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All Rights Reserved. 19O7. ir )) ^ THE Manual now laid before the public has been made possible by the sifting and arrangement of many years' notes of all that has appeared worthy of record, in processes, combinations, and practices connected with the trade coming under my notice during practical work. For the past twelve years I have tested all recipes and methods in a room set apart for the purpose, with the ultimate object of collating them in a form for publication. The need of a comprehensive manual for technological classes in house painting and decorating has provided the opportunity for carrying out my intention, and I now, for the first time, issue the whole in a concise and orderly form for refer- ence. The chapters follow the sequence, and cover the ground adopted by me in lectures given to the students at the Manchester Technical School for House painting and Decorating; and, feeling that the possession of a very advanced education should not be necessary to the under- Standing of such a work, I have endeavoured to convey the matter in as simple and direct a form as is consistent with the subjects treated of. The scope of the volume being limited to elementary facts, the underlying chemical and scientific reasons for methods and processes have only been dealt with where they immediately concern the working painter and decor- ator. Colour and ornament have been lightly touched upon in a practical and popular manner where unavoid- ably intermixed with the practice of the craft, but the principles laid down are based upon a wide experience. For additional information upon materials, I refer the student to Hurst's Painters' Colours, Oils, and Varnishes. Graining, sign writing, marbling, and paperhanging have only been touched upon in so far as principles are con- cerned ; the space at disposal preventing a more lengthy treatment. I have felt it necessary to devote more space to such subjects as have hitherto been but superficially handled e.g., plain painting, colour mixing, distemper- ing, and the technique of decorating. I have written as a painter to painters, and if the infor- mation is sometimes dogmatic in form, I believe it to be reliable in substance. I shall be at all times pleased to receive additional facts, corrections, or notes for the benefit of future editions. The illustrations, initials, and head and tail pieces are intended, not as ideal designs, but as explanatory of the text and of the application of the principles advocated in the book, for which purpose they have been specially drawn. PREFACE. vii I am indebted to Messrs. Hamilton & Co. for illustra- tions of brushes and samples, and to Messrs. Mander Bros., Messrs. Harland & Co., Messrs. Reeves & Sons, Messrs. Lewis Berger & Sons, Messrs. Wilkinson, Hey wood & Clark, The Silicate Paint Company, and many others for assist- ance, both directly and indirectly most of the materials recently used for testing and experiment having been presented by these firms to the technical class which I conduct. WALTER JOHN PEARCE. PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. THE present edition of this book will be found to contain much new matter and mention of many new materials and processes. An exhaustive correspondence with manufacturers and care- fully conducted experimental tests have enabled me to sift and reduce the new matter to the smallest and most readily accessible proportions. I take this opportunity of thanking many of the foremost firms for keeping me supplied with samples of their latest productions, which are at all times welcomed. It is not possible to speak authoritatively upon paints and varnishes without ample opportunity of keeping them under lengthened obser- vation and putting them to practical tests of long duration, which, in the interests of the students for whom this book is primarily intended, I am always ready to do. Many materials are not dealt with at length because no such opportunity has been afforded. The rapidity with which certain new materials and ideas have become common to the whole trade during the past few years, due in a measure to demands created by change of fashion and taste, is most remarkable, and indicates further revolutionary changes in trade practices. The coloured plates have been re-drawn, and many minor alterations made in the diagrams. WALTER J. PEAKCE. RESTHAVBN, 29 LANSDOWNB ROAD, WEST DIDSBDKY, LANDS. GENEKAL CONTENTS. PAGES INTRODUCTION, ... 1-4 CHAPTER I. ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF HOUSE PAINTING. The Principal Reasons for Painting General Special Practical Application Economy in Working Cleanliness in Work- ingTrade and Health Causes of Bad Health among Painter? Clients' Requirements, 5-12 CHAPTER II. WORKSHOP AND STORES. Efficient Premises a Necessity THE PAINT SHOP Position Lighting Must be Dry Water Heating Arrangements Ceiling Colouring Fittings and Furniture Colours, Driers, Oils, &c., required on Paint Bench Drawers to Paint Bench for Tools Palette Knives for Paint Stone To Clean Paint Stone Brush Trays Brush Washer or Smutch-Can Zinc Covering for Paint Bench Ready-made Colours Large Kegs Drawers for Powder Colours Weighing Machine and Scales Rough Day-BookOil Tanks Whiting and Plaster Bins " Pickle " Cask Smudge Keg Flour Barrel Shelves Cupboard Pigeon Holes Paint Mill THE PAINT- ING-ROOM Wall for Large Cartoons, &c. Benches and CONTENTS. PAGES Drawers Reference Book's Gas Portable Benches Paint Stone Muller and Knives Sign- Writers' Easels Entrance Way s Shelves Heating Stores Fittings Use Return of Empty Packages Storing of Parts of Cases Putting up Material for a Job Despatch of Material for a Job MANAGE- MENT OF PAINT SHOP Waste Returned Residuum Paint- Fat Colour and Smudge Salvage of Fat Colour and Smudge Thinnings for Smudge Prevention of Skinning and Har- dening of Stock Colours White Lead Conservation of Tube Colours Stock Articles Enumerated Purchase of Stock, . 13-30 CHAPTER III. PLANT AND APPLIANCES. Ladders Selection Mode of Using Ladder Brackets Scaffold Poles Planks Scaffold Construction Trestles Steps Cords Window Brackets Cradles Pulley Blocks Paste Boards Paint Bench Trestles Dust Sheets To Protect Stone Floors, Tiles, &c. Testing Scaffolding Marking and Repainting Plant Cartage Storage of Scaffolding Iron Rods and Tube for Scaffolding Small Articles Buckets- Cans or Kettles Pots or Pans Small Pots, &c. Stock Drums or Kegs Mixing Boards Burning-off Lamps Char- coal Burners Strainers Plant Book Rough Entry or Day Book for Paint Shop Quantity of Plant required on Jobs, . 3148 CHAPTER IV. OF BRUSHES, TOOLS, &c. PAINTING BRUSHES. Hog-hair Various Hair used in Brushes Foreign Brushes French Brushes Methods of Fixing Hair Selection Test of Good Brushes Distemper Brushes The Best Distemper Brushes Sizes Wash-off, Caustic, and Lime-white Brushes Painters' Dusters Paint or Ground Brushes Patent Ready-made Brush Bridles How to Bridle a Brush Varnish Brushes Sash Tools Stipplers Paperhangers" Brushes CONTENTS. XI PAGES Fitches Softeners Stencil Tools Sable Writers Brushes Found by the Employer The Purchase of Brushes True Economy in Brush Buying Storage of Brushes, CHAPTER V. MATERIALS. PIGMENTS White Lead Tests Zinc White Other White- Ochres Umbers Browns Chromes Dutch Pink Artists' Yellows Reds Blues Smalts Greens Blacks Consis- tency of Colours Ground in Oil Commixture of Pigments Derivation of Pigments Adulterations of Pigments Test for Staining Power in Pigments Twelve Colours for Oil Colour Box Whiting Coach Painters' Colours Ready Mixed Pig- ments DRIERS Drying Agents for Paint Liquid Driers and Terebine Powder Driers French Powder Driers PAINTERS' OILS Turpentine Linseed Oil Size Glue- Mediums and Binders Washable Distempers Plasters and Stoppings Glass Paper and Smoothing Materials Import- ance of Good Pigments Comparative Prices of Materials, . 70-92 CHAPTER VI. PAPER AND OTHER HANGINGS. WALL HANGINGS. Wall Papers Qualities Varieties Dimensions Comparison between Wall Paper and Painting Selection of Wall Papers Hints on Choice of Wall Papers for Special Purposes- Relievo Wall Hangings Lincrusta Walton Fibrous Plaster Sheet Metal Friezes Jute Canvas for Wall Hangings, . 93-100 CHAPTER VII. HANGING PAPER. Tools Preparation of Walls Measuring for Papers Paste- Edging Papers Hanging Pasting Matching Lining CONTENTS. PAGES Papers Papering Ceilings Lining Cracked Ceilings Panel- ling and Borders Removal of Fittings Hanging Relief Materials Glue Paste Paste for Anaglypta, . . . 101-114 CHAPTER VIII. COLOUR MIXING-. Mixing Clairecolle Mixing Distemper Mixing Paint Effects of Oils and Turps in Mixing Paint Drying Action of Paints Action of Raw Oil versus Boiled Oil Protective Agency in Paint General Hints on Paint Mixing Colours Recom- mended for Tinting and Staining Paints Opaque and Transparent Pigments Matching Colour in Paint Important Rules for Matching Colours Mixed Tints and Colours Quantity of Paint to Cover given Area Stopping Complete List of Distemper Stainers Media for Decorative Painting in Distemper, 115-133 CHAPTER IX. DISTEMPERING. DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. Advantages Objections Mixing Distemper Surfaces for Dis- temper Colour Limit of Distemper Durability of Distemper Cleaning Distemper Work Whitening Ceilings and Walls Washing off Old Distemper Stippling Distemper American Distemper Painting Plaster prior to Distempering Damp Walls Duresco and Distemper, 134-144 CHAPTER X. ON PLAIN PAINTING. Definition Object Qualifications of Paint Painting on New Plaster First Coat on New Plaster Second Coat Third Coat Flatting Painting on Stucco and Cement Walls CONTENTS. XH1 PAGES Painting on Stone Re-painting Painted Walls Painting New Wood-work Stopping Filling up Re-painting Old Wood-work Burning off Old Paint General Hints on Painting Wood- work General Notes on Painting Spreading and Consistency of Paint Sequence of Coats in Painting Knotting on Work Prior to Painting Sizing on Painted Work Technical Terms Descriptive of Paint Washing Down Prior to Re-painting Knots Rubbing Down Tar Spots Painting Round Edges Dusting Fat Edges Hints on Flatting Faults in Painting Cracking Blistering Cissing Striking or Flashing Ropiness Ladders Grinning Through in Painting Drying of Paint Time for Outside Painting Effects of Undercoats in Finish Re-touching Rubbing Down Priming Painting Signs, &c. Painting Metal-work Re-painting Old Iron- work Painting Hot Pipes and Boilers, &c. Painting Rough Wood-work Quick Paints Painting Canvas Acid Resisting and Insulating Paints Fire-proof Paints Luminous Paints, . . . 145-172 CHAPTER XL STAINING. Woods for Staining The Artistic Limitation of Staining Classes of Staining Water Staining Chemical Staining Water Coating Oil Staining Varnish Staining Spirit Staining Improving Natural Graining Comparative Utility of Stains Application of Stains List of Colours for Water Coating Wood List of Deepening Stains Ornamental Staining, 173-182 CHAPTER XII. VARNISH AND VARNISHING-. Varnish Classes of Varnish Oil Varnishes Spirit Varnishes Elastic and Hard Varnishes Successive Coats of Varuish Applying Varnish Principal Varnishes in Use Straining CONTENTS. PAtJES Varnishes Hints on Varnishing Surfaces for Varnishing Felting Down Varnish Polishing Varnished Work Faults in Varnishing Pinholing and Cissing Pock Marks or Pitting Grittiness Specks Cracking Wrinkles The Use of Enamels Lacquers Testing Varnishes White Polished Enamel, ...... 183-195 CHAPTER XIII. IMITATIVE PAINTING. What is Graining? Limitations to Graining, &c. The Condemna- tion of Graining The Intentions of the Grainer What to Imitate in Graining Positions Suitable for Graining Limits to Imitation Varied Methods of Graining, .... 196-201 CHAPTER XIV. GRAINING. Graining Oak Pollard Oak Mahogany Walnut Pitch Pine- Rosewood Maple Satin Wood Ash Fancy Woods- General Hints, 202-211 CHAPTER XV. MARBLING. White Marble Sienna Marble Italian Pink Marble Black and Gold Marble Grey Marbles Red Marbles Green Marbles Lapis Lazuli Graniting Devonshire Marble Alabaster St. Anne's Marble 212-215 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVI. Methods of Gilding Old Gold Size Japanners' Gold Size Water Gold Sizes Burnish Gold Size Matt Gold Size Isinglass Gold Size Clear Size for Gold Tools for Laying Gold- Laying Gold Leaf To Prevent Gold Sticking to Ground Burnish and Matt Gilding Glass Gilding Platinum and Silver Laying and Metalling Bronzes Lacquer for Metals Preparing Open Grain Wood and Stone for Gilding, . . 216-228 CHAPTER XVII. LETTERING AND SIGN- WRITING. Shaded Lettering Illegible Type in Lettering Books on Letter- ing Forms of Letters Changed by Environment Rules for Construction of Letters Lettering and Methods of Work Colouring of Lettering Enrichment and Prominence of Letters Setting and Sign- Writing Pounces Painting Letters Hints on Using Sable Pencils Writing on Silk- Glass Embossing Etching Glass General Notes on Sign- Writing, 229-245 CHAPTER XVIII. DECORATION GENERAL PRINCIPLES. Importance of Colour Position of Ornament Scale in Ornament The Consideration of a Decorative Scheme Laws in Decoration and Ornament, 246-259 CHAPTER XIX. DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. Qualities in Distemper for Decoration Sketch Designs Setting Out Ornament Stencils and Stencilling Distemper Painting, 260-270 CHAPTER XX. PAINTED DECORATION. Comparison with Distemper Stencilling in Paint Hand- painted Ornament Contrast of Gloss and Flatting, . . 271-276 ILV1 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXL RELIEVO DECORATION. PAGES Relief Materials Gesso and its Treatment Decoration of Relievo Materials generally Sgraffito, 277-282 CHAPTER XXII. COLOUR. Colour in Historic Ornament Theory of Colour The Chromatic Circle Classes of Colour Combination Colour Values and Qualities Requirements for the Study of Colour How to decide a Colour Scheme Useful Rules for the Colourist Colour Combinations for Decorators Effects of Artificial Light on Colour, . CHAPTER XXIII. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. Methods of Measuring Work Estimating. 297-299 CHAPTER XXIV. COACH PAINTING. Differences between House and Coach Painters' Work Preparation for Coach Painting Filling up Finishing Varnishing Lining and Decorating Ship Painting, 300-305 CHAPTER XXV. PAINTERS' TECHNICAL CLASSES, . INDEX 311 LIST OF PLATES. PLATES IN COLOURS. Plate I. Polychromatic Colour Scheme, .... Frontispiece ,, II. Complementary ,, ,, , . . facing page 56 ,, III. Monochromatic ,, ,, . . . ,, 140 IV. Analogous ,, ... ,, 244 PLATES IN BLACK AND WHITE. Plate 1. Decorative panels designed for conventional colouring, facing page 6 2. Decoration of house front above shop, . . ,, 10 3. Panels designed for naturalistic colour treatment, ,, 12 4. ,, ,, flat naturalistic colouring, . , 16 5. ,, ,, flat polychromatic colouring, , 26 6. Selection of contrast in paper hangings, . ,32 7. Contrasting arrangement of paperhangings, . , 48 8. Diagram showing drop pattern, .... ,64 9. Panel designed for semi-natural colouring, . ,78 10. Panels suited to stained wood decoration, . ,86 10a. Combined wall paper, ,96 11. Panels designed for monochrome painting, . . , 120 12. Simple stencils, illustrating importance of contrast, ,, 136 13. Design complete in itself at all distances from the eye, ,, 154 14. Outline patterns for staining upon wood, . . ,, 160 15. Naturalistic patterns for staining in flat colourings, ,, 162 16. Simple borders for practising brush work, . . ,, 170 17. ,, ,, . 188 18. Original treatment of plain alphabet, ... 204 19. Lower case letters for same, .... 206 20. Original alphabet, modern, 220 21. Gothic, ,,236 22. Letters for glass embossing 252 23. Degrees of conventionality in floral designs, . 258 24. Influence of pattern upon colour effects, . 268 25. Constructive decoration in application, . ,, 284 26. Borders for one colour stencilling, ... ,, 294 27. Natural ties in stencil work, .... ,,296 28. Stencil friezes for blended stencilling, . ,,300 29. Friezes for polychromatic colouring, ... ,, 302 30. Patterns stencilled over joints of wall paper, . ,,304 practical operations involved in painting and decorating must be based upon sound theoreti- cal knowledge, otherwise they are invariably unsuccessful. Sound theories, in their turn, must have a basis of definite and clearly understood facts. Hence, the student, when he has acquired theoretical knowledge, must further culti- vate the ability to correctly appreciate the postulates, or existing facts and conditions of each particular field of operation, in order to attain practical success. In other words, like the surgeon, he must first diagnose his case, then apply his theoretical know- ledge to it, and finally, operate. In no other realm of mechanical labour is this method more obviously necessary than in painting, because in no other class of work are there more ever- varying conditions. Each particular class of work has its own requirements and sur- roundings, and, beyond this, each individual case will vary materially from the same kind of case elsewhere. One of the main factors in the decadence of good craftsmanship in the trade has been the lack of this perception of what is re- qiiisite, and the adoption of a striving for superficial and often unnatural effect, embodied under the phrase "what looks well." The wholesale provision of manufactured decorations, designed and coloured for anywhere in general and nowhere in particular, has fostered this spirit of lazy acceptance, and dwarfed the faculty of critical perception of what is suitable for given positions and uses. Exquisite and well designed as are the decorations supplied by many art manufacturers, even work admitting of so much indi- viduality as do many of the stencilled friezes, becomes hackneyed by repetition. Such decorations as these are frequently out 2 PAINTING AND DECORATING. of character and out of harmony with the surroundings in which they are placed. The insinuating charm of work possessing in some part individual hand labour makes this class of decoration a dangerous obstruction to improvement in the quality of work designed and executed in situ. It is not enough that the general style and scale of a frieze or a ceiling shall accord with its associated decoration, but the repeats, the angles, and the whole setting out of the ornament ought to be determined upon the spot. The habit of working to a ready-made specification, drawn up by persons devoid of a knowledge of the chemical and technical aspects of the craft, has also done much to discourage the practical interest of the craftsman in his operations. This has removed from him any responsibility for technical failures, and set up that de- structive standard of comparison, cheapness, which is another foe to thoroughness and good workmanship. Nothing, on the other hand, is more helpful than an intelligently drawn specification from a man who understands the capabilities and peculiarities of the materials and the craft. Such a specification, in the hands of one who can detect any attempts to go behind it, is in every way conducive to the elevation of the trade. In order to arrive at a correct appreciation of the position, and to use theoretical knowledge to the best advantage, the question that first demands settlement is the all-important and common- place one What is the precise object to be attained in the case to be dealt with 1 Success, as has been pointed out, depends upon the shrewdness with which we completely survey the position and sum up the postulates. A man may be a very dictionary of recipes and processes, but unless he commences in this way he will certainly fail as a decorator. The principle which in criticism will be applied to all our work is the question Does it fulfil its primary object? If it fails in this it fails in every- thing, for no amount of technique or elaboration or costly material will compensate for the lack of fitness for purpose. First, then, what is the end generally to be attained 1 A compliance with the hard matter of fact laws of utility is inseparable from good taste and sound craftsmanship. Beauty is so inextricably bound up with fitness, especially in relation to arrangements of form and colour, that we may almost assent to the proposition that in this connection abstract beauty cannot be considered to exist at all. The " beautiful " is determined by more or less fixed rules based upon fitness ; it admits of no excess and no deficit. It must comprehend due proportion and purposeful distribution of parts. Incongruity of association must be absent, the sensation it should give is one of satisfied INTRODUCTION. 