the flask is some- what enlarged, as shown in the figure A. Through a rubber stopper K is inserted the glass filtering-tube OS. At the lower end of this tube is fastened a somewhat larger tube, and to this is fitted a felt-filter. There is also a flask B, in which a vacuum can be formed by means of suction. This flask is attached to A by means of the rubber tube P. The operation is as follows : A normal quantity of sugar is weighed (26.048 grams if the Ventzke's polariscope is used, or 16.35 grams if the Duboscq) in the flask A. The stopper with the filter-tube is inserted in the flask. Solution IV is now introduced into the flask and allowed to remain for fifteen or twenty minutes, during which time the water of the sugar, as also the small quantities of foreign sub- stances, such as fatty bodies, alkaline salts, alkaline salts of fatty acids (butyric, valerianic, etc.), are dissolved, and the sugar is precipitated. The alcohol and ether is then with- drawn into the flask B by means of suction applied at m. 4:76 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. After this solution No. I is introduced, and then No. II r about 10 c. c. of each. This washing separates the absolute alcohol adhering to the sugar, which is finally saturated with solution II. After this latter has been drawn off by suction, solution No. I is introduced. The solution is left for fifteen to twenty minutes, sufficient time for the solution of all im- purities of the raw sugar, the molasses, during which time the mass of sugar diminishes in volume and settles ; the solution is then removed by suction the same as the others into the flask B. The filter-tube is now withdrawn, and any adhering sugar is washed into the flask ; tri-plumbic acetate is added, then water, until the 50 c.c. mark is reached. The solution is then polarized. By this improved method it is claimed that great exactness can be obtained, much time spared, and less liability to loss than in the first method proposed by Scheibler. The operation occupies about two hours, and sev- eral analyses can be carried on at the same time.* PHYSICAL METHOD. M. Soleil has constructed an apparatus based upon the rotatory power of liquids, for analyzing sac- charine substances, to which the name saccharometer is applied. The following table shows the effect of sugars on polarized light: SUGARS. FORMtTL-E. EFFECT ON POLARIZED LIGHT. Cane-suo"ar (sucrose). . . C^gHogOn Right 73 8 Melezitose (from Larcli manna) 94 1 Mycose (from Turkish manna, product ) of an inspct) ... i ClsHgijjOn " 193. 0. Melitose (from eucalyptus) P TT O " 102 Dextrose (grape-sugar) C, H, 17J = + 10. Opposite 10 in the table is * Amer. Chem., Nov. 1873, p. 161. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 481 0.545, which we add to 14.3 Balling = (14.3 -f 0.545 = 14.845) 14.84 comes nearest to 14.8 of the table marked Duboscq, and opposite to 14.8 is 1.043, and in the table marked Ventzke, 1.659. Suppose a Yentzke instrument is used, and the solution indicates 43 per cent. ; by multiplying 43% by 1.659 = 71.33% gives the quantity of pure sugar in the dry substance of the solution. If the solution is too dark to be used in the saccharometer, it must be decolorized. The first step to be taken is to test the solution with the areometer and thermometer, and obtain the rectified degree Balling corresponding to 17^ C. Op- posite to this degree Balling we find in the table the corre- sponding factor, which is written down for future use. The solution is next clarified by adding the " sodic chloride solution " and tri-plumbic acetate. The total addition will be 10 per cent, of the volume of the sugar solution. If the solu- tion is light, 5 per cent, will do. As this addition of liquid weakens the saccharimetric strength of the solution by 5 or 10 per cent., according to the quantity of decolorizer added, it must be compensated for by adding 5 or 10 per cent, to the factor written down. The solution, after being filtered, is finally placed in the tube of the saccharometer, and the indica- tion of the instrument is multiplied by the factor obtained by adding 5 or 10 per cent, to the factor of the table. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE. Suppose we have a dark solution. After being diluted with water, it is tested by the areometer and thermometer, showing 11 .4 Balling, the temperature being 25*- C. The excess of 25 over 17 = 8. Opposite 8 in Table for Correction of Temperatures we find 0.436, which is added to 11.4 Balling (11.4 + 0.436 = 11.836). Suppose we have a Ventzke instrument, we find in the table marked Ventzke, opposite 11.8 (nearest 11.836), 2.107, which we write down. The solution being dart, we add 10 per cent, of clarifying solution, say 3 or 4 per cent, of sodic chlo- ride, and the balance tri-plumbic acetate As this weakens the solution, we compensate for it by adding to the factor 2.107, 10 per cent, of its value = 0.2107, which gives 2.317. The solution, after being clarified by filtration is placed in the saccharometer, and then shows say 22| per cent. By multi- plying 2.317 by 22|, we obtain 52.1, which is the percentage of pure sugar in the dry substance of the solution. 482 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. TABLES FOR THE CORRECTION OF TEMPERATURES. .Difference between Quantity to be added the temperature ob- or subtracted from served and 17^ C. degree Balling. 1 0.054 2 0.109 3 0.163 4 0.218 5 0.272 6 0.327 7 , 0.381 8 0.436 9 0.490 10 0.545 11 0.600 12 0.654 13 0.708 14 0.762 15 .. . 0.817 VENTZ K E. Table of factors, corresponding to degrees Balling, to be multiplied by the indication of the saccharometer. DEGREE BALLING. FACTOR. DEGREE BALLING. FACTOR. li FACTOR. K FACTOR. P5 FACTOR. 5. 5.107 7. 3.618 9. 2.792 11. 2.267 13. 1.902 5.1 5.013 7.1 3.568 9.1 2.762 11.1 2.246 13.1 1.887 5.2 4.920 7.2 3.519 9.2 2.731 11.2 2.225 13.2 1.873 53 4.826 7.3 3.470 9.3 2.700 11.3 2.204 13.3 1.858 5.4 4.733 7.4 3.420 9.4 2.670 11.4 2.184 13.4 1.844 5.5 4.639 7.5 3.371 9.5 2.640 11.5 2.163 13.5 1.829 5.6 4.559 7.6 3.328 9.6 2.612 11.6 2.144 13.6 1.815 5.7 4.479 7.7 3.281 9.7 2.585 11.7 2.125 13.7 1.801 5.8 4.399 7.8 3.240 9.8 2.558 11.8 2.107 13.8 1.787 5.9 4.319 7.9 3.197 9.9 2.530 119 2.088 13.9 1.773 6. 4.239 8. 3.154 10. 2.503 12. 2.069 14. 1.759 6.1 4.171 8.1 3.116 10.1 2.478 12.1 2.052 14.1 1.746 6.2 4.103 8.2 3.078 10.2 2.453 12.2 2.034 14.2 1.733 6.3 4.035 8.3 3.039 10.3 2.428 12.3 2.016 14.3 1.721 6.4 3.968 8.4 3.001 10.4 2.403 12.4 2.000 14.4 1.708 6.5 3.909 8.5 2.963 10.5 2.378 12.5 1.982 14.5 1.695 6.6 3.844 8.6 2.929 10.6 2.356 126 1.966 14.6 1.683 6.7 3.787 8.7 2.895 10.7 2.334 12.7 1.950 14.7 1.671 6.8 3.730 8.8 2.860 10.8 2.311 12.8 1.934 14.8 1.659 6.9 3.674 8.9 2.826 10.9 2.289 12.9 1.918 14.9 1.648 15. 1.638 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 483 DUBOSCQ. Table of factors, corresponding to degrees Balling, to be multiplied Tyy the indication of the saccharometer. DEGREE BALLING. FACTOR. DEGREE BALLING. FACTOR. DEGREE j BALLING. A H * W ^ fl p3 to DEGREE BALLING. FACTOR. 5. 3.206 7. 2.271 9. 1.753 11. 1.423 13. 1.194 5.1 3.151 7.1 2.240 9.1 1.734 11.1 1.410 13.1 1.185 5.2 3.097 7.2 2.207 9.2 1.714 11.2 1.397 13.2 1.176 5.3 8.042 7.3 2.176 9.3 1.695 11.3 1.384 13.3 1.166 5.4 2.988 7.4 2.147 9.4 1.676 11.4 1.371 13.4 1.157 5.5 2.933 7.5 2.116 9.5 1.657 11.5 1.358 13.5 1.148 5.6 2.879 7.6 2.088 9.6 1.640 11.6 1346 13.6 1.139 5.7 2.824 7.7 2.061 9.7 1.622 11.7 1.33*4 13.7 1.130 5.8 2.770 7.8 2.034 9.8 1.605 11JB 1.323 13.8 1.122 5.9 2.715 7.9 2.007 9.9 1.588 11.9 1.311 13.9 1.113 6. 2.661 8. 1.980 10. 1.571 12. 1.299 14. 1.104 6.1 2.622 8.1 1.955 10.1 1.555 12.1 1.288 14.1 1.096 6.2 2.583 8.2 1.931 10.2 1.540 12.2 1.277 14.2 1.088 6.3 2.544 8.3 1.906 10.3 1.524 12.3 1.266 14.3 1.080 6.4 2,505 8.4 1.882 10.4 1.508 12.4 1.255 14.4 1.072 6.5 2.466 8.5 1.860 10.5 1.493 12.5 1.244 14.5 1.064 6.6 2.427 8.6 1.839 10.6 1.479 12.6 1.234 14.6 1.056 6.7 2.388 8.7 1.817 10.7 1.465 12.7 1.224 14.7 1.049 6.8 2.349 8.8 1.796 10.8 1.451 12.8 1.214 14.8 1.043 6.9 2,310 8.9 1.774 10.9 1.437 12.9 1.204 14.9 1.034 15. 1.027 DETERMINATION OF THE WATER IN SUGAR. There are two methods which can be employed : (1.) By drying the sugar near the point of caramelization ; i. e., 120 to 130, the loss in weight will equal the water. The operation requires about two hours. (2.) By means of the " w r ater areometer." The following is a description of the process of P. Casamajor : To determine the amount of. water in sugar : Take 16.35 grams of the sugar to be tested, which dissolve, so that the solution shall occupy 100 c.c. without adding tri-plumbic ace- tate or any other decolorizing agent. After shaking up thoroughly, so as to have a uniform liquid, pour some of it into a glass cylinder ; put an areometer into tjie solution and note the division to which it sinks ; also note 484 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. the temperature of the solution. The indications of the areometer show the quantity (provisional) of water in the sugar tested, if the temperature is 17J C. If the temperature is not 1TJ C, corrections are to be made by means of the fol- lowing table : Degrees Celsius, above or below Quantity to add when below and to subtract when Suppose you have the indication of your areometer 2.50 and that of 17^ C. above 17* C. the thermometer 23^ C. Then 23 17! = 6 - Opposite 6 you 1 0.36 find 2.15. The amount of water is 2 0.71 2.50 3 1.07 - 2.15 4 1.44 5 1.80 Provisional, 0.35 per cent. 6 2.15 If the areometer indicates 2.50 7 2.50 and the thermometer 14 C ; the 8 2.87 difference 17* - 14 = 31, to 9 10 3.12 3.48 which correspond 1.25, average of 11 3.84 1.07 12 4.20 1.44 13 4.55 2)2.51 14 4.81 1.25 15 5.16 16 5.52 2.50 + 1.25 = 3.75 per cent, (pro- visional). There is another correction to be made which relates to the salts contained in the sugar. Suppose we have a sugar giving in the saccharometer 85 per cent. ; the water areometer, after correction for temperature, giving 4 per cent. The sugar may be provisionally put down : Saccharimetric ... 85 per cent. Water 4 Impurities 11 " 1 Provisional. Casamajor found, by comparing a large number of tests in which he determined the ashes, that ^ of the impurities in cane-sugar and T ^ in beet-sugar should be added to the water as found above a to correct the error due to salts. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 485 Thus, in the above example, J-J^ = 0.55, which, when added to 4, makes 4.55 per cent. ; therefore, we have Saccharimetric 85 per cent. Water 4.55 Impurities 10.45 " 100.00 By the above process the amount of water may be deter- mined very rapidly. If it is desirous to determine the quantity of sugar, using the same solution, add to it 5 or 10 per cent, of decolorizing material, and to the result of the saccharometer add 5 or 10 per cent, to counteract for the dilution. DETERMINATION OF THE SCALE OF THE WATER AREOMETER. The point is obtained by dissolving 16.35 grams of pure, dry sugar in water, so that the solution will occupy 100 c.c. at 17^ C. The next point to be determined is 10 per cent., which is easily obtained by taking 90 c.c. of the above solu- tion and diluting with pure water up to 100 c.c. This second solution at 17 J- C. corresponds to a sugar having 10 per cent, of water. Having obtained the point, as also the 10 per cent, on the instrument, the space may be divided equally between these two points for the percentages. The points obtained thereby are not strictly correct, but the error committed is only a theoretical one, and is not appreciable on such an instrument. The different points give the true percentage of water in a sample of sugar at 1TJ C., after allowing for the correction due to salts mentioned above. At any other temperature, cor- rection must be made as above. DETERMINATION OF THE ASH IN SUGARS. Weigh out 9 grams of the sugar, to be examined in a platinum-dish, and add four drops of sulphuric acid, diluted 486 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. in about 2 centimeters of water. The platinum-dish is gently heated at first to prevent bubbling over, and finally heated strongly to incinerate the carbon. The result is the same as taking 10 grams and deducting a tenth.* * The reason for deducting one-tenth is to counterbalance the additional weight due to the conversion of the sugar-salts into sulphate ; it is entirely a conventional matter. I ASSAY OF IRON ORES, DIRECTIONS FOR SELECTING SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. Several fragments should be selected from different parts of the vein or bed, amounting in the aggregate to fifty or sixty pounds. Or when the ore has been mined and is lying in heaps, several shovels-full of ore, coarse and fine, should be obtained, so as to procure a fair average of the whole ; it is also better to select from different parts of the pile a keg-full in all is sufficient. A few ounces, or even less, is all that is actually required for the analysis, but it is better to pulverize a large quantity together, and the portion analyzed is a much better representation of the mine than a single fragment can be. PREPARING THE SAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS. " Break up in an iron mortar forty or fifty pounds of the ore, into pieces that will pass through a tin sieve with half- inch holes. Thoroughly mix the fine and the coarse. Now break tip about ten pounds of average quality, so that it will pass through a sieve made of tin with quarter-inch holes. Mix well, take one pound of this, and pulverize in iron mor- tar, until it will pass through a sieve of 60 meshes to the linear inch. Mix well, take out about 50 grams, pulverize in agate mortar, pass through muslin bolting-cloth, and put into a small bottle, tightly corked, for analysis and special determi- nations. Any portion of this taken for ASSAY or for QUALI- TATIVE or QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS, must be pulverized to an impalpable powder in an agate mortar." In the assay of IRON OEES it is necessary to slag off from the iron all the impurities, so that the iron will be set free in a pure state. The formula for the slag must be = K 2 3 .Si0 2 + 2(3KO.Si0 2 ). 490 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Its approximate percentage composition is : Silica 38 E 2 O 3 (Alumina) 15 BO (CaO, MgO, etc.) 47 or about 2-| parts. 1 part. 3 parts. CHARGES FOR ORES OF UNKNOWN COMPOSITION. 1. 2. 3. Silica 2.5 1 4.0 grams. Lime 2.5 4 1.5 " Ore 10 10 10. It is necessary to make two assays of the ore, using first charge 1, then charge 2, etc. TO CALCULATE THE CHARGE WHEN THE COMPOSITION OF THE ORE IS KNOWN. The ore contains Per cent. 10 grams of ore contain Required to form slag. Diiference to be added. Silica 1.65 0.165 2.50 2.335 Alumina 1.94 0.194 1.00 0.806 CaO MgO etc 45.1 0451 3.00 2.549 Kaolin is used as a means to furnish alumina, and kaolin is (A1 2 3 \. Si0 2 J). Now, since 0.806 alumina must be added to charge to form the proper slag, twice as much kaolin must be used, as only one-half of the kaolin is alumina. Therefore, .806 x 2 = 1.612 grams of kaolin to be added. But in add- ing 1.612 grams of kaolin, 0.806 gram of Si0 2 is added because half of the kaolin is Si0 2 . Therefore 0.806 grams must be subtracted from the amount of Si0 2 to be added. 2.335 grams 0.806 grams = 1.529 grams Si0 2 to be added. The charge is therefore : Ore 10. grains. Silica 1.529 grams. Kaolin 1.612 " Lime. . 2.549 " THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 491 The above example was where the ore did not contain suffi- cient Si0 2 to form the required slag. The following is an example of an ore containing too much Si0 2 ' The ore contains Per cent. 30 grams of ore contain Required. To be added. Silica 2596 2596 250 0096 Alumina . . . . G92 0692 1 00 0308 CaO MgO, etc 759 0759 300 2241 To add 0.308 of A1 2 3 , twice 0.308 or 0.616 of kaolin must be' added. In adding 0.616 kaolin, 0.308 Si0 2 is added. Therefore, since there is already 0.096 Si0 2 too much, there will be 0.096 + 0.308 or 0.404 Si0 2 too much, and this amount must be treated so that it w T ill form a slag. Constituents. Excess. Required. Difference to be added. Silica 0.404 2.50 2.096 AluminS) 1 00 1 000 CaO MgO etc 3 00 3 000 Now in adding 1.000 gram of A1 2 3 two grams of kaolin must be added, and in adding two grams of kaolin one gram of Si0 2 is added ; therefore this amount of Si0 2 must be sub- tracted from the amount of Si0 2 necessary to add, which is 2.096; /. 2.096 1.000 = 1.096. The charge is therefore : Ore 10 grains. Silica 1.096 grams. Kaolin 0.616 + 2.000 = 2.616 grams. Lime 2.241 + 3.000 = 5.241 To add Si0 2 , ground quartz is used. Ores containing titanium require the addition of fluor-spar, 0.5 to 10 grams, according to the amount of titanium that is present. 492 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. PREPARING THE CRUCIBLE. The crucible used is a Hessian crucible. They are filled with brasque. Brasque in this case is four parts of pulverized charcoal to one part of molasses. This is thoroughly kneaded until a ball of it, made in the hands, resists to a sensible degree an attempt to pull it apart. The crucibles are packed full by driving the brasque in with a mallet; a conical-shaped cavity of sufficient size for the charge is cut out of the brasque with a knife, and the cavity on the inside polished with a strong glass, tube. The crucible is then dried by a fire (must not be heated too high). PREPARING CHARGE. The charge is weighed out and thoroughly mixed on glazed paper, then put into the crucible. The top of the conical cavity is then covered with a piece of charcoal, and then the whole top of the crucible is covered with a coating of fire-clay (fire- clay with one-fourth to one-half part of fine sand and a little hair, thoroughly kneaded). The outside of the crucible is also covered with fire-clay (very thin coating), and then the cruci- ble is luted on a fire-brick and thoroughly dried before putting it into the furnace. The fire should be kept up in the furnace between four and 5 hours, with anthracite coal. Duplicate assays should not vary more than 0.3-0.4 of one per cent. The button should be gray or grayish-white, the grain fine, or tolerably so. PHOSPHORUS in the ore makes the button cold- short hard, brittle, and a white metal. SULPHUR makes the button strong reticulated mottled structure, and red-short. MANGANESE gives a button with a smooth surface, hard and non-graphitic; it presents a white crystalline fracture. The slag obtained has an amethyst color, or yellow, green, and brown when manganese is present in excess. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 493 CHEOMIL T M gives a smooth button, " well fused, with a brilliant crystalline fracture, and tin-white color ; at other times it is white and only half-fused, or it may even form a spongy mass of a clear gray color, according to the quantity of chromium contained in the iron. The slag is dark and resinous, sur- rounded with a thin metallic coating." " TITANIUIVI gives a button with a smooth surface ; has a deep gray fracture, dull and crystalline, and adheres strongly to the slag. The button is sometimes covered with the nitro-cyanide of titanium with its characteristic copper color. The slag is resinous, black, and scoriaceous, curiously wrinkled on the out- side, and covered with metallic pellicles of nitro-cyanide of titanium with its characteristic copper color; sometimes the slag is vitreous and of a bluish tint." The following is a comparison between the results obtained by analysis and fire-assay, by Ricketts :* Ore. Iron by Analysis. By Fire Assay. Magnetite. 68.35 per cent 69.6 71.2 71 .3 per cent. Hematite 44,50 " " 44.6 46.0 48.6 " " Limonite 44.20 " " 44.3 44.6 45.2 " " * " Notes on Assaying," Ricketts, p. 89. 494: THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ASSAY OF GOLD AND SILVER.* The assay of gold and silver will comprise : I. ASSAY OF OKES; II. ASSAY OF ALLOYS. I. ASSAY OF ORES. PREPARATION OF THE SAMPLE. It is essential, in the first place, to obtain a fair average sample of the ore, otherwise the results of the assay may be commercially worthless. Selection must be left to the judg- ment of the assay er. The sample must be dried, if necessary ; care being taken not to roast it. It must then be pounded in an iron mortar, and passed through a sieve of eighty meshes to the linear inch. If any native metal, in the form of scales or filaments, remain upon the sieve, take the weight, separately, of what has passed through and of what is left upon the sieve. The latter must be assayed according to " Assay of Alloys," and the result referred to the whole amount of ore. It is essen- tial that the whole of the sample, except the malleable portion, be passed through the sieve. Mix thoroughly the sifted ore. The collection of the gold and silver in a button of metallic lead is effected in a crucible, or in a scorifier, whence arise two methods of assay : I. CRUCIBLE ASSAY; II. SCOKIFICATION ASSAY. The crucible assay is applicable to all ores ; the latter is limit- ed, practically, by the small size of scorifiers, to the richer ores. I. CRUCIBLE ASSAY. An ore of gold and silver is composed of precious metal, gangue, and oxides, sulphides, etc., of foreign metals. To collect the precious metals in a button of lead, the ore is mixed with litharge, suitable fluxes, an oxidizing or a reducing agent, and fused in a Hessian crucible. Litharge is reduced to metallic lead ; the latter seizes upon the previous metals and collects in a button at the bottom of the crucible, while the foreign materials form, with the fluxes, a fusible slag above the lead button. * See Amer. Chem., 1870 Articles by T. M. Blossom, E.M. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 495 The crucible is broken when cold, and the malleable button detached from the slag by hammering on an anvil. The fol- lowing are the necessary reagents : REAGENTS. Litharge, Carbonate of Soda or of Potash, Nitre, Argol (crude bitartrate of potash), Charcoal, Borax Glass, Silica, Common Salt. Carbonate of Ammonia, The reagents must be finely pulverized and dried, and kept in closed vessels. Borax should be fused to a glass and pulverized. PRELIMINARY ASSAYS OF REAGENTS. Ordinary commercial litharge always contains silver ; so it becomes necessary to determine in each new lot the amount of silver contained, for deduction from the silver found in the regular assay of an ore. There must also be determined, beforehand, the reducing powers of argol and charcoal, and the oxidizing power of nitre. This necessity arises from the impurity of the reagents. By reducing power is meant the amount of metallic lead that one gram of the reagent will reduce from litharge ; and by oxidizing power, the amount of metallic lead that one gram of nitre will oxidize. The following are the charges for the preliminary assay : I. REDUCING POWER. ARGOL. CHARCOAL. Argol 2 grams. Charcoal 1 gram. Litharge .2 A.T.* Litharge 2 A.T. Carb. Soda i A.T. Carb. Soda 1 A.T. Salt to Cover. Salt Cover. * A.T. means ASSAY TON. It is obtained as follows : 1 Av. Ib. contains 7000 grains = 16 Av. oz. 1 oz. = 437|- grains. 1 Troy Ib. contains 5760 grains = 12 oz. Troy. 1 Troy oz. contains 480 grains. 496 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. OXIDIZING POWER. SILVER IN LITHARGE. Nitre 3 grams. Litharge 4 A.T. Charcoal 1 gram. Carb. Soda 2 A.T. Litharge 2 A.T. Charcoal 1 gram. Carb. Soda i A.T. Salt Cover. Salt Cover. It is necessary to know the reducing power of the ore to be assayed; therefore a PRELIMINARY ASSAY is made. CHARGE. Ore 2 grams. Litharge 25 Carb. Soda 10 " Salt Cover. The reducing power of an ore is due to the presence of sulphur, arsenic, antimony, zinc, etc., but generally sulphur contained in the pyrites, etc. It is necessary, if possible, to determine from the mineralogical composition of the ore to be assayed, if it is rich or poor. If rich, ^ A.T., or J, -J, -fa A.T., is taken. If the ore is poor, 1 A.T. or 2 A.T. is taken. From the preliminary assay of reagents we have found: One gram of nitre will oxidize 5.4 grams of lead (about). One gram of charcoal will reduce 24 grams of lead (about). And from the preliminary assay of the ore we found that 2 grams of ore gave a button of lead weighing 3 grams. METHOD OF CALCULATING CHARGES. EXAMPLE. Ore pretty rich. J A.T. will be taken of the ore. Reducing power found 2 grams of ore = 3 grams of lead. 2 grams = 3 grams Pb. 1 gram = 1.5 grams Pb. 1 ton contains 2000 Ibs. (2240). 2000 Ibs. x 7000 gr. = 14000,000 grains in one ton. . 14000000 -4- 480 = 29166 1 Troy ounces in a ton of 2000 Ibs. 0.001 gram 1 milligram = 1 Assay Ounce. 29166| -f- 1000 = 29.166| grams = 1 ASSAY TON = 1 A.T. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 497 1 AT. is taken as 30 grams for convenience. J A.T. of ore taken. 30 4- 2 = 15 ; 15 x 1.5 = 22.5 grams. A cupel should not be made to hold a button weighing more than 18 grams ; and this button, 22.5 grams, is too large ; it must be reduced by oxidation. 22.5 18 = 4.5 grams too large. Oxidizing power of nitre = 5.4. /. 4.5 grams -~- 5.4 grams = .83 grams nitre required. The charge is therefore : Ore A.T. Litharge 1 " Carb. Soda " Nitre 83 grams. Salt Cover. In the above charge we see that 1 A.T. of litharge and ^ A.T. were taken. The rule is to take twice as much litharge as ore, and the same amount of carbonate of soda as ore. The salt cover is used, as its name implies, to cover the charge in the crucible. It also serves to wash down the sides of the crucible, if the charge boils up. The above charge is put into a Hessian crucible, and the latter put into the furnace, covered over, on top of a brick laid on the bottom. The crucible is left in the furnace equal times to and from fusion. That is, if it takes ten minutes to promote fusion of the charge (the knowledge of which may be obtained by lifting the cover off the crucible and looking in), the cruci- ble is left in the furnace ten minutes longer. The above ore treated was a rich ore ; the following will be a poor ore : EXAMPLE. Ore is poor. 1 A.T. must be taken. Reducing power of ore, 2 grams of ore = .35 gram of lead. 2 = .35 : /. 1 = .175. 498 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 1 A.T. = 30 grams. /. 30 x .175 = 5.25 grams. Button wanted must weigh 18 grams. 18 5.25 = 12.75 grams too small. 1 gram charcoal = 24 grams Pb. 24 -T- 12.75 = J gram (about) of charcoal must be added to charge. The charge, then, is : Ore 1A.T. Litharge 2 " Garb. Soda I " Charcoal -| gram. Salt Cover. ORES TO BE ROASTED. Ores containing a large amount of sulphur or arsenic, anti- mony or zinc, should always be roasted. ROASTING THE ORE. The ore may be roasted in a cast-iron pan, a common spider, over the crucible furnace. There ought to be a hood over the furnace to carry off the fumes. The pan should be covered with chalk on the inside ; an even coating may be made with chalk paste, then dried over the fire. The coating prevents a loss of ore. The weighed sample of ore must be spread over the pan and stirred, while heated with a bent wire until all fumes are driven off. Ores roasted have no reducing power ; then enough charcoal must be added to reduce from the lead a button weighing 18 grams. 