3 complacency and sufficiency and of precise suitability. A feel- ing of extravagance, superabundance, redundancy, or waste destroys this impression. It cannot certainly exist conjointly with any lack of fitness either in material, form, or colour. In the division of mechanical work the same rules apply. The excellence of work is in a large measure dependent on its efficiency in fulfilling the purpose for which it was executed. What would be an excellent finish for one class of work would show bad judgment and ignorance if used for some other position. Utilitarian considerations are of relatively greater weight with the average Briton than purely esthetic considerations, and whilst the endeavour of the decorative house painter should always be to cultivate and forward the aesthetic side of his craft, if he can show that the two considerations are really inseparable, he will go far toward persuading the householder to be less chary of spending his money for the purpose of making his home and surroundings well-preserved, tasteful, cleanly, beautiful, and refined. The question of colour deserves far more consideration than the average house painter gives to it. When we consider thoughtfully the very large quantity of external painting that is done yearly, and the lamentably tawdry, muddy, or dirty results, and contrast these with what might be done by the same amount of labour and material in the hands of a good colourist working in accord with a common well-defined scheme, we are astounded at the supiueness of those in authority, whose tastes are supposed to be cultivated. We almost pine for compul- sory legislation on the subject. Take, for instance, the west-end of London, where acres, yea miles, of frontage are painted annually, and practically the whole triennially. Just imagine a standard three or four colours made compulsory for outdoor work for a period of five years, and what a different scene the place would present ! Our cities, instead of reflecting the dirt and smoke in the colouring of the walls and roofs, might be cheery and even elevating to the senses. Is there some weighty element that makes for the universal sadness and badness] We believe there is, and that it is in great measure due to a total misconception. Ninety per cent, of persons appear to think that the one desideratum in a paint is that it " wont show the dirt." This is quite desirable, but when the desideratum is obtained by using "dirt colour," it evidences a lack of thought and a failure to appreciate the value of colour. In however dirty an atmosphere they may be placed, clean looking tints will look cleaner than the dirty sombre ones ; PAINTING AND DECORATING. and under the ordinary deposits of soot and dust, bright colours will have a generally cleaner and brighter appearance than greys and drabs. Yellows, blues, and reds, when bright in hue, will actually be improved and toned by the acccumulation of a normal quantity of dust. These facts should be borne in mind, and no opportunity allowed to pass unimproved when the surroundings of our life may be cheered and brightened by a little of one of God's best gifts to man, " colour." PAINTING AND DECORATING. CHAPTER I. THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 'OUSE PAINTING is undertaken for three principal reasons : The first is for preservation. The second for cleanliness. The third for beautiftcation. General. These three principal reasons are placed in the above order, because the quality of cleanliness is of greater importance to the community than that of beauty ; and further, be- cause the first necessity provides the reason for the very existence of the craft. In addition to these reasons, the fact is also apparent, that it is not possible to have complete and true beauty if the first two qualities are absent. These three principal requirements may be termed the general reasons why house painting as a craft is a necessity of modern D PAINTING AND DECORATING. life. They must be kept fully in view, and given due and relative prominence when determining what is to be done and how we will do it. Health and art have been said to be twin sisters, and, in the old English sense, science meant knowing what to do, and art expressed the act of doing what science dictated as necessary and right. Thus, health, science, and art are inseparably inter- mixed ; each makes for each. It is the artistic surroundings that induce health ; it is health that produces the perfect man ; and the perfect man physically is the perfect man aesthetically. The separation of art and work is quite a latter-day innovation, the two being really indissoluble. As has been pointed out, art means the act of doing work, provided the doing is scientific, right, and true. Again, science is exactness, viz., truth; thus we see that truth must be in work to ennoble it into art ; art work, therefore, is true work. It is interesting to note how in old times this idea was firmly rooted in the mind of the people. In the Bible, as in many other old books, the idea of a connection between truth and beauty is constantly met with. Take the phrase " beauty oi holiness,"or wholeness viz., freedom from moral imperfection or inaccuracy, and many other instances of similar kind ; every- where the relation between truth and beauty is insisted upon. Special. Next to these general reasons, there are more special and particular reasons which apply to each separate part of the work, and which will be found to vary with each particular set of circumstances surrounding the work. These particular reasons are of no less importance, and must be looked for, discovered, and considered, if the craftsman desires to have the credit of being a sensible and successful workman. For instance, there are the following : Some parts of the work will have much wear and tear ; Others will have little or none. Some will be exposed to the weather ; Some will be in protected situations. Some will be seen by daylight only ; Some will be seen by gaslight ; Some will be seen by both daylight and gaslight, Some will need constant cleaning ; Some will be out of reach and, therefore, difficult to clean. Business premises must look smart and attractive. Signboards must compel attention. Some rooms must be quiet and unassertive. Some work will be for places of amusement and gaiety ; Some for places of gravity and seriousness. In different business houses the class of goods shown must be considered. PLATE i.-DECORATIVE PANELS DESIGNED FOR CONVENTIONAL COLOURING. To face p. 6.] THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 7 In public places the class of frequenters must be taken into account. Architectural features may need emphasizing ; Other features may require disguising. Personal idiosyncrasies of clients need respecting, and a host of other special requirements need taking into account. All these, it may be noted, are points altogether apart from workmanship or technique, and are often overlooked by good craftsmen, but no amount of good detail or workmanship is a substitute for the proper and due recognition of them. The failure to appreciate their importance will lead to error, miscon- ception, and dissatisfaction. Practical Application. As an illustration of the simplicity with which these considerations apply themselves in practice, it may be useful to glance rapidly through an ordinary dwelling- house which, we assume, has to be re-painted. It will then be seen that, though apparently it is a difficult matter to remember, and to apply so many principles to an ordinary job, the diffi- culties vanish on the approach and application of a little common- sense reasoning. First, the outside of the house will be exposed to wet, heat, and frost. To meet these demands the work must be finished in hard, glossy colour with a good body ; each coat must be thoroughly dry before the next is applied. The colours chosen must be of a permanent character, those having the greatest weather-resisting properties being preferable. We must re- member that the destructive action of the elements will commence upon the surface. In the colouring, allowance must be made for the action of the weather, and also for the surrounding brick, tile, slate, or stone. The Entrance Door should be particularly well finished, as being the first thing that the visitor to the house sees and examines. Upon entering the house, the remarks that apply to the entrance door will hold good in regard to the hall. Effort should be made here to convey an impression of comfort, warmth, and homeliness. It should, moreover, be a reflex of the tastes and character of its owner. Any undue parade of gilding or expensive ' material will impart an unpleasant air of chilling grandeur and ostentation, which better befits a public building than a home. The display of wealth should be reserved for more pi'ivate apart- ments. The colouring of the hall should be low in tone and richly quiet in effect, suggesting comfort and even opulence, but forming a simple contrast to the entertaining and other rooms opening out of it. The finish of the work should be hard 8 PAINTING AND DECORATING. and durable, with, few ledges upon which dust can accumulate, as it will be less shut in than the rooms. If there is a Vestibule before entering the hall proper, it may be safely treated in brighter colouring, as it will be a mere passage-way, and a little extra brightness or even hardness will not offend the eye in passing by to the same extent that it would do in a room where we have to stay for a length of time. Here again, the colour should have a hard and durable surface, readily washable, as it will be more exposed to dirt than the hall. In the Lining-Room^ the surroundings may be so treated as tc be redolent of cheery comfort and prosperity. Full-toned, rich, juicy colouring and decided treatment will give the necessary effect (see coloured plate No. II.). As the time spent in the room is not of long continuance, we may indulge in fairly decided hues without fear of tiring the eyes. Again, as the room will be much used at night, we must make allowances in colouring which will be determined in character and extent by the kind of artificial light used, a subject which will have attention in a later chapter. The ornament, too, may be so selected as to be especially appropriate to the room ; not necessarily consisting of bunches of game and vegetables, but yet in harmony with the fact that the room is principally used for eating and drinking. A great charm in old work is the evidence of thought and meaning, without vulgar parade of facts, which results in appropriate symbolism only noticeable to the thoughtful and initiated. Next we come to the Drawing-Boom. Here we have quite a different key to work in lightness, grace, cheerful brightness, and free play for fancy a room used for work, music, dancing, reading, and other recreations, giving unlimited scope for the absence of conventionalism. It is par excellence the ladies' room, and in its decoration we may cultivate a certain femininity of style, without weakness, in pretty contrast to the more masculine treatment accorded to the dining-room. Here, too, we have less rough wear and tear than in any room in the house. The pre- sence of nic-nacs and bric-a-brac tends to more care in cleaning, We may, therefore, use our most delicate tints without fear of their being injured, and indulge in fine and beautiful surfaces. In this room the afternoon and evening are usually spent, and light colours will assist the light. They must also, of necessity, be used as a fitting background to delicately tinted evening dresses, and as a foil to the complexions of the ladies ; hence we carefully avoid hot colours as salmon or terra-cotta, and prefer soft greens, greys, or delicately broken yellows. THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 9 The Breakfast or Morning-Room next compels attention. Cheer- ful hues should here aid in raising the spirits and setting the keynote for the day. Neither too heavy nor too light, the colour and ornament should be healthily contrasted, suggestive of life and motion. All effects of colour conducive to somnolence should be avoided. If a foliage paper is introduced, let it represent a vigorous, upward, spring-like growth and freshness ; and avoid autumn leaves and winter stems, drooping, heavy- scented flowers, and drowsy colouring. We are hardly as con- scious as we should be of the powerful influences of little things in our surroundings. The eye, more than any other sense, conveys its impressions with electric force and rapidity, and with a certainty of result which we are slow to trace to its real The Library and Study will each in its turn suggest thoughtful and sober treatment. Here we may use tertiary colouring and forms without a disturbing or startling element. The decoration should not court attention, but it should be so studied in form and meaning as to lead the mind back by suggestion to books. Quotations and mottoes will not be out of place, especially if they embody the ideas and principles of the master of the house. General quotations that apply anywhere are not to be recom- mended, nor is it good taste to exhibit moral injunctions in the guise of quotations, unless in nurseries, schoolrooms, or children's rooms. The colouring should not be heavy and depressing, but of a medium depth. Next in reference to these rooms generally, one may be very lofty and another too low ; they may be badly lighted, or too gaunt and cheerless by reason of large windows. All these, and similar faults, must be, to the best of the decorator's power, corrected and improved by his colouring and treatment. The Bedrooms will also engage the same kind of attention. Their treatment must be cleanly, airy, and cheerful, not too insistent, and forming a good contrast to the staircase and landings. Purity of tint and freshness of colour will attain this end. The free ventilation must not be interfered with by cooping up windows. The surface of the walls must not be too absorbent. The size and paste used should be deodorised and sterilised by the addition of a little carbolic acid, essence of cloves, or some other similar purifier. All traces of minute fungus growths must be removed by thoroughly washing the walls. Musty and mouldy odours must be traced and their causes removed. In this connection it is well to remember that all 10 PAINTING AND DECORATING. cupboards should be ventilated. The painted work must be made easily washable, and all crevices likely to hold dust or to encourage moth or insect life should be scrupulously filled up. Patterns of disturbing element and pronounced line, or of an angular tendency, should be discarded. In the Children's Nursery or Bedrooms all these points need more emphatic attention, and especially the matters of colour and surface finish. A sanitary paper which can be sponged, or something equally durable and washable, should run up as high as the hands of the children can reach. Enamel or varnish finish is best for the wood- work. White or light wood- work that shows finger marks and dirt will have an educational value which will repay the trouble of-occasionally sponging them off and lead to the use of handles and finger plates, besides having a cheerful and purifying effect on the senses. The presence of plenty of white surface in the nursery enables the eye to discern colour, improves the sight, temperament, and digestion, stimulates the exercise of the muscles, and materially improves the circulation of the blood and general health, especially if it be judiciously present in conjunction with pure tints and cheerful bits of good colouring. This fact has long been recognised on the Continent and applied to the manufacture of toys, and is being more and more acknowledged and acted upon by scientists and medical men. This subject will receive more attention in a later chapter. Economy in Working. The relation between real economy and fitly applied decoration has already been noticed in its bearing upon the client. It is equally important to note that economy of procedure has an important bearing on the workman, and is directly dependent upon the use of method, order, and clean- liness. This will be shown in detail as each part of the work involved is discussed, but the present place is most suitable for general remarks on this important aspect of house painting. Haphazard work the taking of things as they come, and the absence of a specific order of procedure is responsible for dis- satisfaction, loss of time, the breaking of engagements, and often bankruptcy ; but what more concerns us at present is that it is absolutely impossible to obtain good results in workmanship without attention to these points. The following short rules will, therefore, perhaps be found helpful : The best order in which to carry on the various parts of the work, so that each portion is prevented from exerting any damaging effect upon that which is previously finished, must be studied. The work must be so arranged that dust is absent PLATE 2.-DECORATION OF HOUSE-FRONT ABOVE SHOP. To face p. 10.] THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 11 when wet paint is about, that paint is dry when papering is being done, that floors are not wet when we are varnishing, and that many other similar contretemps are avoided. Rooms must be finished in such order that it is not necessary to carry on work in them, or traffic through them, after they are completed. The work should commence, in theory, at the farthest point from the front door, and be completed in due sequence, until the painter finds himself outside. The external painting of windows, &c., should be done before the inside of the room is finished. In painting a room the work that involves the use of steps, &c., should be done first. Cleanliness in Working, Then comes the great question of cleanliness in working. All fittings should be carefully covered or removed before commencing work, and not after they are already soiled. There should be no unnecessary moisture put on the floors in stripping walls or washing down, even though apparently it can do no harm. Splashes and spots must be avoided, even though the floors are covered up, and the hands and clothes kept religiously free from paint. Trade and Health. As an occupation, the painter's is one of the healthiest in the building trades, providing only that moderate cleanliness is observed in person and habits. It has been proved beyond doubt that the volatile products given off by oils, &c., used in painting are not only innocuous, but beneficial. That white lead in particles does not mingle with the air we breathe ; that the smell arising even from the use of arsenical colours is equally non-poisonous ; and that the only possible methods of introducing painters' poisons into the system are through the pores of the skin by the totally unnecessary handling of the pigments, and through the mouth by eating food with painty hands, are all facts well known to scientists. Causes of Bad Health among Painters. There are a few prevalent favourite methods of useless " self-sacrifice " that may be here noted. First, the use of tools and brushes with unclean handles, by which the paint on the handle is deliberately forced into the pores of the skin of fingers and hands. There is no excuse for this dirty, but common, practice. The handles should be scraped clean with a sharp bit of glass or a steel scraper, working from the bristles, and should then be coated with knotting. Second, the filthy habit of putting the hands into colour when mixing, a habit as unnecessary and absurd as any in the trade, but clung to by ancient and thoughtless practitioners as a sort of fetish. 12 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Third, the use of the finger and thumb nails in lieu of a knife for scraping off spots of white lead and other matters, frequently followed by biting the nails. Fourth, and perhaps most prolific of danger, the use of white lead putty, and stopping with the hands instead of with a knife and stopping board. Fifth, the rubbing down of white lead filling in a dry con- dition, with consequent inhalation of dust. Sixth, a general aversion to soap and water, and sometimes the substitution therefor of turps and oil, which serve the better to convey the poisonous particles into the perspiratory system. These points will mostly come up for discussion later, but deserve a place at the front, hence their mention here. Clients' Requirements. In conclusion, it must not be supposed that the painter will always find it possible to give the rein even to his rightly-guided instinct in matters of taste and detail. Clients' requirements have to be studied, as well as the personal prejudices of the untrained. The wise painter, therefore, has to find a via media betwixt what he believes to be the correct treatment and what his client requires, and will best consult his own interests and those of his client by bringing the one into harmony with the other that is, by doing what his client actually requires in what lie knows to be the best way, rather than by endeavouring to press his own views too persistently, always remembering that in matters of mere technique it is due to his self-respect to have hia own wsy. PLATE 3.-PANEL8 DESIGNED FOR NATURALISTIC COLOUR TREATMENT. To face p. 12.1 13 CHAPTER II. is necessary to deal briefly with the accommodation requisite for workshop and stores, and the manner of arranging and managing them to the best advan- tage. The class of premises used, the par- ticular exigencies of town and country work and available space, and the various classes of business involved, all serve to make it impossible to admit of precise description ; but in so far as the practices recom- mended here will be based upon, and assume the existence of efficient accommodation, it is perhaps as well to detail what may be regarded as quite necessary, and to indicate the more important desiderata in a well regulated establishment. Economy of Proper Storage Boom. In the first place, it will be desirable to have two separate shops and an additional store room for materials; which will be called, respectively, the paint shop, the painting room, and the stores. A paved and covered yard or shed should be retained for the 14 PAINTING AND DECORATING. plant and appliances, as it is important that ladders, poles, and planks should be kept dry. As indicating the importance of small matters of this kind, it can be shown that many tons a year are saved upon the cartage account of a large establishment by the use of a covered place for storage of planks and poles. On one occasion a large consignment of scaffolding was sent from London to a church in the country in a wet and sodden state. After standing in the dry for some weeks it was re-consigned to London, and the difference in cost for carriage was nearly two pounds sterling. In many such ways the adoption of careful, methodical, and orderly ways of managing a business conduces to the saving of money. The Paint Shop. The paint shop must be quite 24 feet long by 14 feet wide, and a room of this proportion will be found more convenient, if properly lighted, than a squarer form of shop. Position. It should be on the ground floor, for the con- venience of taking in heavy goods, and generally facilitating the removal of material in and out. Lighting. It must be well lighted; this is an absolute necessity, and may be regarded as of the very first importance. In the winter months, gas, or artificial light of some kind, will be requisite. A T pendant in the centre, and a couple of side brackets will suffice, fitted with good incandescent burners. An ideal shop should have side lights all along the north side. Roof and sky-lights are an abomination, as besides the danger of breakage by stones or hail, experience proves that wet and dust at times will come in, and that spiders and flies have a particular partiality for dropping from them. But more to the purpose, the direct sky-light, changing as it does in character from hour to hour, is deceptive and difficult to work under if making and matching tints. It is too glaring and strong to be a comfortable working light. The north is the best side for lights if it can be so arranged ; and if these are set at a slight angle out of the perpendicular viz., the lower portion of the sashes set out 4| to 6 inches further than the tops, the lighting can hardly be improved upon. The sashes can be hinged at the top, and open otitwards for ventilation. Must be Dry. The shop must be a dry one, as many materials deteriorate if kept in a damp atmosphere. Water. A supply of water will be required, with sink and waste. Heating Arrangements. A gas stove or fireplace in a safe corner. A shut-in stove is safest, but the danger of fire, if WORKSHOP AND STORES. 15 ordinary care is used, is more remote than at first appears, as but few of the ordinary materials are inflammable without actual and purposeful ignition. The fireplace or gas stove will be required for heating water, size, glue, paste, &c., and should be large enough and strong enough to hold a glue kettle or a 3-gallon bucket. Ceiling. The ceiling, if there is a room above, must be dust- tight, and not mere open joists and ordinary floor-boards, or the dust will percolate through, and the colours will need continual straining. Colouring. It should be white in colour, to assist tbe light. The floor should be of stone or concrete. It is immaterial whether the walls be of feather-edge board or brick, so long as they are solid and dust-tight. They are whitened, as, though there will be little of them seen, it is as well to get all tbo additional light that can be reflected from them. Fittings and Furniture. The fittings necessary will be strong shelves, a cupboard or two, and strong benches. First, a long bench under the windows, about 2 feet 8 inches high and 2^ feet wide, with stout supports, will be the mixing bench. It should be furnished with three paint stones. These may be slabs of Purbeck or other hard even-grained marble, or French burrstone, without flaws, about 2 feet square and 1| inches thick. One of the three may be smaller, and of white marble, for use for fine bits of colour. A cheaper substitute for a marble slab is a sheet of stout plate glass set in white lead to make it solid. To keep it in place, a fillet of wood may be screwed to the bench on each side. This will also protect it from being chipped. Rough cast plate will do if levelled by rubbing with coai-se emery and another piece of thick glass till an even surface is produced. The front edge of the stones should be set level with the edge of the bench. A muller will be required for each stone, as, although every colour can be purchased ready ground for use, the good workman will often prefer to grind his own in special mediums for special jobs, and is not always satisfied with the degree of fineness attained in the paint mill. It is also unneces- sary to keep such a comprehensive stock when the means for grinding up a bit of special colour are handy and familiar. Beneath each stone there should be a drawer for material for cleaning the bench. Cotton waste or odd rags are used for this purpose, but the most efficacious and most lasting material, one which never seems full of paint, and which does not ignite if heated by long confinement in the drawer, is a material known in the old-fashioned trade as " shreds." Whether commercial 16 PAINTING AND DECORATING. and economical development has or has not driven it out of the market at a price within the painters' scope for such a purpose is uncertain, but of its absolute efficacy and cleanly application and power of absorption there is no doubt. It was obtained from curriers, and appeared to be the dressings or scrapings from the interior sides of the coarser hides. Cotton rags or waste, when saturated with oil, are a fruitful source of fires by spontaneous combustion, and should be shunned unless they can be cleared out periodically under skilled supervision. Colours, Driers, Oils, &c., required on Paint Bench The space at the back of the stone will be the place for small kegs of tinting colours available for use when mixing. Ochres, Umbers, Sienna, Venetian and Indian reds, red lead, vegetable black, and Prussian blue should be kept there, within easy reach of the hand. Space between the stones at the back will accommodate patent driers and white lead, of which a small keg should be specially set apart for the same purpose, as the frequent dipping of palette knives into the large casks is liable to soil the contents and disturb them unnecessarily. Upon the paint-mixing bench we shall also require small hand cans, spouted for pouring, to hold raw and boiled oil, terebine, turpentine, and a generally useful varnish for adding to colour. Plenty of room must be left between the paint stones for standing and straining the colours that are being made up. Drawers to Paint Bench for Tools. Narrow drawers between the paint-stone drawers will be useful to hold the mixing or palette knives, a piece or two of pumice stone for cleaning off any hard spots that dry upon the stone, and for occasionally cleaning down the stone thoroughly in addition to the general wiping down after use, a few clean rags, pieces of straining muslin of different degrees of fineness and string, also a hammer, tacks, a screw-driver, shears or large scissors, a cork screw, a cask opener, a case opener, odd corks and bungs, taps for racking off the oil and turps, and many other odds and ends that experience will dictate. Palette Knives for Paint Stone. There should be a pair of palette knives to each stone, of from 8 to 1 2 inches long in the blades, for different quantities of colour. To Clean Paint Stone. A word may be interposed here on the method of cleaning down the slabs after use. Expert handling of the palette knives will leave the stone almost clean enough to dine from, but it may be stained by strong colours, as Prussian blue ; or varnish or turps colour may stick near the edges. To thoroughly clean, put a little whiting on the stone and rub it up 1S97 PLATE 4.-RANEL8 DESIGNED FOR FLAT NATURALISTIC COLOURING. To face p. 16.] WORKSHOP AND STORES. 17 in a little raw linseed oil, work it over the surface with the muller as if grinding colour ; collect and take it up with the knives, and put it into the keg reserved for odd bits of light colour. This will leave stone, knives, and muller all clean, and a wipe over with the " shreds," or a rag, or cotton waste does the rest. Brush Trays. On the bench near the stones a place must be set apart for the brushes. A tray of zinc, divided into sections by bars across the top, and large enough to hold the number of brushes generally in use, must be provided. It should be 5 inches deep, so that the brushes may be suspended in the water and not rest on the bottom. This is accomplished by boring holes through the handle or stock of the brushes or tools, and slipping a piece of steel wire through the hole, the ends of which will rest upon the divisions of the tray. The holes must be bored at a height which will permit the whole of the bristles to be in the water. A tinned tray or an iron one will rust and corrode. Zinc is the best material, as it can be easily scraped free from paint, and will withstand the action of water, turps, or oil. A smaller tray may be provided for Fi g- L Skeleton elevation of i i i , -i smutch-can. A, Inner can. B, brushes kept in oil. Outer can. 0, Mouth of toner In putting away the brushes, it can . j^ Sloping top of inner can is well to scrape as much paint as to prevent splashing. E, Filter possible out of them and rinse them of perforated zinc to prevent in turps, otherwise the water will * hi k tur P s , Corking up from f,' ., . ,, . , , bottom. The turps will reach cause the oil m the paint to congeal up to the dotted H e F and become "furred" in the brushes. Brash Washer or Smutch-can. For the purpose of washing the brushes, smutch-cans or rinsers will be necessary. A double galvanised or tinned iron kettle made as in Fig. 1 will be a good form. The inner kettle has a bottom of perforated copper or copper gauze, the top edge is sufficiently sharp to scrape the edge of the brushes or to free them from excess of turps, and overhangs to prevent splashing. The perforated bottom allows all solid matter to pass through and settle, and prevents it from working up again. After scraping the brushes out on the stone, thoroughly rinse them in the turps in the smutch-can. It is " "^^T 3 A --F... />-^v I^r-'T'.'.rs V;> ^ll" IS.*& B 18 PAINTING AND DECORATING. a good plan to have one for preliminary rinsing, and a second for cleaner turps. To thoroughly rinse, whirl the brush round in the turps, by spinning the handle between the palms of the hands. To free it from turps, do the same thing, but keep the brush higher so that it does not touch the turps. A further spinning in an empty can or keg will leave the brush almost dry, in which condition it is safe to put it into the water tray. Varnish brushes may be treated in a similar way before being stood in oil, but they will be fully dealt with under the heading of brushes. Zinc Covering for Paint Bench. The spaces between the paint stones, if covered with stout zinc, will be kept much cleaner, and scrape and clean down more readily than if left in the bare wood. Stout No. 11 gauge zinc will be suitable; allow the zinc to go under the stones, dress it square over the edge of the bench, and nail to the edge. Ready-made Colours. All colours that it is possible to make up at the shop should be sent to the job ready for use, except thinning, but of course this only applies to jobs near the shop. Large Kegs. Under the paint bench, a suitable place may be found for large kegs of colour, casks of whitelead and driers, barrels of ochre and Umber, &c., from which the smaller kegs on the paint bench are kept supplied. Drawers for Powder Colours. A nest of drawers will be found truly economical for powder colours. The drawers should vary in size, and be easily pulled out; each drawer should have an all-round solid partition dividing it from the other drawers to prevent an inter-mixture of the colours. They may have lids, but this is not material if the drawers are self- contained. They should not be too large, as they can be replenished frequently from the stock in stores. The great advantage accruing from the use of drawers is, that the drawers can be taken across to the stone or bench, thus avoiding the carrying of dips of dry colour on the tip of the knife, and conse- quent waste. Where the dry colours are kept in bulk in casks, there is generally a series of coloured tracks on the floor between the casks and the paint stone. Another gain is the cleanliness and freedom from dust and grit in the colour. In sending dry colour to a job, on no account send it in paper packages. Tin canisters should be collected and set aside for the purpose. Weighing Machine and Scales. A weighing machine for heavy goods, and scales and weights for lighter packages, are necessary. These should not only be in the shop, but their use should be WORKSHOP AND STORES. 19 insisted on, and all goods coming in or going out should be weighed and entered. Rough Day-book. For this purpose a rough day-book should be placed on a small desk in close proximity to the scales, and near the door. This is not a manual on book-keeping, even for painters, but it may be noted with emphasis that the initial stage of book-keeping begins here. One book, always at hand, fixed (like a chained Bible) if desired, must contain a record of everything that goes in or out of the shop and stores. Material, tools, plant, or objects to be, or that have been, painted, must all be set down in the order they occur, with the date and name of destination or derivation. The sorting off of these various items is a matter for the clerks at a future stage. Oil Tanks. In a place removed from the tire or stove, tanks are required for the oils one for raw linseed, and one for boiled oil, and a couple for turps. It is generally the practice to buy two kinds of turpentine. One, the best Russian; and the other, American. Sometimes French is also stocked. These should not be mixed, as they have special qualities which, if kept separate, are valuable under different sets of circumstances. The tanks should hold about 120 gallons each or more. Square tanks take least room. Wood, zinc-lined, and with taps near bottom, or galvanised iron are the best. The advantages of large tanks are many. One is, that as the oil is generally new it becomes matured by being stored in bulk for a little time. Another, that by mixing the different consignments a more uniform quality is maintained ; and another, that the contents of the barrels can be checked and examined when they are racked ; there is thus an avoidance of much waste. Whiting and Plaster Bins. A large box or bin for the whiting must be set in a dry corner, and smaller ones for the plaster and Parian cement, mastic, and sand, Portland cement, re added to the pulp during the paper- making process. Sanitaries are papers in which the printing is done in oil colours upon a heavily sized or otherwise prepared ground. These papers, owing to the oxidisation of the oil, become brittle and carbonised if kept in stock long, and have an objectionable gloss. Sanitums and washables, either the ground or pattern, or both, are printed in a washable distemper and spirit colour insoluble in water. They are an improvement on Sanitaries as they do not have the glossy surface. Pegamoid papers are a recent introduction, in which, after printing in ordinary colours, the paper is treated with an elastic water varnish prepared from "pegamoid." Metal papers, as their name implies, are papers in which pattern or ground is printed in an imitation gold, metal, or in bronze powder, and are not to be confounded with papers in which the metal is lacquered and varnished. Golds; in these the real article, gold-leaf, is substi- tuted for the imitation. Flocks are divided into three classes. Plain, ordinary flock has the pattern or ground of finely desiccated cloth known as " flock." This is made to adhere to the paper by printing in a tenacious gold size, and strewing or dusting the flock over the size while it is tacky. Heavy flocks are those which are subjected to flocking three or more times, thus making a raised pattern some y 1 ^ to i of an inch high. These are used for painting, and are frequently only printed in white for that purpose. Stamped and relief flocks are those which are printed with several flock- ings, but not from the same block, the relief being thus graduated and alternated with the undulating surface of the pattern, and afterwards stamped by hot dies with shaped relief. Many varieties and combinations of these processes are to be met with, making up an almost endless list of special effects and special classes, many of which emanate from particular makers. 96 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Varnished papers are those sold ready varnished by machinery. The varnish used is a quick drying, white hard spirit varnish that has little durability in it. It is far better to varnish paper after hanging. Imitation leatlwr papers are legion in their variety. Heavy stamped paper pulps are sometimes printed before and some- times after stamping, and are treated with metals, bronzes, and lacquers in a variety of ways, all suggestive of stamped Cordovan and Venetian leathers of the olden times. The description of their manufacture does not fall within the scope of this chapter. Dimensions. English wall papers are made in pieces 12 yards long and usually 21 inches nett width that is, from 22 inches to 22 inches before trimming its edges. These dimensions are a curious reminder of the days of taxed sheets. The original paper sheets were what is termed by stationers and papermakers "imperial" size viz., 22 x 31, and "royal," 24 x 19, &c. The former, then the largest size made, were generally used for paper hangings. The pattern was usually stencilled, that being the cheapest method of working. A sheet of the paper prepared with oil and cut out formed the stencil, which was laid on each sheet in turn, and the pattern stencilled through. Of course a margin was left of about | an inch, and this gave 21 inches nett for the pattern by 30 inches nett. When continuous paper was first allowed to be used, the Act of Parliament limited its use to one or other of these breadths, a higher duty being payable upon the broader paper, and the length of a piece was limited to a score of the 21-inch by 30-inch blocks pasted together, which roughly made 12 yards by 30 inches. At the same time, in France and Holland, the royal size paper was mostly used, and the import duty in the pieces was calculated upon a paper 18 inches nett in width viz., the width of a sheet in royal. These old sizes have never been successfully departed from. Most English papers are 22 inches wide by 12 yards long. Certain papers are made of 30-inch width, usually such as have not to be printed, and in a few cases those that have to be printed by hand. They embrace lining papers plain and tinted, ingrain grounds, hand-painted marbles, and a few block-printed goods of large scale. All French and German papers are still made 18 inches wide and 9 yards long ; the exceptions to the rale are similar in character to the exceptions to the English rule of 22 inches. Friezes and borders are made of almost every width, but 21 inches, 18 inches, 10 inches, 9 inches, 7 inches, and PLATE lOa.-WALL PAPER WITH COMBINED FRIEZE AND FILLING. BY JEFFREY & Co. To face p. 96.] WALL HANGINGS. 