1 gram charcoal = 24 grams lead. For 18 grams, therefore, .555 gram of charcoal must be added. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 499 II. SCORIFICATION ASSAY. The reagents necessary for a scorification assay are test-lead and borax glass. The ore is mixed with these, put into a scorifier, and fused in a muffle. The following table exhibits the proportions found by expe- rience to be best adapted to the diiferent gangues. The pro- portions are referred to one part of ore : Character of Gangue. Parts Test-lead. Parts Borax. Quartzose 8 Basic (Fe 2 3 , A1 2 3 , CaO, etc.) 8 0.251.00 Galena 56 0.15 Arsenical 16 0.100.50 Antimonial 16 0.101.00 Fahlerz , 1216 0.100.15 Iron pyrites 1015 0.100.20 Blende 1015 0.100.20 No preliminary roasting of ore is required. The scorifier is gently heated at first, and then highly heated, until the button of lead on the surface of the charge has disappeared, when it is taken out of the muffle. Charge of ore is generally ^, J, or ^ of an assay ton. CALCULATING CHARGE. EXAMPLE. Suppose the ore is rich (take \ AT.) and gangue antimonial. 1 A.T. = 30 ; \ A.T. 10. We see by table, for ores having antimonial gangue, use 16 parts of test-lead and 0.10-1.00 of borax = .5 (average). Therefore, 16 x 10 = 160 Pb, and .5 x 10 = 5 of borax. Charge is therefore : Ore iA.T. Test-lead 160 grams. Borax. 5 " 500 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. GALENA SPECIAL METHOD. It is best and most convenient always to make a scorification assay of galena. If, however, it be desirable for any reason to make a crucible assay, a CHARGE of nitre, 20 grams per assay ton of ore used, and the same weight of carbonate of soda as of ore used. CUPELLATION. The lead button to be cupelled must be malleable, and the proper size for the cupel, about 12 to 15 grams. The cupel is made of bone-ash, and weighs 18 grams ; it absorbs the scoriae, leaving a pure bead of precious metal. The cupel must be carefully dried before use, and must be free from cracks, which would cause a loss of precious metal. The bottom of the muffle should be covered with sand, to prevent injury to it by upsetting a cupel. Before introducing the button to be cupelled, the muffle, as also the cupel, should be at a reddish-white heat. The button melts, and gradually diminishes in size by oxidation and absorption. When the bead becomes dull, then bright, resem- bling precious metal, the cupel must be withdrawn, but very gradually, to the front of the muffle, where it must be covered over with an inverted cupel, and then the whole is withdrawn and placed one side to cool. The beads of gold and silver, when cold, is removed from the cupel, washed and weighed. (The balance used for weighing must weigh down to one-tenth of a milligram.) INQUARTATION AND PARTING. The separation of gold from silver is called parting. To dissolve the bead in nitric acid, the silver must be 2.5-3 times the amount of gold. N.B. The assayer must judge from the color of the bead if there is enough silver present ; if not, he must add some to it by fusion with a blowpipe. This addition of silver is best done on charcoal. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 501 The inquartated bead is flattened on the anvil, and treated in a porcelain capsule with nitric acid, 1.16 sp. gr. (21 B.). It is heated a little, until all the silver is dissolved from the button, when, if gold is present, it will be left as a brown powder, undissolved. (Acid must be free from all traces of chlorine.) The gold residue is thoroughly washed with dis- tilled water, detached by the knife, transferred to a cornet of lead, and cupelled. The gold bead obtained is weighed, and the ASSAY is COMPLETED. It remains only to calculate the results. CALCULATION OF RESULTS.* Every milligram of precious metal obtained per assay ton of ore corresponds to ounces in the ton of 2000 Ibs. Av. EXAMPLE. Suppose that the sample presented for assay gave, on being pulverized and passed through the sieve of 80 meshes to linear inch, the following weights : A. Sifted ore 1458.32 grams. B. Scales of metal 40.75 " C. Total 1499.07 " It being known from the mineralogical composition of the sample that it was a rich ore, ^ A.T. was taken for an assay of the sifted portion (A). The residue of metallic scales, etc. (B), was scorified with test-lead, and yielded a button weighing 60.35 grams. This button was rolled out, and two average samples of 10 grams each were cupelled. The following results were obtained from the complete assays : A. SIFTED ORE CRUCIBLE ASSAY. One-third assay ton, 9.722 grams yielded : 1. 2. Average. Au + Ag 0.19355 0.19275 0.19315 Au (by parting) 0.00025 0.00025 0.00025 Ag 0.19330 0.19250 0.19290 * See Amer. Chem., 1870 Article by Blossom. 502 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 1. 2. Average. Ag 0.19330 0.19250 0.19290 Ag in litharge* 0.00067 0.00067 0.00067 Agin ore 0.19263 0.19183 0.19223 B. METALLIC SCALES. 10 grams of the scorified button yielded : 1. 2. Average. Au + Ag 5.0625 5.0620 5.0622 Au (by parting) 0.0020 0.0020 0.0020 Ag 5.0605 5.0600 5.0602 Ag in test-lead None None None. A. Sifted ore (in all) .... 1458.32 x - = 28.819 Ag. .'. i '- ~ K ftfJAO B. Metallic scales (in all) 40.75 = ^~ x 60.35 = 30.538 Ag. Total ore ............ 1499.07 ............... 59.357, Total Ag. 1 A.T. = 29.166666. /. 29166.66 = milligrams in 1 A.T. 29166.66 x = 1154.71 oz. per 2000 Ib. 1499.07 A. Sifted ore ............. 1458.32 x = 0.0375 Au. B. Metallic scales ......... 40.75 = 5 x 60.35 = 0.0121 Au. C. Total ................. 1499.07 0.0496 T'l Au. 29166.66 x 1 :^ 9 n 6 ,, = 0.97 oz. per 2000 Ibs. RESULT PEK 2000 LBS. OKE. Silver 1154.71 oz. @$ 1.29 $1,489.58 Gold 0.97 oz. @ $20.67 $ 20.04 Total bullion. . . 1155.97 oz $1,509.62 * The litharge yielded one milligram of silver per assay ton, and two- thirds assay ton of it was employed. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 503 ASSAY OF ALLOYS. I. SILVER COIN AND BULLION. The form of assay used for silver coin and bullion is that known as Gay-Lussac's Wet Method, which consists in deter- mining the fineness of the alloy by the quantity of a standard solution of common salt necessary to precipitate, fully and ex- actly, the silver contained in a known weight of alloy. Process embraces two steps : A, Preliminary Assay, and B, Assay Proper. The latter requires for its conduction the preparation of three solutions, called Normal Salt, Decime Salt, and Decime /Silver. Normal Salt Solution. This is a solution of common salt of such a strength that 100 c. c. will exactly precipitate one gram of silver. It is prepared as follows: Make a concen- trated solution of salt in water ; take 10 c.c. and evaporate to dryness in a weighed porcelain capsule, and weigh ; the in- crease of weight will equal the amount of salt in 10 c.c. ; mul- tiply this result by 10, and it will equal the amount of salt in 100 c.c. of solution. Suppose that 100 c.c. of the concentrated salt solution contains 35 grams of salt. Suppose 45 litres of the normal salt solution is required. If the salt were pure : At. Wt. Ag. At. Wt. NaCl. 108 : 58.5 : : 45 x 10 : x = 243.75 grams = weight of pure salt required. But on evaporation of 100 c.c. of solution, only 35 grams of salt were obtained ; therefore, pure salt (243.75 -r- 35) x 100 = 696.29 = number of cubic cent, salt solution required for 45 litres of water. Since in adding the salt solution we also add 696.29 c.c. of water, there- fore, 45 litres 696.29 c.c., or 44 litres 304 c.c. of water must be added. Decime Salt Solution. This is a solution of common salt only one-tenth the strength of the former ; i.e., 100 c. c. will 504 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. exactly precipitate 0.1 gram, 1 c.c. will precipitate 1 milligram of silver. The solution is made by diluting the normal salt solution with 8 parts of pure water. Decime Silver Solution. Dissolve 1 gram of pure silver in nitric acid, and dilute to a litre ; 1 c.c. of the solution will con- tain 1 milligram of pure silver. The decime silver solution is equivalent to the decline salt solution ; i.e., if mixed in equal quantities, they will mutually suffer complete decomposition. The normal salt solution, after being prepared, is tested and accurately standardized. In three bottles of 250 c.c. capacity (8 oz.), 1 gram of silver is dissolved (in each) in nitric acid, and the whole largely diluted with water; then 100 c.c. of normal salt solution is allowed to pass into the bottle, when chloride of silver is precipitated ; the bottle, being closed by a well-fitting glass-stopper, is shaken for quite a while ; if the solution is clear on standing, the normal solution is of the right strength, unless, by adding some of the decime salt solution, a precipitate is produced ; add 2 thousandths of the decirae salt solution, agitate as before, and when solution becomes clear, add again 2 thousandths decime salt, and repeat the operation until a precipitate fails to appear. Suppose there have been added 16 thousandths. The last two produced no precipitate and are not counted. The two preceding thousandths were only needed in part, so that the acting thousandths were above 12 and below 14 = 13 in number. Thus, 1013 parts of normal solution are required to precipitate 1 gram of silver, while only 1000 parts or 100 c.c. should be required. The solution is too weak, and the quantity of salt solution to be added may be found by considering that 696.29 c.c. have produced a standard of only 1000-13 or 98 Y thousandths. It remains to provide for the 13 thousandths. The additional quantity of salt solu- tion required is found as follows : 987 : 696.29 : : 13 : x = 9.2 c.c. of concentrated solution to THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 505 be added. After this is added, the solution is tested the same as before. A. PRELIMINARY ASSAY. Weigh out one gram of the alloy and wrap it in a sheet of lead (one sheet of lead about two inches square, weighing T y^ ounces, or 5.287 grams), and cupel in the ordinary manner. Suppose a button oft silver is obtained weighing 0.8695 grams; then Gram. 0.8695 : : 1000 : x = 869.5 = approximate fineness. This must be corrected for the unavoidable losses of a fire- assay (Table from Mitchell). The corrections are given in thousandths, and are in all cases to be added to the standards, of cupellation. TABLE OF CORRECTIONS FOR LOSS IN CUPELLATION. STANDARD. CORRECTION. STANDARD. CORRECTION. STANDARD. CORRECTION^ 998.97 1.03 645.29 4.71 297.40 2.60 973.24 1.76 620.30 4.70 272.42 2.58 947.50 2.50 595.32 4.68 247.44 2.56 921.75 3.25 570.32 4.68 222.45 255 896.00 4.00 545.32 4.68 197.47 2.55 870.93 4.07 520.32 468 173.88 2.12 845.85 4.13 495.32 4.68 ' 148.30 1.70 820.78 4.22 470.50 4.50 123.71 1.29 795.70 4.30 445.69 4.31 99.12 0.88 770.59 4.41 420.87 4.13 74.34 0.66 745.38 4.52 396.05 3.95 49.56 0.44 720.36 4.64 371.39 3.61 27.78 0.22 695.25 4.75 346.73 3.27 670.27 4.73 322.06 2.94 The number in the column of standards next nearest to 869.5 is 870.93, and the corresponding correction is 4.07 ; add- ing this to 869.5 we obtain 873.57 for the true approximate fineness. .506 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. B. ASSAY PROPER. Take such a weight of the alloy as will contain one gram of pure silver. This is found from the approximate fineness by the following proportions : 8T3.5T : 1000 : : 1 : x = 1.145 grams. Put this amoimt in an 8 oz. stoppered bottle and dissolve it in nitric acid. Add 100 c.c. of normal salt solution, and pro- ceed the same as in testing normal salt solution until the decime salt fails to give a precipitate. Suppose six thousandth of the decime salt solution were added ; the last gave no pre- cipitate, so that more than 4 and less than 5 or 4.5 thousandths are required. Add 1.5 thousandths of decline silver solution ; this will decompose 1.5 thousandths of the decime salt, which was added in excess ; it is known that 4 thousandths decime salt were wholly required ; the fifth gave a precipitate, but was only required in part ; the 1.5 thousandth decime silver added will decompose 1.5 thousandths decime salt ; add now 0.5 thousandths decime silver; if a precipitate is produced, between 4 and 4.5 or 4.25 thousandths decime salts were required. If no precipitate was found on the addition of the 0.5 decime silver solution, 4.5 would thus be proved correct. Suppose, however, that a precipitate had been obtained, the number of thousandth normal salt solution would be 1000 (100 c.c.)* + 4.25 decime = 1004.25 ; i. e., the weight of alloy taken contained exactly 1004.25 milligrams, equal to 1.00425 grams of fine silver. The fineness is given by the following proportion : 1.145 : 1.00425 : : 1000 : x = 877.07 (fineness). The pieces of apparatus peculiar and most essential to the .assay of silver coin and bullion are the reservoir for contain- * For sake of convenience the pipette of 100 c.c. was divided into 1000 parts. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 507 Ing, and the pipette with its connections for measuring the normal solution. A common glass carboy is a very suitable vessel for a reser- voir, and is easily obtained and adapted to its purpose. The following figure will show the method of arranging and con- necting it with a simple measuring-apparatus. The carboy 508 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. will hold about 60 litres, or 15-16 gallons. It has a paper scale affixed to it, which is graduated by adding, successively, a known number of litres of water until the carboy is filled, and marking, after each addition, the height of the liquid. B and V are parts of an hydraulic valve. B is a bell, or cover of glass, through which the tubes pass, being fitted by means of a cork. Y is the neck of sheet-iron, about four inches deep. The valve is closed with mercury, which should fill the neck to about one-third of its height. An enlarged section of the valve and tubes is shown at Y. The tube T and the siphon S reach nearly to the bottom of the carboy ; the former admits air to the carboy, and as no air can pass out by the tube, evaporation is effectually prevented. The siphon is jointed with rubber-tubing at " a," and has a stop-cock at " b." It is furnished, at the lower end, with a piece of rubber- tubing of sufficient length for connecting it with the lower end of the pipette P ; the latter is supported by the brackets "cc," which are themselves affixed to the wall of the room, or to an upright standard. The upper extremity of the pipette passes through a vessel, " d," designed to catch the liquid running over from the former. The method of using the apparatus is, to attach the tube to the pipette, as shown in the figure ; open the pinch-cock " e," and allow the normal solution to flow upwards into the pipette until the latter overflows. Stow the flow and close the pipette with the finger, as shown ; upon removing the rubber- tube, and wiping off with a sponge any of the solution adher- ing to the outside of the pipette below, the latter is ready to deliver exactly 100 c.c. of liquid into the bottle placed to receive it. The method of measuring the normal solution is employed at the United States Assay Office in New York; it certainly has the merit of being simple and expeditious. We have shown at Z the form of apparatus in use for the same purpose at the School of Mines, New York. By this arrange- ment the pipette is filled from above. EE are two sockets, separated by a stop-cock, F. The upper one, which is screwed THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 509 inside, is connected by means of a cork " g," with the siphon S, which conducts the normal solution. The lower socket is cemented to the pipette, and is furnished with a conical air- tap, G. Below the air-tap G, and soldered to the socket, is a very narrow silver tube H, conducting the solution into the pipette, and allowing the escape of displaced air by the air- tap. The cock F is provided with a thumb-screw "h," by means of which it is adjusted on its seat ; " cc " are brackets for the support of the pipette and tube. To use the apparatus : open the air-tap G, and close the lower orifice of the pipette with the finger ; open the cock F, and allow the solution to fill the pipette above the 100 c.c. mark, then close the cock and air-tap. The finger may now be removed, and the solu- tion lowered to the 100 c.c. mark by allowing air to enter slowly through the tap G. When the liquid reaches the proper level, close the tap and remove with a sponge any of the solution adhering to the outside of the pipette, which is now ready, on opening the air-tap, to deliver exactly 100 c.c. of the normal solution. To facilitate the last part of the operation we employ the following contrivance : is a cylinder of tin plate to receive the assay bottle, m is & sponge enveloped in linen and forced into a tube of tin plate, terminated above by a cup, open below, so that the liquid may run into the vessel B, on which the tube is soldered. The 510 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. whole of this apparatus is affixed to a sheet of tin plate, mova- ble in two slots, R R. The extent of this movement is deter- mined by two stops, 1 1, so placed that when the base of the apparatus abuts against one of them, the pipette will be in contact with the sponge, and that, when it strikes the other, the orifice of the pipette will be directly over the centre of the neck of the bottle. The sponge is placed in contact with the pipette immediately after removing the finger. The precipitated chloride of silver must be exposed to the light as little as possible. Sunlight converts the chloride into a subchloride, liberating chlorine, and thus vitiates the results. This is avoided by placing the bottle in a cylinder of tin plate when about to agitate the solution, and by keeping it, at other times, in some receptacle which will shut out the light. We employ for this purpose a table with a double top ; the upper is pierced with holes, along its length, for the reception of the bottles, which, when resting on the lower, hardly project above the top. The table is also provided at the back with a black- board and means for draining the bottles. On the blackboard are recorded the additions of salt and of silver solution ; the former are designated by a + sign, and the latter by a sign. The action of sunlight may be prevented by windows of yellow glass, which exclude the chemical rays. In the foregoing description it has been assumed that the temperature of the normal solution remains the same as that at which it was standardized. Such is not the case in practice, for the temperature varies constantly. At a higher tempera- ture the pipette will contain less salt, and at a lower tempera- ture more salt ; consequently the standard of the bullion would be fixed too high in the former and too low in the latter case. It is convenient to standardize the normal solution for a tem- perature of 20 C. A simple calculation will give the follow- ing table of corrections to be made in the estimated standard of bullion, when the temperature of the normal solution is other than that at which it was standardized, or 20 C. The correction is given in milligrams or thousandths, and when THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 511 positive is added to, and when negative subtracted from, the estimated standard. CORRECTIONS FOR ESTIMATED STANDARD OF BULLION CORRESPONDING TO DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES OF THE NORMAL SALT SOLUTION. CENT. DEG. COKRECTIOX. CENT. DEG. CORRECTION. CENT. DEG. CORRECTION. 10 + 0.8 15 + 0.6 20 0.0 11 + 0.8 16 + 0.5 21 -0.2 12 + 0.8 17 + 0.4 22 -0.4 13 + 0.7 18 + 0.3 23 -0.6 14 + 0.7 19 + 0.1 24 -0.8 It is not necessary for the normal solution to have a temper- ature of 20 C. when it is standardized. Suppose it be 15 C. ; from the above table, +0.6 is the correction for 15 C. ; i. e. y 100 c.c. of a solution standardized at 20 C. will precipitate, at 15 C., 1000.6 milligrams of pure silver. The solution is there- fore made of the latter strength, and corrected for a tempera- ture of 20 C. GOLD COIN AND BULLION. The assay of gold coin and bullion comprises two determina- tions : (a\ of copper or base metal, and (b), of gold. The difference between the sum of these two and the total weight of bullion represents the amount of silver. A. BASE METAL DETERMINATION. If the alloy contain no more than 20 thousandths of copper, weigh out 0.500 grams, and cupel with half a sheet of lead. If it contain more than 20 thousandths of copper, cupel 0.250 grams of the alloy with a whole sheet of lead. If a large amount of silver be present, cupel 0.500 grams with a whole sheet of lead. The copper is scorified and carried into the cupel, leaving a button of gold (and silver, if there is any). A check assay is made with every set of assays. A W * / I/ / proof alloy containing 850 parts of gold, 12 parts copper, and 512 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 38 parts silver, may be employed. This ought to lose by cupellation just the 12 parts of copper. It may lose more or less, and, according to the difference one way or the other, we correct the regular assays which have been made under the same conditions. Suppose the check assay yielded 11.8 thou- sandths copper ; 0.2 thousandths have been retained, and the proportion of copper in each of the regular assays must be increased by that amount. If the check assay had yielded 12.2 thousandths as the pro- portion of copper, it would be known that 00.2 thousandths of silver were lost, and the proportion of copper obtained in each of the regular assays would be diminished to this extent. B. GOLD PARTING. Add to 0.5 gram of alloy enough pure silver so that the silver will be twice as much as the gold in its composition. The assayer can tell by the touchstone about how much silver was originally present. Wrap the alloy .5 gram and silver in a sheet of lead and cupel. If the alloy be above 950 fine, add say 0.005 grams of rolled copper, to toughen the cornet. This addition should be made in the fine gold proof. The button from cupellation is flattened by the hammer on an anvil. It is then heated to redness in a clay annealing cup placed in the muffle, when it is removed. When cold, it is passed between the rolls of a small flatting-mill. When rolled sufficiently thin, the ribbon is again annealed and wound into a cornet or spiral round a small glass rod. PARTING. The cornet is next subjected to the action of nitric acid in a glass matrass of about three ounces capacity. Pure acid, abso- lutely free from chlorine, is added at different intervals and heat applied. Acids of two different degrees of strength are employed. The first has a specific gravity 1.16 (21 Baume) ; the sec- ond a specific gravity of 1.26 (32 Baume). First pour on THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 513 acid, 21 B. and heat for ten minutes ; replace this by acid 32 B. and boil ten minutes ; decant and make a second boil- ing with acid of the same strength, 32 B. Finally, the cornet is washed with distilled water, the flask is tilled completely with water, a porcelain capsule is placed over the neck, and the whole inverted. The cornet falls gently through the water into the capsule, the flask is removed, the water de- canted and the cornet dried, and annealed in the muffle. The weight of this cornet gives the total amount of gold in the sample assayed. The gold, copper, and silver are reported in thousandths as in the assay of silver bullion. NATIVE METAL AND ALLOYS. Rough metal in scales, etc., is left on the sieve during pul- verization of ores. The assay of the above material consists, ordinarily, of scorifi cation, cupellation, and parting. The quantity of test lead for scorification would vary in every case ; but an appreciation of what has been said already concerning scorification will enable the assay er to judge of the proper quantity.* FINENESS OF ALL GOLD AND SILVER COINED IN THE UNITED STATES. GOLD. DATE OF ISSUE. $20. $10. $5. $3. $2.50. $1. FINENESS IN THOUSANDTHS. 1792 __ 270 135 __ 67.5 916| 1834 258 129 64.5 899-9-40 1837 258 129 64.5 900 1849 516 258 129 64.5 25.8 900 1853 516 258 129 77.4 64.5 25.8 900 1873 516 258 129 77.4 64.5 25.8 900 * See Author's Preface. 514 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. SILVER. DATE OF ISSUE. DOLLAR. HALF- DOLLAR. QUAR- TER. DIME. HALF- DIME. THREE- CENT PIECE. FINENESS IN THOUSANDTHS. 1792 416 208 104 416.10 208-10 __ 892-4-10 1837 41 2 J 2061 103i 4U 20 1 900 1851 412. V 206^ 103i 4H 20| *12f 900 1853 41 2i 192 96 382-5 19-1-5 11.52 900 1873 420ft 192-9-10 t 962-5 t 383-5 ; 193-10 900 * The three-cent piece of 1851 was to be only 750 fine. t Twelve and a half grama. % Nearly. ASSAY OF LEAD ORES. The ore is first properly ground, when 10 grams of it are taken for one assay ; this is mixed with 25 grams of black flux or its substitute (10 grams of Na 2 C0 3 to 3 grams of flour) on a piece of glazed paper ; this is put into a Hessian crucible. Three wire loops, after being sandpapered, are put in so that they cross each other on top, and the charge is covered with salt. It is then introduced into the fire and covered, where it is left equal times to and from fusion. That is, if it takes twenty-six minutes to fuse the charge, leave it in six minutes longer ; then remove it from the fire, and set it aside to cool. When perfectly cool, the crucible is broken, the button is ham- mered on an anvil into a cube and weighed. The weight will equal, when multiplied by 10 (*$-), the percentage of lead in the ore. Three assays of each ore ought to be made, and the average will equal the true percentage if the results of all are about the same. The above method, I have found, gives better results than any other yet known. ASSAY OF TIN ORES. Ten grams of the pulverized ore is mixed thoroughly on glazed paper with 10 grams of cyanide of potassium (KCy). This is introduced into a crucible (Hessian crucible) lined with THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 515 chalk and covered with salt. The crucible is then introduced into a very hot fire and covered over. If it takes ten minutes to fusion, leave the crucible in ten minutes longer ; then take out and set one side to cool. When cold, crack crucible and weigh button, its weight multiplied by 10 will equal the per- centage of tin in the ore. Three assays of each ore ought to be made, and the average will equal the true percentage, if the results are about alike in each. The crucible may be lined by a paste of chalk ; then dried. ASSAY OF ANTIMONY. Ten grams of the pulverized ore is mixed thoroughly on a sheet of glazed paper with 30 grams of potassium cyanide (KCy), and introduced into a (Hessian) crucible and covered with salt. The crucible is then introduced into a very quick fire, covered over and left in for eight minutes, when it is taken out and put one side to cool. When cold, the crucible is cracked and the button taken out and weighed. It is better to do duplicate assays. The weight of the button multiplied by 10 will equal the percentage. PLATINUM. The assay of platinum may be performed as follows : Fusion with lead.