97 5 inches are amongst the most usual. They are generally so arranged that one or more exactly occupy the whole width of a 22-inch paper. Composite Papers. The latitude allowed by modern machines in printing irregular repeats has now brought about the use of many specially-designed composite papers, on which the frieze and filling are all upon one common ground. They require some knowledge of design and taste in arrangement to properly hang them. Some makers, principally American, have carried this idea to great length with most successful decorative results. Hand printers, like Messrs. Jeffrey, of London, have carried the idea still further, and, as our illustration of their Standard Rose design will show, with complete artistic success. Note how the picture is hung to aid the general tout ensemble. Comparison between Wall Paper and Painting. The relation of wall papers to painting has now become so intimate, that no hand-book on painting could be compiled without reference to them. Their commercial and practical value far outweigh their apparent temporary character, which is more fanciful than real. A papered wall will actually last longer in fair condition under modern necessities of domestic life than a plain-painted wall, which can only be used when in a passage, staircase, or room not continuously in use; unless it be provided with a varnished or enamelled dado, which can be renewed when requisite without re-painting the upper portion of the walls. Selection of Wall Papers. The selection of papers for various rooms and positions can only be dealt with briefly here. They are subject, in as far as pattern and colour are concerned, to the same laws as painted decoration, and, where necessary, will be referred to in the chapter specially dealing with that subject. The following may be taken as general rules : Light papers are conducive to health as opposed to dark ones. A cheerful colour is better for one's surroundings than a sombre colour. In deep-coloured wall papers the lustreless surfaces enhance the gloom of shadows, and, for the same reason, tame and pale washy tints and undecided patterns become tamer and lose character. Washable and sanitary papers should be retained for the especial use of kitchens and offices, or passages. They do not look well on the raking walls of staircases, as they intensify any inequalities on the surface of the wall. They may be used as staircase dadoes, or for staircases in lodging-houses, &c., where a great deal of wear has to be endured, with advantage. The lustreless sanitum papers are better for fillings to staircase walls. Bathroom and W.C., housemaids' closets, and sculleries 7 98 PAINTING AND DECORATING. should be papered with a varnished paper, or varnished after- wards. Sanitary papers varnish well if sized once after hanging. Metal papers do not last long, especially in rooms where much gas is used. Flocks should only be used in good rooms where there is not much dust and gas viz., in high-class houses. They are very serviceable wear, but soon look dusty. Hints on Choice of Wall Papers for Special Purposes. Prefer- ence should always be given to good, simple designs, in two or at most three tints, where there are plenty of pictures and furniture. Lively patterns in many colours will assist to furnish comparatively empty rooms. Caution must be shown in the selection of spotty patterns. These patterns are most effective in halls, staircases, and very large apartments, but are disastrous to the decorative effect of ordinary dwelling and sleeping rooms. Pure- tinted papers look clean and healthful ; they are specially recommended for use in bedrooms. Delicate floral patterns have the same effect, and are specially suitable for town houses, giving by their contrast a pleasant reminiscence of other scenes. Floral papers should be tabooed for country houses, where they come into awkward and distasteful competition with nature. Style must be borne in mind in the selection of more than one paper in the same room ; not absolutely to the extent of main- taining one pure historic style in the two or more papers, which is often impossible with the selection at disposal, but at least to the extent of decorative harmony and fitness. In selecting a ceiling, frieze, filling, and dado, due contrast in style of pattern must be maintained, without incongruity. If the ceiling be geometrical, the filling should be a free trail or scroll pattern, and the dado again in geometrical or perpendicular lines. If the ceiling is spotted, then the filling will require to be an all-over pattern, either geometrical or scroll, and the dado should contrast in plan with the filling. Preference should be given to geometrical dadoes, as having most consistency and sense of support. The geometrical basis may be a straight or curved one, upright, horizontal, or square, and the filling should partake of a contrasting character. Plates 6 and 7 illustrate good con- trasting arrangements of pattern. A larger scale detail design should not be placed above a smaller, unless in a very lofty room for freize or ceiling, or unless the more emphatic contrast in colour counterbalances the weakness in pattern. A relief pattern material of whatever scale will always be stronger in effect than a printed paper, and must not be used above a printed paper except it be for a high frieze, or there be something in the colouring and design of the paper which WALL HANGINGS. 99 makes it more pronounced in effect than the relief pattern material. Relievo Wall Hangings. Turning now to relief materials, we have an abundant variety both in material and design in the market. The most useful are, perhaps, the Japanese leather papers. These, as the name implies, are made in Japan, and are usually metallic in colouring, full use being made of the rich hues of Japanese lacquers. Paper pulp, occasionally assisted by cotton- wool, is beaten into a matrix or mould, and then dried and hardened, metalled, and lacquered. They are made 36 inches wide, in most cases, but sometimes less, and are in 1 2-yard rolls. For dadoes they are rich and generally artistic in feeling. FO-- the upper walls of smoke-rooms and dining-rooms they may also be used with confidence. For ceilings they appear a little ineffective and out of place, lacking that sharpness which suggests rigidity and permanence. Certain materials used upon ceilings seem to suggest that the ceiling is not duly supported and may break away ; this is one of them and flock paper is another. This may be merely due to a nervous sensibility on the part of those who think so, but it is a curious fact that if the ceiling is panelled by mouldings, this objection to Japanese papers on ceilings is at once removed by the sense of added support given by the mouldings. Anaglypta is a hardened paper pulp of extreme durability and utility. It, is capable of a variety of effective finishes which will be dealt with later. It is usually 24 inches wide and 12 yards long. It is pressed in iron moulds. Cordelova is a similar substance but less hard and sharp, accommodating itself to higher relief and to old style designs ; it lacks the mechanical sharpness of anaglypta. Tynecustle tapestry is also a very beautiful material. The name tapestry is misleading; it resembles stamped leather in the low relief, and modelled plaster in the high relief. It is in rolls of any length required, and the usual width is 24 inches. It has a canvas face which considerably enhances its commercial and decorative value. Tynecastle vellum is the same material with a vellum like paper surface or face. It is cheaper than the tapestry. All the above materials are made in panels of various sizes, as well as in rolls, and the relief varies from 1 inch to | of an inch, a material factor in governing the prices. Anaglypta is the cheapest of these, and Tynecastle tapestry the most expensive. This does not refer to art value, but merely to cost price. Lincrusta Walton. Lincrusta Walton is a material made from 100 PAINTING AND DEOO BATING. solidified oil spread upon a cotton, linen, or paper backing, and pressed by rollers into relief patterns. It has great durability and is a good material to withstand dampness if it is well fixed. It is highly sanitary, having a flat back. It has, however, some drawbacks as a material compared with those already mentioned. It will sometimes shrink, leaving open joints ; its effect is hard and rather monotonous, the patterns being extremely sharp and regular, and it deteriorates if kept long in stock. Its relief is from J F inch to f inch in height. It is heavier in weight than Cordelova, Anaglypta, or Tynecastle. For vestibules, bath- rooms, and conservatories, steam boats and rail cars, it is unrivalled. It was the pioneer of all the others in the market. It is made in widths of 18 to 20 inches, and also in special shapes and sizes. Several additional materials of the kind might be mentioned, but need not take up our space as they differ little from those already enumerated. Fibrous Plaster. Fibrous plaster viz., plaster on canvas backing is now much used for friezes, but the fixing is a plasterers' job rather than the painters'. Sheet Metal Friezes. Thin sheets of metal are being used for stamped relief friezes, dadoes, and borders ; iron, bronze, brass, copper, and latten are used for the purpose. They are fixed with a cement and round-headed copper nails. The use of them appears open to criticism, unless they are of some substance, as they suggest a sham. Jute Canvas for Wall Hangings. Jute, woollen, and flax cloths, both printed and stencilled, are a later innovation still, and have the recommendation of texture and softness. Their general introduction into first class work is so recent as to scarcely justify criticism. The sanitary questions involved in the pasting of such materials on the wall require consideration, but in the straining after new and original effects this aspect of the question appears to have been somewhat neglected and overlooked. Fabrikona. Since the first edition of this book was written there have been many attempts to overcome this sanitary objection, and a material is now on the market known as "Fabrikona" and by other names; it is a dyed and protected canvas that will not harbour germs or insects. Fabrikona is the best of these and is made in a wider range of shades than any other. It is 36 inches, and in some cases 72 inches, in width, and is sold in 12-yard rolls. It can be painted or stained after fixing or when the first effect has become dirty and worn. 101 CHAPTER VII. N the work of the paperhanger, two primary qualities are essential cleanliness, and precision or exact- ness. Tools. The paperhanger will re- quire the following tools: Scissors, of which two pairs are desirable, one pair with long blades about 1 2 inches over all for trimming or edging, and a pair of shorter ones, say 9 or 10 inches, for cutting the paper when wet. Paperhangers' scissors require frequent washing, and are now ob- tainable with nickel-plated blades and japanned handles (Fig. 47) which will be found a great advantage. They may also be had with a 6-inch rule engraved on the blade, but this does not appear particularly advantageous, as the 2-foot rule should always be at hand. Rollers, of which he will require two, a 7-inch roller (Fig. 48) for general use, and an edge or angle roller 1J inch wide with 102 PAINTING AND DECORATING handle at one side (Fig. 49) to allow of its being readily intro- duced into the angles. In the joints, a roller made of earthen- Fig. 47. Improved paperhangers' scissors, nickel-plated blades and japanned handles. ware, like a chair castor, is excellent. The rollers are of wood, leather covered, and the general roller is additionally covered with white flannel to offer a soft and clean surface to the paper. Fig. 48. Paperhangers' roller. Fig. 49. Paperhangers' angle roller. This flannel covering is added by the workman and renewed as occasion requires. Putting-on brushes are used for ceiling or sanitary paper, or HANGING PAPER. 103 for papers which would be crushed by the use of the roller. These are in two forms as here illustrated (Fig. 50). Many paperhangers prefer the shoe brush shape, although this is not specially made for the purpose. A clicker's or shoemaker's knife to trim stout goods will be necessary. Other requisites are a 2-foot fourfold rule, a 3-foot steel Fig. 50. Paperhangers' brushes. edged, or solid steel straight-edge, which should be nickel-plated, to prevent rust; a plumbline and bob, a chalk line, a small hammer, a screw-driver and pincers to remove nails, screws, or small fixtures which are better papered under than cut round It is a good plan to have a clean sponge and water at hand in case of accidental soiling. Preparation of Walls. Before papering walls, it is necessary that they be properly prepared for the process. They should present a slightly absorbent, even, and smooth surface, akin to that of good notepaper ; that is, they should be more absorbent than a painted surface, and less so than a distempered surface. In re-papering old walls, it is necessary, both on technical and sanitary grounds, that all the old paper be removed. This is readily accomplished by well wetting the old paper, allowing it time to saturate, and then using a paper scrape or broad 104 PAINTING AND DECORATING. chisel knife; a good one can be made by inserting a piece of steel bedlath 5 inches wide into a wooden handle, and rivetting it firmly through all. They can, however, be purchased of the pattern here shown (Fig 51) for about Is. each. The stripping of old walls is not usually done by the paper- hanger, but by painters' labourers or apprentices, as it is a job requiring little skill. Care must be taken not to dig into the walls with the scraper, Fig. 51. Paperhangers' scraper. or to damage the edges of the woodwork. When there are more thicknesses than one, they may all be removed together if well soaked. Flock or varnished papers and some sanitaries will require hot soda water, which entails great care in its use, or the skirting and frames will be sure to suffer damage. After the paper has been scraped off, a great deal of paste will still be adhering to the walls ; before this has time to re-dry it should be scrubbed off with a short wash brush and warm or hot water. If the walls are good, they will now be ready for re-papering as soon as dry, but any holes, &c., must be stopped in the same way as for distempering, and all nibs and roughness removed by glass paper use 2 to 2 glass paper on a cork block, 1 inches thick, and rub with a circular sweep. Particular care must be taken to stop cracks or angles, and the joints between woodwork and walls, top of skirting, and round door frames. If the ceiling has been whitened after the walls have been stripped, look well for spots and splashes, and rub them level. If much stopping has been done, or the walls are new, they wili require sizing with a coat of weak size. A little whiting may be added to take away the colour of the size. Damp walls occur and frequently require treatment. A temporary cure may be effected under paper, where such a method could not be used on a painted or distempered wall. The commonest method is to hang thin sheets of laminated lead to the wall with stout paste, and tack down the edges with small copper tacks. This is temporarily effectual, but if the cause of HANGING! PAPER. 105 dampness is not removed it will in time spread beyond the limits of the impervious lead and find a way out. Another way, useful for basement walls, or walls against the inside of which the earth has been allowed to rest, is to chip off the whole of the plaster affected, down to the bricks, and spread on the bricks a coating of Limmer asphalt, or a mixture of pitch, tar, and brick dust. The coating should be \ an inch thick ; strew the surface with sharp gravel and then re-plaster with a quick setting plaster or cement. All such cures must be accompanied by external removal of the cause. If the outer wall is stone and the rain percolates through it, a coating of red lead and linseed oil will stop the influx. If the damp rises from the ground a damp course must be put in, consisting of air tiles, slates, or pitch. If the dampness results from bad drainage of surface water, there must be a dry area made, and plenty of surface drain pipes put in. Measuring for Paper. Assuming the room is ready for papering, the requisite quantity of paper must be ascertained. There is an arithmetical method of doing this, which is theoreti- cally accurate. There is also a rough working method, which, from the dissimilarity of rooms and cases, gives more correct workable results. The first method is to measure entirely round the room, and to multiply the result by the height between the skirting and cornice. This gives the area in square feet ; divide this by 9 to bring it into yards, and then by 7, the number of super yards in a piece of English wall paper. The result is the number of pieces required. There must be deductions made for doors and windows, and 10 per cent, added for waste and matching. The second method is to take a stick 21 inches long, or a roll of paper, and measure how many breadths of paper are necessary, ignoring short ends above doors and under windows, and calling all the rest full lengths. Mentally calculate how many of these lengths can be cut from each piece of 12 yards, remembering that any lengths between 8 feet and 10 feet will only go thrice, allowing for matching and waste (most rooms are between these two heights) ; divide the number of breadths required by the number each roll will cut, and you have the number of rolls required. Thus a room 9 feet high taking 42 breadths requires 14 rolls. Paste. The paste must now be made. For ordinary work, 2 Ibs. oi flour must be stirred into a smooth thin batter in cold water, and boiling water poured upon it, still stirring the whole time, till it assumes a transparent appearance and thickens. Take 106 PAINTING AND DECORATING. care to pour in the water gradually and evenly, and stir regularly to avoid lurapiness. Some good pastry flour does not make good paste. A rye flour is good, and some kinds of wheat are better than others. It is well to test it. A table-spoonful of oil of cloves or peppermint will give a pleasant odour to the paste and prevent it fermenting or sour- ing ; or a very little carbolic acid will prevent its putrefying. Alum is added to paste by some to strengthen and bind it, but it is liable to destroy some of the colours used in paper printing. Paste boards and trestles will be required for pasting upon, and a short, handy pair of steps to reach the top of the wall. Edging Papers. Trimming the paper is accomplished in several ways. For ordinary work, many men sit upon a chair, stretch their legs out stiffly in front of them, and, unrolling a piece of paper, allow it to roll down to their feet, where it is kept in position by the upturned toes ; they then commence edging on the right hand side, re-rolling with the left hand ; a cut with the shears in the right hand is succeeded by a roll up with the left hand until the piece is completely edged. Great rapidity and precision can be obtained by this method. Others unroll the paper on the paste board and cut the two edges con- secutively for the length of the board, then roll, slide on, and unroll the next length, which is similarly treated. A yet better method for good papers is to trim with a knife and straight-edge. A piece of plate-glass or sheet zinc is neces- sary to cut on to avoid damaging the board. Both edges should always be trimmed, but in a thin paper only one should be trimmed quite closely, the other edge may be allowed an eighth full for lapping over. In trimming a plain ground paper where there is no pattern to edge to, it is usual to drive a needle point or shoemaker's awl into the edge of the paper as a guide, or to cut a notch into the end with a tenon saw as a guide to cut it. Machine Trimmers. Several forms of practical paper trimmers are now in general use. The most practical is the Gates machine, the latest pattern of which will accurately trim or- dinary papers on both edges at the rate of 60 or 70 per hour. The operator has only to exercise ordinary observation and guard against faulty rolling or printing. The machine unrolls and re-rolls the paper automatically at the same time as it trims the paper, and, if the paper is correctly printed and rolled at the outset, the action is purely mechanical. If the machine is kept clean and in good order, it will last for several years of average HANGING PAPER. 