* Weigh and pulverize the sample as finely as possible, and sift ; the metallic residue will contain most of the metal sought for. Weigh the residue and sittings separately. 1. SIFTINGS. Charge 20 grams in a small crucible with Litharge 50 grams. Borax glass 15 " Soda 30 " Charcoal 1 * Taken from " Notes on Assaying." (Ricketts.) 516 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Part of the soda should be mixed with the charge, and part used as cover. The proportion of fluxes may be varied to suit the gangue, so as to render the slag as fusible as possible. The litharge is reduced bj the charcoal, and alloys with the platinum and foreign metals, save osm-iridium, which will be found principally under the lead-button. The lead-button is then broken out, scorified with a little borax glass, if too large, and cupelled at as high a temperature as possible in an ordi- nary bone-ash cupel until it solidifies. The residue will be platinum, with a little silver, gold, etc. It may be purified by fusing in a crucible of cut lime, which is heated by coal- gas, the combustion being supported by a current of oxygen. The lead retained in the unpurified button is about one- eighth to one-quarter of its weight. 2. RESIDUE. Fuse directly in a scorifier with pure lead and borax glass, cupelling the whole or a weighed portion of the resulting button if it be too large, as in 1. REMARKS. In place of the method used for the siftings, pure galena and iron wire might be employed, as in the assay for lead ; other fluxes being added to suit. In the charge given for siftings, twenty to thirty grams of granulated lead in addition to the litharge can be used with advantage. Instead of cupelling the lead-button containing the platinum alone, add five or six times the weight of the platinum in silver. This gives a result free from lead. The silver can afterwards be deducted in the calculation of the platinum. c Ilura^irj ajf J ANALYSIS OF A MAN. (BY PROF. MILLER.) A man 5 feet 8 inches high, weighing 154 pounds. Ibs. oz. grs. Oxygen Ill Hydrogen 14 .... Carbon . . . 21 .... Nitrogen 3 10 Inorganic elements in the ash : . 2 .... 88 . .... .... 219 . 2 .... 47 . 2 116 . ... 100 . .... 290 . .... 12 _0 .... _2 . .... The quantity of the substances found in a human body weighing 154 Ibs. : Ibs. oz. grs. Water Ill .... Gelatin 15 .... .... Albumen 4 .... 3 .... Fibrine 4 4 Fat 12 .... .... Ashes _7 .... 9 ... Total 154 Phosphorus 1 Calcium 2 Sulphur o Chlorine 1 ounce 437 grains. Sodium o Iron. o Potassium .... . o Magnesium o Silica o Total. . , 154 520 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. THE BLOOD. The blood is one of the principal fluids of the body which is intended for its nutrition, and exists in two states : ( Arterial blood bright-red or scarlet. ( Vein blood dark-red or purple. Blood has a clammy feel, salt to the taste, slightly alkaline, and has a specific gravity of about 1.055 ; is viscid, drying rapidly. When blood is allowed to coagulate, the fibrine entangles the globules, and forms a clot and a fluid : ( Plasma or Liquor Sanguinis. BLOOD -J ^ ( Serum. The plasma consists of: i Fibrine. PLASMA { ( Blood -cells or corpuscles. The serum : C Albumen. SERUM < Water. ( Salts. The fibrine only becomes solid on allowing the blood to coagulate, as it is held in solution in the blood. ANALYSIS OF BLOOD. (BY M. GORRUP BESANEZ.) Water 1st spec. 796 93 3d spec. 783 63 Solid matters 203.07 216.37 Fibrine 195 156 Corpuscles 103 23 .. . 11512 Albumen . 7075 62.74 Extractive matter and salts. . . 27.14 36.94 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL NUAL %^!FOR COMPARISON OF THE ARTERIAL AND VENOUS BLOOD. (BY MM. POGGIALE AND MARCHAL.) Water MAN. Arterial Blood in 1000 parts. 822.46 MAN. Venous Blood in 1000 parts. 818 39 Solid matter 177 54 181 *W Fibrine ... . 617 fiOrt Albumen 66 03 61 37 Fatty matter 1 10 1 20 Globules 9746 10fiO*S Sodic cliloride 3 15 Q 00 Soluble salts 210 1Q Calcic phosphate 79 76 Ferric oxide 063 058 Loss . 0.11 0.09 Total. 1000.00 1000.00 MEAN COMPOSITION OF MALE AND FEMALE VENOUS BLOOD. (BY BACQUEREL AND RODIER.) Density of defibrinated blood Density of serum Male. 1060.00 1028.00 Female. 1017.50 1027.40 Water Fibrine Fatty matters Serolin Phosphorized fat Cholesterin Saponified fat Albumen Blood-corpuscles Extractive matters and salts. , Sodic Chloride Other soluble salts Earthy phosphates Iron . . 779.00 2.20 1.60 0.02 0.49 0.09 1.00 69.40 141.10 6.80 3.10 2.50 0.33 0.57 791.10 2.20 1.62 0.02 0.46 0.09 1.04 70.50 127.20 7.40 3.90 2.90 0.35 0.54 522 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF HUMAN BLOOD. (By ENDERLIN.) Trisodic phosphate 22.100 ] Sodic chloride 54.769 I 8g ?46 j Soluble Potassic chloride 4.416 | ( Salts. Potassic sulphate 2.461 J Calcic phosphate 3.636 "i Magnesic phosphate 0.769 1 15.175 | *** Ferrous oxide and ferrous phosphate 10.770 J 98.921 BLOOD GLOBULES. BLOOD-GLOBULES are often called Hood-corpuscles or blood- disks. There are two kinds : red and white. The red glob- ules are round, having a concave center, raised on the edge ; their diameter varies between ^Vff an< ^ Winr f an mcn 5 aver- age, about g-^Vff f an mcn - There are from three to four hun- dred times as many red globules as white (Harley.) Fifty times as many (Todd and Bowman). The white globules are much larger than the red globules, and they have a granular surface. Their diameter is about of an inch. DIAMETER OF RED GLOBULES. (By Mr. GULLIVEB.) In the Ape ........ STUTF ^ an i Q ch. In the Cat ....... TiW ^ an i " " Horse ...... ^ " ' Fox ....... ^ '< " "Ox ......... ^nr"" " " "Wolf. ...... *&* " " Sheep ...... 5tW" " " " " Elephant... " ". Goat ....... ^Vo " " " " " Red-deer. . . " " Dog ........ -gfa" " " " " Musk-deer, . The amount of blood in proportion to the entire weight of a body is as 1 : 8. So that a man weighing 145 Ibs. contains on the average 18 Ibs. of blood. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 523 ANALYSIS OF BLOOD-CORPUSCLES AND OF LIQUOR SANGUINIS OR PLASMA. (By LEHMAN.) Blood Corpuscles. Liquor Sanguinis. Water 688.00 902.90 Solid constituents 312.00 97.10 Specific gravity 1.0885 1.021 Hgematin 16.75 Fibrin. 4.05 Hffimato crjstallin 241.07 Albumen. 78.84 Cell membranes 41.15 Fat 2.31 1.72 Extractive matter 2.60 3.94 Mineral substances (exclusive of iron). 8.12 8.55 Chlorine 1.686 3.644 Acid sulphuric. 0.066 0.115 Acid phosphoric 1.134 0.191 Potassium 3.328 0.323 Sodium 1.052 3.341 Oxygen 0.667 0.403 Calcic phosphate 0.114 0.311 Magnesic phosphate 0.073 0.222 DETECTION OF HUMAN BLOOD BY THE MICROSCOPE. The crystals which form in blood under certain circum- stances, and when treated by certain reagents, affords a means of detecting human blood from other blood. f may form Hsematin crystals. Blood ! " " Hsematoidin crystals. I " Hsemin " HGEMATIN CRYSTALS found in normal blood, particularly in the spleen, may be obtained by agitating the blood with water or ether, so that the blood corpuscles are ruptured and their contents crystallized." (See draw- ing below.) " HSEMATOIDIN CRYSTALS are found in old clots." (See below.) "H^MiN CRYSTALS may be made by mixing dried blood with equal quantity of common salt, and boiling it with a few drops of glacial acetic acid till the whole has dissolved. A drop of the mixture on the slide will show the crystals on cooling." 524 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Figure 1 represents the crystals from blood of a guinea-pig (trihedral). ' 2 u " " " " " " squirrel (pentagonal). k 3 " " " " " " " rat and mouse (octahedral). * 4 u " u " human blood (haematin crystals). ' 5 " " " " " lt (hsematoidin crystals). 1 6 u " " u " " (hsemin crystals). 1 7 a represents red corpuscles, and b represents white corpuscles. MUCUS. Mucus is prepared in the follicles or glandulse with which nearly all the mucous membranes are provided. u Mucus is a clear colorless fluid which is poured out in large or small quantity on the surface of the mucous mem- branes. It is distinguished from other secretions by its vis- cidity, which is its most marked physical property, and which depends on the presence of a peculiar animal matter, known under the name of mucosine. When mixed with other ani- mal fluids, this viscidity is so great that the mucus has nearly a semi-solid or gelatinous consistency." Mucus is very smooth and slippery (slimy) to the touch, and this property enables it to protect the mucous membrane from injury, and facilitates the passage of foreign substances. The following is an analysis of the pulmonary mucus, that is, the fluid secreted by the follicles of the trachea and bron- chial tubes : (By NASSE.) Water 955.520 Solid constituents 44.480 Mucin, with a little albumen 23.754 Water extract 8.006 Alcohol extract 1.810 Fat 2.887 Sodic chloride 5.825 sulphate 0.400 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 525 Sodic carbonate 0.198 " phosphate 0.080 Potassic phosphate, with trace of iron. . . 0.974 carbonate 0.291 Silica, and potassic sulphate 0.255 Mucus, when viewed under the microscope (200 diameters), is seen to consist of granular oval corpuscles and epithelial scales, and a watery fluid. This fluid, if examined under a more powerful magnifier, is seen to consist of minute molecu- lar particles, which have not been studied as yet. The aver- age diameter of the mucous-corpuscles is about ^Vff ^ an mcn > they vary considerably. SEBACEOUS MATTER. Sebaceous matter is produced in the human subject in three forms : first, by the sebaceous glands of the skin ; second, by the ceruminous glands of the external auditory meat us ; and third, by the meibomian glands of the eyelid. Sebaceous matter is characteristic by containing a very large proportion of fatty or oily ingredients. COMPOSITION OF THE SEBACEOUS MATTER OFTHE SKIN. (BY ESENBECK.) Animal substances 358 Fatty matters 368 Calcic phosphate 200 " carbonate 21 Magnesic carbonate 16 Sodic chloride, acetate, etc 37 1000 PERSPIRATION. Perspiration is a clear-colored watery liquid, with a dis- tinctly acid reaction, and a specific gravity of 1.003 or 1.004. Lavoisier and Seguin found that in 24 hours about 13.500 gr., or nearly two pounds avoirdupois of perspiration was given 526 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. out of a healthy person. It appears that the lungs exhale during the same time over 8000 grains ; so that from the lungs and skin combined the watery exhalations amount on the average to rather more than three pounds per day. The amount of perspiration discharged during violent exercise has been known to rise as high as 5000 or 6000 grains per hour. Southwood Smith found that the laborers employed in heated gasworks lost by both cutaneous and pulmonary exhalation as much as 3|- pounds weight in less than an hour. COMPOSITION OF PERSPIRATION.* Water 995.50 Sodic chloride 2.23 Potassic chloride 0.24 Sodic and potassic sulphate 0.01 Sodium and potassium united to organic acids 2.02 1000.00 TEARS. This secretion is a clear, alkaline, watery fluid, containing an organic substance similar to albumen, and saline matters consisting for the most part of sodic chloride. The following is its composition : COMPOSITION OF TEARS. (Taken from ROBIN, Le$on sur les Humeurs.) Water 982.0 Albuminous matter 5.0 Sodic chloride. ... 13.0 Other mineral salts .2 1000.2 MILK. The fluid secreted by the mammary glands of women (as in the case of all animals), near the end of utero-gestation during * This analysis and the above remarks are taken from different parts of an article on Perspiration, in Dalton's Physiology. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 527 a period which varies considerably and has not been accurately determined, as also the fluid secreted for a few days after delivery, is called colostrum. Flint describes the colostrum secreted before delivery as a thickish, stringy fluid, which bears little resemblance to perfectly-formed milk. The colostrum after delivery the author has always found to be a light yellowish, opaque, alkaline fluid, having, as Flint says, " a mucilaginous consistence." The following table contains an analysis of the colostrum of a white and colored woman : CONSTITUENTS. COLOSTRUM WHITE WOMAN. Average. (TIDY.) COLOSTRUM COLORED WOMAN. (MOTT.) Water 84.077 85.01 Solids 15 923 1499 100.000 100.00 Fat . .... 5.781 4.31 Casein . ) t 3.22 Albumen .. . ... ) 3.228 j .88 Milk-sugar , 6.513 6.05 Mineral salt 0.335 0.53 15.923 14.99 From observations, microscopical arid otherwise, the author has come to the conclusion that on the eighth or tenth day after delivery all the characters of the colostrum disappear, and the secretion becomes normal, that is to say, healthy milk. In some very rare cases, though, a few colostrum corpuscles and masses of agglutinated milk-globules may be discovered after the tenth day, but such cases are very rare. 528 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. The following table contains analyses of pure healthy woman's milk : CONSTITUENTS. White Woman's Milk. Average, 89 Anal. (VERNOIS and BECQUEKEL). White Woman's Milk. Average, 1U Anal. (TIDY). Colored Woman's Milk. Average, 12 Anal. (MOTT). Water 88.908 87.806 86.34 Milk solids 11.092 12.193 13.66 100.000 100.000 100.00 Fat 2.665 4.021 4.03 3.924 3.523 3.32 4.364 4.265 5.71 0.138 0.285 0.60 11.092 12.193 13.66 Human milk is white, bluish-white, and more rarely yellowish-white opaque fluid, having a slight odor, sweetish taste, and possessing an alkaline reaction. Its specific gravity varies between 1.02561 1.04648 (Vernois and Becquerel). Its average specific gravity, according to Sirnon, is 1.032. The average specific gravity of colored woman's milk is 1.0223. If a drop of milk be examined under the microscope, myriads of beautifully formed globules of various sizes will be seen suspended in a clear liquid. These globules are known as milk-globules, are of a slight yellow color, dark around the edges, and exhibit a pearly gloss. The diameter of the human milk-globule is not larger than ^^ QQ of an inch, and most of them are about y^-^ of an inch. The colostrum-corpuscles spoken of above are somewhat larger; their diameter varies between T ^^ to -gfa of an inch ; these corpuscles always make their appearance in the milk, when it is in an unhealthy condition. It is to the envelopes which surround the milk-globules that the opaque and white appear- ance of milk is due. These envelopes are translucent, and (but to no great extent) refract light. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 529 When the milk is allowed to stand for some time, most of the milk-globules, owing to their low specific gravity, rise to the surface and form a thick, fatty, yellowish-white stratum, to which the name cream has been given. The fluid below the layer of cream has necessarily become poorer in fat ; it has a more bluish-white color, and its specific gravity is increased. If this fluid be allowed to stand still longer, the casein which it contains is precipitated, or curdled, that is to say rendered insoluble ; at the same time the fluid becomes acid or sour. The acidity is due to the lactic acid which has been formed ; the lactose or milk-sugar merely having undergone a molecular change. This natural coagulation of milk is due to the growth and development of fungus plants ; the lactic acid is not neces- sary for its progress ; the casein undergoes a change similar to the change from soluble silica to insoluble silica. SALIVA. " Human saliva, as it is obtained directly from the buccal cavity, is a colorless, slightly viscid and alkaline fluid, with a specific gravity of 1.005. When first discharged it is frothy and opaline, holding in suspension minute whitish flocculi." (Dalton's Human Physiology.) COMPOSITION OF SALIVA. (BY BlDDEK AND SCHMIDT.) Water 995.16 Organic matter 1 .34 Potassic sulphocyanide 0.06 Magnesic, sodic and calcic phosphate .98 Sodic and potassic chlorides .84 Mixture of epithelium 1.62 1000.00 The sediment that deposits from human saliva consists of buccal and glandular epithelium, with granular matter and oil-globules. 530 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL V COMPOSITION OF HUMAN PAROTID SALIVA. (By PROF. MAURICE PERKINS.) Water 983.308 Organic matter precipitated by alcohol 7.352 Substances destructible by heat, but not precipitated by alcohol or acids 4.810 Sodic sulphocyanide 0.330 Calcic phosphate 0.240 Potassic chloride 0.900 Sodic chloride and sodic carbonate. . 3.060 1000.000 SALIVA required for mastication of 19* ounces of bread = 4572 grains. 16* " meat = 3360 " Secreted in intervals of meals = 12232 " Total quantity in 24 hours = 20164 " Or rather less than three pounds additional (Dalton). GASTRIC JUICE. The gastric juice should be drawn about fifteen minutes after feeding, separated by filtration from accidental impurities. Its specific gravity is 1.010. Becomes opalescent on boiling, owing to the coagulation of its organic ingredients. The following is the composition of gastric juice of the dog, based on a comparison of various analyses by Lehmann, Bidder and Schmidt, and other observers. (Dalton's Physiol- ogy, p. 126.) * Allowance for a man in full health. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 531 COMPOSITION OF GASTRIC JUICE. Water 975. 00 Organic matter 15.00 Lactic acid* 4.78 Sodic chloride 1 .70 Potassic chloride 1.08 Calcic chloride 0.20 Ammonic chloride 0.65 Calcic phosphate 1.48 Magnesic phosphate 0.06 Iron.. 0.05 1000.00 PANCREATIC JUICE. Pancreatic juice is a clear, colorless, somewhat viscid fluid, having a specific gravity of 1.008 to 1.010, and a distinctly alkaline reaction. COMPOSITION OF PANCREATIC JUICE. (BY BIDDER AND SCHMIDT.) Water 900.76 Organic matter (pancreatine) 90.38 Sodic chloride 7.36 Soda, free 0.32 Sodic phosphate 0.45 " sulphate 0.10 Potassic sulphate 0.02 f Calcic oxide 0.54 Combinations of -J Magnesic oxide 0.05 ( Ferrous oxide 0.02 1000.00 * Lehmann finds lactic and hydrochloric acid ; more of the former than of the latter. Bidder and Schmidt find, in place of lactic acid, in most of tljeir analyses hydrochloric. Fownes states that "hydrochloric, lactic, butyric, propionic, and acetic acids are present," and gives the sp. gr. 1.002. " It contains two albuminous substances, one insoluble in water and absolute alcohol, the other soluble in water but precipitated by alcohol, tannin, mer- curic chloride and lead salts. This is pepsin. In the gastric juice of man it exists to the amount of 0.319 per cent. When the gastric juice has the greatest solvent power, 100 parts of fluid are saturated by 1.25 parts of potash. The gastric juice dissolves the albuminous substances taken as 532 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. " The albuminous substance resembles ptyalin, together with leucine, guanine, xanthine, and inosite. The pancreatic juice has three distinct actions first, on starch ; secondly, on fat ; and thirdly, on albuminous matter. " Starch is converted into sugar more energetically by the pancreatic fluid than by the saliva. Fat is changed into fatty acids and glycerine at a temperature of 35 C. ; and boiled albumen and fibrin are quickly dissolved at the same tempera- ture, while the alkalescence distinctly remains." INTESTINAL JUICE. The intestinal juice is " colorless and glassy in appearance, viscid and mucous in consistency, and has a distinct alkaline reaction. It has the property, when pure, as well as when mixed with other secretions, of rapidly converting starch into sugar at the temperature of the living body." (Dalton's Physiology.) Frerichs found from 2.2 to 2.6 of solid constit- uents in the intestinal juice, in which the parts soluble in water amounted to 0.87$, the fat 0.195$, and the ash 0.84$. Len- in ann only found 2.156$ of solid constituents. BILE. The bile is very readily obtained from the gall-bladder. It is a " somewhat viscid and glutinous fluid, varying in color and specific gravity according to the species of animals from which it is obtained. Human bile is of a dark golden -brown color, ox bile of a greenish yellow, pig's bile of a nearly clear yellow, and dog's bile of a deep brown. Specific gravity of human bile, 1.018; that of ox bile, 1.024; that of pig's" bile, 1.030 to 1.036." The bile is distinctly alkaline, and miscible in water in all proportions. The following is an analysis of the bile of an ox, based on the calculations of Berzelius, Frerichs, and Lehmann (Dal- ton's Physiology, p. 162) : food, and slightly changes tlieir reaction. Thus, albumen, fibrin, casein, legumin, gluten, and chondrin, give rise to as many different peptones." THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 533 COMPOSITION OF OX BILE. Water 880.00 Sodic glykocliolate ) " tauro-cholate > Biliverdin Fats Sodic and potassic oleates, palniitate, and stearate Cholesterin Sodic cliloride " phosphate Calcic phosphate [ 15.24 Magnesic phosphate Sodic and potassic carbonate Mucus of the gall-bladder 1.34 1000.00 COMPOSITION OF HUMAN BILE. (BY GORUP-BESANEY.) Water , 823908 Solid matter 177 92 Bile-acids with alkali 108 56 Fat and cholesterin 47 40 Mucus and coloring matter 24 15 Ash..... 11 6 The bile is formed or prepared by the liver from venous instead of arterial blood. The most important constituent in the bile is sodic glyko-cholate and tauro-cholate, which sub- stances were discovered in ox bile by Streeker, in 1848. Both these salts are freely soluble in water, and if plumbic acetate be added to the solution, plumbic glyko-cholate is precipitated, which may be filtered off; then if plumbic subacetate be added, a precipitate of plumbic tauro-cholate is produced, which may also be filtered oif. The above-named salts, sodic glyko- cholate (NaC 26 N0 6 ) and sodic tauro-cholate (Na 2 C 52 H 90 N2 S 2 , 5 ), only exist in ox bile ; the similar compounds in human bile, when in a water solution, are precipitated by plumbic acetate and plumbic subacetate, but, ai'ter adding the first of the above reagents, if to the filtrate plumbic subacetate be 534: THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. added, no precipitate is produced. The entire biliary ingre- dients of human bile are therefore precipitated by both or either of the salts of lead. " The principal coloring matter of the bile is called Bilintbin or Cholipyrrhin. When dry it is reddish-brown and uncrys- tallizable, insoluble in water, more soluble in alcohol, which it colors yellow, and most soluble in caustic alkali. On the addition of nitric acid to the yellow alkaline solution, a change ensues. The color passes through green, blue, violet, and red ; after some time, the liquid again turns yellow, probably in consequence of a gradual process of oxidation. "Another coloring matter of bile is called Biliverdin. It is dark -green, amorphous, without taste or smell, insoluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, but soluble in ether." PETTENKOFER'S TEST. Add to the watery solution of the bile or of the biliary substances, one drop of a solution of sugar in water (1 pt. of sugar to 4 pts. of water) ; then add sulphuric acid, drop by drop ; a white precipitate forms (which is abundant in case of an ox, less in a dog), which dissolves in excess of acid. The acid is added until the solution assumes a somewhat syrupy consistency and an opalescent look, owing to the development of minute bubbles of air. A red color begins to show itself at the bottom of the mixture, and afterwards spreads until the w r hole fluid is a clear, bright cherry red. This color gradually changes to a lake, and finally to a deep, rich opaque purple. Add now three or four volumes of water to the mixture ; a copious precipitate forms, and falls down ; the color is destroyed. The red color obtained cannot be relied upon as proof of the presence of biliary matter, but if the purple color is ob- tained, the presence of biliary matter may be considered proved. If the biliary matter is present in only small quantities in the solution to be tested, the red color will not show itself for THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 535 seven or eight minutes, nor the purple under twenty or twenty-five minutes. In delicate reactions " evaporate the suspected fluid to dry- ness, extract the dry residue with absolute alcohol, precipitate this solution with ether, and dissolve the ether precipitate in water before applying the test. In this manner, all foreign substances which might do harm will be eliminated, and the test will succeed without difficulty. Draper states that if the average results obtained by Bidder and Schmidt from the cat and dog be applied to the human subject, in an adult man weighing 14:0 pounds, the daily quantity of the bile will be certainly not less than 16.940 grains, or very nearly 2^ pounds avoirdupois. The bile is not an active agent in digestion ; it might be supposed it was, as it pours into the intestines in the greatest abundance immediately after a hea.iy meal ; this is because the intestinal fluids are themselves present at that time in greatest abundance, and therefore can act upon and decom- pose the greatest quantity of bile. CHYLE. This is an opaque, milky, and feebly alkaline fluid, which varies considerably. "It is nothing more than the lymph which is constantly absorbed by the lymphatic system everywhere, with the addi- tion of more or less fatty ingredients taken up from the intes- tines during the digestion of food." ANALYSIS OF THE CHYLE OF AN ASS. (BY DR. REES.) Water 902.37 Albumen 35.16 Fibrin 3.70 Spirit extract 3.32 Water extract 12.33 Fat 36.01 Saline matter 7.11 1000.00 536 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ANALYSIS OF THE CHYLE OF A HORSE. (FOWNES' CHEMISTRY.) Water 91.00 to 96.00 per cent. Fixed constituents 9.00 4.00 Nuclei and cells Variable. Fibrin 0.19 0.7 Albumen 1.93 4.34 Fat 1.89 0.53 Extractive matter free from salts 7.27 8.34 Soluble salts 7.49 6.78 Insoluble about 2.00 The chyle approximates in composition and properties to the blood. LYMPH. The lymph is an " opalescent or nearly transparent alkaline fluid, usually of a light amber color and having a specific gravity of 1.022. Its analysis shows a remarkable similarity in constitution between it and the plasma of the blood." ANALYSIS OF LYMPH. (By LASSAIGNE.) Water 964.0 Fibrin 000.9 Albumen 28.2 Fat 0.4 Sodic chloride 5.0 Sodic carbonate \ " phosphate V 1 .2 " sulphate ; Calcic phosphate 0.5 998.98 ANALYSIS OF THE LYMPH OF AN ASS. (By Dr. REES.) Water 965.36 Albumen 12.00 Fibrin 1.20 Spirit-extract 2. 