107 work. Additional fittings are now supplied which enables this machine to trim relief materials. The illustration clearly shows the construction of the machine. A heavier make, with additional fittings, is supplied for Lincrusta and heavy materials for which the "cut" is clean, and the relief is not injured in the process; it also trims ordinary papers. As in the case of all such improved methods, the adoption of the machine has been much retarded by ignorant prejudice. An enormous saving of time and an accuracy of edge are obtained by its use that will immediately commend it to the scientific and trained worker. Fig. 516. Gates Machine Trimmer. Paper-trimming machines of several kinds, and suitable to every class of hangings, may now be obtained. A descriptive notice of the most usual will be found at the end of this chapter. A good machine is that known as the Gates trimmer. Messrs. Hamilton also supply a hand-wheel, known as the Simplex, which is worked against a straight edge, and is much used in both Canada and the United States. Hanging. The hanging must be commenced on either side of the window, or principal window, and worked round to the 108 PAINTING AND DECORATING. door or other convenient stopping place. By this rule the edges, when they lap, are against the light, and are not emphas- ised by any shadows. Some thought is necessary to avoid showing where the papering is finished up, as this place will not be likely to match peri'ectly. Over the door, or in the angle of the chimney breast, is usually the place selected, and some men show great ingenuity in so dodging the pattern, that no half leaves or half flowers are left exposed at the point of juncture; a zig-zag cut will appear much less obtrusive than a perpendicular joint. The paperhanger requires an apron with a large waist pocket or pouch, so that his scissors, plumb-line, rule, and roller are always within reach of his hand ; and a pair of light steps just tall enough to allow him to reach the top of his paper and to take up no superfluous space. The trimming completed, the breadths are now cut to their proper lengths. Commence cutting them off face upwards upon the board, and cut each short or long length as required, using up the odd ends for the former purpose. Cut all that go one way to the door, and see that they match properly, then turn them over and arrange them, so that they are well back on the board. Pull forward the first breadth and arrange it, so that the bottom end and the matching edge just cover the end of the board, and the other edge is safely laid on the next breadth. Lay the paste on evenly and swiftly with a good distemper brush, a 2-knot or flat, working from the centre to the margins in all directions, commencing from the bottom of the paper. The left hand must be resting firmly on the paper to keep it from slipping while it is being pasted. No portion of the board will be exposed if the paper is laid as directed. Pasting. When pasting the last piece, one edge must be finished first, and then the other brought over to the edge of the board. The length of the board being but 6 feet, it will be found that only a portion of the length has been pasted. The bottom end is now lifted up and folded over, so that there is room on the board to pull the remainder of the length up and paste it. A few inches of the top end are now turned down so as to facilitate handling, and the piece of paper is taken up and placed upon the wall. Before rolling it down it is tested by the plumb-line for uprightness. The same routine is followed with the rest of the breadths, careful attention being paid to the matching. The breadths must be split into two in turning angles, as the angles of the room are never perfectly true. In splitting breadths the upper part should be folded as well as the bottom end ; this lessens the length to be split, and enables the HANGING PAPER. 109 operator to be guided by the visible pattern on the outside of the folded length. No papers should be hung with an absolutely butt or level joint unless they are very stout, a far better result is obtained by hanging thin papers with an eighth of an inch lap joint. Under the best class of papers it is usual to use a white lining paper, which improves the surface of the wall. It must be hung in the same manner as an ordinary paper, with a little lap at the edges, and when perfectly dry the laps must be well glass-papered down. Walls or ceilings that are lined for painting or distempering upon, are lined in the same manner. In working round the room full breadths only should be used, leaving the odd places to be filled in with the cuttings later on. When nearing a door or window, if the portion required is more than half a full breadth, a full one should be used, and the portion not required cut out and hung somewhere to dry, so as to be available for filling up some other small space. If only a narrow strip is necessary, it is better to use a short length full breadth sufficient to go over the door, and leave the lower part to be afterwards filled in. Whether short or long breadths are used, the match must be retained by always using the full breadth ; even if it has to be split both portions must be used, and this rule must be observed until the place of finishing is reached. It matters not which side of the room is hung first, but each side must in turn be started from the window, and continued without a break in the pattern to the finishing point. Matching. The matching edge is always placed on the board towards the operator, because in that position it is less liable to accidental soiling with wet paste. Measurements for splitting are also always more easily taken from the near edge. To obtain a good match the operator should hold the paper with the pasted side towards the wall, and the top few inches falling over the fingers towards him so as not to soil the cornice or ceiling, and while keeping the off-edge well away from the wall, gradually approach the near or matching edge to the piece last hung ; having secured the accurate point of matching, in as far as height is concerned, the forefinger should hold it firmly in place, the paper being actually in contact with the wall at this point only a manipulation with the other hand of the off-edge will now allow it to swing pendulum-like till the match is secured all the way down, then, and not till then, can the paper be allowed to settle against the wall. If this is carefully done it becomes very easy to keep a vertical and true match. Do not " handle " the paper, but allow it to attach itself to the wall of its 110 PAINTING AND DECORATING. own weight and gravitation, after doing which it can be brushed or rolled firmly on, and will not require any coaxing to get it into its proper place. It is important that the same length of time should elapse between the pasting and final hanging of each breadth of the ptper, as when very damp with paste it expands and interferes with a true match being obtained. When hanging very short pieces, as dado or frieze lengths, it is often advisable to paste two pieces to start with and hang the first one, and then paste a third and hang the second, and so continue, thus giving a little more time for each length to become soaked and pliable. It is very necessary to be sure, methodical, and regular, and to go about the work without hurry or confusion. Some papers by reason of their design do not repeat hori- zontally, but diagonally. These are known as " drop patterns." It will often happen that such patterns create great waste in matching on account of the length of the repeat. This can fre- quently be avoided by cutting the lengths alternately from two rolls of paper instead of consecutively from one roll at a time. (See diagram, Plate 8). The first length hung must be plumbed truly upright, or the pattern will run out either up or down as the case may be at the ceiling line, and at every few lengths the plumb-line must be used as a check. When cutting off the top and bottom, the line is marked by running the point of the scissors blade along the angle, at the same time keeping the end off the ceiling or skirt- ing with the other hand. Be guarded against allowing the pasted paper to touch the paint work, skirting, or architraves, and if it does so, wipe off the marks with a damp, clean sponge at once, or it will damage the paint. Lining Papers. Lining papers are used as a ground for dis- tempering upon, and for protection of the more costly papers. When used for the former purpose they should be trimmed to remove the burred edge, and hung with a very slight lap ; but when merely used to improve the surface of the wall for a better paper they may be hung with a butt or even joint; or if lapped, the lap must be well glass-papered down before the finishing paper is put on. Lining papers must be allowed to dry thoroughly before the other paper is put over them or blisters will result. Papering Ceilings. In papering a ceiling it is necessary to have two steps and a plank, so that the entire length can be put up at one operation ; for large ceilings two men, or a man and a lad, will be desirable. Commence near the light and work from it ; let the joints run across the light, not from it. If working HANGING PAPER. 11] without assistance, a straight-edge or T-square is useful to sup- port the paper. Paperhanging upon painted walls is very liable to turn out unsatisfactorily, as the paste is a strong solvent for paint. A good plan is to hang first with stout lining, using a paste made with glue size and ordinary paste, but not too strong. The glue size will set quickly and prevent the action of the paste upon the paint ; stout buff paper in sheets will answer well as a lining, but not newspapers, as the ink often works through the top paper. Before hanging the lining paper the wall must be well washed with soda water and when dry rubbed down with glass paper, to give a key for the paste. Take care that the joints of the top paper do not come immediately over those on the under lining. Lining Cracked. Ceilings. Badly cracked ceilings or walls may be lined with unbleached calico or sheeting. This is applied upon a good heavy coat of glue size and paste laid on freely, and the canvas stretched tightly and well rolled or brushed into it ; a few tinned tacks driven in at the edges serve to keep the canvas tight while drying out, and the surface is sometimes well-sized while it is still wet with the paste. The joints should be closely butted, and the selvedge edges cut-off the calico. Calico 1 yard wide will be found easy to hang, and wide enough for most purposes, but for ceilings 72-inch sheeting is better. The hanging of wide sheeting requires care to avoid blisters or creases. It is well to have the canvas lightly tacked to a rod at each end, so that it can be held taut while rolling and brushing down the central portion. If the pieces are cut a few inches longer than requisite the rods can be cut away instead of untacking the canvas. Panelling and Borders. Panelling and borders must be set out in pencil on the wall prior to hanging ; borders should not be hung on the face of the filling paper, but a space should be left for them. If the border is set out with a soft black lead pencil, when the filling is hung the line of setting out will transfer itself to the pasted back of the paper, and no further guide for cutting off the filling to its proper length will be found necessary. To keep borders straight they should be placed in position at both ends, and then by a gentle pressure of the palm of the hand stretched taut before rolling down. Removal of Fittings. All fixtures that can be removed, should be ; as a far neater finish is got than can be obtained by cutting round them. 112 PAINTING AND DECORATING. This particularly refers to bell and gas fittings, shelf brackets, and picture hooks. Care must also be taken to wash down all fixtures such as marble mantels before papering, especially close to the wall where the paper will finish against, as this cannot be properly done after the paper is hung. Accidental soils or stains upon a new paper can best be removed by the use of clean cold water and a corner of sponge ; to touch up the spot some of the same colour should be worked up with water from an odd piece of the same paper and applied with a camel-hair brush. Sanitary papers can be sponged freely without injury. Flock and satin or mica papers should on no account be brushed, as they will show every mark ; the roller is far safer to use. Plain grounded papers also show any undue use of the brush, especially when hung at a diagonal angle with the light, as on a staircase. The roller will leave no trace if properly used and not allowed to catch or drag. Take care that the paper is pressed well into the angles of the wall, or it will shrink and draw across the angles. Stamped or embossed papers require to be hung quickly without much soaking, or the em- bossed pattern will work out and the paper match badly. If a paper is found to be a bad matching paper, it is well to see that it is accurately matched at about the level of the eye, as any slight mismatch near ceiling or floor will be less observable. Before cutting up the lengths of paper, look over the rolls and see that they are all of one tint, as slight differences due to the time of printing are sometimes apparent. If so, they must be sorted up ; those of one tint kept for the light side of the room, and those of the other for the dark or shadow side, then the difference will not be noticed unless it is very great. All paint work must be dry before papering, and all the edges that come in contact with the paper must be finished. The parts that do not touch the paper can be finally coated after the paper is hung. Hanging Relief Materials. The various relief decorations are hung in a similar way to paper, except that they require trimming on a piece of glass or on a sheet of zinc, with a steel straight-edge and knife. They will require a close, even, butt joint. Glue Paste : Paste for Anaglypta. Glue paste is used. It is made in the following manner : To half a bucket of paste made in the ordinary way, add, while the paste is hot, 1 Ib. of strong glue; ^ Ib. Venice turpentine may be added instead of the glue, or a |-lb. packet of concentrated size may be stirred in while the paste is very hot. HANGING PAPER. 113 The manufacturers of these goods all supply special instructions for fixing their own Materials. Careful planning is necessary, and good setting out before cutting up the material, so as to avoid waste. Anaglypta requires soaking with paste before hanging. Thin paste is applied freely to the back of the material, and it is set aside until it becomes pliable. Cordelova does not require much soaking, neither does Tyne- castle tapestry or vellum. For Japanese leathers, the glue paste may be half the strength, and for Lincrusta Walton it must be fully strong. If Lincrusta is hard it may be placed in a warm place to soften. None of these materials may be rolled, or the relief will be damaged. Hollow-backed materials, like Cordelova or Anaglypta, may be strengthened by using paste mixed with plaster of Paris to fill up the recesses before putting on the wall. It can be applied with a palette knife. Dirt or paste can easily be washed off any of these with soap and water. Lincrusta may be cleaned with turps. Cordelova and Tynecastle vellum are lightest in weight and best for ceiling work. Anaglypta and Lincrusta both stand wear well. Some notes on the selection of pattern will be found in a later chapter. Shrinking. The trouble experienced in papering upon a painted wall has been now met by the introduction of a material which is better than ordinary clairecolle as a preparation before papering. It is known as klingcona, and appears to be a vege- table glue modified in some special manner so as to be more stable and less gelatinous than ordinary glue. It is made by the manufacturers of Fabrikona, and was brought out to meet the objectionable crawling and shrinking that followed the use of Fabrikona over paint or varnish. The Ridgley Hand Trimmer is a useful plane-like instru- ment that is made to run along a metal straight-edge. It trims paper cleanly, whether wet or dry, and is of great assistance in trimming lengths, panels, &c., which the larger machine will not do so well. In place of using the scissors for cutting the wet paper round casings, upon skirtings, cornices, &c., the use of roller cutters is now becoming general. They have long been in common use in America. The illustrations fully explain themselves. 8 114 PAINTING AND DECORATING. " Ideal" Casing Knife. With these knives the paper can be trimmed on the wall while wet. "Standard" Wheel Knife for Angle Cutting. Convenient to use with any straight-edge, as the hand is held clear. Paperhanger's Knife for Cutting on the Board. Fig. 51c. American Paperhangers' Knives. 115 CHAPTER VIII. is a belief fostered by those out- side the painting trade that if the colour is only mixed ready for use by a practical man, it is easy enough to make a practical job. Although this is far from being a correct view, it is nevertheless perfectly true that unless the colour is properly mixed no man can make a practical job with it. The mixing of paints can rarely be made the subject of definite recipes, each particular case of ground, finishing, and intermediate colour must be governed by the particular cir- cumstances of its own case, and more harm is done by cut and dried instructions on this point than good. The bon mot attri- buted to Opie that colour must be mixed "with brains," contains all that can be said on the subject without fear of contradiction. 116 PAINTING AND DECORATING. In order to give an idea of the methods adapted for particular purposes, it will be necessary to give a few formulae, but they must be taken to apply strictly to the conditions associated with them here ; it is of great importance that all the conditions of the work in hand should be carefully considered before adopting any of them. The compounds will first be dealt with irrespective of tints, colours, or grounds, it being inferred that they arfe required for a good average surface of a kind usually treated with the material or pigment under consideration. Mixing Clairecolle. Clairecolle, or size preparation for under- coating for distempering, is made in the same manner as the distemper itself, next described, but the proportions of the ingredients are different. To make 2 gallons, take 1 Ib. of good glue, or 4 Ibs. of patent size, jelly form, or 1 Ib. of concen- trated powder size; dissolve it in enough water to make 7 quarts; and add 1 Ibs. of whiting soaked in a quart of water. When alum is added the quantity will be 1 ounce of powdered alum. Mixing Distemper. Distemper, also called whitewash, and size colouring. Take two clean buckets, and put into the first some good whiting broken into lumps not larger than walnuts. Pour upon it, without agitation, clear cold water more than enough to cover it ; allow it to stand awhile until thoroughly soaked ; then pour off the water carefully, and stir with a stick or bat to ensure that it is quite soaked through, and to break it up. It should now be of the consistency of very soft clay, batter, or mud viz., it should be just possible to stir it with the exertion of some force. Now warm some jelly size, about half as much in bulk as you have of the batter, and of a strength that would, when cold, turn out of a mould and keep its shape viz., the strength of an ordinary table jelly as served up. The size must not be boiling hot. Slowly pour this, part at a time, into the batter, stirring the while, until it is all in. This will reduce the batter to the consistency of cream. Stir it thoroughly, and strain, while hot, through a distemper strainer, or a piece of coarse muslin, cheese or butter cloth, into the clean bucket. Cover it up and set aside to get cold. When cold it is ready for use and should present the consistence of thick clotted cream. Before use beat it up, as the whiting has a tendency to settle while cooling, and the size to rise to the top. This may be over- come by an occasional stir whilst cooling, which will also prevent skin or scum arising. The tinting colours may be added either before or after the size, but before straining. They should be COLOUR MIXING. 