40 Water-extract 13.19 Fat Trace. Saline matter 5.85 1000.00 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 537 The following table gives the quantity of fluids secreted and reabsorbed during twenty-four hours, calculated for a man weighing 140 pounds : (DRAPER'S PHYSIOLOGY, p. 325.) Saliva 20.164 grains, or 2.880 pounds. Gastric juice 98.000 " " 14.000 Bile 16.940 " " 2.420 " Pancreatic juice 13.104 " " 1.872 Lymph 27.048 " " 3.864 " 25.036 pounds. " A little over twenty-five pounds of the animal fluids tran- sude through the internal membranes, and are restored to the blood by reabsorption in the course of a single day. It is by this process that the natural constitution of the parts, though constantly changing, is still maintained in its normal condition by the movement of the circulating fluids, and the incessant renovation of their nutritious materials." BONES. " At the age of twenty-one years the weight of the skeleton is to that of the whole body as 10.5 to 100 in man, and as 8.5 to 100 in woman, the weight of the body being about 125 or 130 pounds. Bones are constructed of organic matter called Ossein, which yields gelatin on boiling, and is made stiff by insoluble earthy salts, of which calcic phosphate [Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 ] is the most abundant. The proportion of earthy and animal matter vary very much with the 'kind of bone and with the age of the individual, as will be seen in the follow- ing table, in which the corresponding bones of an adult and of a still-born child are compared.'' (Fownes' Chemistry.) ADULT. STILL-BOKN. BONES. Inorganic Organic Inorganic Organic Matter. Matter. Matter. Matter. Femur 62.49 37.51 57.51 42.49 Humerus 63.02 36.98 58.08 41.92 Radius 60.51 39.49 56.90 44.10 Os tempofum. . 63.50 36.50 55.90 44.10 Costa.. ...57.49 42.51 53.75 46.25 533 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. " The bones of the adult are constantly richer in earthy salts than those of the infant." The following complete comparative analysis of human and ox bones is due to Berzelius : Human Bones. Ox Bones. Animal matter soluble by boiling 32. 17 ) r oO. OU Vascular substance 1.13 ) Calcic phosphate with a little calcic fluoride 53.04 Calcic carbonate 11.30 Magnesic phosphate 1.16 Soda and sodic chloride 1.20 100.00 100.00 The following is another analysis of bones by Berzelius : Organic matter : Gelatin and blood-vessels 33. 30 f Calcic phosphate 51.04 carbonate 11.30 " fluoride 2 00 Magnesic phosphate . . 1. 16 LSoda and sodic chloride 1.20 Inorganic and Earthy matter 100.00 Some chemists add to this about one per cent, of fat. TEETH Have a very similar composition, but contain less organic matter ; their texture is much more solid and compact. The enamel does not contain more than 2 to 3.5 per cent, of ani- mal matter, but contains about 81 to 88 per cent, of calcic phosphate, with about 7 to 8 per cent, calcic carbonate and more calcic fluoride than the bones contain. ANALYSIS OF THE GRAY AND WHITE MATTER OF THE BRAIN. (By LASSAIGNE.) Gray. White. Water 85. 2 73. Albuminous matter 7.5 9.9 Colorless fat 1.0 13.9 Redfat 3.7 0.9 Osmazome and Lactates 1.4 1.0 Phosphates 1.2 1.3 106.0 100.0 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 539 " It appears from this analysis that the cerebral substance consists of albumen dissolved in water, combined with fatty matters and salts. The fatty matter, according to Fremy, consists of cerebric acid, which is most abundant, cholesterin, oleophosphoric acid, and olein, margarin,* and traces of their acids. The same analyst states that the fat contained in the brain is confined almost exclusively to the white substance, and that its color becomes lost when the fatty matters are removed. According to Vauquelin, the cord contains a larger proportion of fat than the brain ; and according to L'Heritier, the nerves contain more albumen and more soft fat than the brain." (Gray's Anatomy, p. 60, 1870.) PUS. There is a number of different substances that are included under the name of pus. The normal secretion is known as true or genuine pus, the other substances as spurious or false pus. True pus is the natural secretion of a wounded or other- wise injured surface. It is a creamy, white, or yellowish opaque liquid, having a specific gravity of 1.030 or 1.033. When viewed under the microscope, it is seen to consist of minute granular corpuscles similar to those in mucus, and serum surrounding them. The diameter of the corpuscles vary considerably, but are about -%fo$ of an inch in diameter. Pus is neutral to test-paper, although in some rare cases it is either acid or alkaline. Blue pus sometimes forms on the bandages on which the pus has been discharged. If this be treated with water and agitated with chloroform, a blue crystalline coloring matter (pyocyanin) may be obtained (Fordos). * Margarin is composed of palinitin and stearin. 540 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. COMPOSITION OF PUS. (By DR. WRIGHT.) j Water Pn ft- o PUS fr m a PUS fr m a Pusfioma pgoas Mammary Vomica. Abscess. Abscess. 894.4 885.2 879.4 ^j..... 28.8 .... 28.5 11.2 6.1 Cliolesterin 68.5 63.7 .... 33.6 Sodic, potassic, and calcic lactates, car- bonates and phosphates 9.7 A trace. 3.3 .... 13.5 2.7 8.9 1.6 Iron . . . 1000.0 . 1000.0 . 1000.0 URINE. The urine is a clear, amber-colored, watery fluid, possessing when warm an aromatic odor, whbh disappears upon cooling. The specific gravity of urine varies. Urina potus has a specific gravity varying from 1.003 to 1.009; this urine is light-yellow in color, and is passed after drinking much water. Urina chyli has a specific gravity about 1.030; this is passed after the digestion of a full meal. Urina sanguinis possesses the average specific gravity 1.015-1.025 ; this is passed imme- diately after a night's rest. The average density of the whole urine passed by a man in 24- hours (which varies between 20 and 50 fluid-ounces) is usually from 1.015 to 1.020. The urine is usually acid to test-paper, but the urine passed shortly after eating is often neutral, or even alkaline, becom- ing again gradually more and more acid up to the time the next meal is taken (according to Dr. Bence Jones). The acidity of urine is due mostly to mono-sodic orthophosphate (NaH 2 P0 4 ). If the urine is to be examined chemically, it is best to take a sample of all the urine passed in twenty-four hours.* The following analysis of urine is by Lehmann: * See Scheme for the Analysis of Urine. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 541 COMPOSITION OF THE URINE. Water 937.682 Urea 31.450 Uric acid 1.021 Lactic acid 1.496 Water and alcohol extractives 10.680 Lactates 1.897 Sodic and ammonic chlorides 3.646 Alkaline phosphates 7.314 Sodic phosphate 3.765 Magnesic and calcic phosphate 1.132 Mucus... 0.112 62.318 solid matter. 1000.195 HELLER'S ANALYSIS OF URINE. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. COLOK. ODOK. REACTION. SP. GR. SEDIMENT. UROPH.EIN. UROXANTHIN. UREA. URIC ACID. CHLORIDES. SULPHATES. EARTHY PHOS. ALK. PHOS. ALBUMEN. BILE. BLOOD CORPUSCLES. Pus CORPUSCLES. IODINE. SUGAR. URERYTHRIN. Litmus. Turmeric. Urinometer. NORMAL CONSTITUENTS. Ur. gtt. 10 + H,SO 4 oz. ss. Ur. gtt. 30 + HC1 oz. ss. Ur. gtt. + HNO ;{ gtt. Ur. + 1HC1 + 24 hrs. Ur. + HN0 3 + (AgNO :3 +8Aq.) Ur. + (Sat. Sol. BaCl, + HC1). Ur. + NH 4 (OH) in excess. Ur. Earthy Phos. ppt. by NH 4 (OH); filt. and add (Sat. Sol. MgSO 4 +HC1) made Alk. by NH 4 (OH). ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS. Heat or HNO 3 . Ur. spread on plate 4-HNO^ gtt. By microscope. Ur. + HNO ; , + Starch. Ur. + \ Liquor Potassae. Boil and let cool. Ur. + A + PbA. Brown color. Amethyst color. Nit. Urea Crystals. Ppt. U. Crystals Clumpy white ppt. Ppt. within hour. Precipitate. Coagulates. Prismatic rings. Blue color. Brown color. Fawn ppt. 542 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. HUMAN EXCREMENT. The following are the constituents of human excrement : Excretin* (C 78 H 156 O 3 S). Excretolic acid. Peculiar red coloring matter. Calcic palmitate and stearate. Magnesic " " " Butyric acid. Taurin. Calcic phosphate. Magnesic and ammonic phosphate. Potassic phosphate. Insoluble and undigested matters derived from the food. SUBSTANCE ABSORBED AND DISCHARGED. The following table gives approximately what is absorbed and discharged during 24 hrs. by a healthy adult human subject. ABSORBED DURING 24 HOUKS.t DISCHARGED DURING 24 HOURS. Oxygen 1.470 Ibs. Water 4.535 " Albuminous matter 305 " Starch.. .660 " Fat. . Salts. .220 .040 r.aso Carbonic acid 1.630 Ibs. Aqueous vapor 1.155 " Perspiration 1.930 " Water of the urine 2.020 " Urea and salts 137 " Faeces , .358 " 7.230 " Rather more than seven pounds, therefore, are absorbed and discharged daily by the healthy adult human subject; and for a man having the average weight of 140 pounds, a quantity of material equal to the weight of the entire body * Dr. Marcet estimates the average amount of excretin in each evacua- tion at about 2.8 grams. In the fa3ces of an infant, cholesterin was found, but no excretin. The faeces of a man with a diseased pancreas contained a large proportion of sodic bistearate. (Bowman's Med Chem., p. 168.) STERCORINE was found to be an ingredient of the human fseces by Prof. A. Flint, Jr. (Am. Jour. Med. Science, Oct. 1862), and was obtained by him in proportions varying from .0007 to .003 of the whole mass of the faeces. f Dalton's Human Physiology, p. 370. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 543 thus passes through the system in the course of twenty days." ANALYSIS OF HUMAN SEMEN. (BY VAUQUELIN.) Water 90 parts. Mucus ! 6 Calcic phosphate 3 Sodic phosphate 1 " 100 " " To examine the semen* in a pure state, it must be taken from the vasa efferentia of an animal recently dead, and whose death has been produced from intention or accident, but not from disease. " The seminal fluid, or semen, which it is the function of the testicles to secrete, is always, when evacuated, mixed with the secretions of the vesiculse seminales and prostate gland, and mucus of the urethra ; floating in it are also to be found a greater or less number of epithelial scales. " The secretions, however, which enter into the composition of the ejaculated fluid, have a relative proportion to each other ; that of the vesiculae seminales amounting to about four-sevenths; that of the testicles and vasa deferentia to about one-seventh ; while the remaining portion consists of the products of the prostate gland, mucus of the urethra, etc. "Thef semen is a thick, whitish fluid, having a peculiar odor. It consists of a fluid portion called the liquor seminis, and solid particles termed seminal granules and spermatozoa. " The seminal granules are round corpuscles, measuring j-jjVffth of an inch in diameter. " The spermatozoa are the essential agents of impregnation, or rather the elements which mix with the elements of the egg or ovum, by which process fecundation is effected. They Dr. H. J. Jordan. Lecture on the Generative Organs. Sexual Physiology by R. T. Trail, p. 22. 5M THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. are minute, elongated particles, with an oval extremity or body, and a long, slender filament. They move in an. undu- latory manner, and are supposed by many physiologists to be animalcules. " The ovum is exceedingly minute, measuring from ^J-^th to 120th of an inch in diameter, consisting externally of a transparent envelope, the zona pellucida or vitelline mem- brane, and internally of the yelk or vitellus, a small vesicular body ; imbedded in the substance of the yelk, is the germinal vesicle, and this contains a minute substance called the ger- minal spot. The germinal vesicle is a fine, transparent membrane, about y^rth of an inch in thickness ; the germinal spot is opaque, of a yellow color, and measures ^eW^h ^ ^Vffth of an inch. "The ovisacs contain the ova, and are termed graafrein vesicles. They vary in number from ten to twenty ; in size they vary from that of a pin's head to that of a pea." tar*HattWHJ8 CLASSIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS.* (BY MENDELEJEFF.) The relations between the atomic weights of the elementary- bodies and their physical and chemical characters, have been further developed by Mendelejeif in an elaborate paper (Ann. Ch. Pharm. Suppl., viii, 133-229). Mendelejeff points out that when the elements are arranged according to the order of their atomic weights, from H = 1 to U = 240, the relations between their properties and their atomic weights exhibit the form of a periodic function. If, for example, the fourteen elements whose atomic weights lie between 7 and 36 be thus arranged : Li = 7; G = 94; B = 11 ; C = 12 ; N = 14; O = 16 ; P = 19. Na = 23; Mg = 24; Al = 27.3; Si = 28 ; P =31; S =32; Cl = 35.5, it is seen at once that the characters of these elements vary- gradually and regularly as their atomic weights increase, and that this variation is periodical, i. e., varies in the two series in the same manner, so that the corresponding members of these series are analogous to one another ; Na and Li ; Mg and G ; Al and B ; Si and C ; S and 0, etc., forming similarly consti- tuted compounds, or, in other words, possessing equal atom- icity or combining capacity. Moreover, the combining capacity of the elements in each series increases regularly with the atomic weight, the first members forming monochlorides, the second dichlprides, the third trichlorides, etc., or corresponding oxides or oxychlorides. * From Watt's Die. Chem., 2 Suppl. 548 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. The physical characters of the elements and their correspond- ing compounds likewise exhibit remarkable regularity when thus arranged, as may be seen with regard to the specific gravities and atomic volumes of the elements in the second series above given : Na Mg Al Si P S Cl SD ST. . 0.97 1.75 2.67 2.49 1.84 2.06 1.33 At. volume . 24 14 10 11 16 16 27 Na 2 O Mg0 2 A1 2 O 3 Si0 2 P 3 8 S a 3 C1 2 O 7 SD er 2.8 3.7 4.0 2.6 2.7 1.9 /9\ At. volume . 22 22 25 45 55 82 (9) Most of the other elements may likewise be arranged in groups of seven, the members of which exhibit similar rela- tions, e. g. : Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I At. weight.. 108 112 113 118 122 125 (?) 127 Sp.gr 10.5 8.6 7.4 7.2 6.7 6.2 4.9 Such a group of seven elements is called by Mendelejeff, a small period or series. The elements which can be thus seriated are contained in the first seven columns of the table on page 547, those in the same column having equal combining capacity, arid therefore forming oxides of corresponding composition. On comparing the several series in this table, it will be observed that the corresponding members of an even, and of the following uneven series (the fourth and fifth, for example) differ from one another in character much more than the cor- responding members of two even or two uneven series (e. g., the fourth and sixth, or the fifth and seventh) ; thus, calcium resembles strontium much more than it resembles zinc. The members of the even series are not so distinctly metalloidal as those of the uneven series ; and the last members of the even series resemble in many respects (in their lower oxides, etc.) the first members of _the uneven series. Thus, chromium and manganese in their basic oxides are analogous to copper THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 549 Ii 10 till PH IT* o O I I S U ; !1 Spf o oo l' PQ I 00 J> II II 7, P - S S S II o B bn 6 frt O P 1 w d M rHCdCO-^JOOt-GOOSO 550 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. and zinc. On the other hand, strongly marked differences exist between the last members of the uneven series (haloids) and the first members of the following even series (alkali- metals). Now, between the last members of the even series and the first members of the uneven series there occur, accord- ing to the order of the atomic weights, all those elements which cannot be included in the small periods. Thus, between Cr and Mn on the one hand, and Cu and Zn on the other, there come the elements Fe, Co, Ni, forming the following transition series : Cr = 52 ; Mn = 55 ; Fe = 56 ; Co = 59 ; Ni = 59 ; Cu = 63 ; Zn = 65. In like manner, after the sixth series follow the metals Ru, Rh, Pd ; and after the tenth, 3 , Ir, Pt. These two series of seven terms each, together with the three intervening members, form a long period of seventeen members. As these intermediate members are not included in either of the seven groups of short period, they form a group of themselves (the eighth), some of the members of which, viz., Os and Ru, are capable of forming oxides of the form R0 4 or R 2 8 . This group contains nine metals, viz. : Fe = 56; Ni = 59; Co = 59. Ru = 104; Rh = 104; Pd = 106. Os = 193 ; (?) Ir = 195 ; (?) Pt = 197. These metals resemble one another in many respects : (1.) They are all of gray color and difficult of fusion ; the fusibility increases from Fe to Co and Ni, just as in the follow- ing series Ru, Rh, Pd, and Os, Ir, Pt. (2.) They possess in a high degree the power of condensing and giving passage to gases, as seen especially in nickel, palladium, iron, and plati- num. (3.) Their highest oxides are bases, or acids of little energy, which are easily reduced to lower oxides of more decided basic character. (4.) They form stable double cyanides with the alkali-metals. Fe, Ru, and Os form analogous com- pounds K 4 RCy 6 ; Co, Rh, Ir form salts having the general THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 551 formula K 3 RCy 6 ; Ni, Pd, Pt form salts having the composition K 2 RCy 4 . (5.) All these metals form stable me tall ammonium salts, resembling one another in many of their characters. Thus, rhodium and iridium form salts analogous in composi- tion to the roseocobaltic salts RX 3 .5NH 3 . (6.) Some of the compounds of these metals, especially those of the higher degrees of combination, are distinguished by characteristic colors. The metals Cu, Ag, Au are also, on account of analogous behavior, included in the eighth group; although, according to the constitution of their lower oxides, they may also be included in the first group The arrangement of the elements in the order of their atomic weights, and the composition of the short and long periods, is more clearly seen in Table II, in which the periods form vertical columns : K =39 Rb = 85 Cs = 133 Ca = 40 Sr = 87 Ba = 137 _ _ ?Yt = 88? ?Di = 138? Er = 178 ? _ Ti = 48? Zr = 90 Ce = 140? ?La = 180 ? Th = 231 V = 51 Nb = 94 _ Ta= 182 _ Cr = 52 Mo = 96 W = 184 IT =240 Mn= 55 _ _ Fe = 56 Ru = 104 Os = 195 ? _ TYPICAL ELEMENTS. Co = 59 Rh = 104 _ Ir = 197 Ni = 59 Pd = 106 Pt = 198? H = l Li = 7 Na =23 Ca = 63 Ag = 108 Au= 199? _ G = 9.4 Mg =24 Zn = 65 Cd = 112 Hg=200 B = 11 Al = 27.3 In = 113 _ Tl = 204 _ C = 12 Si =28 Sn = 118 _ Pb = 207 N = 14 P =31 As = 75 Sb = 122 Bi =208 = 16 S =32 Se = 78 Te = 125? _ _ _ F = 19 Cl = 35.5 Br = 80 J =127 In the members of the even series (Table I), the metallic or basic character predominates, whereas the corresponding mem- bers of the uneven series rather exhibit acid properties. Thus there is a decided difference between V, Nb, Ta, from the even series of the fifth group, and P, As, Sb, Bi, from the uneven series whose highest oxides have a similar constitution R 2 5 , 552 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. the former yielding less powerful acids than the latter. The members of the even series do not, so far as is known, yield volatile compounds with hydrogen or the alcohol-radicles, like the corresponding members of the uneven series; thus all attempts to prepare the compound Ti(C 2 H 5 ) 4 from TiCl 4 have been unsuccessful, in spite of the great resemblance between TiCl 4 , SiCl 4 , and SnCl 4 . The position of the second series seems at first sight to be inconsistent with the general division of the elements into even and uneven series ; for most of the members of this series possess acid properties, form compounds with hydrogen and the alcohol-radicles, and some of them are gaseous in all which characters they rather resemble the elements of the uneven series. It must, however, be observed, with regard to this series : (1) That it does not include an eighth group, like the other uneven series ; (2) That the atomic weights of the elements included in it differ from those of the corresponding elements of the following series by only 16, whereas in all the other series this difference ranges from 24 to 28. The differ- ence between the atomic weights of successive even series is generally about 46, but in the elements of the second and fourth series it is only 32-36. Li G B C N O P Na Mg Al Si P S C K Ca - Ti V Cr Mn Cu Zn As Se Br Diff. 32 31 36 37 36 36 40 41 44 46 45 These peculiarities explain the apparent anomalies above mentioned, and, moreover, afford additional evidence of the dependence of the properties of the elements on their atomic weights. To make the elements of the second series analogous in character to those of the fourth, their atomic weights should indeed be smaller than they actually are. Similar anomalies may also be observed in comparison of Na with Ca, and of Mg with Zn, but they disappear in cases of P and As, S and Se, Cl and Br, where the differences in the atomic weights conform to the general rule. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 553 In consequence of the peculiar properties of the elements of the second series, Mendelejeif designates them as typical elements , to which category, also, belong hydrogen, and like- wise sodium and magnesium, for the reason just stated. These typical elements may indeed be regarded as analogous to the lowest members of homologous series (H 2 and CH 4 0, for example), which, as is well known, do not exhibit all the prop- erties of the higher homologues. The preceding considerations likewise explain the isolated position of hydrogen, the element possessing the lowest atomic weight. According to the form of its salifiable oxide H 2 0, and of the salts HX, it belongs to the first group ; its nearest analogue is Na, which likewise belongs to an uneven series of the first group. More remote analogues of hydrogen are Cu, Ag, and Au. Mendelejeif also develops several applications of the law of periodicity, viz. : (1.) To the classification of the elements. (2.) To the determination of the atomic weights of elements whose properties are but little known. (3.) To the determina- tion of the properties of hitherto unknown elements ; those, namely, which might be expected to occupy the blank spaces in the preceding tables. (4.) To the correction of the values of atomic weights. (5.) To the completion of our knowledge of the combination-forms of chemical compounds. For the details of these applications, we must refer to the original paper. NOTE. Mendelejeff places the new element Gallium between Alumi- num and Indium, Group III (see Table I). Gallium was discovered by M. Lecog Boisbaudran in 1875. Gallium forms an oxide Ga 8 O 8 . See p. 5. 554 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF DEFUNCT ELEMENTS, WITH REFERENCE TO ORIGINAL PAPERS. (By H. CAEEINGTON BOLTON, PH.D.*) NOTE. Articles referring to the decease of the element are marked by an asterisk. DATE. ELEMENT. DISCOVERER. REFERENCE. 1777 Edelerde Bergmann . . . 1780 Hydrosiderum Meyer Schrift, Geo. Nat. Fr. Berlin, ii, 334 iii 38 1784.. 1788.. 1790.. Saturnum Diamantspatherde. . . Australia Mounet Klaproth .... Wedgwood . Journ. de Phys., xxviii. Beschaft, Ges. Nat. Fr. Berlin, viii, St. 4. Seherer's Allg. Journal, 1790. 1799.. 1800 Nameless earth Agusteride Fernandez. . . Trommsdorff Scherer's Allg. J. j Scherer's Allg. J., iv. 312. 1801 Pneum-alkali Hahnemann . J *Gehlen s N. J., i, 445, and v. Scherer's Allg. J. v 1801.. 1803 iErythromium ) or V Panchromium. ) Silenium DelRis Proust ( Annales des Mines (1), iv. j *Ann. Chem. Phys. (2), liii, 268. ( *Pogg. Ann., xxi, 49. j Journ. de Phys., Iv, 297 and 457. 1805 Niccolanum . Richtcr I *Gilbert Ann., xiii, 127. Gilbert Ann , xix, 377 ( Andronia . / j Gehlen's J iv Gilbert Ann xx 430 1805.. j Thelike . . j Winterl . . . 1 *Gehlen's J (2) iii 336 1810 Junonium Thompson . . I Phil. Mag. (1), xxxvi, 278. Gilbert An 1815 Thorium Berzelius ( xlii, 115. Gilbert Ann., xliv, 113. Schweigg J xxi 15 *Pogg Ann iv 14 1818.. 1818 Vestium or Sirium . . Wodanium Von Vest. . . . Lampadius j Gilb. Ann., lix, 95 and 387. *Trommsd., , 1 iii, 1, 292. *Gilb. Ann., Ixii, 80. Gilb Ann Ix 99 *Gilb Ann Ixiv 338 1820 Crodonium . . . Trommsdorff Gilb Ann Ixv 208 *Gilb Ann Ixvi 29( 1821 Anvre "Brunatelli Gilb Ann Ixvii 335 1828.. Ruthenium Osann Po^g., xiii, xiv 1828.. Pluranium Osann Po^g., xiii, 291. 1828 Polinium Osann Pof 01 xiv 352 * Am. Chem., July, 1870, p. 1. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 555 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF DEFUNCT ELEMENTS (Continued). DATE. ELEMENT. DISCOVERER. REFERENCE. 1836. 1836 . Donium .... Richardson.. Boase j Ann. Chem. Pharm., xix, 154. j *Ann. Chem. Pharm., xxiii, 239. 1 Thompson's Records General Science, iv, 20. | Chem. Centr., 1836, 616. Treenium 1843.. 1845. . 1846.. Terbium Mosander . . . Ivanberg.. .. H. Rose j Ann. Chem. Pharm., xlviii, 220. *Ann. Chem. | Pharm., cxxxi, 179, and cxxxvii, 1. j Berzelius, Jahresb., xxv, 140. { *Journ. pr. Chem., Ivii, 145 ; and xcvii, 321. Pogg. Ann., Ixix, 115. *Pogg. Ann., xc, 456. Norium .... Polopium 1848.. 1850.. Ilmenium Herrmann.. Ullgren j Journ. pr. Chem., xxxviii, 109 ; and xl, 457. ( *Pogg., Ann., Ixxiii, 449. ( Journ. pr. Chem., lii, 442. < Ann. Chem. Pharm., Ixxvi, 239. ( *Ann. Chem. Pharm., Ixxxviii, 264 Aridium 1851.. 1852.. 1853.. Donarium Bergemann,. Owen j Ann. Chem. Pharm., Ixxx, 267. I *Ann. Chem. Pharm., Ixxxiv, 237. j Am. J. Sci. (2), xiii, 420. | *Am. J. Sci. (2), xvi, 95 ; xvii, 130. Am. J. Sci. (2), xv, 246. Thallium j Nameless metal of / | platinum group. J Genth 1854.. j Nameless earth in f 1 zircons. j SjOgren j Journ. pr. Chem., Iv. 298. | *Journ. pr. Chem., Ivii, 145. 1857.. 1860. . 1861.. Sulphurium Jones ( Mining Journ., July 14, 1857. 1 *Chem. News, vii, 263. Ann. Chem. Pharm., cxxxvi, 299. j Phil. Mag. (4), xxi, 86. 1 Chem. News, iii, 129. Dianum Von Kobell. . Dupre ( Nameless earth of | | calcium group. ) 1862.. Wasium Bahr j Poger. Ann., cxix, 572. *Journ. pr. Chem., \ xci, 316. *Compte's Rendus, Ivii. 1862.. j Nameless metal of / | platinum group, f Chandler Am. J. Sci. (2), xxxiii, 351. 1864.. j Nameless earth in j ( zircons. j Ny lander Acta Universit. Lundensis, 1864. 1864.. j Nameless earth in j | limestones. j Bischoff Pogg. Ann., cxxii, 646. 18S3.. 1869.. Jargonium .... Sorby Loew J Chem. News (Am. Repr.\ iv, 231. | *Chem. News (Am. Repr.). Apr., 1870. Annals N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist, ix, 211. Nameless earth 556 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. PRICE OF METALS.* (Arranged ly H. C. BOLTON, Pn.D.)f METAL STATE. VALUE ra GOLD PER LB. AVOIB. PRICE IN GOLD PER GRAM. AUTHORITY. Vanadium . Cryst. fused .... Wire $4792.40 3261.60 2446.20 2446.20 2446.20 2228.76 2935.44 1671.57 1630.08 1576.44 1522.08 1304.64 1250.28 1032.84 924.12 738.39 652.32 498.30 466.59 434.88 299.72 239.80 196.20 196.20 122.31 108.72 54.34 4530 22.65 18.60 16.30 12.68 3.80 3.26 3.26 1.95 1.00 .36 .25 .22 .15 .10 .06 .OH $10.80 7.20 5.40 5.40 5.40 4.92 6.48 3.96 3.60 348 3.36 2.88 2.76 2.28 2.04 1.63 1.44 1.10 1.03 .96 .52 .43 .43 .27 .24 .12 .10 .05 .036 .028 .008 .007 .007 .0043 1 1 Prices 1 j recent < S. S. S. s. s. s. s. s. s. s. T. T. S. T. S. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. S. S. T. T. T. S. T. aken from quotations. Calcium Electrolytic Pure Cerium Fused globules . Globules Wire Lithium Lithium Erbium Fused Didymium Strontium . . . Electrolytic Pure Indium Ruthenium Fused Columbium Rhodium Electrolytic Fused Barium 1 Thallium Osmium . Palladium Iridium Uranium Gold . Titanium Tellurium Chromium . . . < f Platinum st Mangan ese K Molybdenum Wire and tape. . Globules Magnesium . Potassium Silver Bar Cubes . . Aluminium Cobalt Nickel Cadmium Crude Sodium Bismuth Mercury . . ... Antimony . . Tin Copper Arsenic .... Zinc Lead Iron . . * S. and T. annexed to the price per gram stands for Schuchardt and Trommsdorff, respectively, and indicates the source of the data, f Am. Chem., June, 1875. TABLE I.* COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS AND PRODUCTS giving the Average of all trustworthy Analyses published up to August, 1865, by Professor EMIL WOLFF, of the Royal Academy of Agriculture, at Hohenheim, Wirtemberg.f SUBSTANCE. h - F I. MEADOW HAY AND GRASSES. 1 Meadow hay 2 Young grass 3 Dead ripe hay Rye grass in flower Timothy 6 Other sweet grasses 7 Oats, heading out in flower 9 Barley, heading out u in flower Winter wheat, heading out u in flower Winter rye, heading out Green cereals, light " '' heavy.... Hungarian millet, green | (Pcnicum germ.) \ 13 7.78 25.6 7.0 1 9.32 56.2 1.8 1 7.73 7.6 2.9 4 7.10 24.9 4.2 3 7.01 23.8 2.7 39 7.27 33.0 1.8 6 9.46 41.7 4.4 7 7.23 39.0 3.3 5 8.93 38.5 1.7 5 7.04 26.2 0.6 2 9.73 34.7 1.9 3 6.99 25.7 0.5 1 5.42 38.6 0.3 5 7.20 29.6 1.5 5 9.21 35.6 3.4 2 7.23 37.4 4.9 11.6 6.2 3.8 10.7 10.5 3.4 12.9 4.4 1.1 7.5 7.8 8.1 9.4 10.8 2.6 5.5 7.8 3.5 7.0 8.3 :i2 6.7 8.3 2.9 7.0 10.1 8.1 6.0 9.8 1.6 2.2 4.9 3.1 7.4 7.3 3.1 7.4 14.7 3.9 6.6 9.1 4.7 8.3 8.1 8.0 10.8 5.4 5.1 29.6 8.0 4.0 10.3 2.0 0.7 63.1 5.7 ;; <; 39.6 5.4 8.9 35.6 5.0 4.4 37.6 4.1 3.4 27.9 4.4 2.7 33.2 4.0 2.9 31.2 5.6 2.9 48.0 3.5 2.8 41.9 5.3 1.9 56.8 2.8 1.6 32.0 4.1 41.4 4.8 4.S 30.0 5.6 3.6 29.1 6.4 II. CLOVER AND FODDER PLANTS. 17 Red clover a. 15-25 per cent potash 6.25-35 " " c. 35-50 " " 18 White clover 19 Lucern , 20 21 22 23 Green vetches 24 Green pea, in flower. 25 Green rape, young. . . Esparsette , Swedish clover , Anthyttis vulneraria. . 6.72 6.01 6.74 7.19 7.16 7.14 5.39 5.53 5.60 8.74 7.40 8.97 34.51 20.8 29.8 46.3 17.5 25.3 39.4 33.8 10.3 42.1 40.8 32.3 l.fi 12.2 34 01 9.9 3.0 1.9 18.2 39.7 9.4 3.8 1.6 11.8 35.6 10.6 3.0 1.4 7.8 27.3 9.2 2.2 7.8 10.0 32.2 14.1 8.8 1.1 5.8 48.0 8.5 6.1 1.7 5.8 32.2 10.4 3.3 1.5 15.3 31.9 10.1 4.0 4.5 4.6 68.9 7.0 1.6 2.9 6.8 26.3 12.8 3.7 0.2 8.2 28.7 13.2 3.5 3.8 4.5 23.1 8.7 16.3 2.7 1.2 2.7 2.5 4.5 2.0 4.0 1.2 2.9 1.8 2.6 3.2 3.7 5.4 2.9 3.2 3.2 1.9 3.0 2.8 0.2 3.1 1.8 7.6 * The following eleven tables have been taken from "How Crops Grow," by Johnson. t From Professor Wolff's Mittlere Zusammensetzung der Asche, alter land- und forst- wirthschaftlictien wichtigen Stoffe, Stuttgart. 1865. The above table, being more complete, and in most particulars more exact, than the author's means of reference enable him to construct, and being moreover likely to be the basis of calculations by agricultural chem- ists abroad for some years to come, has been reproduced here literally. The references and important explanations accompanying the original, want of space precludes quoting. In the table, oxide of iron, an ingredient normally present to the extent of less than one per cent., is omitted. Chlorine is often omitted, not, because absent from the plant, but from uncertainty as to its amount. Carbonic acid is also excluded in all cases for the sake of uniformity and facility of comparison. 558 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. COMPOSITION OP THE ASH OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS AND PRODUCTS. 1 SUBSTANCE. No. OF ANALYSES. PER CENT OF ASH. POTASH. 1 MAGNESIA. I PHOSPHORIC ACID. SULPHURIC ACID. SILICA. CHLORINE. III. ROOT CROPS. 26 Potatoes 27 Artichokes. . 29 Sugar-beets 30 Turnips 31 Turnips* 32 Ruta-bagas 33 Carrots 34Chiccory 35 Sugar beet-heads t .. 3.74 5.16 6.86 4.35 8.28 7.20 7.68 6.27 5.21 4.03 59.8 65.4 53.1 49.4 50^6 51.2 36.7 40.4 1.61 4.5 ... 2.7 14.8 9.6 5.1 8.9 11.4 3.9 3.8 2.1 6.7 2.6 22.1 5.3 7.7 6.3 24.4 11.0 2.3 3.5 4.6 6.3 10.4 13.4 9.7 10.7 8.7 9.1 19.1 16.0 9.6 14.3 13.3 174 15.3 12.5 14.5 12.8 6.6 3.2 3.3 4.7 14.3 6.0 8.4 6.4 9.2 7.6 2.8 2.4 6.6 2.0 4.1 6.4 5.1 3.2 3.7 0.5 IV. LEAVES AND STEMS OF ROOT CROPS. u 'October Beets . . .... 1 ft 5.12 1596 6.3 29 1 0.8 21 22.6 97 46.2 11 4 5.5 5 1 5.5 7 4 4.2 4 g 3.0 11" 3 Sugar-beets 7 17 49 22 1 16 8 18 3 19 7 74 8 3 1 5 7 Turnips. 16 13 68 229 78 4 5 324 89 9 9 3 8 82 Kohl-rabi C;irrots 1 7 16.87 1357 14.4 14 1 3.9 23 1 4.0 4 6 33.3 330 10.4 4 7 11.7 7 9 10.5 5 6 3.9 7 1 Chiccory 1 1246 60 7 32 14 3 9 o 9 1 1 7 2 10 81 48 6 3 9 3 3 15 3 15 8 8 5 1 2 2 5 Cabbage -stalk . . 1 fi.46 43.9 5.5 4.1 11 \S 209 11 8 1 1 1.2 V. REFUSE AND MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS. Sugar-beet cake. . 7 3 15 366 84 5 6 253 10 2 3 9 6 2 4 8 a. Common cake 91 3.03 25.0 12.7 272 129 58 130 b. Residue of maceration . 353 353 94 11 8 27 6 2 3 9 c. Residue from centrifugal ma- \ chine . . . . f 1 3.11 45.5 9.8 25.3 13.0 6.5 ... Beet molasses 3 11 28 71 1 10 5 04 6 5 2 1 10 1 Molasses slump$ 1 1902 89 8 o g 1 1 7 1 6 Raw beet sugar 1 1.43 33.3 28.0 8 5 229 09 58 Potato slump:]: 1 11 10 463 66 88 6 2 20 7 3 34 2 1 Potato fiber 4 0.99 15.6 76 478 239 3 1 1 3 Potato juice || . . > 2345 695 35 1 16 3 3 6 1 7 5 Potato skins t Fine wheat flour 3 1 9.59 047 72.0 360 07 09 6.7 82 9.6 2 8 3.4 52 0.4 2.7 2.1 Rye flour 1.97 38.4 1 8 80 1 48 3 Barley flour 233 288 2 5 13 5 28 47 3 3 i Basley dust** 5.62 18.9 1.4 7 7 25 289 200 Maize meal 288 35 149 6 3 45 Millet meal 1 35 197 2.3 25.8 473 27 . . . Buckwheat grits 072 254 59 129 23 48 1 1 7 1 6 Wheat bran 643 24 6 16 8 4 7 51 8 1 1 Rye bran 822 270 1 3 15 8 35 47 9 . . . . . Brewer's grains Malt . .... 2 1 5.17 278 4.2 17.3 0.8 10.1 84 11.6 38 38.0 36 5 0.8 32.2 33 2 Malt sprouts 1 656 349 1 4 1 5 21 6 3 29 5 Wine grounds 1 460 53.4 05 32 15 5 15 5 78 05 Grape skins .... 9 404 494 22 61 13 20 8 4 4 3 5 6 Beer 1 37 5 78 4 9 22 32 7 10 2 * White turnips in the original, but apparently no special kind. t Probably the crowns of the roots, removed in sugar-making. % The residue after fermenting and distilling off the spirit. Refuse of starch manufacture. ! Undiluted. *f From boiled potatoes. ** Refuse in making barley grits. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 559 COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS AND PRODUCTS. S . I i- SUBSTANCE. ^ gg w !*' E a ' l r I 1 i s 1 r 8 u s OR i V. REFUSE AND MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS. 69 Grape must 70 Rape cake 71 Liuseed ca 72 Poppy cake 73 1 Walnut cake 9 6.59 243 1 11 5 10 9 36 9 3 3 8 7 ke e . . . . ... 1 1 6.24 10.60 23.3 208 1.4 4 5 15.9 4 3 8.6 28 1 35.2 37 8 3.4 2 6.5 4 8 ke 1 536 33 1 12 2 6 7 43 8 1 2 1 fi d cake. . . 1 695 354 43 46 48?. 1.1 40 VI. STRAW. 76 Winter rye. 6 4.81 18.7 33 8.1 77 4 7 1 9 58 1 77 Winter spelt 9 5 56 11 2 04 09 48 6 3 1 8 71 4 3 5 55 234 28 8 9 6 5 2 6 KK q 79 Barley 17 5 10 21 6 4.5 24 76 43 37 53 8 80 Oats 6 5.12 9,90 5.3 4.0 8.2 4.2 3 5 48 7 81 Maize 1 549 353 1.2 55 105 8.1 5 2 38 82 Pea** 5 74 21 8 53 7 7 37 9 7 8 5*6 5 7 83 Field bean 4 7 12 444 3 8 7 8 23 1 7 2 5 4 84 Garden bean 5 6 06 37 1 60 52 274 78 3 6 47 6 15 46 6 2 2 3 6 18 4 11 9 53 5 5 86 Rape 4.58 25 6 10.3 57 265 70 7 1 6 7 87;POPDV... 1 7,86 38,0 1.3 6.5 302 8.5 51 11.4 VII. CHAFF, ETC. 89 Spelt. 9! 9.50 9.5 0.3 2.5 ft 73 23 742 90' Barley ... 1 1423 77 09 1 3 104 2 3 70 8 91 Oats 1 9 22 13 1 4 8 2 6 8 9 3 2 5 59 9 92 Maize cobs 1 056 47 1 1.2 4 1 34 44 1 9 264 93lFlax-seed hulls . . . 1 6.62 31.1 4.3 2,8 29.6 2,8 48 17.2 VIII. TEXTILE PLANTS, ETC. 95 m 97 M 99 10;) 101 Rotted flax stems . .... 2 3 2 2 1 12 7 2.40 0.67 4.30 4.60 9.87 6.80 24.08 Flax fiber . . Entire hemp plant .... Entire hop plant Hops . . . Tobacco . . . 86.8 9.0 18.8 2<>.2 .",7.:: 5.1 4.8 8J 4.S 3.2 8.8 2.2 3.7 7.1 5.4 5.4 9.0 9.6 5.8 5.5 10.5 22.3 51.4 63.6 15.5 43.4 16.0 16.9 37.0 11.5 5.9 10.8 23-0 11.6 12.1 15.1 8.6 6.C 13.8 6.2 2.6 7.6 21.5 15.4 9.6 IX. LITTER. 1021 Heath 8 4R1 13.21 5.3 84 188 51 4,4 352 103 [Broom (Spctrtiuiri) 9, 2.25 36.5 ! 2.5 19,4 171 86 gjf 10.3 104 Fern (Aspidium) 5 701 42 8 45 77 14.0 9.7 51 6.1 105 Scouring rush (Equisetum) 106 Sea-weed (Fucus) 2 8 23.77 14.39 13.2 0.5 14.5 24.0 2.3 95 12.5 13.9 2.0 3 I 6.3 940 53.8 1.7 107 1 Beech leaves in autumn 108 Oak kl " " 109 Fir " (Firm* sylvestris) ... 110 Red pine leaves (Finns picea) ... 11 liReed (Arundo plirarj ) 112,Down grass (Psamma arearia}.. . 113 Sedge ( Carex) 6 1 1 1 1 1 11 6.75 4.90 1.40 5.82 4.69 '8'08 5.2 0.6 3.5 0.6 lO.lj .... 1.5 .... 8.6 0.2 29.8 4.0 332 7.3 6.0 4.0 9.9 2.3 1.2 3.8 49 44.9 48.6 41.4 15.2 5.9 16.5 53 4.2 8.1 16.4 8.2 2.0 I'l 3.7 4.4 4.4 2.8 2.8 3.6 33 33.9 30.9 13.1 70.1 71.5 18.5 31,5 114 ; Rush (Juncus) 115i Bulrush (Scirvus).. . 7 2 5.30 8.65 36.6 ! 6.6 9.71 10.3 6.4 3.0 9.5 7.2 6.4 6.5 8.7 5.6 10.9 43.3 560 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. COMPOSITION OP THE ASH OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS AND PRODUCTS. d fc SUBSTANCE. No. OF ANALYSES PEK CENT OF ASH. POTASH. 1 MAGNESIA. M s 3 PHOSPHOEIC ACID. SULPHURIC ACID. SILICA. w a X. GRAINS AND SEEDS OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. 117 Rye 14 2.03 118 Barley 34 255 119 Oats . "20 3.07 120 Spelt with husk 9 420 121 Maize 8 1 42 122 Rice with husk . . 3 784 123 " husked 8 0.39 124 Millet with husk 9 449 125 " husked 1 1.42 126 Sorghum 1 1 86 127 Buckwheat 9, 1.07 128 Rape seed 15 424 129 Flax " 3 3 65 130 Hemp 9, 5 48 131 Poppy 1 6.12 132 Madia 1 133 Mustard 3 4 30 134 Beet 1 566 135 Turnip 1 3 98 135 Carrot 1 850 137 Peas ... ?0 2 81 138 Vetches 1 2 40 139 Field beans Q 345 140 Garden beans q 306 141 ! Lentils 1 206 1 143 Clover seed . ^ 4 11 144 Esoarsette seed. . . 1 4,47 31.1 3.5 12.2 8.1 46.2 2.4 1.7 30.9 1.8 109 2.7 47.5 2.3 1.5 ^ 21.9 2.8 8.3 25 32.8 2.3 27.2 15.9 3.8 7.3 3.8 207 1.6 46.4 j 17.3 1.8 5.8 2.6 20.0 2,6 44.0 \ 27.0 1.5 14.6 2.7 44.7 1.1 2.2 18.4 4.5 8.6 5.1 47.2 0.6 0.6 23.3 4.8 13.4 2.9 51.0 0,6 3.0 11.9 1.0 8.4 1.0 23.4 0.2 52.3 18.9 5.8 18.6 53.6 1.5 . .'.. S0.3 3.3 14.8 "1.3 50.9 "7.5 23.1 6.2 13.4 3.3 48.0 "2.1 "i.7 23.5 1.1 12.2 13.8 43.9 3.6 "i'.i 0.3 32.2 1.8 13.2 8.4 40.4 1.1 1.1 0.1 20.1 0.8 5.6 23.5 36.3 0.2 11.8 0.1 13.6 1.0 9.5 35.4 31.4 1.9 3.2 4.4 9.5 11.2 15.4 7.7 55 15.9 5.8 10.2 18.8 39.0 "4.7 2.4 0.4 18.7 17.3 18.9 15.6 15.5 4.2 2.1 9.4 21.9 1.2 8.7 17.4 40.2 7.1 0.7 19.1 4.8 6.7 38.8 15.8 5.6 5.3 "3.3 40.4 3.7 8.0 4.2 36.3 3.5 09 2.3 3C.6 10.6 8.5 4.8 38.1 4.1 2.0 1.1 40.5 1.2 6.7 5.2 39.2 t 1 1.2 2.9 44.1 2.9 7.5 7.7 30.4 3.8 0.8 0.9 27.8 9.9 2.0 5.1 29.1 . 1.1 3.3 33.5 17.8 6.2 7.8 25.5 ' ' 6.8 0.9 1.8 37.3 0.6 12.2 6.2 33.5 4.7 2.4 1.3 28.6 2.8 6.6 31.6 23.9 3.2 0.8 1.1 XL FRUITS AND SEEDS OF TREES, ETC. 145 lit; 147 14S M9 150 151 152 (68 154 155 166 Grape seeds . ... 2 2 1 2.81 5.14 28.6 37.6 21.8 22.4 22.8 64.5 58.9 76.4 35.7 54.7 51.9 59.2 Alder White pine Red pine 1 Beech nuts . . 1 3.30 Acorns Horse-chestnut green husk ... . 2 2 1 2.36 4.38 Apple, entire fruit Pear, " " 1 1 Cherry, u " . Plum, " 1 8.6 33.9 24.0 2.5 1.1 1.6 8.0 30.7 13.0 3.4 3.2 7.1 16.8 1.5 39.7 11.7 1.8 15.1 1.9 46.0 10.4 10.0 11.6 24.5 20.8 "2.2 1.9 0.7 5.4 7.0 16.2 2.8 1.1 0.5 11.6 22.4 1.4 0.2 1.0 10.0 6.3 1.4 0.6 '26.1 8.8 4.1 13.6 6.1 4.3 8.5 5.2 8.0 15.3 5.7 1.5 2.2 5.5 7.5 16.0 5.1 9.0 0.5 5.5 10.0 15.1 3.8 2.4 XII. LEAVES OF TREES. 160 Walnut, spring Nil 162 153 Mulberry Horse-chestnut, spring autumn Beech, summer autumn Ii54 Oak, summer 165 autumn 166; Fir, autumn 167 1 Red pine, autumn. . 3.53 7.17 7.52 7.72 7.01 4.83 6.75 4.60 4.90 1.40 5.82 19.6 38.8 19.6 42.7 Oft ft *o.o 18.5 "i'.s 5.2 0.6 33.1 3.5 "6'.6 10.1 1.5 .... 13.5 25.7 21.3 405 26.9 53.7 36.5 44.9 26.1 10.2 23.4 8.2 21.1 4.0 7.8 4.2 8.1 9.9, 41.41 16.4 2.3l 15.2 8.2 33.5 2.9 13.9 1.2 2.0 15.2 33.9 4.4 30.9 13.1 70.1 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 561 COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS AND PRODUCTS. 1 SUBSTANCE. No. OF ANALYSES. 1 PER CENT OF ASH. POTASH. 1 MAGNESIA, 3 PHOSPHORIC ACID. 1 SULPHURIC ACID. 1 1 XIII. WOOD. IfiR ICU 170 171 172 IVo 174 175 1715 177 178 179 180 181 182 18:! 181 185 18(i 187 Grape 8 1 2 2 1 1 9 2.75 1.60 0.31 0.65 1.05 1.45 29.8 6.5 11.6 16.1 15.2 14.1 10.0 19.8 19.4 15.3 14,0 11.4 24.1 21.9 35.8 12.0 5.2 15.3 11.8 15.8 6.7 14.3 5.8 3.4 2.1 2.2 3.6 "0.4 5.6 2.1 13.7 6.0 1.6 26.8 9.9 4.6 7.7 6.8 5.7 8.9 10.8 16.8 108 4,8 7.5 5.2 8.1 7.5 10.1 10.0 7.7 4.2 5.7 6.2 5.9 9.1 24.5 37.3 573 60.0 56.4 45.8 48.0 73.5 54.0 51.0 55.9 58.4 50.8 37.9 47.8 29.9 7,1.0 47.9 50.1 50.1 27.1 12,9 2.2 8.5 5.3 11.6 12.3 5.5 9.3 21.7 12.2 13.1 16.4 9.6 3.3 4.9 4.6 5.1 5.5 5.8 3.fi 2.7 10.3 0.3 1.0 0.7 1.2 1.4 1.6 "3.2 1.5 3.1 5.4 1.3 5.3 2.9 3.0 3.0 2.3 1.7 0.8 3.6 4.8 4.7 6.7 9.8 1.1 3.1 0.7 2.9 2.0 0.7 6.2 3.1 5.3 1.8 2.0 6.0 15.0 3.6 0.8 4.2 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 '7.4 0.3 0.1 0.6 6.7 '7.5 0.2 4.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Mulberry Birch Beech, body-wood . . 44 small wood 41 brush Oak, body-wood ... . 44 email branches with bark Horse-chestnut twigs, autumn... Walnut twigs, autumn 1 1 1 5 'sisi 2.99 Poplar, young twigs Willow, u 44 | Elm. " " 1 Elm body-wood 1 Linden 1 Apple tree 2 1 2 6 1 1.29 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.32 Red pine White pine Larch. . . XIV. BARK. 188 18!) I'.K) 1!)1 1 '.f.' 19:5 191 195 196 Birch 2 1 1.33 3.8 14.7 24.2 11.6 2.2 16.1 5.3 8.0 3.0 5.4 0.4 'io.i 5.7 4.2 3.2 1.0 Beech Hor?e-chestnut, young, autumn . . Walnut " " Elm 1 1 1 6.57 6.40 Linden . . 1 Red pine... 1 1 3 2.81 3.30 2.01 White pine . . Fir... 8.2 0.2 4.0 10.6 3.2 8.0 4.7 3.0 1.4 45.6 57.9 61.3 70.1 72.7 60.8 62.4 69.8 43.7 20.1 18.0 1.1 0.7 8.9 23 15.7 8.4 31.1 1.3 7.2 0.4 7.2 0.2 1.0 0.1 562 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. TABLE II. COMPOSITION or FRESH OB AIR-DRY AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS, giving the average quantity of Water, Sulphur, Ash, and Ash-ingredients, in 1,000 parts of substance, by Prof. WOLFF. d 1 B P SUBSTANCE. g S < 1 HP g^r; Be ~ V d | I < 5 1 1 i J o5 $ CD 1 J 02 Meadow hay. . . Bead ripe hay. . Red clover White clover. . . Swedish clover. Lucern Esparsette Green vetches. . Green oats I. HAT. 17.1 5.0 19.5 66.2 56.5 60.3 46.5 60.0 45.3 73.4 61.8 10.6 15.7 15.2 179 30.9 24.1 3.3 2.3 6.9 6.0 7.1 3.5 2.6 5.0 2.0 7.7 8.5 19.2 19.4 14.8 28.8 14.6 19.3 4.1 3.4 119.7 0.5 141.8 1.7 ,20.5 II. GREEN FODDER. Meadow grass, in blossom Young grass 700 800 23.3 20.7 6.0 11 6 1.6 0.4 1.1 0.6 2.7 22 1.5 22 1.2 08 6.9 2 1 1.9 04 0.6 04 700 21 3 53 09 05 1 6 1 7 08 84 1 1 07 Timothy 700 21.0 61 06 08 20 2.3 8 75 1 i 08 Other grasses 700 21 8 72 0.4 0.6 1 2 1 7 1 82 09 07 Oats, beginning to head 8^0 17.0 7.1 08 06 1.2 1 4 06 4.7 08 03 44 in blossom 770 166 6.5 0.6 05 1 1 1 4 05 55 07 0.4 Barley, beginning to head 750 22.3 86 0.4 07 1 6 2.3 07 70 1 2 05 44 in blossom .... 680 225 59 01 07 14 22 07 108 08 07 Wheat beginrino 1 to head 770 224 78 04 03 1 1 1 7 04 9 4 1 2 0? 44 in blossom . 690 21.7 56 1 05 07 1 6 04 12 3 06 05 Rye fodder 700 16.3 6.3 0.1 05 12 94 02 5 2 Hungarian millet. 680 23 1 86 1 9 25 1 3 08 67 1 5 800 134 46 02 1 6 4 c, 1 3 04 04 5 5 White clover 810 13.6 24 1 1 14 44 20 1 2 06 04 06 Swedish clover 815 10 2 35 02 1 6 32 1 04 1 3 753 17.6 45 02 1 85 1 5 1 i 4 03 08 785 11 6 46 2 07 37 1 2 04 5 03 780 12.3 1.8 0.5 06 85 09 02 04 Green vetches 820 15 7 66 05 1 1 4 i 20 06 03 05 03 44 peas 44 ranej... 815 850 13.7 13.5 5.6 4.4 0.5 1.1 0.6 3.9 3.1 1.8 1.2 0.5 2.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 1.0 0.6 III. ROOT CROPS. Potato 7^0 9.4 56 0.1 0.4 02 1.8 06 09 03 09, Artichoke . 800 103 6 7 03 4 1 6 03 02 Beet 833 80 4 3 1 2 4 04 8 3 02 05 01 Sugar-beet ... 816 8.0 40 0.8 7 05 1 1 04 0.3 02 Turnip 999 7 5 30 8 03 8 1 1 1 02 03 04 White turnip* 915 6.1 3.1 0.2 1 08 1 1 04 0.1 0.4 Kohl-rabi 877 95 49 06 02 09 1 4 08 1 0.5 Carrot. ... 860 8.8 3.2 1.9 0.5 09 1.1 0.6 0.2 03 01 Sugar-beet headst 840 6.5 1.9 1 6 07 06 08 05 1 0.1 800 104 42 08 7 9 1 5 1 06 0.4 * No special variety? t Crowns of sugar-beet roots. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 563 COMPOSITION OF FRESH OR AIR-DRY AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. SUBSTANCE. j , H | S MAGNESIA. 1 1 PHOSPHORIC ACID. 1 SULPHURIC ACID. . u 02 CHLORINE. ja IV. LEAVES AND STEMS OF ROOT CROPS. Beet tops. Sugar-beet tops Turnip tops. . Kohl rabi tops Carrot tops. . . Chiccory tops. .. . Cabbage heads nd of August 825 15.6 93 0.4 2.6 51 1 0.9 1.2 07 rst of October 770 11.8 0.7 0.1 2.7 5.5 06 06 05 4 907 148 43 3 1 1 4 1 7 8 1 i 7 1 7 38 . . 897 180 4.0 3.0 33 36 1 3 14 6 1.0 898 140 32 1 1 06 4 5 1 3 1 4 05 1 2 850 253 3 6 1 1 84 2 6 3 2 6 1 808 26.1 3.7 60 1 2 86 1 2 2 1 1 5 1 9 850 187 11 2 1 6 2 7 1 7 1 7 2 3 885 12 4 6 5 4 1 9 2 1 3 LS... 820 11.6 5.1 O.fi 0.5 1.8 2'.4 0.9 0.2 0.1 V. MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS AND REFUSE. 692 9 3 23 I 2 b. Residue from centrif. machine c Residue of maceration . . 820 885 5.6 4 1 2.6 1 5 0.5 04 Beet molasses 1T5 93.1 66.2 9.8 Molasses slump* .... 907 177 15 9 Raw-beet sugar 43 13.7 4.6 38 Potato slump* . . . .... 947 59 2.7 04 Potuto fibre 4 " 806 1 9 03 Potato skinst 300 67.1 48.3 0.5 Fine wheat flour . 138 4.1 1.5 0.1 142 16 9 6 5 03 Barley our 140 200 5.8 0.5 113 498 94 07 140 9 5 2 7 3 Millet meal 140 11 6 2 3 03 140 62 1 6 04 Wheat bran ..... 135 55.6 133 0.3 Rye bran 131 71 4 19 3 09 Brewer's grains Malt 768 475 12.0 146 0.5 25 0.1 Dried malt 42 26 6 46 Malt sprouts 0-?, 596 208 Wine-gr unds ... 650 161 86 01 600 16 2 80 04 Beer 900 39 1 5 03 Wine. 866 28 1 8 150 560 136 1 Linseed cake 115 52 129 08 Poppy cake . 100 954 198 4 3 136 46.4 154 Cotton-seed cake . . . 115 61.5 21.8 VI. STRAW. 0.5 0.5 0.4 '6.5 0.1 4.5 0.3 1.4 2.7 38 1.4 3.0 0.8 9.4 11.3 1.2 1.2 2.2 0.8 0.5 1.0 0.2 0.2 6.4 8.8 4.1 5.7 26 2.5 2.5 1.4 1.1 5.6 2 1.2 0.4 0.9 6.4 0.1 0.2 0.6 1.2 0.6 0.1 2.6 2.5 1.4 0.5 1.0 0.9 2.5 2.1 0.1 0.2 6.1 4.7 26.8 3.1 2.8 1.0 1.2 0.7 0.3 0.6 'i.2 0.5 2.3 2.1 8.5 9.5 14.4 4.3 5.5 3.0 28.8 34.2 4.6 5.3 0.7 12.5 2.5 3.4 1.3 0.5 20.7 19.4 36.1 20.3 995 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.1 2.0 0.3 3.1 0.4 '6.3 0.6 0.5 1.2 ... ' "6.6 ' 'o.'i 0.2 0.1 1.8 0.1 9.4 0.3 0.8 0.1 1.4 !.'.' 0.6 9 g 0.3 0.1 ' "6.6 0.1 .'.'.'. 0.1 8.8 1.2 0.7 0.1 0.1 1.9 1.9 1.9 0.5 07 3.9 4.8 8.8 17.7 "6.6 0.4 0.1 4.9 3.6 4.6 0.7 2.5 .... 0.1 0.1 0.1 'o.'i 0.3 'o.'i '' Winter rye 154 40.7 76 13 1 3 3.1 1.9 08 987 09 Winter spelt 143 477 53 02 04 23 3.0 0.9 34.1 Summer rye ... 143 47 6 11 1 1 3 4 4 3 1 1.2 26.6 .. Barley .... 140 439 9.3 2.0 1 1 3.3 1.9 1 6 936 1 3 Oats 141 440 97 23 1 8 36 1.8 1.5 21.2 1 7 Maize 140 47.2 16.6 0.5 96 5.0 38 95 17.9 3,9 Peas 143 49 2 10 7 26 88 18.6 3.8 98 98 80 07 Field bean 180 58 4 25 9 22 46 13 5 4.1 0.1 3.1 81 9,9 Garden bean 150 51 5 19 1 3 1 27 14 1 4 1 1.8 2.4 2.7 9 1 * Residue from spirit manufacture. \ Refuse of starch manufacture. $ From boiled potatoes. Refuse from making barley grits. 564 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. COMPOSITION OF FRESH OR AIR-DRY AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. d o o 1 ri t K B Ho P B H b SUBSTANCE. 1 B 1 1 fc w 5 S3 < iS So 3< i; 02 1 3 a b 00 Buckwheat R^pe Poppy VI. STRAW. 160 I 51.7 170 I 38.0 160 66.0 24.1 9.7 25.1 9.5 10.1 19.9 2.81 4.0 2.6 4.7 7.5 1.7 VII. CHAFF. Wheat . .. 138 92.5 8.4 1.7 1 9. 1 9 40 751 08 Spelt . .. 130 827 79 02 2.1 2.0 6.0 1.9 61 4 Barley - 140 122.4 94 1.1 1 6 19,7 94 37 867 Gate . 143 79.0 10.4 38 2.1 7.0 02 2.0 47.3 115 50 24 1 02 02 02 1 1 3 02 1 3 Flax-seed hulls . . 120 58.3 181 25 1 6 17.2 1 6 2.8 1f;,0 36 1.8 VIII. TEXTILE PLANTS, ETC. Flax straw . . 140 31 9 11 8 1.6 2.3 83 43 9,0 2.2 1.5 Rotted flax stems .... 100 21 6 1 9 1 1 2 11 1 1 3 07 30 Flax fiber 100 6 2 2 3 3 8 7 2 3 Entire flax plant 250 323 11 3 1 5 29 50 74 1 6 08 1 9 300 282 5 2 09 2 7 12 2 3 3 08 2 1 7 Entire hop plant .... . . 250 740 194 28 43 11 8 90 3.8 15.9 3.4 120 59 8 223 1 3 21 10 1 9 1 6 9 2 02 Tobacco... 180 197.5 54.1 7.3 20.7 73.1 7.1 7.7 19.0 8.8 Heath , Broom (Spartium) , Fern (Aspidiurri). Scouring rush (Equisetum) Sea- weed (Fucus) Beech leaves , Oak leaves Fir leaves (Pinus sylvestris) Red pine leaves (Pinus picea) Heed(Arundophrag.) Sedgre ( Carex) Rush (Juncus) Bulrush (Sdrpus) IX. LITTER. 36.1 4.8 1.9 3.0 6.8 18.9 6.9 0.5 2.8 3.2 58.9 25.2 2.7 4.5 8.3 204.4 27.0 1.0 4.7 25.6 118.0 17.1 28.3 11.2 116.4 57.4 3.0 0.3 3.4 25.8 41.7 1.5 0.2 1.7 20.2 11.8 1.2 1.1 4.9 48.9 0.7 .... 1.1 7.4 38.5 3.3 0.1 0.5 2.3 69.5 23.1 5.1 2.9 3.7 45.6 16.7 3.0 2.9 4.3 74.4 7.2 7.7 2.2 5.4 l.G 0.7 3.0 12.9 28.3 2.1 1.8 0.0 1.4 1.1 2.8 4.0 12.7 0.8 1.9 0.5 3.6 6.0 110.0 11.7 2.0 11.9 19.5 0.2 12.9 .... 1.5 0.5 34.3 275 21.8 '8.9 5.0 6.5 32.2 3.9, X. GRAINS AND SEEDS OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. Rye 149 17 3 54 3 Barley 145 21.8 4.8 0.6 Oats 140 26 4 4.2 1 Spelt, with husk Maize . ... 148 136 35.8 123 6.2 33 0.6 02 Rice with husk 120 69 12 7 3 1 " husked 130 3.4 08 02 Millet with husk 130 39 1 4 7 4 " hulked 131 123 2.3 0.7 140 160 42 0.5 141 9.2 2.1 0.6 Rape seed 120 37 3 88 0.4 Flax seed 118 32.2 10.4 0.6 Hemp seed . 122 481 9.7 04 PODDV seed . . . 147 52.2 7.1 0.5 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.8 2.1 1.8 5.9 0.5 3.3 23 2.4 1.2 4.6 4.2 2.7 5.0 0.6 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.3 3.5 0.1 0.4 8.2 8.2 7.2 5.5 7.2 5.5 32.6 1.7 9.1 6.6 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 5.9 12.3 15.8 0.3 0.4 01 1.5 1.7 1.4 1.7 1.2 0.1 02 20.5 1.8 0.2 0.3 5.2 2.7 11.3 18.5 8.1 4.4 16.4 13.0 17.5 16.4 '6.2 1.3 0.4 0.1 1.0 1.2 "6'.4 0.4 57 1.7 '6.2 0.1 'o.'i 2.3 ' 8.2 1.7 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 565 COMPOSITION OF FRESH OR AIR-DRY AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 3 1 W ' R| -' 1 Sn p H SUBSTANCE. | . % 4 g w gs 3 I < ^ < 3 S 02 02 Q crj X. GRAINS AND SEEDS OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS. Mnstard seed . 190 37.8 60 29, 39 71 14.7 1 8 09 02 Beet seed 140 48.7 91 84 9.2 7.6 76 20 1 46 190 35.0 77 0.3 3.0 61 14.1 2.5 0.2 120 74.8 143 36 50 990 11.8 42 40 25 Peas 138 24.2 9.8 0.9 1.9 1 9, 88 08 02 0.6 136 20.7 63 9.9. i a 0.6 7.9 0.9 04 02 Field beans 141 296 120 04 20 1 5 11 6 1 5 04 08 148 26.1 11.5 08 90 90 79 1.0 0.2 03 134 17.8 7,7 1 8 04 09 52 09 06 138 34.0 11 4 60 9,1 9,7 8.7 9,3 0.3 0.6 Clover seed 150 36.9 138 02 45 23 124 1.7 09 05 Esoarsette seed . . , 160 37.G 10.8 1.1 2.5 11.9 9.0 1.2 0.3 0.4 XI. FRUITS AND SEEDS OF TREES, ETC. 120 24.7 71 9,1 84 59 06 0.3 Alder " 140 442 166 07 35 136 57 1 5 14 180 27.1 69, 97 31 67 56 06 0.5 560 9.6 62 01 05 07 1.6 0.2 02 " 'dried 158 183 11 8 01 1 1 3 33 05 04 Horse-chestnuts, fresh " green husk Apple, entire fruit Pear u * k .... 492 818 840 800 120 8.0 2.7 4.1 71 6.1 1.0 99, '6.7 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 02 14 0.8 0.1 03 2.7 0.5 0.4 06 0.2 0.1 0.2 09, '6i" 0.1 0.1 Cherry u " 780 43 2.2 01 02 0.3 0.7 02 04 Plum. " " 820 4.0 2.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.1 .... 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.1 XIL LEAVES OF TREES. 670 117 93 1 06 30 1 2 0.1 41 Horse-chestnut, spring autumn 700 600 21.5 30.1 8.3 59 08 24 4.6 122 5.0 9,5 1.3 05 0.6 49, 0.8 1 9 700 23.2 99 1.1 69, 49 0.6 0.3 1 * fc autumn 600 2J.4 76 28 153 1 1 0.8 06 09, 750 12.1 99, 09, 1 1 44 09 04 18 1 550 305 1.6 0.2 1.8 137 1.3 1 1 103 01 700 138 46 1 9 36 1.7 04 06 600 19.6 07 01 08 95 1 6 0.9 61 550 63 0.6 0.6 26 1.3 0.3 0.8 03 Red pine, autumn... 550 26.2 0.4 0.6 4.0 2.1 0.7 18.4 XIII. WOOD. ( AIR-DRY.) 150 23.4 70 1.6 1.6 8.7 3.0 0.6 0.2 0.2 Mulberry .... .. .... 150 13.7 09 9,0 08 7.8 0,3 1.4 0.5 0.6 Birch 150 2.6 0.3 09, 02 1 5 02 0.1 150 5.5 0.9 02 06 3.1 03 01 03 150 89 1 4 02 1 5 41 1 01 06 150 12 3 1 7 03 1 3 59 1 5 01 19 Oak bodv-wood . ... . . 150 5.1 05 02 0,2 3,7 0.3 0.1 0.1 .... 150 10 2 2 08 5 5 09 02 0.3 Horse-chestnut, young wood in | autumn f 150 28.1 5.5 1.5 14.3 5.9 0.2 0.4 Walnut . .... 150 25.5 39 9,0 149, 3.1 0.8 07 0.1 150 11.0 1.3 09, 06 78 05 0,3 0.2 Red piue 150 2.1 01 0,6 0.1 1.0 01 0.1 0.1 ISO 24 04 02 0.1 1.2 0.1 01 02 Fir 150 26 0.3 0.1 09, 1 3 02 0.1 0.4 Larch . . . 150 2.7 0.4 0.2 0.7 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 . .. ... 566 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. COMPOSITION OF FKESH OK AIE-DRY AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. SUBSTANCE. WATER. B < POTASH. I MAGNESIA. H ' PHOSPHORIC ACIT>. 1 SULPHURIC ACID. SILICA. CHLORINE. 1 SULPHUR. XIV. BARK. Birch 150 11-8 04 0.6 0.9 5.9, O.R 0.2 9.3 0.2 Horse-chestnut, young in autumn . Waluut youn" in autumn .... 150 150 55-9 54-4 13-5 6.3 2.2 5.8 34-3 38-1 3-9 a.a 0-6 0-1 0-6 0-4 0-7 0.2 Red pine 150 23-9 1.3 1.0 1.1 14-9 O.H 0-2 3.8 0.1 White nine 150 28-1 9.3 0.9 0.8 19.0 0.7 0-5 3.3 0.3 Fir.... 150 17-1 0-5 0-2 0-2 7-5 1-4 0-1 5-3 TABLE III. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS AND PRODUCTS, giving the average quantities of Water, Organic Matter, Ash, Albumi- noids, Carbohydrates, etc., Crude Fiber, Fat, etc., by Professors WOLFF and KNOP.'* SUBSTANCE. WATER. || I ALBUMI- NOIDS. CARBOHY- DRATES, Exc4 CRUDE FIBRE. fe HAY. Meadow hay, medium quality Aftermath Red clover, full blossom " ripe White clover, fulJ blossom Swedish or Alsike clover (Trifolii " clover, ripe Lucern, young hybriduiri) 14.3 14.3 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 79.5 79.2 77.1 77.7 74.8 75.0 78.3 74.6 8.2 j 41.3 9.5 45.7 13.4 ! 29.9 9.4 ' 20.3 14.9 34.3 15.3 29.2 10.2 23.1 8.7 | 19.7 | 32.9 30.0 24.0 35.8 48.0 25.6 30.5 45.0 22.0 2.0 24 3.2 2.0 3.5 3.3 2.2 3.3 * LandwirthscTiaftticher Kalender, 1867, through Knop's Agricultur-Chemie, 1868, pp. 715-720. This Table is, as regards water and ash, a repetition of Table II, but includes the newer analyses of 1865-7. Therefore the averages of water and ash do not in all cases agree with those of the former Tables. It gives, besides, the proportions of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds, i. e., albuminoids and carbohydrates, etc. It also states the averages of crude fibre and of fat, etc. The discussion of the data of this Table belongs to the subjects of food and cattle-feeding. They are, however, inserted here, as it is be- lieved they are not to be found elsewhere in the English language. t Organic matter here signifies the combustible part of the plant. t Carbohydrates, etc., include fat, starch, sugar, pectin, etc., all in fact of organic mat- ter, except albuminoids and crude fibre. Crude fibre is impure cellulose. II Fat, etc., is the ether extract, and contains, besides fat, wax, chlorophyll, and in some cases resins. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 567 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS AND PRODUCTS. SUBSTANCE. w U 3 S s! 1 H "* ^ pq ^ p s $ K^ OS 1 ^ II M M O S c2 HAY. Sand lucern, early blossom (Medicago intermedia). , . Esparsette in blossom .... ie.