117 wetted up to the same consistency as the whiting, and, prefer- ably, added prior to the size. The quantity of size to whiting depends upon the exact amount of water in the whiting, which in apparently dry whiting, varies considerably. If the method of proportioning given above is closely followed, any little excess or deficit of water is corrected by the amount of size added. If the proportions are governed by the consistence at various stages a lot of needless weighing and measuring is also avoided, and the results are more uniform and workable. Too little size fails to bind the pigment, and when dry it will rub off on the hands and clothes. Too much size will cause the distemper, when dry and heated, to flake, crack, and curl off. Many writers advocate the use of the hands for mixing distemper. The custom has the sanction of age and prejudice, but after mature consideration it must be condemned as an unnecessary and uncleanly habit. To thoroughly mix distemper having an excess of staining matter in it, pass it twice, or even thrice, through a wire-gauze strainer. A distemper strainer may be quickly made by crossing the ends of four pieces of wood and nailing them together like an Oxford frame, and tacking a piece of canvas over it so as to hang down a little in the centre like a shallow bag. Some workers prefer when mixing distemper to use the size in a cold i.e., jelly form. The main difference in effect is, that there is not such an intimate commingling of the ingredients, and, consequently, the mixed distemper slips over the work more easily, the particles of size acting as lubricators. The finished work done in this way can never look so fine and solid as when a thorough intermingling of the size and the pigment has taken place. Distemper mixed with chilled size is, however, useful on a hot or porous ceiling, or one that has been previously coated. Alum is sometimes added to distemper. This has a solvent action on the size, and reduces it to a liquid state, so that if it is added to cold size distemper, it produces the same result as if the distemper had been made from liquid size, and had failed to " chill." The action of alum upon certain pigments is bad, and its use in distemper is not recommended unless under special condition?. For deep colours it is merely necessary to substitute a pig- ment, as ochre, Venetian red, kc., for either the whole or a part of the whiting. If the pigment is a fine powder colour it will not require soaking, it only needs mixing on a slab or the paint stone, to the same consistence as described for the whiting by the addition of cold water. Never add dry colour to dis- 118 PAINTING AND DECORATING. temper, even in small quantities, without well rubbing it up in water, or the particles will be sure to work up in streaks when laying on. The addition, to distemper of various matters for special conditions of work will be found treated of in the chapter upon distempering. Distemper should not be strained through an excessively fine strainer, as the particles of whiting which give body, luminosity and purity of tint are not so small as to pass through a very fine one, unless the whiting used is of an exceptionally finely-ground quality. Mixing Paint. Paint in light tints for general use, from a white-lead base are recommended to he prepared as follows : Take two clean cans, kettles or pots, into one put a little linseed oil, and whirl it round to oil the sides of the can and prevent the white lead sticking to it. Add enough white lead for the work in hand. With a bat or flattened stick or spatula, stir into this enough raw linseed oil to make a smooth, raw paste, add patent driers about one-twentieth in bulk of the paste-lead, and mix well in ; continue to add oil until the stick will not stand upright in the centre of the paint without carefully balancing. Then add any staining colours (colours ground in oil) that are required. If a large quantity is added, of course additional driers will be requisite also. Thin with turpentine, to a thick, creamy consistency, and strain through a fine wire gauze or a piece of muslin into the other clean can. It may here be noted that for all general purposes metal gauze strainers are better than any other, because they break up the paint and separate the particles as it passes through. A little oil or turps as desired will be added to the colour when ready for use. In the foregoing directions, weighed proportions are purposely avoided, as so much difference exists in the consistency and weight for bulk of the materials used, and when the proportions are made to appear interdependent on bulk and consistency these differences correct themselves in the working out. Contradictory as it may seem, the old-fashioned rule-of-thumb methods in this way become very reliable, even more so than scientific measurement and weight ; as all scientific calculations must be based on exact and similar conditions ; which are not met with in the ordinary commercial materials used by the painter. For mixing a small quantity of this class of colour, the white lead should be put out upon the paint stone and worked up with the palette knives to the same consistency, and by the same rules. It may be strained directly from the stone. In mixing COLOUR MIXING. llg, colours on the paint stone far greater command is obtained over them, and a more thorough commingling of the different in- gredients is possible ; moreover, when matching tints, the advantage of having the whole bulk of colour spread out on view is considerable. Zinc white paint for general purposes and Charlton white are mixed in the same manner; but as they will absorb more thinners they will require more driers, and must be thinned with a mix- ture of two- thirds linseed oil and one-third turpentine where oil alone is specified for the white lead paint. Zinc or powder driers should be used instead of the patent driers. This is pre- ferable, though not essential. If white lead in bulk is very unusually thin and oily, the oil may in part be abstracted from it by thinning it with turpentine and allowing it to stand. The oil will rise to the top and may be poured off. For mixing colours in the keg or bucket, or in cans or pots, sticks or spatulas may be made and kept. A flat stick, smooth and rounded at the handle end into a bat shape, of hard, tough wood, ranging from inch by 1 inch to 1 inches by 3 inches, and about double the depth of the receptacle they are to be used in, will be what is required. The following recipes are for paint, irrespective of tint or colour, and are recommended for special purposes. They must be mixed by the methods previously described, and will be found to provide for most sets of circumstances. Their adoption for particular work must be governed by proper and careful con- sideration of the exact conditions of work and requirements in each individual case. The differences are mostly in the proportion of oils and driers used. All weights and measures are approximate, and a little variation in the substance and quality of the raw material used will sometimes be found to upset the exact proportions given, which must be adopted with reason and common sense, and checked by the consistency described as necessary in the first method of mixing given. As a general rule, the turpentine should be added last as it rapidly evaporates, and its legitimate effect upon the paint is thus lost. When possible, it should be added immediately before use. Effects of Oils and Turps in Mixing Paint. Many working painters have a lazy habit of throwing in the turps first, because it saves time in beating up the white lead i.e., it dissolves the paste. It should be borne in mind that the action of oil and turpentine as thinnings differs, not only in the drying result, 120 PAINTING AND DECORATING. but also in the immediate result, and that in a somewhat peculiar and irregular manner. As oil is added to colour, it changes into a soft, butter-like consistency at first, and then gradually becomes more and more liquid, soft and silky in work- ing. The flow or spreading capacity is increased exactly in pro- portion to the oil added. If turps be added at various stages it will have different effects at different stages. When added to stiff colour it does not appear at first to thin the colour as oil would do; but acting upon the oil, it produces a paste hardly less stiff, though lighter in weight than before. When the quantity of turps added is increased gradually, the mass becomes puffy and appears aerated, intractable, and loses spreading capacity as the turps is still added. At a certain stage it will suddenly become limpid, and thins more rapidly than would be expected from the quantity of turps put in. If the colour is thinned to a creamy consistency with oil before any turps is added, and turps be then added, the thinning effect at once asserts itself. If the turps be added first, and the oil later, a slight tendency to floc- culence is noticeable in the colour, and it works less tractably than if the oil had been first added, until it has stood for a couple of days, by which time a more complete conglomeration appears to have taken place. Proportion Table for Paints. Paints for Various Purposes. Priming on new deal or pine. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, 7 ounces. Raw linseed oil, 11 ounces. Turpentine, 7 ounces. Another priming. White lead, 7 Ibs. Yellow ochre in oil, 1 Ib. Patent driers, f Ib. Linseed oil (raw), pint. Turpentine, \ pint. Priming for indoors to be finished in white. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, 4 ounces. Patent driers, 4 ounces. Linseed oil (raw), 8 ounces. Turpentine, 9 ounces. PLATE ll.-RANELS DESIGNED FOR MONOCHROME PAINTING, To face p. 120.] COLOUR MIXING. 121 Priming for outside, dark finish (old recipe). White lead, 7 Ibs. Black lead, 1 Ib. Patent driers, J Ib. Boiled linseed oil, 10 ounces. Turpentine, 7 ounces. Another (modern ditto). White lead, 7 Ibs. Lamp black in turps, 4 Ib. Patent driers, f Ib. Boiled linseed oil, f pint. Turpentine, pint. Priming on oak or other hard wood, and on work which has been stripped of former paint by burning with lamp or charcoal brazier. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, } Ib. Patent driers, 4 Ib. Linseed oil, 7 ounces. Turpentine 12 ounces. Priming on work that has been pickled off with alkali and treated with acid. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, 4 Ibs. Linseed oil, 6 ounces. Turpentine, 16 ounces. Second coat colour for inside new wood-work, or as first coat on old work that is in good condition, or third coat if to be finished in oil. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, 2 ounces to 6 ounces, according to the required depth of finishing colour. Driers, Ib., regulated by amount of red lead. Linseed oil, 8 ounces. Turpentine, 9 ounces. Second coat for outdoor wood-work. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, Ib. Patent driers, 5 ounces. Boiled oil, 9 ounces. Turpentine, 5 ounces. First coat for new plastered walls. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, 2 Ibs. Patent driers, 4 Ib. Raw linseed oil, 1 pint. Turpentine, 1 pint. 122 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Second coat on same. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, Ib. Raw linseed oil, f pint. Turpentine, | pint. Oil coat on walls prior to flatting. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, J Ib. Kaw linseed oil, 14 ounces. Turpentine, 2 ounces. Ground colour for graining upon in oil, outside work. White lead, 7 Ibs. Stainers, ^ Ib. Patent driers, 6 ounces. Boiled linseed oil, 8 ounces. Turpentine, 5 ounces. If raw oil be substituted for boiled oil, as some prefer, increase the patent driers to 9 ounces. Ground colour for graining upon in oil on inside work. White lead, 7 Ibs. Stainers, Ib. Patent driers, 4 Ib. Raw linseed oil, 7 ounces. Turpentine, 6 ounces. Ground colour for graining upon in water colour or for crayon marbling, outside work. White lead and stainers, 7 Ibs. Terebine or liquid driers, 3 ounces. Raw linseed oil, 5 ounces. Turpentine, 7 ounces. Ground colour for water graining, inside work. White lead and stainers, 7 Ibs. Terebine, 4 ounces. Raw linseed oil, 4 ounces. Turpentine, 8 ounces. Flatting for interior walls. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, i Ib. Turpentine 14 ounces. First coat on new compo, outside work. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, 7 Ibs. Boiled oil, 30 ounces. Turpentine, 7 ounces. COLOUR MIXING. 123 Second and third coat on same, and also for first coat on pre- viously painted outside walls. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, f Ib. Patent driers, f Ib. Boiled oil, 10 ounces. Turpentine, 6 ounces. Finishing coat for outside oil colour work or compo, stone, iron, &c. White lead, 7 Ibs. Driers, 2 ounces. Boiled linseed oil, 13 ounces. Turpentine, 3 ounces. Finishing coat for outside wood-work in plain colours, glossy finish. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, 3 ounces. Boiled linseed oil, 12 ounces. Turpentine, 4 ounces. The last two are greatly improved by the use of a pint of good outside oak varnish in lieu of half the boiled oil and turpentine. Colour for last coat before flatting wood-work. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, 4 Ib. Raw linseed oil, 13 ounces. Turpentine, 3 ounces. Flatting colour for walls. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, 2 ounces. Turpentine, 1 pint. Raw linseed oil, 1 ounce. Bastard flatting egg shell, glass, flat finish. White lead, 7 Ibs. Japanners' gold size, 2 ounces. Turpentine, 12 ounces. Pale copal varnish, 2 ounces. Boiled linseed oil, 1 ounce. Note that a given quantity of turpentine will make a given quantity of white lead thinner than the same quantity of oil will do. Drying Action of Paints. The whole of the foregoing recipes are based on the assumption that paste white lead is used, ground in good linseed oil that is, in oil which is neither unduly old nor too new. The circumstances under which boiled oil is used should be specially noted. Boiled oil should be used for most outside work, as it stands the weather better 124 PAINTING AND DECORATING. than raw linseed, retaining its gloss for a more lengthened period. It should also be used for such colours as are bad driers, or are too dark to stand the addition of a white drier without loss of purity of hue, though for this latter purpose terebine and liquid driers may be used. The boiling of the oil has increased its body and altered its structure to such an extent as to make it more elastic ; that is to say, that while its drying has been hastened by the addition of manganese, the thickening that has also taken place, prevents its reaching so extreme a point of hardness after it has taken up a certain amount of oxygen as the raw linseed oil which goes on oxygenising for an indefinite period. The addition of oxides and other agents for the purpose of increasing its drying powers, are productive of acidity in the oil, and detrimental to its protective power, its gloss, and its per- manency. An excess of driers added to oil paint is, therefore, extremely detrimental. It causes the drying to take place in an unnaturally hasty manner, so that the outer surface of the paint is rendered impervious to the air before the paint under- neath has taken up sufficient oxygen to harden it. This partially sealed-up paint never properly hardens afterwards. Action of Raw Oil versus Boiled Oil. Boiled oil is the proper oil to use in all cases where japanners' gold size is used as a drier, or where liquid driers, varnishes, or other forms of " cooked oils " are also used. There cannot be a proper intimate commixture between raw oil, and any form of cooked oil, without the intervention of heat, especially in cold weather. Turpentine, on account of its solvent power and penetration, will combine with these oils and varnishes without the use of artificial heat. In drying, the commercial boiled oil has a tendency to darken rapidly ; indeed, exposure to the air or light will darken the oil itself Raw linseed oil, on the contrary, will bleach when exposed to light ; hence its great value for pale tints of colour. The better quality of boiled oil, which has been boiled without the addition of drying agents, has not this fault to the same degree, but it is not wise to use it for whites. Protective Agency in Paint. It must be borne in mind that in the mixing of all paints the dry pigment must be regarded as mere colouring matter and body. In only a few cases has it any real protective power, and this principally in the staple white lead and its relatives. That the protective powers of even white or red lead only comes into operation when mixed with an oil, and saponification is produced, must also be well remembered. It is the effect of the oil upon the pigment that COLOUR MIXING. 125 makes the oil into a protective skin or shell. A volatile oil, without much residue, combined with a pigment does not act in this manner. Volatile oils, such as turpentine, are only used to dilute the paint in order that it may be conveniently spread. They will not even bind the particles together, or prevent their rubbing off at a touch as soon as they have evaporated. Linseed oil (either raw or boiled, or in some compound form) or some other oil of the same class is, therefore, a necessity for all paint in sufficient proportion to form a skin or mass, and to bind the particles cohesively together. General Hints on Paint Mixing. On no account must dry colour in powder be thrown into the can and stirred into the oil. It will have little value as a paint when thus served. Always mix colour either ground in oil or in turpentine. If the colour be in powder form, and is a very impalpable powder, it may be rubbed up on the paint slab with a palette knife before being put into the can. When dry colour is not properly mixed before use, the particles will continue to absorb the oil after the paint is spread, resulting in a dead and unequal surface, besides in some cases working up stronger and streakily when the work is in progress. In mixing a number of tints for the same job, prepare or thin down, or partially thin down enough white for the whole job prior to making the separate tints. It is helpful to the colourist to tone this mass of white to the palest tint he is using, so that unity and harmony may run through the whole of the tints used. In a room where yellows and reds predominate, a pale cream may be used as the base colour for making all tints from, and in a green room the white may be toned a pale green tint, in a blue room a pale blue tint, &c. In making the various colours for a room it is always advisable to, as far as possible, restrict oneself to the use of one yellow, one red, and one blue. This also contributes to the unity of the colouring as a whole. Colours Recommended for Tinting and Staining Paints. The colours used for tinting should be the cheap staple colours, as ochres, earth reds, Prussian or common ultramarine blue unless it is quite impossible to produce the required colours from them. This is not recommended for economical reasons only, but because such tints are more pleasing and, generally, more harmonious. Avoid the use of such colours as browns or blacks for lowering the tones of brighter colours. Colours should be toned by the addition of their complementaries. Thus to lower the tone of a yellow, add blue and red. To lower a blue, add red and yellow, and to lower a red, add blue and 126 PAINTING AND DECORATING. yellow. By doing so purity and luminosity are retained, and only the hue is affected. The addition of Umbers, &c., lowers the standard of purity in a greater degree than it affects the hue. Opaque and Transparent Pigments. Colours are divided into two great classes, those that are opaque and those that are transparent, or more properly speaking, translucent. Some colours are neither the one nor the other, but come midway between them. An opaque colour may be described as a colour that has body; that appears about the same colour when mixed with oil as it does when dry ; and that has the same appearance whether laid on thickly or thinly. A transparent colour has no body or covering power, is deepened considerably by the addition of oil, and looks paler the more thinly it is painted over a light ground. Semi-transparent colours are those that come between the two classes, as terra vert, emerald green, &c. All are used for tinting, but the addition of a very large proportion of transparent stainers lessens the covering power of the paint. In graining, marbling, &c., where the ground colour is required to show through the top coat to a more or less degree, transparent colours are indispensable. Matching Colour in Paint. In making and matching tints the colour to be matched should always be examined separately from its surroundings, which alter its appearance. This may be done by placing a piece of white paper having a hole in it, over the colour to be matched, and examining the colour through the hole. To obtain pure blue, both yellow and red must be absent ; the addition of one of them will still produce a pure colour, though not a pure blue; while the addition of a third lowers the scale of hue and causes it to approach neutrality. To obtain pure red, yellow and blue must be absent, and to obtain pure yellow, blue and red must be absent. All greys, drabs, and browns contain the three elements of yellow, red, and blue in varying degrees of combination, and black, which is the border line between deepest grey and deepest brown, is the result of a neutralising combination of these three colours in such propor- tion that each kills the effect of each. Ideally these proportions are yellow 3, red 5, blue 8. Grey may be said to be black with some yellow taken from it. Drab is black with some red taken from it. Brown is black with some blue taken from it. The addition of a white or black pigment to coloured pigments always adds to their bluishness. In the case of reds they look COLOUR MIXING. 