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 143 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 143 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 77.2 77.1 76.1 77.3 75.0 76.3 73.8 75.5 77.7 75.8 77.9 81.2 83.3 80.2 80.7 81.1 80.4 79.0 75.8 79.2 81.0 80.3 80.2 80.6 78.6 79.8 78.3 79.9 6.1 6.2 7.2 6.0 8.3 7.0 9.5 7.8 5.6 7.5 7.8 4.5 2.4 5.5 5.0 4.6 5.3 6.7 9.9 6.5 4.7 5.4 5.5 5.1 7.1 5.9 7.4 5.8 15S 13.3 12.2 14.6 14.2 14.3 12.0 7.8 14.6 15.3 8.7 9.7 10.1 9.5 14.8 11.6 9.6 10.6 11.1 10.2 10.4 8.9 9.9 8.9 8.4 6.4 52 9.5 26.9 36.7 30.1 36.5 35.3 36.8 39.8 41.7 29.2 37.2 51.4 48.8 47.2 48.0 35.0 40.7 42.0 39.5 35.3 38.9 37.5 40.2 36.7 39.1 37.6 42.6 42.8 41.7 35.1 27.1 33.8 26.2 25.5 ?5.2 22.0 26.0 as.9 26.1 16.9 22.7 25.9 22.6 31.0 28.9 27.2 29.0 29.4 30.2 33.2 31.2 33.6 32.6 32.6 308 30.3 28.7 Incarnate clover, in blossom (Trifolium incarnatum) Yellow " " " (Medicago lupvlina) Vetches in blossom .... Peas, " " ... Field spurry, in blossom (Spergula arvensis) " " after blossom Serradella, '* " (Ornithopus sativus) " before " Italian rye grass (Lolium italicum) Timothy (PMeum pTdtanse) I i 2 i Early meadow grass (JPoct annucf) Crested dog's-tail ( Cynosurus cristatus) Soft brome grass (Bromus mollis) Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) Barley grass (Hordeitm pTatense) Meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) Oat grass, French rye grass (Arrnenathemm avenaceum) Barter Schw'ngel (Festuca ?) Sweet-scented vernal grass (Anthoxanfhum odoratum) Velvet grass (ffolcus lanatus) Spear grass, Kentucky Blue grass (Poo, pra- tensifi) Rough meadow grass (Poo, trivictlis) Yellow oat grass (Avena jlavescens) .... .... Quaking grass ( Briza media) Average of all the grasses. . . STRAW Winter wheat. " rye . . . " spelt, . " barley Summer barley Oat Vetch fodder Pea Bean Lentil Lupine Maize . . with clover 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 173 14.3 14.2 14.0 82.5 79.7 80.2 78.7 77.7 S0.7 79.7 81.7 77.7 79.2 81.4 CHAFF AND HULLS. Wheat Spelt Rye Barley Oat... Vetch Pea Bean Lupine . . . Rape Maize cobs 14.3 ! 73.7 14.3 77.2 14.3 78.2 14.3 72.7 14.3 67.7 15.0 14.3 15.0 14.3 10.3 10.3 77.0 79.7 77.0 82.9 77.5 83.2 12.0 8.5 7.5 13.0 18.0 8.0 6.0 8.0 2.8 8.5 2.8 2.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 3.0 60 2.5 7.5 6.5 10.2 14.0 4.9 3.0 4.5 2.9 3.5 3.0 4.0 8.5 8.1 10.5 2.5 3.5 1.4 30.2 48.0 27.0 540 27.7 50.5 29.8 48.4 32.7 43.0 34.7 37.5 38.2 40.0 28.2 44.0 35.2 40.0 33.5 34.0 27.2 36.6 34.7 39.0 41.8 40.0 33.2 32.5 36.6 29.5 47.2 40.0 44.0 36.0 41.5 46.5 30.0 34.0 36.0 35.0 37.0 33.0 34.0 37.8 1.4 568 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS AND PRODUCTS. SUBSTANCE. WATER. II | ALBUMI- NOIDS. I II | GREEN FODDER. Grass before blossom 75 ' 22 Q 21 3 ' 129 70 ft a " after " 69.0 29.0 2.0 25 1ft n 11 5 7 Red clover, before blossom . . . 83.0 15.5 1.5 3.3 7 7 45 7 " full " 78.0 20.3 1.7 3 7 86 80 8 White clover full " 805 17 5 20 3 5 80 60 8 Swedish clover, early blossom 85.0 13.5 1 5 33 57 45 6 " " full " 820 16 2 1 8 3 3 63 66 6 Lucern, very young 81.0 17.3 1 7 45 78 50 6 " in blossom 74 940 20 4 5 7 125 7 Sand lucem. early blossom .... 78 20 1 1 9 4 66 95 8 Esparsette m " 80 9 1N r> 1 5 32 88 6 5 6 Incarnate clover, in " (Trlfolium incarnatum). 81.5 16.9 1.6 2.7 67 7.5 06 Yellow clover, in " (Medicago lupulina) Serradella, " " ( Ornit/iopus sativus) 80.0 80.0 18.5 18.7 1.5 1.8 3.5 3.6 9.0 7.0 60 8.1 0.8 0.4 Vetches, " *' 82.0 16.2 1.8 3 1 76 55 6 Peas u u 81 5 170 1 5 3 2 82 56 6 Oats, early blossom 81.0 17.6 1.4 2.3 88 65 *) Rye 729 25.5 1 6 33 14 9 73 9 Maize, late end August .... . 84.3 822 14.6 16 7 1.1 1 t 0.9 1 i 8.7 10 9 5.0 47 0.5 5 li ' early " ^ Hungarian millet, in blossom (Panicum germanicum) 65.6 740 32.0 25 1 2.4 09 5.9 25 15.0 153 115 73 1.5 1 4 Sorcfhum vitlg&re 77.3 21.6 1.1 29 11 9 67 Fiftifl spurvy in blfissoni 800 180 20 23 104 53 7 Cabbage 89.0 9.8 1.2 1 5 6.3 20 4 " stumps 820 16 1 1.9 1 1 122 28 8 Field-beet leaves 905 6.7 1.8 1 9 4.6 13 *, Carrot leaves . . . 82 2 14 2 36 3 2 80 30 1 70 28 2 6 15 5 65 1 5 Artichoke stem 800 173 27 33 106 34 8 Rape leaves..., dry 75.5 245 20.0 47.5 8.0 2.0 ROOTS AND TUBERS. Jerusalem artichoke 80.0 189 1 1 20 15 6 1 3 5 Turnip chervil ? (Koerbelriibe) 76 23 1 09 3 2 17 1 06 Kohl-rabi . . ... .... 88.0 10 8 1 2 23 73 1 2 2 Field beets (about 3 lt,s weight) 880 11 1 09 1 1 9 1 9 1 Sugar beets (1-2 Ibs ) .. ... 81 5 177 08 1 154 1 3 1 Ruta-bagas (about 3 Ibs ) 870 120 1 1 6 93 1 1 1 Carrot (about % Ib ) 850 140 1 1 5 108 Giant carrot (1 2 Ibs ) 870 122 8 1 2 9 8 1 2 2 Turnips (StoppelrBbe) 91 5 77 08 08 59 1 1 Turnips (Turiiipsrube) 920 72 8 1 1 5 1 1 1 Parsnip 88.3 11.0 0.7 1.6 84 1 0^ Pumpkin . . , 94.5 4.5 1.0 1.8 2.-8 1.0 01 GRAINS AND SEEDS. Winter wheat I'M 836 20 Wheat flour 12 6 86 7 7 Spelt . . 148 81 3 3.9 Winter rye 14 3 83 7 2.0 Rye flour . . .... 140 84.4 1.6 Winter barley . . 143 834 23 14 3 83 1 26 Oats 14 3 827 30 Maize. . 14.4 83.5 2.1 13-0 7 11.8 10.0 11.0 10.5 9.0 9.5 12.0 10.0 7.5 | 76.5 67.6 74.1 54.8 65.9 66.6 6C.9 68.0 0.9 0.5 3.0 1.5 0.7 1.2 16.5 1.5 3.5 2.0 1.5 1.6 8.5 2.5 7.0 2.5 10.3 6.0 5.5 7.0 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 569 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF AGRICULTURAL PLANTS AND PRODUCTS. ,g SUBSTANCE. IB S' a ^ H s $ & s IB a| O fc 1 GRAINS AND SEEDS. Millet Buckwheat Vetches Peas Beans (field) Lentils Lupines , Acorns without shell, dry " with " fresh ... Chestnuts without shell, fresh Madia seed Flax seed Hemp seed Poppy seed Horse chestnut 14.0 14.0 14.3 14.3 14.5 14.5 14.5 20.0 56.0 49.2 8.4 12.3 11.0 12.2 14.7 30.0 83.0 83.6 83.4 83.2 82.0 82.5 82.0 78.4 43.0 49.0 86.9 82.7 85.1 83.6 78.3 68.8 3.0 14.5 62.1 6.4 3.0 2.4 9.0 59.6 15.0 2.5 2.3 27.5 49.2 6.7 2.7 2.5 22.4 52.3 9.2 2.5 3.5 25.5 45.5 11.5 2.0 3.0 23.8 52.0 6.9 2.6 3.5 34.5 33.0 14.5 6.0 1.6 5.0 68.8 4.6 4.3 1.0 2.0 36.5 4.5 2.3 1.8 3.0 45.2 0.8 j 2.5 4.7 22.9 46.0 18.0 41.0 5.0 20.5 55.0 7.2 37.0 3.9 19.4 55.4 10.3 40.0 4.2 16.3 55.2 12.1 as.e 7.0 17.5 54.7 6.1 j41.0 1.8 10.5 58.3 4.0 |2.30 REFUSE. 700 26.6 3.4 18 18.5 6.3 09, ^ " u residue from centrifugal machine . . . * fc lt * 4 ** u maceration 82.0 92.6 16.8 66 1.2 08 1.0 0.8 12.2 4.4 3.6 1.4 0.1 01 Potato slump 94.8 46 06 1.0 3.0 0.6 0.1 89.0 105 05 2.1 6.8 1.6 04 89.0 10.5 or> 2.0 7.2 1.3 1 9, Molasses slump 92.0 63 1 7 1.2 5.1 76.6 999, 1 9, 4.9 11.1 6.2 1 6 8.0 85.2 68 23.0 44.7 17.5 95 47 5 50 8 1 7 6.5 39 5 43 1 5 4.2 931 2.7 8.8 76.3 8.0 9,5 Wheat bran 13.1 81 8 51 14.0 50.0 17.8 3.8 12.5 830 4.5 14.5 53.5 15.0 3.5 Rape cake 15.0 776 7,4 28.3 33.5 15.8 9.0 11.5 806 79 28.3 41.3 11.0 10.0 150 78.1 69 28.5 37.1 12.5 85 10.0 81 6 84 32.5 37.7 11.4 8.1 10.5 85.5 4.0 27.0 36.5 22.0 6.2 Beechnut cake 10.0 848 5.2 24.0 313 20.5 7.5 u u without shells 12.5 798 77 37.3 36.9 5.5 7.5 16.7 79,5 108 8.0 64.5 Potato fibre . . . 82.6 17.1 0.3 0.8 15.0 1.3 0.1 COFFEE, TEA. Coffee bean Chocolate bean . Black China tea Green " " 12.0 11.0 15.0 15.0 85.0 79.0 79.0 7.0 | 10.0 4.0 I 20.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 49.0 52.0 32.0 27.0 34.0 112.6 13.0 44.0 40.0 2.0 45.0 2.0 570 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. TABLE IV. DETAILED ANALYSES OF BREAD GRAINS. ill of K P P < n S ! go g < 11 1.81 J 0.76 2.00 0.07 17.33 1.90 0.88 78.01 0.891 0.03 1 _ o lq 0.25 f - 3 ' 19 2.02 J 1.56 1.50 0.05 13.40 1.24 1.05 76.00 2.80 1.81 0.30 15.24 1.01 0.95 Albumen Gliadin an f l Mucidin ( r ') Vegetable Fibrin . Organic acids Fat .... Starch Cellulose Ash 100. 100. 572 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 1 !g| 11 8 88 S'8 11s 88S III IS 8 (jieo-^ coco id ISI II is!?T ^ 13 21s pod d p'p'o pop' di-q i-j T-; o ooo d do' odd o odd >0 OOd MT4TH || S SScS d odd t^op t^c^S 1-1 -o * 10 el - oooid TH i B :8f s^a THO THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 5Y3 iil 8 II ; i 1 sss 8 11 O CO O'* OT-IO CO 111 SP S*3 88 IOOO'TH co'ffi od -Hsy TT O O t*fc do d, d d saaag 000 00 odd d d d SS o'd TH* odd THo'd d odd d< -d ^ 5SS 81 $i oo TH CO CO SO rl<' 5CO THrHC*: t- 55SS ^SS *S r^'S 0< S< O O TH ( -nay OOO 00 omvoao 'rcao saiaoa-.viJ.oaj odd do o ooo ooo oo oo C05t" CO GOOOO 574 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. g 88 S8S 8 8 g saaxxvpf aiaaiosKi ivxoj, HSV asoxoaj asoin'i -733 emv srnng saaag irf 10 11 ! e s 03 5 aiamog ivxoj, sxKaiaaaoKi -HSV aismog -..5 KOIXVNiaKOQ KI saioy 4--QIOV aaaj IOCS o'o 5; T-( TO o c- do d d d TH' d T-; ( oi d t- o o s d d 5 8 5 || Is S. w dsome, rath y delicate, la .s 5 E t[ I i i E c ^ | j | ^ 1 I Large H r 'i|ij g, , i in a I s^i 1 - THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 575 TABLE VII. FRUITS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR CONTENT OF SUGAR (Average). (FRESENIUS.) PER CENT. Peaches 1.6 Apricots 1.8 Plums 2.1 Eeineclaudes 3.1 Mirabelles 3.6 Raspberries 4.0 Blackberries 4.4 Strawberries 5.7 Whortleberries 5.8 PEE CENT. Currants 6.1 Prunes 6.3 Gooseberries 7.2 Red pears 7.5 Apples 8.4 Sour cherries 8.8 Mulberries 9.2 Sweet cherries 10.8 Grapes 14.9 TABLE VIII. FRUITS ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THEIR CONTENT OF FREE ACID EXPRESSED AS HYDRATE OF MALIC ACID (Average). (FRESENIUS.) PER CENT. Red pears 0.1 Mirabelles 0.6 Sweet cherries 0.6 Peaches 0.7 Grapes 0.7 Apples 0.8 Prunes 0.9 Reineclaudes 0.9 Apricots 1.1 PER CENT. Blackberries 1.2 Sour cherries 1.3 Plums 1.3 Whortleberries 1 .3 Strawberries 1.3 Gooseberries 1.5 Raspberries 1.5 Mulberries 1.9 Currants 2.0 TABLE IX. . FRUITS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE PROPORTIONS BE. TWEEN ACID, SUGAR, PECTIN AND GUM, ETC. (Averages). (FRESENIUS.) FRUITS. ACID. SUGAR. PECTIN, GUM, ETC. 1 6 3 1 Apricots . . 1 7 64 Peaches 23 11 9 Raspberries . . .... 27 1 Currants 30 01 Reineclaudes 34 11.8 Blackberries ... . ..... 87 1 2 Whortleberries 4 3 04 Strawberries . . . . ... 44 1 Gooseberries 49 08 Mulberries 49 1.1 Mirabelles . . . ... 62 99 Sour cherries 6 9 1 4 Prunes 70 44 Apples 11 2 56 Sweet cherries . 173 2.8 Grapes 202 20 Red pears 946 444 5T6 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. TABLE X. FRUITS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE PROPORTIONS BE- TWEEN WATER, SOLUBLE MATTERS, AND INSOLUBLE MATTERS (Averages). (FRESENius.) FRUITS. WATER. SOLUBLE MATTERS. INSOLUBLE MATTERS. Raspberries 100 9 1 69 Blackberries . . . 100 93 6.5 Strawberries 100 94 52 Plums 100 9.7 0.9 Currants 100 11 66 Whortleberries 100 12.1 16.9 Gooseberries 100 122 36 Mirabelles 100 13.0 1.5 Apricots . 100 133 2 1 Red pears ... .... 100 143 5.5 Peaches 100 14 6 2 1 Prunes .... 100 15.3 3.2 Sour cherries 100 16 5 1 3 Mulberries 100 166 1.5 Apples 100 16 9 3 6 Re'neclaudes .... 100 185 1.2 Cherries 100 186 1 5 Grapes 100 22.8 5.8 TABLE XI. PROPORTION OF OIL IN VARIOUS AIR-DRY SEEDS. (According to BERJOT.) (KNOP'S Agncultur-Chemie, p. 725.) (The air dry seeds contain 10-12 per cent, of hygroscopic water.) Colza, common . 40-45 " Schirmraps 44 " red India 40 " white 40 Flax 34 Poppy , 40-30 Sesame : 53 Mustard, white 30 black 29 Hemp 28 Peanut 38 Gold of Pleasure. .. 35 Watermelon 36 Charlock . . 15-42 Orange Colocynth . . . Cherry Almond Potato Buckthorn... Currant Beechnut . . . . THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 577 TABLE XII. ARTIFICIAL FRUIT ESSENCES. The following table shows the number of parts of each ingredient to be added to 100 parts of alcohol (all chemically pure). (DINGLEK'S Polytechnic Journal) SUBSTANCE. PEACH. < g S3 A CHEBBY. BLACK CHEBBY. LEMON. PS 1 O 1 I g B RASPBEBBY. STBAWBEBBY. MELON. PINEAPPLE. Glycerine f> 4 s 9 5 10 10 4 10 4 I 3 | Chloroform 1 1 ? 1 1 Nitric ether 1 1 1 1 Aldehyde 5 ? 1 1 2 1 Acetate of ethyl 5 5 | io 10 5 5 1 5 5 5 Formiate of ethvl 5 1 1 9 1 1 1 Butyrate of ethyl 5 10 o ] I 5 4 r, Valerianate of ethel f) 5 5 r , 5 1 1 -( CEuanthylate of ethel -> 1 4 1 2 10 1 1 -\ 1 10 Salicylate of methyl ... ? ? 1 1 t 1 Acetate of amyl 10 10 1 g Butyrate of amyl 1 1 i 10 Valerianate of amyl 10 10 Essence of orange . ... 10 Alcoholic "] Tartaric acid 10 1 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 S 1 1 the cold of J Benzoic acid 1 2 1 578 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. GLYCERINE AS A SOLVENT. Klever has estimated the solubilities of a number of sub- stances in glycerine. The following are his results. At the ordinary temperature, 100 parts of glycerine dissolve : 98 parts of Sodic carbonate. 16 parts of Ferrous lactate. 60 Sodic borate. 15 Oxalic acid. 50 Potassic arseniate. 10 Cupric acetate. 50 Sodic arseniate. 10 Benzoic acid. 50 Zincic chloride. 10 Boracic acid. 50 Tannin. 10 Baric chloride. 50 Urea. 8 Sodic dicarbonate. 40 Alum. 8 Ferrous tartrate. 40 Potassic iodide. 7.5 " Mercuric chloride. 40 Zincic iodide. 6.7 " Cinchoninic sulphate. 35 Zincic sulphate. 5.5 " Tartar emetic. 33 Potassic cyanide. 5 Calcic polysulphuret. 30 Cupric sulphate. 4 Strychnic nitrate. 27 Mercuric cyanide. 3.5 " Potassic chlorate. 25 Potassic bromide. 3 Atropin. 25 Ferrous sulphate. 2.25 " Brucin. 22.5 " Strychnic sulphate. 1.90 " Iodine. 20 Morphinic acetate. 1 Veratriu. 20 Plumbic acetate. 0.50 " Cinchonin. 20 Arsenious acid. 0.50 " Quinin. 20 Arsenic acid. 0.45 " Morphin. 20 " Ammonic carbonate. 0.25 " Quininic tannate. 20 Sodic chlorate. 0.25 " Strychnin. 20 Hydroammonic chlorate. 0.20 " Phosphorus. 20 Hydromorphinic chlorate. 0.10 " Sulphur. , FORMUL/t OF FREQUENTLY OCCURRING SUBSTANCES. Acrolein C 3 H 4 0. Alcohol C 2 H 6 (Ethylic). Alizarin C IO H 6 3 ,2H 2 (Strecker). Aniline C 6 H 5 ,H 2 N. Antichlor Na 2 S 2 3 (Hyposulphite). Anthracene or paranapthalin C, 4 H I0 (Anderson). Argols KHC 4 H 4 6 (Bitrartrate). THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 579 Asparagin -, . .C 4 H 8 N 2 3 ,H 2 0. Atropia C I7 H 23 N0 3 (Planta). Ball soda, 1st product in making. . . Na 2 C0 3 . Barilla Na 2 C0 3 (crude). Bleaching powder or Javelle water . CaCl 3 4- CaCl 2 2 . Benzol C 6 H 6 . Caftein or thein C 8 H IO N 4 2 ,H 2 (Strecker). Calamine ZnC0 3 . Calomel HgCl. Camphor C, H, e^* Cellulin or cellulose C , 8 H 30 , 5 . Chalk.. CaC0 3 . Chloral or trichoraldehyd C 2 C1 3 HO. Chloraniline. . . (C 6 H 4 C1)H 2 N. Chloroform CHC1 3 . Cinchonia C 20 H 24 N 2 0. Cinnabar HgS. Codeia C , 8 H 2 , N0 3 . Copperas or green vitriol FeS0 4 . Corrosive sublimate HgCl^. Cream of tartar. . . KHC 4 H 4 6 . Creasote or kreasote C I2 H , 6 2 ?(Gorup-Besanez) Dextrin.- C 6 H I0 5 . Dextrose or grape sugar C 6 H I2 6 ,H 2 0. {{C H VH "v V U 3 M 5J ) (C, 8 H 3 50) > 3 . H ) Elayl or olefiant gas C 2 H 4 . Epsom salts MgS0 4 ,7H 2 0. Green vitriol FeS0 4 . Fire damp or light carburetted ) ^ H hydrogen ' . . 3 Fruit sugar or Isevulose C 6 H , 2 6 . Fusel oil or amylic alcohol C 5 H , 2 0. Glycerin C 3 H 8 3 . Glauber salts Na 2 S0 4 ,10H 2 0. 580 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Grape sugar dextrose C 6 H I2 6 ,H 2 0. Gun-cotton or pyroxylin C, 8 H 2I ,9N0 2 ,0| 5 (Hadow). Hsematein C 16 H I2 6 . Javelle water, or bleaching powder. CaCl 2 + CaCl 2 2 . Kreasote I*?' 2 "" *- ( (Gorup-Besanez). Lactose, or sugar of milk C , 2 H 24 , 2 . Lsevulose, or fruit-sugar C 6 H , 2 6 . Leucine C 6 H I3 N0 2 . Malt sugar C 6 H , 2 6 . Marsh gas CH 4 . Meerschaum 2MgO,3Si0 2 .4H 2 0. Morphia C I7 H I9 N0 3 . Naphthalin C , H 8 . Narcotin C 22 H 23 N0 7 . JSTitroglycerin C 3 H 5 (N0 2 ) 3 03. Nitre KN0 3 . !N"ux vomica, or strychnia C 2 , H 22 N 2 2 . Olefiant gas C 2 H 4 . Palmatin C 5 , H 98 6 (Berthelot). Paraffin a?(CH 2 ). Pearlash (crude potassic carbonate) . K 2 C0 3 . ( Fe 7 Cy lfi ,18H 2 0= Prussian blue ] 7 Jn Fe 4 Fcy 3 ,18H 2 0. f r e 7 Cy, 8 ,Fe 2 3 ,a;K 2 = Fe 4 Fcy 3 ,Fe 2 3 ,a?H 2 0. Turnbull's blue, or ferrous | Fe 5 Cy, 2 ,ccH 2 = ferricyanide \ Fe 3 Fdcy 2 ,xH 2 0- Williamson's blue, or ferro- ) Fe 2 KCy 6 ,a?H 2 0= potassic ferricyanide f FeK,Fdcy,ccH 2 0. . j Sn"Au 2 Sn 2 6 4H 2 0. Purple of cassms \ ( (Figuier.) Pyroxylin, or gun-cotton C I8 H 21 ,9N0 2 ,0 , 5 (Hadow). Quick-lime CaO. Quinia C 20 H 24 N 2 2 ,3H 2 0. Eochelle salts KNaC 4 H 4 6 ,4H 2 0. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 581 Rosaniline .'C 20 H I9 N 3 ,H 2 0. Salalembroth. 6H 4 NCl,HgCl 2 .H 2 0. Salammoniac H 4 NC1. Salenixum, or bisulphate of potash. KHS0 4 . Salgem, or rock salt NaCl. Salprunella, or fused nitre KN0 3 . Salt cake Na 2 S0 4 . Salt of sorrel H 2 C 2 4 ,2H 2 0. Saltpetre KN0 3 . Scheele's green CuHAs0 3 . Schweinfurt green 3CuAs0 4 ,Cu2C 2 H 3 2 . Spelter, or zinc Zn. Soapstone, or French chalk MgO,Si0 2 .2MgO,3Si0 2 . Steatite, or soapstone MgO,Si0 2 .2MgO,3Si0 2 . Stearin C 57 H M0 6 (Berthelot). Strychnia C 2I H 22 N 2 2 . Sucrose, or cane-sugar C , 2 H 22 , , . Tartar emetic 2[C 4 H 4 K(SbO)0 6 ].H 2 0. Toluol C 7 H 8 . Triolein C 57 H I04 6 . Tripalmatin C 5 , H 98 6 . Tristearin C 57 H, I0 6 . Zylol C 8 H I0 . FORMULA OF THE FREQUENTLY OCCURRING ACIDS. Acid Acetic HC 2 H 3 2 . " Acrylic HC 3 H 3 2 . " Antimonic H 5 Sb0 5 . u Antimonous HSb0 2 . " Apocrenic H 2 C 24 H , 2 , 3 ? (Mulder). " Arsenic H 3 As0 4 . " Arsenous H 3 As0 3 . " Aspartic HC 4 H 6 N0 4 . " Basic (stearic) H C, 8 H 35 P . 1 > ) 582 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Acid Benzole .................. HC 7 H 5 2 . " Bismuthic ................. HBi0 3 . " Boric ..................... H 3 B0 3 . " Bromic ................... HBr0 3 . " Butic ..................... C 20 H 40 2 (Heintz). " Butyric ................... HC 4 H 7 2 . " Camphoric ................ H 2 C IO H I4 4 . " Capric (rutic) .............. HC IO H , 9 2 . " Caproic ................... HC 6 H,,0 2 . " Caprylic ................... HC 8 H , 5 2 . " Carbolic (pkenic) ........... HC 6 H 5 0. 61 Carbazotic (picric-trinitro- , . N phenic) " Carbonic .................. H 2 C0 3 . " Carminic .................. C , 4 H , 4.0 8 . " Citric ..................... H 3 C 6 H 5 7 ,H 2 (Liebig). " Chloric .................... C10 2 (OH). u Chlorous ................. .CIO(OH). " Chromic .................. H 2 Cr0 4 . " Diphosphoric .............. H 4 P 2 7 . " Gallic .................... H 3 C 7 H 3 5 ,H 2 0. " Gljcolic .................. HC 2 H 3 3 . " Hippuric .................. HC 9 H 8 N0 3 . " Hydrobromic .............. H Br. " Hydrochloric ...... .......... HC1. " Hydrocobalticyanic ......... H 3 CoCy 6 " Hydroferricyanic ........... H 3 FeCy 6 . " Hydroferrocyanic ........... H 4 FeCy 6 . " Hydrofluoric .............. HF. " Hydriodic ................. HI. " Hydrosulphocyanic ......... HCyS. " Hydrosulphuric ............ H 2 S. " Hypobromous ............. H BrO. " Hypochlorous .............. Cl(OH). " Hypoiodous ................ H 10. " Hyposulphurous ..... ....... H 2 S0 2 . THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 583 Acid lodic H I0 3 . " Kresylic HC 7 H 7 0. " Lactic HC 3 H 5 3 . " Malic H 2 C 4 H 4 5 . " Meta-gallic C 6 H 4 2 . " Meta-phosphoric H P0 3 . " Meta-stannic H 2 Sn0 3 . " Meta-silicic H 2 Si0 3 . " Meta-tartaric H 2 C 4 H 4 6 . " Myristic . . HC, 4 H 27 2 . " Nitric HN0 3 . " Nitrous HN0 2 . Oleic HC, 8 H 33 2 . " Palmitic HC I6 H 3I 2 . " Pentathionic H 2 S 5 6 , " Perchloric C10 3 (OH). " Perchromic H 2 O 2 8 . " Periodic HI0 4 . " Permanganic H 2 Mn 2 8 . " Phenic (carbolic) HC 6 H 5 0. " Phosphoric H 3 P0 4 . " Picric (carbazotic) H,C 6 H 2 (N0 2 ) 3 0. " Pyrocitric H 2 C 5 H 4 4 . Pyrogallic C 6 H 6 3 . " Pyroligneous HC 2 H 3 2 . " Pyrotartaric H 2 C 4 H 4 6 ,H 2 0. " Eacemic H 2 C 4 H 4 6 ,H 2 0. " Saccharic H 2 C 6 H 8 8 . " Silicic (ortho) H 4 Si0 4 . " Stannic (ortho) H 4 Sn0 4 . " Stearic ..HC I8 H 35 2 . '" Succinic H 2 C 4 H 4 4 . " Sulphantimonic H 3 SbS 4 . " Sulphocarbonic H 2 CS 3 . " Sulphosulphuric H 2 S 2 3 . " Sulphuric H 2 S0 4 . 584 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Acid Sulphurous H 2 S0 3 , 14 aq. " Tetrathionic H 2 S 4 6 . " Trithionic H 2 S 3 6 . " Tannic C 27 H 22 , 7 (Strecker). " Tartaric H 2 C 4 H 4 6 . " Uric or lithic H 2 C 5 H 2 N 4 3 . " Valeric or valerianic HC 5 H 9 2 . ARTIFICIAL FORMATION OF ORGANIC BODIES. 1828. Urea. (Wohler.) 1831. Formic acid. (Pelouze.) 1846. Marsh gas. (Melsens.) 1847. Acetic acid. (Dumas, Malaguti, and Le Blanc.) 185T. Cinnamic acid. (Bertagnini.) 1857. " " (Harnitz Harnitzky.) 1858. Formic acid, ethylene, marsh gas, and acetylene. (Berthelot.) 1858. Acetic and propionic acids. (Wanklyn.) 1859. Glycols. (Wurtz.) 1860. Malic and tartaric acid. (Kekule, Perkin and Duppa.) 1861. Gallic acid. (Lauteman.) 1861. Sugar and formic acid. (Boutherow.) 1861. Formic acid. (Kolbe.) 1862. Alcohol. (Wurtz.) 1862. Amylene. (Wurtz.) 1862. Amine from lower cyanides. (Mendms.) 1863. Lactic acid. (Wislecenius.) 1863. Diatomic acids. (Lippeman.) 1863. Leucic " (Frankland.) 1863. MaJonic (Kolbe and Muhler.) 1863. Carballylic (Maxwell Simpson.) 1863. Isomer of Rutylic alcohol. (Boutherow.) 1864. Secondary butylic alcohol. (Lieben.) 1864 and 1865. Fatty and aromatic series of acids. (H. Hainitzky.) THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 585 1864 and 1S65. Toluene and Xylene. ' (Fittig and Tollens.) 1865. Aceconitic acid. (Bseyer.) 1865. Butyric and Caproic acid. (Franldand.) 1865. Isomer of tartaric acid. (Schogen.) 1866. Toluic acid. (Kekule.) 1867. Oxalic and malonic acids. (Berthelot.) 1868. Neurine. (Wurtz.) 1869. Picolin. (Schiff.) 1870. Oil of Eue. (Gorup-Besanez.) 1870. Alizarine. (Graebe, Linderman, etc.) ALCOHOLS. MONATOMIC ALCOHOLS. First series, C 2n H2n+2 + 2O 2 (fatty group). Methyli c alcohol, or wood spirit, hydrate of methyl (Taylor, 1812 ; Dumas and Peligot, 1835) ............ v .......... C 2 H 4 O 2 Vinous alcohol, or ordinary alcohol, hydrate of ethyl. . ........ C 4 H 6 O 2 Propylic alcohol, or hydrate of trityle (Chancel, 1853) ........ C 6 H 8 O 2 Butylic alcohol, or hydrate of tetryle (Wurtz, 1852) ........... C 8 H 10 2 Amylic alcohol, or hydrate of pentyle (Scheele, 1785 ; Cahours and Balard, 1830) . ........................ . ........... Cj H 1 2 O 2 Caproic alcohol, or hydrate of hexyle (Faget, 1852) ........... C , 2 H , 4 O 2 GEnanthylic alcohol, or hydrate of heptyle (Faget, 1862) ...... C, 4 H 1 6 O 2 Caprylic alcohol, or hydrate of octyle (Bouis, 1851) ........... C, gHj 8 O 2 Rutic or capric alcohol, or hydrate of decyle ................. C 20 H 22 O 2 Cetylic alcohol, or hydrate of cetyl (Chevreul, 1823 ; Dumas and Peligot, 1836) ................................... C :J2 H 34 O 2 Cerofcic alcohol, or eerie, or hydrate of ceryle (Brodie, 1848). . . C 54 H S6 O 2 Melissic, or inyricic alcohol, or hydrate of myricile (Brodie, 1848) ................................................ C 60 H 62 2 Second series, Acetylenic, or vinylic alcohol (Berthelot, 1860) ............... C 4 H 4 O 2 Allylic alcohol, or hydrate of allyle (Cahours and Hoffmann, 1856) ................................................ C 6 H 6 O 2 Menthic alcohol ........................................... C 20 H 2Q O 2 Third series, CsnHsn-aOs. Campholic alcohol, or Borneo camphor (Pelouze, 1840) ........ C 20 Hj 8 O 2 586 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. Fourth series, CsJEEgn-eOa (aromatic series). Benzyl alcohol, or hydrate of benzyl (Cannizaro, 1853) Ci 4 H 8 O 2 Toluic, or tollylic alcohol (Cannizaro, 1853) C x 6 Hi O 2 Cumylic alcohol, or hydrate of cumyl (Kraut, 1854) G 20 ^-i 4 3 Syroceric alcohol, or hydrate of syroceryle (Warren de la Rue, Muller, 1859) C 36 H 30 O 2 Fifth series, C 2 nH 2 n-&0.2. Cinnamic alcohol, or styrone, hydrate of cinnamyle (Simon, 1839) C 18 H 10 2 Cholesteric alcohol, or cholchesterine (Conradi, 1775) C 32 H 24 O 2 DIATOMIC ALCOHOLS, OR GLYCOLS. Ethylic glycol, or hydrate of the oxide of ethylene (Wurtz, 1856) C 4 H 6 4 Propylic glycol, or hydrate of the oxide of propylene (Wurtz, 1856) C 6 H 8 4 Butyl glycol, or hydrate of the oxide of butylene (Wurtz, 1856) C s H 10 4 Amyl glycol, or hydrate of the oxide of amylene (Wurtz, 1856) C JO H 12 4 Hexylglycol, or hydrate of oxide of hexylene (Wurtz, 1854).. . C, 2 H! 4 4 Capryl glycol, or hydrate of the oxide of octylene (De Cler- mont, 1865) C 16 H 18 O 4 Saligenine (Piria, 1845) , C, 4 H 8 O 4 Anise alcohol (Cannizaro and Bertagnini) Cj 6 H j O 4 TRIATOMIC ALCOHOLS. Glycerin (Scheele, 1779 ; Berthelot, 1860) C 6 H 8 O 6 Amylglycerin (Bauer, 1863) d H, O 6 TETRATOMIC ALCOHOLS. Propylphycite (Carius, 1866) C 6 H 8 O 8 Erythrite (De Luynes, 1862) , C 8 H, O 8 HEXATOMIC ALCOHOLS. Mannite (Proust, 1806) C, 2 H, 4 0, 2 Glucose (Lowitz, 1790 ; Proust, 1802) , C I2 H, 2 0, 2 Inosite (Scheerer, 1850) C 12 H 12 O 12 Finite (Berthelot, 1853) C, 2^ 4 0, 2 Quercite (Braconnot, 1849) Cj 2 H, 4 0, 2 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 587 ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS. (BY HASWELL.) SUBSTANCE. 6 55 50 3.7 84.3 75 79.3 92.2 80 88.8 74.3 50 88.9 90 10 67 66 87 86 67.2 80 90 93 93 91.4 65.1 40 4 80 69 72 87.5 33.3 40.4 49.5 81.6 77 80 87.5 77.4 60 56 66 50 66.6 33.4 7^4 69.8 73 1 N 24 2.5 572 25 6.4 20 11.2 22.3 31 2.8 80~ 33 34 13 11.1 31.2 5.5 19 3 25.4 5.6 S3~4 25.4 24 7 40~ 45 21 7.4 25.8 12.3-j t g B 21 40 19 13 31.6 q 3 ANTIMONY. BISMUTH. SILVER. li !" 1 1 ARSENIC. 275 89 10.5 14.3 7.8 3.4 8.3 10 10 25 2.9 1.6 20 10 7 7 1.4 2.6 10.1 31 26.5 12.5 1874 23 20 12.5 15.6 86 80 22 29 33.4 66.6 28T4 4.4 Magne Sal-am Argentiferous 2.5 1.7 4.3 75 7.3 25 25 leT? 14 20 15.5 56.8 Cre Qui 25 2.48 ftart le . 12 2.5 - Baubitt's metal ... .... " " hard " mathematical instruments kt pinchbeck .... u red tombac u rolled " tutenao- . . " very tenacious " wheels, valves u wire. u yellow fine . .. Britaiiuia metal " when fused, add ' ' red .... " yellow u cymbals 1.5 2.6 2.5 if- " gun metal, large ' k small " medals .... " statuary Chinese silver Chinese white copper Church bells u u Clock bells 33.3 31.6 24 sia . . . monia 8.3 isTs imo cklic ir6., . l.J Clock?, musical bells German silver u u fine .... Gon^s House bells Lathe bushes .... Machinery bearings " hard Metal that expands in cooling. . Pewter, best ... 20 80 69 .4.4 C2.5 12 ixes. Printin** characters Sheathin 01 metal . . . Speculum " Telescopic mirrors Temper Type and stereotype plates White metal " hard Oroide 588 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ALLOYS FOR SOLDERS. Melts F. Newton's fusible 8Bi + 5Pb + 3Sn 212. Rose's " 2Bi + lPb+lSn 201. A more " 5Bi + 3Pb + 2Sn 199. Stillmore " 12Sn + 25Pb + 50Bi + 13Cd. . . 155. For tin solder, coarse ISn + 3Pb 500. " ordinary 2Sn + lPb 360. For brass, soft spelter ICu + IZn 550. Hard, for iron 2Cu + IZn 700. For steel 19Sn + 3Cu + lZn For fine brass work ISn + 8Cu + 8Zn. Pewter soft solder IBi + IPb + 2Sn. Gold solder 24Au + 2Sn + lCu. Silver solder, hard 4Sn + ICu. " " soft 2Sn + 1 brass (wire). For lead 16Sn + 33Pb. FLUXES FOR SOLDERING OR WELDING. Iron Borax. Tinned iron Resin. Copper and brass Sal-ammoniac. Zinc Chloride of zinc. Lead Tallow or resin. Lead and tin pipes Resin and sweet oil. AMALGAMS. GOLD. One weight of mercury amalgamates with two weights of gold. SILVER. 10 silver to 19 mercury. 7 " " 20 TIN. 1 tin to 3 mercury, for looking-glasses. 1 tin, 1 lead, 2 bismuth, 10 mercury, for glass-globes. 1 tin, 1 zinc, 3 mercury, for rubbers in electric machines. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 589 TABLE. (BY H. SPBENGEL, PH.D.) Showing the total amount of oxygen, and the oxygen available for com- bustion, in a few oxygen compounds. NAME. FORMULA. TOTAL O IN 100. AVAIL- ABLE O IN 100. H 3 2 H 3 HNO a N 2 5 C0 2 Li 2 3 H l&. < safe HC1O 4 C 3 H 5 (N0 2 ) 3 3 NH 4 N0 8 C 6 H 7 (N0 2 ) 3 5 NaNO 3 C 8 (N0 2 ) 3 N C 4 H 6 4 C 2 H 4 8 C 3 H 8 3 SiO, H 4 N CO,HN0 3 C 6 ~H 10 5 C C H 3 (N0 2 ) 3 KaN0 3 KaC10 3 CNHO I C 3 N 3 H 3 3 1 CnNnH n O n f C 3 H 3 N 3 J MnO 3 C 6 H 4 N 2 ,HNO 3 C 6 H 5 (N0 2 ) I a 5 C 6 H 6 O C 2 Hg(N0 8 )N C m H u O p 94.1 88.8 76.2 74.0 72.7 71.1 71.1 69.5 65.3 65.3 63.6 63.4 60.0 59.3 56.4 54.5 54.2 53.3 52.2 51.9 51.4 49.4 48.9 47.5 39.2 37.2 36.7 28.7 26.2 23.9 17.1 11.2 10.0 47.0 63.5 74.0 85.5 69.5 65.3 ? 