127 more purple, in the case of yellows they appear greener, and in the case of blues they appear bluer. In matching a colour first take its base, then its most pro- minent component, and gradually add its toning or lowering elements as the case may be. For instance, in matching a fawn colour, take white and thin it to a workable consistency ; then add ochre or Sienna, and afterwards the burnt Sienna or red ochre ; last of all secure the precise match by a touch of blue or red as may be necessary. Important Rules for Matching Colours. Remember that a colour may always be made to appear brighter than it is, by the presence of its opposite or complementary colour. If matching a poppy, leaf and flower, the amateur colourist will probably make the red too pure a scarlet, and the green too crude a green, and will find a touch of brown to the red, and of grey to the green, necessary when he comes to compare them with nature. The effect of adding a given quantity of a colour to a tint of its own family, and to a tint of another class, varies considerably. This must be constantly kept in mind when matching. Thus it will be found that the slightest possible touch of red, added to a blue or green tint, will totally change it ; whilst the same quantity of the same red, added to pink or warm yellow, would hardly effect a noticeable change at all. There are a number of facts relating to colour which it is important for the colour mixer to be acquainted with, embodied in the chapter upon " Colour in decoration," but the points noted here are absolutely essential to the painter, and are based upon the practical results that accrue in the mixing of ordinary painters' pigments. Mixed Tints and Colours. To assist in the identification of certain colours and shades, and in the recognition of their components, the following list of mixed tints are given as suggestions. They are equally applicable to oil or distemper, subject to conformity with the lists of colours specified for use in oil only, and water only, respectively. Colours which may not be used in oil : Lime blue. Damp lake. Sepia. Bremen blue. Lime greens. Dutch pink. Gamboge. Zinc chromes. Blue verditer. Rose pink. Vandyke brown, crimson lake, Dutch pink, and indigo may used as glazes. They are bad driers and fugitive, 128 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Colours which may not be used in distemper: White lead. Red lead. Lead chromes. Prussian blue. Antwerp blue. Bitumen. Prussian brown. Brown lake. Vegetable greens. Vegetable lakes. Common vermilionette. I Naples yellow. Prussian white and madder lakes, Antwerp blue and Prussian brown, may be used in water colour as glazes, and afterwards varnished or sized, but not with or upon lime. In mixing different pigments together, some are absolutely safe to exert no bad influence on others; some are liable to change others slightly if they are not pure and well made ; and yet others are destructive of each other. The following lists, though incomplete and unscientific in compilation, will be found to be just what are required by the colour mixer to enable him to select those pigments which will lead to the best results, and to use the safest combinations. In the advanced state of chemical science, a variety of causes, such as uncertainty of origin, varied processes of manufacture, and special diluents, may upset the result as tabulated ; so that they must not be regarded as absolute. Colours that usually combine well with each other : Zinc white. Venetian red. Cobalt. Indian red. Raw Sienna. Yellow ochre. Raw Umber. Burnt Umber. Burnt Sienna. Chrome green (oxide). White lead. Whiting. Cadmium. Common ultramarine. Vermilion. All blacks. Malachite green. French blue. Of these the cadmiums, vermilion, and common ultramarine sometimes act prejudicially on the lead and whiting, and inva- riably hasten the discolouration of white lead owing to the action of the sulphur. Colours containing sulphur should be lightened by the addition of zinc white. The greens, reds, and blues derived from aniline sources are safe with any of the above colours. Colours that are destructive of each other and ought on no iccount to be mixed together : Cadmium yellows and emerald green. White lead and vegetable lakes. Aureolin and indigo. Emerald green ana ultramarine COLOUR MIXING. 129 List of Composite Tints. PRINCIPAL INGREDIENTS GIVEN FIRST, REMAINDER IN ROTATION. Pompeian red, . Pompeian yellow, black, blue, Flesh tints, Fawn colour, . Buff, Wallflower brown, . Poppy red, Red for walls, termed terra cottas, . Bright red, Salmon for walls, Brighter, .... Colour for walls between salmon and fawn, . Chestnut brown, Daep chestnut brown, Vandyke red, . Bay brown, Brick reds, Chocolate, Leather brown, Light ,, Woody brown, . Brown, Pink, brightest, Vermilion and Italian ochre ; or, vermilion, chrome, and a touch of ultramarine. Italian ochre and white, toned with a touch of ultramarine and vermilion. Ochre, vermilion, and ultramarine. White, ultramarine, a touch of vermilion and Italian ochre. ,, and burnt Sienna. ,, vermilion, and ochre. ,, ochre, and lake. Naples yellow, and a little vermilion and lake. White, burnt Sienna and ochre. ,, raw Sienna, raw Umber, Venetian red. ,. ochre, Venetian red, a little Umber. Chrome yellow and brown lake. Orange, vermilion, carmine, and brown lake. Alizarine scarlet and Indian yellow. Venetian red and ochre, or ,, ,, chrome and white, or ,, ,, and chrome. ,, ,, and orange vermilion. White, Venetian red, and chrome. ,, vermilion and ochre. ,, ochre, chrome, and lake. Burnt Sienna, ochre, and chrome. ,, ,, and Vandyke brown. Vermilion and Vandyke brown and lake. Brown madder, ,, ,, and vermilion. Burnt ochre. Red ochre. Yellow ochre and Indian red. Venetian red. Burnt Sienna, vermilion, ultramarine, and lake. ,, ,, Indian red, and black. Venetian red and black. Ochre and brown lake, white. ,, burnt Umber, burnt Sienna, and white. Orange chrome, raw Umber, and white. Venetian red and Prussian blue, and burnt Sienna. Red lead and Indian red, Vandyke brown. Burnt Umber and orange chrome. Vermilion and Vandyke. Burnt Sienna and black, and vermilion. Indian red and mid chrome. Rose madder and white. 130 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Pink for walls, A good cold black, . ,, warm Pearl grey, . . Cool grey, Fine pearly grey for walls, Useful ,, ,, Cold grey, Warm Warmer Bright French grey, . Useful distemper grey, Sky blue, . Sandstone (red), (yei.)- Pea green, Willow green, . Slate green, Seaweed green, Sea green, Grass green, Spring green, . Ivy green, Distemper green, Duck's egg green, Apple green, Tea green, Grey green, Bronze green, . Olive greens, Tints of olive green, Sap green, Sage green, Blue sage, . Primrose green, yellow, Daffodil, Cream tints, . Drab, Mansfield stone, Straw colour, . Hyacinthine blue, White, vermilion. ,, Venetian red. ,, orange chrome and lake. Ochre, emerald green, and ivory black. Ivory black, Indian red, Venetian red. White, Prussian blue, and lake. White, Prussian blue, and lamp black emerald green and vermilion. cobalt and Venetian red. and blue black. Venetian red, Vandyke brown, lake and Vandyke brown. ,, ultramarine. lime blue, damp lake, blue black. Bremen blue in water, cobalt in oil. red ochre and brown ochre, yellow ochre. , pale Brunswick green. Ochre and indigo, White, burnt Sienna and black. ,, chrome, yellow lake and indigo. ,, mid chrome and Vandyke brown. ,, cobalt and raw Sienna. ,, ochre and cobalt. ,, mid chrome and black. Yellow ochre, burnt Sienna, ultramarine. Chrome, burnt Sienna, and Prussian blue. Whiting, Dutch pink, and lime blue. raw Sienna, and blue black. White, Prussian blue, lemon chrome. ,, ,, cadmium yellow. ,, ,, burnt Sienna and chrome. ,, terra vert. Deep chrome and black. Ochre and French ultramarine. Mid chrome and black. ,, ,, and burnt Sienna. Add white and pale chrome. White, raw Sienna, Prussian blue, burnt Sienna. black, and burnt Oxford ochre. ,, ,, Prussian blue, and burnt Oxford ochre. ,, lemon yellow, Prussian blue. ,, pale chrome. ,, pale cadmium or chrome, Venetian red. mid chrome, a little vermilion. Umber and ochre and Indian red. Umber and Venetian red. pale chrome and raw Umber, ultramarine and rose madder. COLOUR MIXING. 131 Apricot, . Peach, Orange yellow, Old gold, . A better old gold, Pale golden yellow, Turquoise blue, Metallic blue, . Peacock blue, . Neutral blue, . Grey old blue, . China blue, Moonlight blue, Sea blue, . Deep sea blue (intense), Slate, ' . Warm grey slate, Lilac, Lavender, . Silver grey, Steel grey, White, mid chrome and vermilion, and a touch of lake. ,, deep chrome and carmine. Cadmium orange, or orange chrome and burnt Sienna. Ochre and burnt Sienna. Mid chrome, vermilion, burnt Sienna, cobalt. Italian ochre and white. White, cobalt, and emerald green. Cobalt and emerald green. Ultramarine, white and emerald green. White, Prussian blue and burnt Umber. ,, ,, ,, ,, Sienna. Indigo and cobalt, raw Sienna and white. Cobalt and white, with Vandyke brown Cobalt, lake, indigo, white and yellow ochre. Indigo and cobalt, brown madder, and white. Wl ite and blue black. , , , , lake or Venetian red. Prussian blue, and lake, vermilion, and Prussian blue, black, and indigo. cobalt, blue black, and Vandyke brown. The foregoing list might be indefinitely extended, but will be found to comprise a large number of the most generally required tints and shades. Most of the colours may, of course, be com- pounded of other than the pigments named. The following additional hints are given for general guidance : Bright reds and blacks make rusty browns, but rich browns are obtained by mixing two low-toned reds or a red and brown. Bright greens are made by using pure blues and yellows ; dull greens, by yellows and purples or orange and blues. Bright orange tones are made by mixing pure yellows and pure reds ; dull Orange by yellow greens, and red, or by brownish reds and yellow. Quantity of Paint to Cover given Area. It is important that the colour mixer should know the quantity of paint re- quired to cover a given area. This will be found to vary considerably with the texture of the surface to be covered and its power of absorption, and equally so with different classes of pigments and paints. The writer has proved by practical experience that the following mixture covers 40 square yards of previously painted wall, there being practically no absorption : 7 Ibs. white lead. 10 ozs. patent driers. 1 pint linseed oil. J pint turpentine. 132 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Also, that 64 square yards of the same wall were covered by the following mixture : 7 Ibs. Charlton white (zinc and baryta). 2 pints linseed oil. \ pint turpentine. Ib. patent driers. It will be noted that both paints when mixed and strained were of the same consistency the difference in. the bulk of the lighter pigment accounting for the difference in the thinning required. Further it was tested that the following mixture would cover 30 square yards of a new plaster wall not previously painted, prepared, or papered : 7 Ibs. white lead. 12 o/s. drier. 1$ pints linseed oil. 4 pint turpentine. From these data the approximate quantity required for any particular work can be ascertained. This chapter would be incomplete without some allusion to the composition of stopping. Stopping. Putty is prepared by beating together the in- gredients upon a stone slab or hard-wood table with a mallet or pounder. In well-ordered shops a stout wood club is kept for the purpose, square at the end and gradually rounded off into a handle i.e., like an Indian club, but square sided. If the paint stone is a thick one it answers the purpose of making the stopping on ; but if it is thin, a paving stone or stout block of teak will do. The dry ingredients are powdered, sifted, and mixed together with the knife till they reach the consistency of clay ; then more powdered material is added and gradually beaten into the mass with the club till stiff enough for use; the degree of stiff- ness depends on the work for which it is required. Ordinary putty is made of dry whiting and raw linseed oil. Hard putty is made of equal parts of dry white lead and whiting with a little litharge and linseed oil. Hard stopping is made from paste white lead, dry white lead, and japanners' gold size, or hard drying varnish. Extra hard stopping may be of dry white lead and litharge in equal parts beaten up with japanners' gold size and boiled oil. The addition of varnish or japanners' gold size tends to make the stopping work coarsely and stickily, and when no special hurry is necessary, ordinary hard putty is preferable. Litharge or red lead will hasten the hardening of putty. COLOUR MIXING. 133 Complete List of Distemper Stainers. The following list is recommended as affording a complete palette for tinting dis- temper for every class of work, including paper staining and the matching of wall paper tints : Blue black. Damp lakes. Pulp azure blue. Carnation paste. Bremen blue. Pulp azure lake. Lime blue, various tints. ,, magenta lake. Pulp raw Sienna. ,, maroon lake. burnt Sienna. ,, mauve lake. raw Umber. French ochre. burnt Umber. Italian ochre. Vandyke brown. Dutch pink. African green. Rose pink. lime greens. Venetian red. Olympian green. Imperial yellow. mineral greens. Pulp chromes. Media for Decorative Painting in Distemper. For highly executed decorative work, such as flower and fruit painting in distemper, a good medium is composed of stale eggs well beaten up in vinegar and diluted with water, as it does not "jelly" as size does, and remains open a long time. A London recipe for distemper, to be made in the manner previously described, has the following proportions which may commend themselves to Metropolitan painters : 4 "balls" whiting. 2 Ibs. Young's patent size, and sufficient water to cover the whiting. A Scotch distemper is described as : 12 Ibs. whiting ; size, as given previously. 2 ozs. alum ; 2 ozs. soft soap. It is very fast, for passages, schools, &c. Tinting colours for lime wash should be restricted to ochres, Umbers, lime blue, lime greens, charcoal or lamp black, and earthy reds (as Venetian). External lime wash for farm buildings, &c., may be made as follows : Lime, bushel, slaked with 1 gallon of milk and remainder of water, 1 Ib. salt and 4 lb. sulphate of zinc to make it withstand the weather. 134 CHAPTER IX. DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OP DISTEMPER. 'iSTEMPER is paint made from pig- ments diluted with water, to which some adhesive substance is added to fix it to the ground on which it is used. The application of distemper is usually limited to plaster, stucco, brick, or stone surfaces, as the atmo- sphere in this country is too humid and changeable to allow of its suc- cessful Tise xipon wood. Advantages. It is the cheapest preparation used by the painter and decorator. It is principally noteworthy for the purity of the tints obtainable and for the rapidity with which it may be worked, both for large surfaces and for decorative details. Though usually relegated to the attics and offices of our houses and to the upper portions of our public buildings, it is by no means incapable of considerable artistic expression, and is a worthy companion and equal in this respect to oil paint. It is the material used by scenic artists and by continental decorators, in whose hands it has DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 135 been shown to be capable of the highest and best results. Most of our wall papers, too, are manufactured in the same medium, its soft and suant surface, its freedom from gloss, and its re- flective power under strong light fitting it admirably for this purpose. Many of the valuable " old masters " in the National Gallery and other picture galleries, indeed all those painted prior to the 15th century, are painted in some kind of distemper medium. Objections. The standard objections to distemper as a decorative medium in this country are the facts that it is readily attacked by damp and cannot be washed. These reasons should not operate against its use in dry buildings nor in situations where it is out of reach, as on friezes, &c. Painted work, unless in situations where it is much handled, seldom or never is washed down in actual practice, although frequently selected because it is washable. Mixing Distemper. To make a successful job in distemper, the colour must be properly mixed so as to bind and not rub off, spread easily, and dry quickly. For particulars, see the chapter on " Colour Mixing." Surfaces for Distemper. The wall should present a good surface for the reception of the material ; not too smooth, but about as rough as a sheet of No. 2 glass paper is the best surface for the medium. It is hardly possible to produce a successful surface on the smooth lime-putty finish of ordinary English plastering. There should be good sharp sand in the finishing coat to give a grip or key for the distemper. A cement finish gives a capital surface for distemper decoration. The surface must be properly prepared, all the old distemper completely washed off, and the absorption made equal over the whole surface by a coat of preparation viz., size or clairecolle. Particular attention must be paid to greasy or smoky walls, or to walls impregnated with stale paste and size. Such matter should be removed by a good washing with water in which a little weak disinfectant has been dissolved and to which a few teaspoonsful of vinegar have been added. There must be no grit or unmixed material in the distemper. It must be put on rapidly and regularly and allowed to dry off quickly with free ventilation. The deeper the tint used, the more important it is that no time be lost in putting on or drying off. Colour Limit of Distemper. There is no colour limit to distemper, any and every tint and shade, from white to black can be successfully used if the right ingredients are properly mixed 136 PAINTING AND DECORATING. and judiciously applied. Any paperhangings pattern-book amply illustrates this fact. Durability of Distemper. If used in a suitable position, distemper is quite as lasting a medium as paint ; indeed, in some respects even more so. It does not discolour witb age or with impure gases in the air ; it will clean and dust down if properly tempered. The ruined houses of Herculaneum and Pompeii and the tombs of Egypt show that distemper has stood the attacks of time for centuries. Cleaning Distemper Work. To clean down distemper work, use a lump of well-leavened dough, dust off the loose dust with a dusting brush and rub lightly in one direction with the ball of dough, kneading the dirt into the centre of the ball after each rub. Dirt does not cling to distemper with the same tenacity that it does to the receptive surface of oil paint ; the lustreless surface has no grip for the floating particles of carbon and other matter. Whitening Ceilings and Walls. Ceilings are frequently distempered in pure white. A crude white made from whiting only is unsatisfactory, it should always be toned either to a warm greyish white, or to a warm creamy white sufficiently to give a distinct tinge. Creamy or ivory tints are most desirable greenish or bluish tints less so. In distempering a ceiling or wall, always work from the light, and lay off as little as possible, and in a variety of directions, always inclining to the direction from which the light comes, so that any edges left may be away from the spectator and facing the light, they will then cast no shadow. The preparation for distemper is that previously described as clairecolle. A new ceiling or wall is first rubbed down with glass paper and all cracks stopped. These may be stopped with a mixture of whiting and plaster of Paris and water. The quantity of each may be gauged to make a stopping of equal porosity to the wall or ceiling. One-half of each will be a fairly good general proportion. It is a bad plan to use size or dis- temper in the stopping, as it causes it to contract when drying. Keen's cement, or Parian cement, or a mixture of lime and sand may be used ; the last takes longer to set than the two former. The principal concern is to use a stopping which, when lird, will present a surface of the same or a similar character to the wall itself, especially in absorbent power. In preparing the crack or hole for stopping, it must be under- cut at the sides to form a dovetail or key, and cracks should be cut out quite half an inch in width to enable the operator to face PLATB 12.-8IMPLE STENCILS ILLUSTRATING IMPORTANCE OF CONTRAST. To face p. 136.] DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 137 the surface up level, as a wall is usually out of plane on the two sides of the crack, and if an attempt is made to stop the crack without cutting it out at all the surface of the stopping will probably present a bevelled edge instead of being in plane with the wall. The broader the crack is cut out the less this will be noticeable. The crack or hole must be soaked or the stopping will not adhere to the dry porous surroundings, which will draw the moisture from the stopping before it has time to set. All loose plaster near the hole must be removed, or the new plaster will pull it away as it sets. The stopping being dry and the surface having been glass papered, the work is ready for clairecolleing. Treatment of Stains in Ceilings. Should there be any damp places or stains, they had better be treated to a coat of paint. Flatting, which has plenty of driers in it, should be used, and it should be of the same tint as the surrounding plaster. Clairecolleing. The whole must then be clairecolled ; ordinary weak jelly size in which a lump of alum as big as a walnut has been dissolved in 2 gallons of the size is a usual pre- paration. This may in ordinary cases have a pint of the finishing distemper added to it. In most cases the alum may safely be left out, but for a hot or porous ceiling its use is a safeguard against the distemper working heavily in the finishing coat. Some painters add a little soap and others add oil, but these substances are foreign to the character of genuine distemper and frequently exert a damaging effect upon the tinting colours used afterwards. In addition they add to the fixative quality of the distemper in an annoying degree, and prevent clean washing off on subse- quent occasions. However good the surface of the plaster is, it is better to prepare it by a coating of clairecolle, as this ensures that the work will be equally non-absorbent, over its whole surface. The surface of even the best of newly plastered work is always, owing to the trowelling, harder in some portions than in others, as the larger particles of lime and sand gather together and the finer parts absorb more water than the coarser. If the space to be covered is a large one it is a good plan to omit the colouring matter and also whiting, to size the ceiling with alum size, and to distemper while it is still damp. This keeps the distemper free and wet on the edges for a much longer time, and allows the necessary pauses for scaffold shifting, without danger of the break joints showing up. In such a case a little less size and more body is used in the distemper to counter- balance that picked up, in the working, from the clairecolle or size. 138 PAINTING AND DECORATING. The use of alum is especially recommended where the dis- temper has been mixed with chilled size, but the preferable practice is to mix distemper with warm size, and to leave the alum out whenever it is unnecessary, as it precipitates chondrin (one of the essential elements and active components in the size) and reduces it to a liquid consistency which often results in bare and shady finish. A very bad wall or ceiling may be hung with lining paper prior to distempering. No preparation or clairecolle will be necessary upon a white lining paper, unless it be upon a very large surface, and then a very weak size may be coated on, to be followed at once with the distemper. Lining paper should not be painted prior to distempering; this stops its power of absorp- tion, and retards the rapid and even drying out of the distemper. In laying on size or clairecolle it should be done evenly, sparely and without unnecessary motion. The same ground must not be covered twice, and it should be done slowly and deliberately to avoid the size frothing and clogging. Laying on Distemper. When putting on the finishing dis- temper it should be laid on boldly, freely, and equally, with a light free sweep of the brush. It does not require crossing or spreading. Each brushful of colour should be expended on its own little space, and left as finished, before taking another dip. Never attempt to use a second coat over ordinary distemper. If unsatisfactory, wash off and recommence. See that the pre- paration of the work has been properly attended to, as on this more than on anything else depends the finished effect ; but when actually laying the finishing coat, go right ahead, put the distemper on and leave it to dry out with confidence in the result. Use the portion of the brush nearest the tips of the bristles, and do not bang the ceiling with the whole side of the brush; an amateur may be recognised at once by the slap, dab, bang, bang motion that he invariably adopts. Lay off quite indiscriminately in all directions, as long as the distribution is equal over the whole surface. The great difference between painting and distempering is that, whereas paint needs spreading on barely, distemper requires laying on fully and freely. Pay particular attention to the stirring of the distemper, as some tinting colours (as blues) will rise to the surface, and others (as reds) will be heavier than the whiting base, and sink to the bottom of the bucket or can. If the distemper has been made with hot size, and stirred while chilling, the necessity for stirring during use will be done away with, as the size will hold the particles in suspension as soon as it becomes a gelatinous mass ; DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 139 but if not, then a stick must be kept at hand for stirring occasionally. Do not stir with the laying-on brush on account of the danger of the brush gathering the particles from the bottom of the bucket, and retaining them until the brush is used, producing streaks of dark colour. The room in which the work is being done must not be overheated, otherwise the jelly of the distemper will assume a watery form, the work will dry off too quickly to allow of care in the working, and the distemper will be liable to trickle after it has been laid on a little freely. Neither should it be damp and cold, as this slackens the drying, allows the distemper to skin in drying, and in minute ways interferes with the production of a good clear luminous surface. A temperature of 56 is a good one, and free circulation of air is desirable. Washing off Old Distemper. In washing off old distemper, use clear water; and when the walls are unclean add a little carbolic acid to it. First soak in well, giving time for the distemper to become saturated with water before scrubbing. Labour may be minimised if this point is attended to. Work in large patches, and see that they overlap each other sufficiently to avoid any imperfect washing between the patches. For mouldings and cornices, extra soaking is required to reach the deeper parts, and it should be done before rubbing at all, other- wise the portions removed from the projections will gather in the recesses and make them more difficult to wash out than they were before. Pieces of deal or any soft wood may be cut to fit into the moulds, quirks, and enrichments ; the use of the knife for this purpose is sure to result in damage to the plaster. When a ceiling flat is thickly coated and difficult to remove, a zinc scraper will be found more workable than a steel one, as it does not stick into and damage the plaster. Modelling tools are sometimes useful to clear out the inter- stices of modelled work ; and for plastering up any cracks in the enrichments those of steel are handy. A ceiling or wall that presents uneven and great suction all over (a matter which should be noticed when washing off), must be either lined with paper or given a coat of paint ; flatting. A coat of Duresco is also effective, and is by some painters preferred to paint. It must, however, be borne in mind that the suitability of a surface for treatment in distemper is destroyed by painting, as all respiration, as it may be aptly termed, is stopped, and an impervious surface, suitable only for an impervious pigment will have been formed. The painting is only recommended as a method of doctoring an 140 PAINTING AND DECORATING. otherwise incurable complaint, and must not be resorted to un necessarily. Bad old stains must be coated with patent knotting before painting. If a stain is not dry, it may be dried, or dampness driven off the surface, by a burning-off lamp and the place coated with knotting while dry and hot. A coating of sulphate of zinc in water will have the same effect as the knotting, and may be substituted for it. The cause of stains and dampness must always be ascertained and removed. A frequent cause is the use of cavity walls without sufficient free ventilation. These walls are valuable aids to dryness if associated with a thoroughly efficient system of air ventilators. If unventilated, the currents of damp air find outlet at the warmest spot viz., into the rooms. Stains caused by the percolation of smoke through inferior brickwork are common, and may be cured by surface treatment of knotting and paint. Whenever danger of infection or vermin is present, carbolic acid should be freely used, both in the washing water and in the clairecolle ; cracks and crevices may be syringed with the acid in half-full strength. For beetle holes and other vermin haunts the stopping may be mixed with carbolic acid and water, and a little powdered glass. Stippling Distemper. In finishing high-class distemper work, a pleasing texture may be got by stippling, but it is by no means necessary ; in order to produce an even surface, more- over, a stippled distemper surface is inconvenient to work upon with the pencil or fitch. American Distemper. In America, lime preparations under the name of " kalsomine " are largely used for distempering, as also are patent preparations of gypsum (plaster of Paris) and other similar materials, under the names of " water fresco," ' : anti-calcomine," " alabastine," &c. These are not regarded as meeting all the climatic conditions of this country equally with ordinary distemper, though they have individual advan- tages which often prove useful to those who are conversant with their use. The student is recommended to acquaint himsell practically with all new materials of the kind and their cap- abilities, but there Is no need for their fuller description here. Painting Plaster Prior to Distempering. In enriched cornices it is sometimes urged that the work becomes furred up with continued application of distemper, and that this is not so likely to occur if the work is painted prior to distempering. The real cause of furring is to be attributed to careless and insufficient DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 141 washing off, and the failure to clear out the interstices of the work and free them from the former distemper prior to re-coat- ing. Painting for such a reason is not justifiable, and though it has the general sanction of metropolitan practice, it is so contrary to the true principles of tempera work that it can only be regarded as vandalism. Damp Walls. One of the many troubles that lie in wait for distemper is damp walls. A number of compositions have been patented and placed on the market with the object of curing this evil, but in all cases they are the veriest makeshifts. It cannot be too plainly set down that there is no cure for a damp wall. The source of dampness must be entirely removed. If damp comes through a wall exposed to the weather the wall should be tiled, slated, or cemented, or coated with a water- proof solution on the outside. A hot mixture of equal parts of linseed oil, resin and tallow, or bees-wax, will form a good one. Cemented walls, if very sandy, will sometimes let water through. They may be cured by coating them with a strong soap jelly made by dissolving 3 IDS. of yellow soap in enough boiling water to make a jelly. It must be well rubbed into the wall on a dry day, and when dry, a coating of strong alum size (say 1 Ib. of alum, 2 Ibs. of glue, and 2 quarts of water) must be laid on freely over the soap preparation. This mixture has much the same effect as two coats of liquid petrify- ing solution or Duresco, but we prefer the method given. Duresco and Distemper. There are cases (as in cellars) where, though not badly damp, the walls are in contact with the earth outside. If possible, dry area spaces should be arranged, but in such cases the best distemper to use is a washable one, such as Duresco. This material is also by far the best for use upon new plaster. It is a proprietary article, and consists of barytes, oil, glue, and other ingredients. Tested by the writer it has been found to withstand wet lime putty finish, plaster, the damp from vapour baths and Turkish baths, heat and steam. In one instance a fungus growth accumulated upon its surface for months, the material remaining unimpaired upon its removal by washing. Like most patent distempers, it is not sufficiently well understood to allow of its being put into the hands of the work- ing painter without full and definite instructions for use, and in all cases of importance it is desirable that the advice of the manufacturer as to thinning and applying should be carried out. The liquid Duresco supplied for thinning may be used as a claire- colle under ordinary circumstances where the body Duresco is used in place of ordinary distemper; it is also a good stone pre- 142 PAINTING AND DECORATING. servative. A coat of Duresco on new walls over ordinary size, or clairecolle produces a good finish for temporary work. Both distemper and Duresco may be used for renovating internal discoloured stone work on porous stone. They should be applied in the following manner : A tint should be made to match the colour of the stone, and then be diluted with weak size or with water or liquid Duresco till it is semi-transparent. This must be well brushed into the stone leaving nothing upon the surface; when dry, the colour of the stone will appear as new, while the texture will not be interfered with either in local colour or in grain. Duresco should not be used as a foundation or substitute for the under coats of paint. Its intervention between the paint and its ground is disadvantageous except in certain special cir- cumstances ; for instance, upon metallic or smoky surfaces, copper, or zinc, as recommended in another chapter. Colouring is sometimes necessary upon a brick wall. For this purpose Duresco, tinted to match or improve the colour of the bricks is far preferable to paint ; it renders the bricks imper- vious to water, and resists the action of soot and weather in city streets. Bricklayers usually use ochre and Venetian red in milk, beer, or alum water, as a medium for the dry colours, and brushed on freely to tint their brickwork. Copperas, both white and green, with or without ochre, is also used for improving the colour of yellow bricks. Distemper may be used upon wood-work. The wood-work should be first sized strongly, or, better still, painted with a coat of flatting. Great attention must be given to the relative strength of size, and porosity of the wood, otherwise there is danger of the work flaking off. It is in no case desirable to use distemper upon deal or other soft porous wood, which is likely to shrink and detach the distemper, unless it be upon narrow mouldings, frames, &c. The size used for distempering upon wood should be highly gelatinous and not glutinous. French gelatine makes a good size for specially fine and highly finished work. When using distemper upon white lining paper, rather less size can be used, and the distemper can be laid on more barely than upon a plastered *vall. Large decorative panels are often executed in distemper upon canvas. This plan is followed in scene painting. For this pur- pose a rather heavy canvas is selected as best. The canvas is first sized, then coated with clairecolle, and finally distempered. The size should be a glutinous or gummy one, as this makes a less brittle distemper and is less liable to crack. A little treacle or glycerine is added to further obviate cracking when the canvas DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OP DISTEMPER. 143 is rolled and unrolled. Large foliage panels ten yards by five yards were executed by the writer for the Brussels exhibition buildings in this manner, the work being painted upon the dis- temper ground in colour thinned with stale ale. Almost the whole of the decorations at the great Paris Exhibition of 1889 were executed by a similar process and upon similar material. The following are sometimes added to distemper to produce the special result appended to each : Turpentine, or paraffin oil, to add to the binding power and arrest putrefaction; sugar, glycerine, and treacle, to slow the drying, and to render it less liable to chip, and easier to work in decorative details ; oil of cloves and oil of spike lavender or eau-de-Cologne, to improve the odour and disinfect the material ; carbolic acid, to disinfect and deodorise ; chloride of lime for the same purposes for rough work; spirits of wine, tc harden and congeal the size and render it less easy to remove ; and alum or vinegar, to render the size more liquid, and to kill alkaline action in the lime, walls, or whiting. Several of these have a chemical action upon coloured pigments, notably carbolic acid upon vegetable pigments or organic com- pounds, and chloride of lime upon almost all colours. Greasy surfaces for distemper may best be treated with a solution of soda and lime, and afterwards with alum or vinegar. The work should be coated over with the mixture of lime, &c., and allowed to remain two hours, then be washed off with clean water and sized with alum size. The brushes for distemper have already been described, Half- worn brushes and tools viz., stamps should be used for the washing off, and the newer ones for sizing and distempering. A new brush may be worn in by using it for washing down in clean water twice or thrice. The best work can be done with the brushes in which the bristles are confined in two or three knots, or are bound in a solid knot by a copper band (see Fig. 15). The limitations recommended for distemper have already been touched on. It should not be used in places within reach of the hands or clothes ; washable distempers can be used for the lower levels. Hot water pipes, coils, boiler cases, and similar metal surfaces may be coated with Duresco. Distemper must not be used out of doors, but Duresco is a good material for outside work, or for all damp places where distemper is not suitable. Washable Distempers. Every year sees additions to the list of washable distempers, or, more properly called, water paints, for many of them are not really washable in the ordinarily understood sense of the term. Many of these new paints are notable, but, as far as experi- 144 PAINTING AND DECORATING. ments can be carried out by one person, the original Duresco has never been surpassed. The practical painter will, however, find in most of them one particular quality which fits it especially for some particular class of work. The range of colours is much improved, but the best and least chalky-looking range is, perhaps, also that of Duresco. Many of the makers are content to produce pale whitish-looking tints without depth or mellow- ness. Olsina is a notable exception to this fault, and, as a good ready-made distemper with some washable pretensions, it is one of the most easily managed and one of the best to "cover." Among others now well known are "Mayresco," "Wapicti," " Alabastine," Muraline, Vernolene, Hall's distemper, and Sanitol. The latter keeps especially well. Sichel Glue. A substitute for animal glue is the now well- known sichel glue, which does not corrode, ferment, or decompose, and which is soluble in cold water. It does not gelatinise. A limited test places it high in the list of recent advantageous additions to the paint shop stock. It can be used as a paste. 145 CHAPTER X. term plain painting, includes the preparation and application of oil paints in a simple and direct manner to various kinds of surfaces, and the prepai'ation of the surfaces themselves to receive the paint. "Paint" is understood to consist of pigments diluted by various oils, and the term is used in the trade to distinguish it from pigments mixed with water vehicles. The oils used are known as " thinners." Object. Paint is applied either as a protective or decorative agent, and sometimes as a combination of both. Its use is confined to no particular class of surface or material. Several applications of paint, known technically as " coats," are necessary to ensure a solid appearance. The earlier coats are to render the work non-absorbent ; the intermediate ones to produce a level surface ; and the final ones to give the colour and effect. These objects are frequently associated. Qualifications of Paint. The paint used for any specific purpose must have sufficient fluidity for its particular purpose 10 146 PAINTING AND DECORATING. It must become hard upon the ground on which it is used, and must be sufficiently viscid to adhere to that ground. Painting on New Plaster. Surfaces to be painted must be clean and dry, free from grit, grease, and moisture. Newly plastered surfaces, indoor work, will require no special prepara- tion prior to painting. They will require four or five coats. Assuming that they are properly dry, they must first be well rubbed down with glass paper, No. 2|. The paper should be rolled round a cork block, and its position shifted from time to time, so as to present new and unworn surfaces to the wall. All cracks and holes of any size must be stopped with Parian, or Keen's cement. Plaster of Paris will do if some days can be allowed to elapse before it is painted, but the cements named can be safely painted upon a few hours after being used. A trowel putty knife (Fig. 52) is useful for plaster stopping, and fine cracks are best filled by using the broad chisel knife (Fig. 52) and drawing the cement over them, thoroughly levelling up all slight depressions. A better surface is required for painting than for distempering, as the gloss of the paint will show up all imperfections. Fig. 52. Trowel stopping and broad chisel knives. When the stopping is dry, it must be lightly rubbed down, and the whole surface well dusted ; it will then be ready for the first coat of paint. For painting, use a brush, and a large and small sash tool for cutting round doors and windows and other fittings. For the composition of the various coats of paint, reference must be made to the chapter on Colour mixing. First Coat on New Plaster. The first coat should be rather thin and penetrative, the object being to hold to, and harden the surface, and provide a good key for the succeeding coat. When the first coat is dry, the wall should not present an all- PLAIN PAINTING. 147 over gloss ; if it does so, the colour has been used too thickly, and has not properly penetrated the surface