55.7 42.3? 50.0? 32.3? 47.0 54.5 13.5? ? ? 32.5 ? 41.9 39.6 39.2 ? 18.3 23.9 26.2 23.9 ? 11.2 ? Water Nitric anhydride Carbonic acid ... . . . Peroxide of lithium ? Oxalic acid . ' Nitric peroxide . Tetranitromethane Sulphuric acid Perchloric acid Trinitroglycerin Nitrate of ammonia Nitrate of sodium TrinitroacetouitriJ Peroxide of acetyl Glycerin . Silica Nitrate of urea Cellulose Picric acid Nitrate of potassium Chlorate of potassium Cyanic acid Cyanuric acid ... Cyamelide Fulminuric acid . Peroxide of manganese. . . . Nitrate of diazobenzine Nitrobenzine ....... Phenol Fulminating mercury Charcoal . . . 590 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. THE OLD NAMES FOR A FEW SALTS. SALT (AMMONIACAL, FIXED). Calcic chloride. " (AMMONIACAL, SECRET) of Glauber. Ammonic sulphate. " (ARSENICAL, NEUTRAL) of Macquer. Potassic hydric arseuate. " (BITTER CATHARTIC). Magnesium sulphate. " (COMMON). Sodic chloride. " (DIGESTIVE) of Sylvius. Potassic acetate. " (EPSOM). Magnesic sulphate. " (FEBRIFUGE) of Sylvius. Potassic chloride. " (FUSIBLE). Aminonic phosphate. " (FUSIBLE) of Urine. Ammonio-sodic phosphate. " (GREEN). In the mines of Wieliczka the workmen give this name to the upper stratum of native salt, which is rendered impure by a mixture of clay. " (MARINE). Sodic chloride. " (MARINE, ARGILLACEOUS). Aluminic chloride. " (MICROCOSMIC). Ammonio-sodic phosphate. (NITROUS AMMONICAL). Ammonic nitrate. " OF AMBER. Succinic acid. " OF BENZOIN. Benzoic acid. " OF CANAL. Magnesic sulphate. " OF COLCOTHAR. Ferrous sulphate. " OF EGRA. Magnesic sulphate. " OF LEMONS (essential). Potassic hydric oxalate. " OF SATURN. Plumbic acetate. " OF SEDLITZ. Magnesic sulphate. " OF SEIGNETTE. Potassio-sodic tartrate. " OF SODA. Sodic carbonate. " OF SORREL. Potassic hydric oxalate. " OF TARTAR. Potassic carbonate. " OF VITRIOL. Purified zinc sulphate. " OF WISDOM. Ammonio-mercuric chloride. " (PERLATE). Disodic orthophosphate. " (POLYCHREST) of Glaser. Potassic sulphate. " (SEDATIVE). Boracic acid. " (SPIRIT OF). Hydrochloric acid was formerly called by this name, which it still retains in commerce. (SULPHUREOUS) of Stahl. Potassic sulphite. (WONDERFUL). Sodic sulphate. " (WONDERFUL, PERLATE). Disodic orthophosphate. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 591 TABLE SHOWING THE INDEX OF REFRACTION OF A FEW SUBSTANCES. INDEX or REFRACTION. (FOWNES.) SUBSTANCE. Tabasheer* 1.10 Ice 1 .30 Water 1 34. Fluor-spar 1 40 Plate glass 1 50 Rock crystal , . 1.60 Chrysolite 1 59 Carbon disulpliide 1.70 Garnet 180 Glass (with much plumbic oxide) 1 90 Phosphorus 2 20 Diamond 3 50 Plumbic chromate 3.00 Cinnabar 3 20 ELECTRICITY. (NYSTROM.) ELECTRO-CHEMICAL ORDER OF SIMPLE SUBSTANCES. ELEC TEO-PO SITIVE . Potassium. Sodium. Lithium. Barium. Strontium. Calcium. Magnesium. Aluminium. Uranium. Manganese. Zinc. Iron. Nickel. Cobalt. Cadmium. Lead. Tin. Bismuth. Copper. Silver. Mercury. Palladium. Platinum. Gold. Hydrogen. Silicon. Titanium. Tellurium. Antimony. Carbon. Boron. Tungsten. Molybdenum. Vanadium. ORDER OF COM- POUNDS. ELECTRO-POSITIVE. Chromium. Fur. Arsenicum. Phosphorus. Iodine. Smooth glass. Woolen cloth. Feathers. Bromine. Wood. Chlorine. Fluorine. Paper. Silk. Nitrogen. Selenium. Sulphur. Oxygen. ELECTRO-NEGATIVE. Lac. Rough glass. Sulphur. Cotton. ELECTRO-NEGATIVE. In chemical formulas the electro-positive substance is placed first, and the negative last. Oxygen, being the substance most electro-negative, combines with the most electro- positive substance in the couple, and the force liberated by the oxidation, or that which kept the oxidated substance solid, forms the electricity. No electricity can be formed without the consumption of some force or substance. The substances are arranged in their order of positive and negative electricity. The substance is positive to either one below it, and negative to any one above. The exciting fluid to be diluted sulphuric acid. Other fluids cause some difference in the order, depend- ing upon the different chemical affinity between the fluid and the substances in the gal- vanic couple. * A silicious deposit in the joints of the bamboo. 592 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. ORDER OF CONDUCTING POWER FOR ELECTRICITY. Metals, best conduc- Living animals. Phosphorus. Dyed silk. tors. Steam. Lime. Bleached silk. Well-burnt charcoal. Salts soluble in wa- Dry chalk. Raw silk. Plumbago. ter. Caoutchouc. Diamond. Concentrated acids. Rarefied air. Camphor. Mica. Powdered charcoal. Vapor of alcohol. Silicions stones. All vitrifications. Diluted acids. Moist earth and Dry marble. Glass. Saline solutions. stones. Porcelain. Jet. Metallic ores. Powdered glass. Baked wood. Wax. Animal fluids. Flower of sulphur. Dry gases and air. Sulphur. Sea water. Dry metallic oxides. Leather. Resins. Spring water. Oils, the heaviest Parchment. Amber. Rain water. the best. Dry paper. Shellac. Ice above 13 Fahr. Ashes. Feathers. Gutta-percha, the Snow. Transparent crystals. Hair. worst conductor Living vegetables. Ice below 13 Fahr. Wool. of all. Velocity of electricity through the best conductors is equal to that of light through plane- tary space about 200,000 miles per second. When the conductor is insulated with a solid non-conducting substance, like gutta-percha, and immersed in water as a submarine cable, the velocity may be reduced to only 20,000 miles per second, or less. The substances are set up in their order of conducting power for electricity. The con- ducting power of substances for heat appears to be in the same proportion as that lor elec- tricity. The poor conductors for electricity are called insulators, and employed between good conductors to stop the flow or passage of the electric fluid. POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES.* As poisoning may and does often occur from accident or design, it is well for every person to make himself familiar, if not with the proper antidote (for every poison has its antidote), with some necessary preliminary treatment before the doctor arrives. Much suffering and even death may then, in the majority of cases, be prevented. " When known that poison has been taken into the stomach, the first thing is to evacuate it by means of the stomach-pump or an emetic, unless vomiting takes place spontaneously. " As an emetic, ground mustard mixed in warm water is always safe. Take one tablespoonful to one pint of warm water. Give the patient one-half in the first instance, and the remainder in fifteen minutes, if vomiting has not commenced. In the interval drink copious draughts of warm water. Irri- tate the throat with a feather or finger, to induce vomiting. * The following table has been carefully compiled from Wood's Lexicon, Cutter's Anatomy, and Jahr's (Hull) Symptoms. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 593 After vomiting lias begun give mucilaginous drinks, such as flax-seed tea, gum-arabic water, or slippery elm. " If the patient is drowsy, give a strong infusion of cold coffee, keep him walking, slap smartly on the back ; use elec- tricity ; it may be well to dash cold water on the head, to keep the patient awake. " After the poison is evacuated from the stomach to sustain vital action, give warm water and wine or brandy. If the limbs are cold, apply warmth and friction. " In all cases of poisoning, call immediately a physician, as the after treatment is of great importance." POISON. ANTIDOTE AND REMEDIES. (Large doses.) ANTIDOTE. (Homwopathicatty small doses.) ACID ACETIC. Chalk, wliiting, magnesia, soap or oil. Alkaline bi carbonates, milk, white of egg, or almost any demul- cent. China, nux vomi- ca, coffea, arsenicum, belladona. ACID HYDROCYANIC, or PKUSSIC ACID ; BITTER ALMONDS (oil of) ; LAUREL WATER. Drink at once one teaspoonf ill of ammonic hydrate (spirits of harts- horn) in one pint of water. Inhale odor of ammonia. Chlorine, either in vapor, or taken internally. Cold infusions, artificial respiration, stimulating injections. Sulphate of iron. Same. ACID HYDROCHLORIC, MURIATIC, or MARINE ACID. Neutralize the acid by chalk or calcined magnesia, or a dilute solu- tion of an alkaline carbonate, milk, white of egg, strong soapsuds and lime. Large draughts of tepid water or mucilage should follow the antidote. Large doses : mag- nesia calcinata, sapo, medicus. Of small doses : bryonia (?), camphor. ACID SULPHURIC or OIL OF VITRIOL. Same as hydrochloric acid mu- riatic acid. Pulsatilla. ACID OXALIC. Powdered chalk ; magnesia, or its carbonate, suspended in water or milk. An emetic, if free vomit- ing is not induced by the above means. Same. 594 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. POISONS AND THEIK ANTIDOTES (Continued). POISON. ANTIDOTE AND REMEDIES. (Large doses.) ANTIDOTE. (HornMopathically small doses.) ACID PHOSPHORIC. Magnesia, emetics, and emollient drinks. Camphor and cof- fea. ACID NITRIC or AQUAFORTIS. Same as hydrochloric acid. Calcarea carbonate. Camphor. Conium maculatum. Hepar- sulphuris-calcareum. Mercurius. Petro- leum. Phosphorus. Phosphorus acid. Sulphur. ALCOHOL. The stomach-pump. Cold affu- sions. Ammonic hydrate (spirits of hartshorn). Same. CHLOROFORM and ETHER. Cold affusions on the head and neck, ammonia to the nostrils, arti- ficial respiration, electricity, open- ing the trachea. Same. AMMONIC HYDRATE (Ammonia, or Spirits of Harts- liorn), POTASH or SODA. Weak acids, as vinegar and water, followed by acidulated demulcent drinks. Lemon juice, olive oil in large quantities, large draughts of cream or milk. Use no emetic. In poisoning by the vapor of ammonia, the inhalation of the va- por of acetic acid or of dilute hy- drochloric acid. Same. IODINE and IODIDE OF POTASSIUM (Potassic Iodide). Take a mustard emetic. Drink a mixture of starch, gruel, or arrow- root beat in water. Same. MAD DOG BITE, or HYDROPHOBIA. Cauterization of the wound with argentic nitrate (nitrate of silver, lunar caustic). The following is said to be suc- cessful : Slice or bruise the green or dry root of elecampane, put into a pint of fresh milk, and boil down to half a pint, strain when cold ; drink, fasting, at least six hours afterward. The next morning, fasting, repeat Same. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 595 POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES (Continued). POISON. ANTIDOTE AND KEMEDIES. (Large doses.) ANTIDOTE. (Homceopatfiically small doses. HYDROPHOBIA. (Continued.) the dose, using two ounces of the root. Repeat this the third morn- ing 1 , and it will be sufficient. According to Dr. Grzyvala, of England, and Prof. Guber, of Paris, zanthium spi/iosum possesses anti- rabic properties. Of the dried leaves, powdered, the dose for an adult is nine grains, thrice daily For children under that age, half that dose. Sure cure for hydropho- bia, both in man and animals. " Cases treated with the actual cautery and the daily use of genista tinctoria, died with hydrophobia, when with the above plant (zan- thium spinosum), similar cases were all mastered." (British Med. Jour.) TOADSTOOLS (non-edible mushrooms). Prof. Maurice Schiff, of Florence, has demonstrated that the non- edible mushrooms contain a common poison, muscarin, and that its ef- fects are counteracted by atropin or dantrin. Same. ARSENIC ; COBALT (fly powder) ; KING'S YELLOW; RATSBANE ; SCHEELE'S GREEN. An emetic, stomach-pump, zincic sulphate, cupric sulphate ; or mus- tard may be used as an emetic, or salt and water ; or vomiting may be prod uced by tickling the throat with a feather. The vomiting should be assisted by demulcent drinks. After free vomiting, give large quantities of calcined magne- sia. The antidote for arsenic is hydrated sesquioxide of iron, fresh- ly precipitated. If the poison has passed into the bowels, castor-oil. Camphor, china, chin-sulph., ferrum, hep. iod., ipec., nux. v., samb., tabac, verat. ANTIMONY (Wine of) ; TARTAR EMETIC. Vomiting should be produced by tepid water ; any astringent in- fusion, such as tea, oak, bark, tannin (ground nutgall) ; afterward opiates (paregoric), warm bath, and mustard poultices. Hepar - sulphuris- calcareum. Mercu- rius. Pulsatilla (?). BARYTA SALTS. Stomach-pump or emetics ; mag- nesic sulphate or soda. Same. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES (Continued}. POISON. ANTIDOTE AND REMEDIES. (Large doses.) ANTIDOTE. (Homceopathically small doses. COPPER ; VERDIGRIS ; BLUE VITRIOL. Demulcent fluids to induce vom- iting, stomach-pump, albumen in large excess, milk, cooking soda, iron filings, manna, preparations of sulphur. Belladona, calcarea carb., china, coc. dulc. (?), hep. sulph., ipec., iner. corr.. nux v., rhus, sulphur. IRON. Sodic carbonate ; mucilaginous drinks. Arnica, arsenicum, belladona, china, hep. s., ipec., mere., puls., verat. LEAD; ACETATE OF LEAD (Sugar of Lead) ; WHITE LEAD; LITHARGE. Emetic mustard. Follow with zincic sulphate (Epsom or Glauber salts). Antidote is weak sulphuric acid. Take large draughts of milk containing white of eggs. Alum, acid, sulph. in the shape of a lemonade, belladona, hyos., mere., nux v., op., plat., pulsatilla, sabad., sec. c., strain., strychnine. IODINE. Starch or wheat flour beat in wa- ter, taken in large quantities. Take a mustard emetic ; tepid baths. (Mercurius, arseni- cum), antimony, cam- p h o r , arsenicum, china, chin-sulph., coffea, hep. s., op., etc. MERCURY ; CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE (bug poison) ; WHITE PRECIP- ITATE ; RED PRECIPI- TATE (Vermilion). Beat the whites of six eggs (albu- men) in one quart of cold water ; give a cupful every two minutes. Induce vomiting. A substitute for eggs is soap-suds slightly thickened with wheat flour. The white of one egg neutralizes four grains of the poison. Emetics should not be given. Acid, nitric., acid, phos., am. c., am., ars., asaf., acer., aurum m., bell., camphor, carb. v., china, con., cupr., dulc., elec., ferr. iod., opium, phosphorus, staph., sulphate of zinc, etc. ; white of an egg. NITRATE OF POT- ASH (Saltpetre) ; NITRATE OF SODA (Chili Saltpetre). Take at once a mustard emetic ; drink copious draughts of warm water; followed with oil or cream. Same. PEARL-ASH LEY (fm wood ashes); SALTS OF TARTAR. Drink freely of vinegar and wa- ter; followed with a mucilage, as flaxseed tea. Same. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES (Continued). 597 POISON. ANTIDOTE AND REMEDIES. (Large doses.) ANTIDOTE. (Homceopathically small doses. PHOSPHORUS MATCHES ; RAT EXTERMINATOR. Give two tablespoonfuls of cal- ciiied magnesia ; followed by muci- laginous drinks. Camphor, nux v., coffea, vinum. CARBONIC ACID GAS (charcoal fumes) ; CHLORINE GAS ; NITROUS OXIDE GAS ; or ORDI- NARY GAS ; BURNING FLUID. Fresh air and artificial respira- tion ; may inhale ammonia, ether, or the vapor of warm water. Same. ACONITE or ACONITIN (Monkshood). Thorough evacuation of the stomach, either by an emetic (mus- tard) or the stomach-pump ; ammo- nia and brandy, and the use of stim- ulating injections; free use of finely-powdered animal charcoal ; vegetable infusion containing tar- taric acid. Tincture of nux vomica. Iodine and potassic iodide. Keep patient active. Emetics mustard, zincic sulphate, or ipecac. Wine, vegetable acids (vinegar acid fruits). Camphor, nux v. , par. (?), guacco (?) ATROPIN ; BELLADONNA (Deadly Night- shade). An emetic and use of stomach- pump, as with aconite. Morphine administered by the mouth or sub- cutaneous injection. Drink black coffee. Black coffee, cam- phor, hepar sulph., opium, puls., vinum, zinc. DATURIN. Same as above. Same. HELLEBORE ; HELLEB NIGER. Emesis and subsequent stimula- tion. Opium has been used. Camphor, china. NICOTIN. Same as above. Same. OPIUM. Any portion of the unabsorbed poison should be removed quickly from the stomach. Use the stom- ach-putop, or an emetic of gr. xx or gr. xxx zincic sulphate, or about gr. x cupric sulphate. Or powdered mustard or salt. Keep patient in Large doses of black coffee, also by injection ; camphor, ether, am. c., natr., ipec., asaf. Of small doses : bell., camph., coff., 598 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES (Continued). POISON. ANTIDOTE AND REMEDIES. (Large doses.) ANTIDOTE. (Homoeopathic-ally small OPIUM (Continued). motion. Apply cold water to head and chest. Belladonna is recom- mended as an antidote. hyos., ipec., mere., strychnine, nux. v., plumb., stram., vi- num. STRYCHNINE, or Nux VOMICA. An emetic, or use of the stomach- pump ; internal use of chloroform by inhalation ; tannic acid, 25 parts of tannin to one of strychnine ; so- lution of potassic iodide, iodine, chlorine, camphor, animal charcoal, lard or fat, nicotin. Of large doses : wine, coffee, camph., opium. Of small doses : alcohol, bel., camph., cham., cocc., coff., op., puls., stram. As a rule, "for vegetable poisons give an emetic of mustard; drink freely of warm water ; irritate the throat with a feather to induce vomiting. Keep the patient awake until a physician arrives." STING OP INSECTS. Ammonia; or cooking soda, moistened with water, applied in the form of a paste. The wound may be sucked, followed by application of water. Pennyroyal. Ledum palustri. FOB BURNS. Apply immediately hot alcohol or turpentine ; never cold water. May be bathed afterwards with a mixture of lime-water and sweet oil. THERMOMETERS. There are three differently graduated thermometers in use, namely, Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Reaumur. No. 1 = Fahrenheit. No. 2 = Centigrade. No. 3 Reaumur. To convert the scale of one ther- mometer into either of the others : nC. = |. nR. = n+32F. n R. = f n C. = f n + 32 F. n F. = f (n 32) C. = f (n-32) R. 100 20- ( mmm fc n ( V L c. THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 599 COMPARISON OF FAHRENHEIT AND CENTIGRADE THERMOMETERS. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. 15 26.11 49 9.44 113 45.00 177 80.55 241 116.11 14 25.55 50 10.00 114 45.55 178 81.11 242 116.66 13 -25.00 51 10.55 115 46.11 179 81.66 243 117.22 12 24.44 52 11.11 116 46.66 180 82.22 244 117.77 11 23.89 53 11.66 117 47.22 181 82.77 245 118.33 10 23.33 54 12.22 118 47.77 182 83.33 246 118.83 9 22.78 55 12.77 119 48.33 183 83.88 247 119.44 8 2-2.2-2 56 13.33 120 48.88 184 84.44 248 120.00 7 21.67 57 13.88 121 49.44 185 85.00 249 120.55 6 21.11 58 14.44 122 50.00 186 85.55 250 121.11 5 20.55 59 15.00 123 50.55 187 86.11 251 121.66 4 20.00 60 15.55 124 51.11 188 86.66 252 122.22 3 19.44 61 16.11 125 51.66 189 87.22 253 122.77 2 18.89 62 16.66 126 52.22 190 87.77 254 123.33 1 is.as 63 17.22 127 52.77 191 88.33 255 123.88 17.78 64 17.77 128 53.33 192 88.88 256 124.44 + 1 17.22 65 18.33 129 53.88 193 89.44 257 125.00 + 2 -16.66 6:i 18.88 130 54.44 194 90.00 258 125.55 3 16.11 67 19.44 131 55.00 195 90.55 259 126.11 4 15.55 68 20.00 132 55.55 196 91.11 260 126.66 5 15.00 69 20.55 133 56.11 197 91.66 261 127.22 6 14.44 70 21.11 134 56.66 198 92.22 262 127.77 7 13.88 71 21.66 135 57.22 199 92.77 2(53 128.33 8 13.33 72 22.22 136 57.77 200 93.33 264 128.88 9 12.77 73 22.77 137 58.33 201 93.88 265 129.44 10 12.22 74 23.33 138 58.88 202 94.44 266 130.00 11 11.66 75 23.88 139 59.44 203 95.00 267 130.55 12 11.11 76 24.44 140 60.00 204 95.55 268 131.11 13 10.55 77 25.00 141 60.55 205 96.11 269 131.66 14 10.00 78 25.55 142 61.11 206 96.66 270 132.22 15 9.44 79 26.11 143 61.66 207 97.22 271 132.77 16 8.88 80 26.66 144 62.22 208 97.77 272 133.33 17 8.33 81 27.22 145 62.77 299 98.33 273 133.88 18 7.77 82 27.77 146 63.33 210 98.88 274 134.44 19 7.22 83 28.33 147 63.88 211 99.44 275 135.00 20 6.66 84 28.88 148 64.44 212 10000 276 135.55 21 6.11 85 29.44 149 65.00 213 i 100.55 277 136.11 22 5.55 86 30.00 150 65.55 214 | 101.11 278 136.66 23 5.00 87 30.55 151 66.11 215 101.66 279 137.22 24 4.44 88 31.11 152 66.66 216 102.22 280 137.77 25 3.88 89 31.66 153 67.22 217 102.77 281 138.33 26 3.33 90 32.22 154 67.77 218 103.33 282 138.88 27 2.77 91 32.77 155 68.33 219 103.88 283 139.44 28 2.2-2 92 33.33 156 68.88 2-20 104.44 284 140.00 29 1.66 93 33.88 157 69.44 221 105.00 285 140.55 30 1.11 94 34.44 158 70.00 222 10555 286 141.11 31 .55 95 35.00 159 70.55 223 106.11 287 141.66 32 .0 96 35.55 160 71.11 224 106.66 288 142.22 33 + 0.55 97 36.11 161 71.66 225 107.22 289 142.77 + 34 + 1.11 98 36.66 162 72.22 226 107.7? 290 143.33 35 1.66 99 37.22 163 72.77 227 108.33 291 143.88 36 2.22 100 37.77 164 73.33 228 108.88 292 144.44 37 2.77 101 38.33 165 73.88 229 109.44 293 145.00 38 3.a3 102 38.88 166 74.44 230 110.00 294 145.55 39 3.88 103 39.44 167 75.00 231 110.55 295 146.11 40 4.44 104 40.00 168 75.55 232 111.11 296 146.66 41 5.00 105 40.55 169 76.11 233 111.66 297 147.22 42 5.55 106 41.11 170 76.66 234 11-2.22 29S 147.77 43 6.11 107 41.66 171 77.'22 235 112.77 299 148.33 44 6.66 108 42.22 172 77.77 236 113.33 300 148.88 45 7.22 109 42.77 173 78.33 237 113.88 400 204.44 46 7.77 110 43.33 174 78.88 238 114.44 600 315.55 47 8.33 111 43.88 175 79.44 239 115.00 800 433.88 48 8.88 112 44.44 176 80.00 240 115.55 1000 537.77 600 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. COMPARISON OF CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT THERMOMETERS. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. 276 461 -49 562 19 66.2 420 788 1100 2012 260 -436 -48 54.4 20 68.0 430 806 1110 2030 250 418 -47 52.6 21 69.8 440 824 1120 2048 240 400 -46 50.8 22 71.6 450 842 1130 2066 230 382 45 49.0 23 73.4 400 860 1140 2084 220 -364 44 -47.2 24 75.2 470 878 1150 2102 210 346 43 45.4 25 77.0 480 896 1160 2120 200 -328 42 -43.6 26 78.8 490 914 1170 2138 190 310 41 41.8 27 80.6 500 932 1180 2156 180 298 -40 40.0 28 82.4 510 950 1190 2174 170 2T4 39 -38.2 29 84.2 520 968 1200 2192 160 256 -38 36.4 30 86.0 530 986 1210 2210 150 238 37 34.6 31 87.8 540 1004 1220 2228 140 220 36 -32.8 32 89.6 550 1022 1230 2246 130 202 35 31.0 33 914 560 1040 1240 2264 120 184 34 29.2 34 93.2 570 1058 1250 2282 110 166 33 27.4 35 95.0 580 1076 1260 2300 100 148.0 32 -25.6 36 96.8 590 1094 1270 2318 99 146.2 31 23.8 37 98.6 600 1112 1280 2336 98 - -144.4 30 22.0 38 100.4 610 1130 1290 2354 97 142.6 29 20.2 39 102.2 620 1148 1300 2372 96 140.8 28 -18.4 40 104.0 630 1166 1310 2390 - 95 139.0 27 16.6 41 105.8 640 1184 1320 2408 94 137.2 -26 -14.8 42 107.6 650 1202 1330 2426 93 135.4 -25 13.0 43 109.4 660 1220 1340 2444 92 -133.6 24 11.2 44 111.2 670 1238 1350 2462 91 131.8 23 9.4 45 113.0 680 1256 1360 2480 90 -130.0 22 7.6 46 114.8 690 1274 1370 2498 89 128.2 21 5.8 47 1166 700 1292 1380 2516 88 126.4 20 4.0 48 118.4 710 1310 1390 2534 87 124.6 19 2.2 49 120.2 720 1328 1400 2552 86 122.8 18 0.4 50 122.0 730 1346 1410 2570 85 121.0 17 + 1.4 60 140 740 1364 1420 2588 84 119.2 16 3.2 70 158 750 1382 1430 2606 83 117.4 15 5.0 80 176 760 1400 1440 2624 82 115.6 14 68 90 194 770 1418 1450 2642 81 -113.8 13 8.6 100 212 780 1436 1460 2660 80 112.0 12 10.4 110 230 790 1454 1470 2678 79 -110.2 11 12.2 120 248 800 1472 1480 2696 78 108.4 10 14.0 130 266 810 1490 1490 2714 77 106.6 9 15.8 140 284 820 1508 1500 2732 76 104.8 8 17.6 150 302 830 1526 1510 2750 75 103.0 7 19.4 160 320 840 1544 1520 2768 74 101.2 6 21.2 170 338 850 1562 1530 2786 73 99.4 -5 23.0 180 356 860 1580 1540 2804 72 97.6 4 24.8 190 374 870 1698 1550 2822 71 95.8 3 26.6 200 392 880 1616 1560 2840 70 94.0 2 28.4 210 410 890 1634 1570 2858 69 92.2 1 30.2 220 428 900 1652 1580 2876 68 90.4 Zero. + 32. 230 446 910 1670 1590 2894 67 88.6 + 1 + 33.8 240 464 920 1688 1600 2912 66 86.8 2 35.6 250 482 930 1706 1610 2930 65 85.0 3 37.4 260 500 940 1724 1620 2948 64 832 4 39.2 270 518 950 1742 1630 2966 63 81.4 5 41.0 280 536 960 1760 1640 2984 - 62 79.6 6 42.8 290 554 970 1778 1650 3002 61 77.8 7 44.6 300 572 980 1796 1660 3020 60 76.0 8 46.4 310 590 990 1814 1670 3038 59 74.2 9 48.2 320 608 1000 1832 1680 3056 58 72.4 10 50.0 330 626 1010 1850 1690 3074 57 70.6 11 51.8 340 644 1020 1868 1700 3092 56 68.8 12 53.6 350 662 1030 1886 1710 3110 55 67.0 13 55.5 360 680 1040 1904 1720 3128 54 65.2 14 57.2 370 698 1050 1922 1730 3146 - 53 63.4 15 59.0 380 716 1060 1940 1740 3164 52 61.6 16 60.8 390 734 1070 1958 1750 3182 51 59.8 17 62.6 400 752 1080 1976 1760 3200 50 58.0 18 64.4 410 770 1090 1994 1770 3218 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 601 Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. Fahr. 1780 3236 1870 3398 1950 3542 2030 3686 2110 3830 1790 3254 1880 3416 1960 3560 2040 3704 2120 3848 1800 3272 1890 3434 1970 3578 2050 3722 2130 4166 1810 3290 1900 3452 1980 3596 2060 3740 2140 4184 1820 3308 1910 3470 1990 3614 2070 3758 2150 4162 1830 3326 1920 3488 2000 3632 2080 3776 2160 4180 1840 3344 1930 3506 2010 3650 2090 3794 2180 4216 1850 3362 1940 3524 2020 3668 2100 3812 2200 4252 I860 3380 NUMBER OF DEGREES CENTIGRADE = NUMBER OF DEGREES FAHRENHEIT. Bid TENTHS OF A DEGKEE CENTIGRADE SCALE. in .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. 0.00 0.18 0.36 0.54 0.72 0.90 1.08 1.26 1.44 1.62 i 1.80 1.98 2.16 2.34 2.55 2.70 2.88 3.06 3.24 3.42 2 3.60 3.78 3.96 4.14 4.32 4.50 4.68 4.86 5.04 5.22 3 5.40 5.58 5.76 5.94 6.12 6.30 6.48 6.66 6.84 7.02 4 7.20 7.38 7.56 7.74 7.92 8.10 828 8.46 8.64 8.82 5 9.00 9.18 936 9.54 9.72 9.90 10.08 10.26 10.44 10.62 6 10.80 10.1)8 11.16 11.34 11.52 11.70 11.88 12.06 12.24 12.42 7 12.60 12.78 12.96 13.14 13.32 13.50 13.68 13.86 14.04 14.22 8 14.40 14.58 14.76 14.94 15.12 15.30 15.48 15.66 15.84 16.02 9 16.20 16.38 16.56 16.74 16.92 17.10 17.28 17.46 17.64 17.82 NUMBER OF DEGREES FAHRENHEIT = NUMBER DEGREES CENTIGRADE. OF 01 , TENTHS OF A DEGREE FAHRENHEIT SCALE. fife .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 5 .6 .7 .8 .9 Cent. Cent. Cent. Cent. Cent. Cent. Cent. Cent, Cent. Cent. 0.00 0.06 0.11 0.17 0.22 0.28 0.33 0.39 0.44 0.50 1 0.56 0.61 0.67 0.72 0.78 0.83 0.89 0.94 1.00 1.06 2 1.11 1.17 1.22 1.28 1.33 1.39 1.44 1.50 1.56 1.6 3 1.67 1.72 1.78 1.83 1.89 1.94 2.00 2.06 2.11 2.17 4 2.22 2.28 2.33 2.39 2.44 2.50 2.56 2.61 2.67 2.72 5 2.78 2.83 2.89 2.94 3.00 3.06 3.11 3.17 3.22 3.28 6 3.33 3.39 3.44 3.50 3.56 3.61 3.67 3.72 3.78 3.80 7 3.89 3.94 4.00 4.06 4.11 4.17 4.22 4.28 4.33 4.39 8 4.44 4.50 4.56 4.61 4.67 4.72 4.78 4.83 4.89 4.94 9 5.00 5.06 5.11 5.17 5.22 5.28 5.33 5.39 5.44 5.50 602 THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. EXPANSION OR DILATATION OF SOLIDS. (FABADAY.) At 212, the length of the bar at 32 = 1. Bismuth 1.0013908 Brass 1.0019062 Cast-iron 1.0011112 Cement 1.001435 Copper 1.001745 Fire-brick 1.0004928 Glass 1.0008545 Gold 1.001495 Granite 1.0007894 Lead.. .1.0028426 Platinum 1.0009542 Sandstone 1.001743 Silver 1.00201 Slate 1.0011436 Steel 1.0011899 Stock-brick 1.0005502 Tin 1.002 Wrought-iron 1.0012575 Zinc.. .1.002942 DIFFERENT REMARKABLE TEMPERATURES. CENTIGRADE. GREATEST ARTIFICIAL COLD produced by a bath of carbon bisulphide and liquid nitrous acid ................... GREATEST COLD produced by ether and liquid carbonic anhydride ......................................... GREATEST NEUTRAL COLD recorded in arctic expeditions.. Mercury freezes ............ ............................ Sodic phosphate .......... 9 parts by weight ........ ) Acid nitric (dilute) ....... 4 " " " ........ ) Ammonic nitrate ..... , . . . 5 parts by weight Acid nitric (dilute) ........ 4 " " " Sodic sulphate ........... 6 " " " Sodic sulphate ........... 3 parts by weight Acid nitric (dilute) ........ 2 " " " Pounded ice or snow ...... 2 parts by weight ........ ) Sodic chloride ............ 1 " " " ........ ) Sodic sulphate ........... 8 parts by weight Acid hydrochloric ........ 5 " " " Ammonic nitrate ......... 1 part by weight Water ................... 1 " " " Sodic phosphate .......... 9 parts by weight Ammouic nitrate ........ 6 " " " Acid nitric (dilute) ........ 4 " " ' 2 parts by weight ..... ; I _ 36 <>. llto _ 55 o. 5 140 110 49 39 + 10 to 29 + 10 to 2ff , 1 A f -.no ~T~ l-\) tO - it/ + 10 to 18 + 10 to -17 1() o tQ _ 13 o g g 10 to 29. 44 Acid sulphuric ........... 10 to - THE CHEMISTS' MANUAL. 603 CENTIGRADE. Snow 3 parts by weight [ Q0 to _ 4(r n Potash fused 4 " " " } Sodic sulphate 3 parts by weight ) 10 to -1 3- Fluorite, 250. assay, 494. hexads, 3. Fluxes for soldering, 588. crucible assay, monads, i, 2. Fodder, green, analyses of 494- pentads, 2. ash, 562, 568. scorification as- price of. 556. Franklinite, 273, 276. say, 499. sp.gr. of, 4, 5, 6. Freezing mixtures, 602. Gold coin and bullion, 511. specific heat of, 7. French nut, 176. Golthite, 273. ^ symbols of, i, 2, 3. Fruit essences, 575. Gongs, composition of, 587. / \ table of, 549. table of, I. i, 2, 3. sugar, 579. Fruits, 572, 573, 574, 577, 578. Gooseberries, anal, of, 572, Goslante, 332. \ table of, 11, 4 , 5, 6. acid in, 575. Grains and! seeds of agricul- tetrads, 3. composition of, 572, tural plants, 560, 564, 565, triads,*!. 573, 574. 568, 569. volatile, 198. Embolite, 321. sugar in, 575. Fruits and seeds of trees, 560, Grams in U. S. gallon, 409. Grape must, 559. Emetin, 175. 565- seed, 560. Epidote, 304. plants, 565. skins, 558. Epsom salts, 590. Fuels, heating power of, 347. sugar, 580. Epsomite, 287. Erbium, atomic weight, 2, 4. deportment with re- Fusel oil, 579. G. Grapes, 573- Graphite, 259. Grass, down, 559. agents, 154. rye, in flower, 557. discovered by, 2. discovered in, 2. melting-point, 4. price of, 556. Galactose rotatory power,476. Galena, special method assay, Galenite, 284. sweet, 557. young, 557. Green fodder, analysis of ash, 560, 568. specific gravity, 4. Erythrite, 261, 464. Esparsette, 557. Gallipoli oil, 176. Gallium discovered by, 553. discovered in, 593. vitriol, 579. Grossularite, 303. Group I, 13-142. seed, 560. Essences, artificial, 579. melting-point, 5. specific gravity, 5. II, 42-143. Ill, 72-144. Essential oils, 182. Garnet, 303, 312. IV, 114-145. optical prop, of, 182. Gases, sp. gr. of, 209. V, X28-I45. INDEX. 619 Gummite, 297. Indium, price of, 556. L. Gun-cotton, 580. salts of, 91, 94. Gunpowder, analyses of, 425. specific gravity, 5. Labradorite, 304. analysis, 424. Gypsum, 250. rific neat, 7. Insoluble substances, quali- Lactose, 462, 476, 580. Lsevulose, 476, 580. Lanthanium, atomic weight, tative scheme for, 146. o t; CAQ H. Haematein, 580. Intestinal juice, 532. Inverted sugar, 462. *j o> M-y* deportment with reagents, 158. Halite, 325, 326. Hardness of substances, 350. rotatory power of, 476. discovered by, 2. discovered in, 2. scale of, 350. Iodine, antidote for, 594, 596. melting-point, 5. Harmotome, 306. Hathorn Spring, 411. Hausmanite, 290. Hauynite, 304. atomic weight, i, 549. before the blowpipe, 196, 200. discovered by, i. minerals of, 286. spec, gravity, 5. Lapis lazuli, 304, 314. Lard oil, 176. Hay, analysis of ash, 562, 566, discovered in, i. Lathe bushes, comp. of, 587. 567- melting-point, 5. Laumonite, 305. dead ripe, 557. specific heat, 7. Laurel water, antidote for, meadow, 557. timothy, 557. specific gravity, 5. lodyrite, 321. 593- Lead, antidote for, 596. Heath, 559. lolite, 304. assays, 514. Hedenbergite, 303. Hellebore, antidote for, 597. Iridosmine, 272. Iron, analyses of, 383. at. weight, i, 4, 549. before the blowpipe, Hematite, 273, 277. antidote for, 596. 196, 200, 201, 203. analysis of, 383. Hemp, entire plant, 559. at. weight, 3, 5, 549. before the blowpipe, characteristic react'ns, 22. Hemp-seed, 560. oil, 176, 178. 93, 196, 200. cast, analyses of, 386. deportment in the re- agents, 17, 162. Henlandite, 306. Hop, entire plant, 559. cast, analysis, 384. characteristic reactions, detections of, 27, 42, 71. film, 198. Hops, 559. Ir 3- limit of reaction, 22. Hornblende, 303. Horsechestnut, 560. chromic, analysis, 388. deportment with re- melting-point, 5, 17. metallic, 19. autumn, 560. agents, 87, 162. minerals of, 284. spring, 560. detection, 113. native, 284. green husk, 560. discovered by, 3. ' oxides, 18. House bells, composition of, discovered in, 3. pig, analyses of, 392. 587. film, 198. pig, analysis, 390. Hydrobr.omine, 147. Hydrocarbons from essential oils, 183. malleable, anal, of, 386. melting-point of, 5. metallic, 90. price of, 556. salts, 18, 194. specific gravity, 5, 17. optical prop. minerals of, 273. specific neat, 7, 17. of, 183. native, 273, 274. Leaves and stems of root sp. gr. of, 183. Hydrochloric acid, 147, 149. antidote for, ore, appendix to, 381. ore, quant, anal., 373. ore, assay of, 489. crops, analysis of ash, 563. of trees, 560, 565. 593- sp. grav. of, 219. Hydrocyanic acid, antidote ore, assays of, 493. oxides of, 8. Z 7 pig, analyses of, 384. price of, 556. Lentils, 560. Lepidolite, 286, 304. Leucine, 580. Leucite, 304. for, 593. Hydroferricyanic, 147. Hydroferrocyanic, 147. Hydrogen, at. weight, i, 549. salts, 194. specific gravitv of, 5. specific heat of, 7. volumetric determina- Leucopyrite, 273. Libethenite, 263. Lignite, 340. Lime, before the blowpipe, discovered by, i. tion of, 379, 197. discovered in, i. specific gravity ,5. Iridium, atomic weight^ 549. deportment with re- deportment of, 154. Limonite, 273, 279. specific heat, 7. agents, 158. Linnseite, 261. Hydrometer, Baume, sp. gr., discovered by 3-5. Linseed cake, 559. 214, 215. discovered in, 3-5. oil, 176, 178, 179. Hydrophobia, antidote for, minerals of, 272. Liquids, official spec, gravity, Hydrozincite, 332. native, 272. price of, 556. specific gravity, 5. 232. Liroconite, 263. Litharge, antidote for, 596. Lithia mica, 286. I. Lithium, at. weight, i, 549. Ilmenite, analyses of, 397. t deportment with re- analysis, 397. Javelle water, 580. agents, 154. India nut oil, 176. discovered by, 5. Indium, atomic weight of, 3, discovered in, 5. 5 549- . melting-point, 5. deportment with re- Kalinite, 242. price of, 556. _ agents, 5. Kaolin, 316. specific gravity, 5. discovered by, 3. Kermesite, 244. specific heat, 5. discovered in, 3. King's yellow, ant. for, 595. Litter, 559. melting-point, 5. Kreasote, 580. analysis of ash, 564. 620 INDEX. Lucerne, 557. Measures, French and Amer- Molybdenum, atomic weight, Lupines, 560. Lymph, 536. ican, 607. Meerschaum, 580. before the blow- Melanterite, 273. pipe, 196. M' 1 - ~ Melezitose, 463. deportment with .. Machinery bearings, compo- sition of, 587. Mad dog bite, ant. for, 594. Madia oil, 178. Melitose, 463, 476. rotat. power, 476. Melting-points, tab. of, 4, 5, 6. Menaccanite, 273. Mercury, antidote for, 596. reagents. 166. discovered by, 3. discovered in, 3. melting-point, 5. spec, gravity, 5. seed, 560. atomic weight, i, 5, Money standard, 614. Magnesite, 287. Magnetic iron ore, 383. before the blow- Morphia, 580. Morphin, 173, 174. Magnetite, 273, 275. pipe, 26, 30, 197, Mucus, 524. Magnesium, atomic weight, before the blow- 200. characteristic reac- tions, 26, 30. Mulberries, 573. Mulberry, 560. price of, 556. pipe, 197. characteristic re- deportmen. with re- agents, 22,28,158. Muntz metal, comp. of, 587. Muriatic acid, antidote for, actions, 127. detection of, 27, 42. 593. deportment with discovered by, i. Muscovite, 394. reagents, 124, discovered in, i. Mustard seed, 560. 162. film, 198. Mycose, 463. detection, 127. melting-point, 5. rotatory power, 476. discovered by, 2. discovered in, 2. metallic, 23, 25. minerals of, 294. N. melting-point, 5. native, 294. minerals, 287. oxides, 22. Nagyagite, 270. oxides, 124. price of, 556. Naphthalin, 580. price of, 556. salts, 23. Narcotin, 172, 174, 580. salts, 125. specific gravity, 5. antidote for, 597. spec, gravity, 5. spec, heat, 7. Metal that expands on cool- ing) 585- Native metal and alloys, as- say of, 513. Maize, 559, 560, 570. cobs, 659. analysis of, 402. Metallic oxides, influence of Natrolite, 305. analyses of, 398. meal, 558. fixed organic analysis, 397. Mai, 153. Malachite, 263-268. substances on precip., 193. Natron, 325. Neat's-foot oil, 176. Malacolite, 302. Malleable iron, 386- precip. of, 193. Metals, deportment of, with Nephelite, 304. Nessler's solution, 417. Malt, 558. reagents, 13. Neurine, 585. cobs, 558. sprouts, 558. Malt-sugar, 476, 580. price of, ^56. Metalthal expands on cool- ing, analysis of, 402. Niccolite, 295. 296, 304. analyses of, 393. Nickel, atomic weight of, 3, 5, rotatory power, Meteorites, 273. 549- 476. Metric system, 605. before the blowpipe, Man, analysis of, 519. Milk, analyses of, 459. 105, 196, 200. Manganese, at. wt., 3, 5, 549. before the blow- analysis, 457. article, 526. characteristic reac- tion, 106. pipe, 112, 196, ass, 459- deportment with re- 20. camel, 459. agents, 102, 162. characteristic re- canine, 459. detection, 113. actions, 112. condensed, 461. discovered by, 3. deportment with col. woman, 459, 527. discovered in, 3. reagents, 106, colostrum, 527. metallic, 103. detection, 113. cow, 459, 460. ewe, 459. minerals 017295. ore, analyses of, 392. detenn. of, 379. discovered by, 3. goat, 459. hippopotamus, 459. ore, analysis, 393. oxides, 102. discovered in, 3. mare, 459. price of, 556. melting-point, 5. sow, 459. salts, 103, 194. metallic, 108. white woman, 459, 527. specific gravity of, 5. minerals of, 290. Milk-sugar, rotatory power, specific heat of, 7. ore, anal, of, 395. oxides of, 106. price of, 556. salts, 109, 194. Millerite, 295. Miller's method, 415. Millet, analysis of ash, 570. Nicotin, 173. antidote for, 597. Nitrates before the blowpipe, 197. spec, gravity, 5. Hungarian, green, 557. Nitre, 302, 580. Manganite, 290, 292. husked, 560. Nitric acid, 150. Mannite, 464. Manufactured product and refuse, 563. Marble, analysis of, 399. Marcasite, 273. meal. 558. with husk, 560. Mineralogy, 239. * Minretite, 284. Mirabilite, 325. antidote for, 397. detection of, 200. sp. gr. of, 220. Nitrogen, atomic weight, i. discovered by, i. Marine acid, antidote for, 593. Molasses, analysis of, 469. discovered in, i. Marsh gas, 580, 584. Matches, antidote for, 597. slump, 558. Molecules, n. specific gravity, 5. specific heat, 7. INDEX. 621 Nitroglycerin, 580. Non-drying oils, 180. Nux vomica, 580. Oxygen, atomic weight, 2, 5, available, 589. Piperin, 175. Plants textile, 564. Platinum, 556. antidote for, 598. discovered by, 2. assay, 515. discovered in, 2. at. wt., 3, 5, 549. specific gravity, 5. bef. the blowpipe, specific heat, 5. 197. Oak leaves in autumn, 559. characteristic reac- autumn, 560. tions, 64, 71. summer, 560. . deport, with re- Oats, 559, 560, 570. heading out, 557. Palladium, 270. at. wt. 3, 5, 549. agents, 62, 158. detection, 70. in flower, 557. deportment with discovered by, 3. Official liquids, spec, gravity reagents, 166. discovered in, 3. of, 232. discovered by, 3. melting-point, 5. Oil, castor, 176. discovered in, 3. metallic, 63. cod-liver, 176. melting-point, 5. minerals, 300. fresh nut, 176. price of, 556. native, 300. Galhpoli, 176. hemp-seed, 176. spec, gravity, 5. specific heat, 7. oxides, 62. price of, 556. linseed, 176. neat's-foot, 176. Palmitin, 580. Pancreatic juice, 531. salts 63. specific gravity, 5. of almonds, 178. Paraffin, 580. specific heat, 7. of French (nut), 176. Pea, green, in flower, 557. Plum, entire Iruit, 560. of lead, 176. Peaches, $74. Plums, 573. of olives, 176, 178. Pear, entire fruit, 560. Poisons and their antidotes, of rue, 585. Pearl ash, 580. 590. of vitriol, antidote for, Pears, 574. Polybasite, 321. pale rape-seed, 176. poppy, 176. Peas, 559, 560. Peat, 347. Pectofite, 305. cavity, 348. distill, of, 349. strata, 348. sesame, 176. Peperin, 175. p oppy 559. seal, 176. Perspiration, 525. cake, 559. sperm, 176. Petalite, 303. oil, 176, 178. train, 179. Petroleum, 348. seed, 560. Oils (drying), 180. essential, 182. cavity, 348. distillation of, 349. Porpezite, 270. Potable water, analysis of, hydrocarbons of, strata, 348. 412. 183- Pettenkoffer's test, 534. Potash, antidote for, 590. optical prop. Petzite, 270. Potassa before the blowpipe, of, 183. I Pewter, ahalvsis of. 402. 197. sp. grav. of, 182. composition of, 587. Pharmacolite, 250. Potassic hydrate, sp. gr., 230. Potassium, at. weight, i, 549. optical properties Pharmacopceial prep., 185. before the blow- of, 182. " tests of, pipe, 197. sp. grav. of, 182. 185. characteristic re- (fat), 180 Pharmacosiderite, 273. action, 130. fat of, 197. name ot plant, 180. Phenacite, 303. Phosphates before the blow- deport, with re- agents, 128, 154. (non-drying), 180. solidifying point, 180. specific gravity of, 180. Olefiant gas, 580. pipe, 197. Phosphorgummite, 297. Phosphoric acid, 150. antidote for, detection, 137. discovered by, i. discovered in, i. melting-point, 5. Olevenite, 263. 594- minerals, 301. Oligoclase, 304, 315. Olive oil, 176, 178. determination of, 378. oxides, 128. price of, 556. Opal, 302, 309. sp. gr. of, 223. salts, 129-154. Opium, antidote for, 597. Oreide, composition ot, 587. Phosphorus, ant. for, 597. at. weight, i, 5. spec, gravity, 5. specific heat, 7. Organic analysis, 431. Orpiment, 246, 247. discovered by, i. discovered in, i. Potatoes, 559. analyses of, 571. Orthoclase, 304, 31?. analysis, 398. melt-point, 5. minerals of, 297. fibre, 557. juice, 557- Osmium, at. wt. of, 3, 5, 549. deportment with re- agents, 166. specific heat, '5. Phrenite, 305. skins, 557. slump, 557. > Powders, determination of detection, 166. Picolin, 585. sp. gr., 207. discovered by, 3. discovered in, 3. Picrotoxm, 172. Pig iron, analyses of, 386. Printing characters, 587. anal, of, 402. melting-point, 5. price of, 556. specific gravity, 5. Otaheite cane, 466. analysis, 384. Pig lead, analyses of, 392. analysis, 390. Pine, red, 560. Prochlorite, 306. Proustite, 321. Prussian blue, 580. Ouvarovite, 303. red autumn, 560. Prussic acid, antidote for, 593. Oxalic acid, 151. red leaves, 559. Pseudomalachite, 297. antidote for, 593. white, 560. Psilomelane, 290. Oxide, composition of, 585. Finite, 465. Purple of cassius, 580. 622 INDEX. 3 us, 539, 540. Rubidium, price of, 556. Scheme for anal, of orthoclase, Pyrargyrite, 321, 323. 3 yrite, 273, 280. specific gravity, 5. specific heat, 5. 398. for anal, of pyrolusite, 3 yrolusite, 290, 291- analyses of, 396. Rush, 559. scouring, 559. for anal, of silver coin, analysis of, 395. D yromorphite, 284, 297, 299. Pyrrliotite, 273. Ruta-bagas, 558. Ruthenium, at. wt., 3, 5, 549. deportment with reagents, 154. 402. for anal, of slag, 373. for anal, of type metal, 401. 3 yroxene, 302. Pyroxylin, 580. discovered in, 3. discovered bf , 3. for anal, of urine, 450. for anal, of white lead, melting-point, 5. 400. Q. price of, 556. for anal, of zinc ore, spec, gravity, 5. 394. Qualitative analysis, 13. for insol. sub. specific heat, 7. Rye, 560. for qualitative anal., 138, 170. 146. analysis of ash, 570. for blowpipe analysis, scheme of, 138, I7O. flour, 558. summer, 559. 200. for detection for alka- deter, of substances winter, 559. loids, 172. by the blowpipe, Schreibersite, 297. 200. o Schweinfurt green, 581. Quantitative analysis, 371. Juartz, 302. 306. Juercite, 465. o. Saccharimetry, 471. chemical method, Scorodite, 273. Scouring rush, 559. Seal oil, 176. 5uicklime, 580. 472. Sea-weed, 559. Juinia, 580. median, method, Sebaceous matter, 525. Juinidin, 174. juinin, 174, 175. 472. Sedge, 559. physical method, Seed, various, oil in, 576. R' 476. Scheibler's meth- Seeds and fruits of trees, 560. grains of agricul- od, 474. tural plants, 560. [Rape, 559. Saccharometer, 477. Selenium, at. wt., 2, 6, 549. cake, 557. Sahlite, 302. before the blow- green, young, 557. Salalembroth, 581. pipe, 197, 200. seed, 560. Salammoniac, 581. discovered by, 2. Rape-seed oil, 176, 178. Salenixum, 581. discovered in, 2. Raspberries, 572. Ratsbane, antidote for, 595. law-sugar analysis, 479. Realgar, 246, 247. fled precipitate, antidote for, Salgem, 583. Saliva, 529, 530. Saltpetre, 581. Salprunella, 581. Salt cake, 581. films, 198. melting-point, 6. specific gravity, 6. specific heat, 7. Semen, 543. of sorrel, 581. Senarmonite, 244. deduction of compounds, 363. Salts, deportment of, with re- Sepiolite, 306. Reed, 5^9. Refraction, 1,89. Refuse, analysis of ash, 569. Remingtonite, 261. agents 13. old name for, 590. Scale of hardness, 350. Scheele's green, 581. Serpentine, 306. Sesame oil, 176, 178. Sheathing metal, composition of, 587- Rhodium, at. wt., 3, s ? 549. antidote for, Sheehte, 250. deport, with re- 595. Siderite, 273, 282. agents, 166. discovered by, 3. Scheibler's method, 474. Scheme for Group 1, 13. Silica bef. the blowpipe, 107. Silicic acid, 152. discovered in, 3. II, 42. Silicon, atomic weight, 3, 6. melting-point, 5. HI, 113. detection of, 200. price of, 556. specific gravity, 5. Rhodium gold, 270. IV, I27 . V, 137. for anal, of blood, 447. discovered by, 3. discovered in, 3. minerals, 302. Rhodochrosite, 290. Rhodomite, 303. - for anal of clay, 423. for anal, of coal, 421. specific gravity, 3. specific heat, 7. Rice, analysis of ash, 570. for anal, of copper ore, Silver, i 3 ; husked, 560. 393. at. weight, i, 4, 549. with husk, 560. for anal, of dolomite, before the blowpipe, Rochelle salts, 580. 399- 17, 196, 197, 200. Root crops, anal, of ash, 560. for anal, of fertilizers, characterist. reactions, leaves and stems 403. 17. of, 560. Roots and tubers, 568. Rosaniline, 580. for anal, of glass, 425. for anal, of gunpow- der, 424. deportment with re- agents, 13. 158. detection of, 27. Rotatory power of sugars, for anal, of ilmenite, melting-point, 6, 13. 4?6. 397. metallic, 14. [Rubidium, at. wt., i, 5, 549. for anal, of iron ore, oxides of, 13. deportment with 373- minerals 017321. reagents, 154. for anal, of milk, 457. native,32i. detection, i. for anal, of natrolite, price ofj 556. discovered by, i. 397. salts, 14. discovered in, i. for anal, of nickel ore, specific gravity, 6, 13. melting-point, 55. 392. specific heat, 7. INDEX. 623 Silver and gold assay, 494. Specific gr. of solids heavier Sugars, raw, anal, of 479, 480, assay proper, 506. than water, 208. rotatory power of, 476. crucible assay, sulphuric acid, water determination, 494 meth. of calcula- 225. Twaddle, 215. 483. Sulphur, at. wt., 2, 6, 549 . ting charges, vapors, 200. before the blow- 496. Silver and gold scorification Specific heats of compounds, 8, 9, 10. pipe, 197, 200. Sulphur, detection of, 147. assay, 499. Silver com, analyses of, 402. table of, 7, 8, 9, 10. melting-point, 6. native, 330. analysis of, 402. Skimmed milk, 460. Slag, analysis of, 373, 387. Smaltite, 261. gravities, table of, 4, 5, 6. Speculum, 587. Spelt, 559. specific gravity, 6. specific heat, 7. Sulphuric acid, 147. antidote for, Smithsonite, 332, 334. winter, 559. 595. Soap test, 418. Soapstone, 581. with husk, 560. Spelter, 581. . sp. gr. of, 225. Sylvamte, 270. Soda, antidote for, 596. Sperm oil, 176. nitre, 325. Spessartite, 303. Sodic hydrate, sp. gravity of, Sphalerite, 332, 333. T. 230. Sodium, at. weight, i, 549. before the blowpipe, Spinel, 287, 288. Spirits of hartshorn, antidote for, 596. Table of ammonia, 135. analytical chem., 154-169. 197. characteristic reac- Spodamene, 303. Stannite, 330. city waters, 421. defunct elements, tion, 133. Stas-otto's scheme, 172. 554. deportment with re- Staurolite, 305. cor. in cupellation, agents, 131, 154. Stearin, 581. 505. detection, 137. discovered by, i. Steatite, 581. Stelbite, 306. cor. of temperature in sugars, 482. discovered in, i. Stephanite, 321, 324. for Duboscq sac- melting-point, 6. Stibnite, 244, 245. charometer, 483. minerals of, 325. oxides, 131. Stcichiometry, 353. Stolzite, 284. for Ventzke sac- charometer, 482. price of, 556. salts, 132. Straw, 559. anal, of ash, 563, 564, 567. hydrocarbons from essential oils, 183. specific gravity, 6. specific neat, 6. Solanin, 175. Soldering, fluxes for, 588. flax, 559. Strawberries, anal, of, 572. Strontianite, 328, 329. Strontium, at. weight, i, 6. hydrocarbons, op- tical properties of, 183. hydrocarbons, sp. Solders, s 88. Soleil Duboscq saccharom- before the blow- pipe, 197. gr. of, 183. official tests, for eter, 477. characteristic re- impur. in phar- Solids, expansion of, 602. actions, 121. macopceial prep- determination of sp. deport, with re- arations, 185. gr., 207, 208. agents, 118, 154. oils, 180. dilatation of, 602. Solubilities, table of, 360. detection, 127. discovered by, i. optical prop, of es- sential oils, 182. of, notes, 362. discovered in, i. showing the con- Solutions, boiling-points, 603. melting-point, 6. stituents sought, Sorghum, 560. Sorbin, 464. minerals, 328. oxides, 118. solubilities, 360. rotatory power, 476. Specific gravity determina- tion, 207. acetic acid, 231. price of, 556. salts. 119. specific gravity, 6. specific heat, 7. sp. gr. and weights, 235. sp. gr. of acetic acid, 231. ammonic hy- drate, 227. Baum6, 214,215. Strychnia, 581. Strychnine, 173, 175. antidote for, 598. sp. gr. of alcohol, 216, 217, 218. sp. gr. of ammonia, ether, 226. Substances absorbed, etc., 227. gases, 209. 542. sp. gr. of Baum6, glycerine, 232. hydrochl. acid, Sucrose, 462, 466, 581. Sugar, 462, 586. 214, 215. sp. gr. of ether, 226. 219. beets, anal, of, 470. sp. gr. of glycerine, nitric acid, 220. Guadaloupe, anal, of, 232. official liquid, 232. 4 66. in fruits, 577. sp. gr. of hydro- chloric acid, 219. phosphor, acid, 223, Martinique, anal, of, 466. sp. gr. of nitric acid, 220. potassic hy- Mauritius, anal, of, 466. sp. gr. of oils, 182. drate, 229. molasses, anal, of, 469. sp. gr. of phos- powders, 207. ultimate anal, of, 431. phoric acid, 223. sodic hydrate, 230. small solids. Sugar-cane, 466, 471. Sugars, ash determ., 485. effect on polarized sp. gr. of potassic hydrate, 229. sp. gr. of sodic hy- 207. light, 476. drate, 230. 624 INDEX. Table of sp. gr. of sulphuric Tin, equivalent of atoms, 3. v. acid, 225. film, 198. sp. gr. of Twaddle, melting-point, 6. Valentinite, 244. % I 5- metallic, 58. Vanadium, at. wt., 2, 6, 549. time at dif. places, minerals, 330. deportment with 613. oxides, 57. reagents, 158. volatile elements salts, 59, 61. discovered by, 2. that can be re- specific gravity, 6. discovered in, 2. duced as films, specific heat, 7. melting-point, 6. 198. Titanic acid, del. of, 377. price of, 556. Talc, 305, 319. Tantalium, atomic weight, Titanite, 305. Titanium, atomic weight of, spec, gravity, 6. specific heat, 7. 2,6. 3< 6 . 549- Vapors, sp. gravity of, 210. discovered by, 2. before the blow- Veratrin, 172, 175. discovered in, 2. pipe, 196. Verdigris, antidote for, 596. melting-point, 6. price of, 556. deportment with reagents, 166. Vermilion : antidote for, 596. Versuviamte, 303. spec, gravity, 6. discovered by, 3. Vetches, 557, 560. specific heat, 6. Tartar emetic, 581. discovered in, 3. melting-point, 6. Vivianite, 273. Volatile elements, 198. antidote for, 597. ore, anal, of, 397. Tartaric acid, 153. price of, 556. "W. Tea, analysis ot ash, 569. Tears, 526. specific gravity, 6. Toadstools, antidote for, 595. Wad, 290, 293. Teeth, 538. Tobacco, 559. Wallastonite, 302. Telescope mirrors, 587. Toluol, 581. Walnut, autumn, 560. Tellurium, atomic weight, 2, Topaz, 305, 318. cake, 558. 6, 549. Tourmaline, 304. spring, 560. betore the blow- Train oil, 178. Water analysis, 404. pipe, 196. Trautwine's tables of sp. gr., detection ot, 200. deportment with 235. mineral anal, of, 411. reagents, 166. Trehalose, 463. min., anal., 405. discovered by, 2. Tremolite, 303. baryta & stron- discovered in, 2. Triolein, 581. tia in, 407. films, 198. Triplite, 290. calculating re- melting-point, 6. Tristearin, 581. sults, 410. price of, 556. Tubers, 568. iodine and bro- specific gravity, 6. specific heat, 7. Tungsten, at. weight, 3, 6. before the blow- mine in, 409. iron in, 407. Temper, comp. of, 587. pipe, 196. lithia in, 408. Temperatures, remarkable, deportment with phosphoric acid 602. reagents, 166. in, 407. Tennantite, 263. discovered in 3. potable, anal, of, 420, Tetradymite, 248. Tetrahedrite, 263. Textile plants, 559, 564. Thallium, atomic weight, i, 6, discovered by, 3. melting-point, 6. specific gravity, 6. Turnbull's Blue, 580. 421. potable analysis, 412. pot. anal., ammonia in, 416, 419. 549. Turnip-seed, 560. nitrates and ni- deportment with re- agents, 166. Turnips, 558. Type and stereotype plates, trites, 414. 419. nitric acid in, discovered by i. 587. 417. discovered in, i. metal, analyses of, 402. organic carbon, melting-point, 6. price of, 556. specific gravity, 6. analysis, 401. Turquois, 242. Twaddle, sp. gravity, 215. 412. organic matter, 415- Thenardite, 325. soap test, 418. Thermometers, 598. Thorium, atomic weight, 3, 6. U. Waterlite, 242. Weights and measures, 605. deport, with re- Ulmanite, 295. Wernerite, 304. agents, 154. discovered by 3. Ultimate analysis, 431. Uranium, atomic weight, 3, Wheat, 559- analysis of ash, 590. discovered in, 3. 6, 549. bran, 558. melting-point, 6. before the blow- flour, fine, 558. specific gravity, 6. Time at different places, 613. pipe, 196. deportment with winter, 559. winter, heading out, Timothy hay, 557. Tin, assay of, 514. reagents, 166. discovered b\ T , 3. 57, 56o. winter, m flower, 557. atomic weight of. 3, 6. discovered in, 3. White lead analysis, 400. before the blowpipe, 60, melting-point, 6. metal, 402, 585. 197, 200. price of, 556. precipitate, antidote characteristic reactions, salts, 194. for, 596. 60. specific gravity, 6. Whortleberries, 573. deport, with reagents, 56, 61, 158. Urea, S 8 4 . Urine, 540. Willemite, 303. Williamson's blue, 582. detection, 71. discovered by, 3. analyses of, 455, 456. analysis, 450, 541. Wine grounds, 558. Wood and coal, composition discovered in, 3. Heller's analysis, 541. of, 338. INDEX. Wood, analyses of ash, 561, Z. 565. change of, 339. durability of, 342. Wolfenite, 284. Zarratite, 295. Zettnow's scheme, 170. Zinc, analyses of, 395. Wolframite, 273. at. weight, 2, 6, 549. before the blow pipe, 87, 197, 200. Y. blende, anal, of, 395. Yyttrium, atomic weight, 2, 6, 549- char, reactions, 196. deportment with re- deportment with agents, 84, 162. reagents, 154. detection, 113. detection, 154. discovered by, 2. discovered by, 2. discovered in, 2. discovered in, 2. film, 198. melting-point, 6. specific gravity, 6. melting-point, 6. metallic, 84. 625 Zinc, minerals, 332. ore analysis, 394. oxides, 84. price of, 556. salts, 86, 194. specific gravity, 6. specific neat of, 7. Zincite, 332. Zircon, 303, 335. Zirconium, at. weight, 3, 549. deportment' witn reagents, 154. discovered by, 3. discovered in, 3. melting-point, 6. minerals, 335. spec, gravity, 6. Zylol, 581. - > y. i - Tu'i , H v; :>; [IVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. u npr'53KF 953 . '4Jun'58 OS ro MAR 25 19 LD 21-100w-7,'52(A2528sl6)476 2Jun'60 R^ MAY I ;) #60 REC'D MAY 25 1961 TEUTON ILL JAN 9 19S5 U.C. BERKELEY YC 22012 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY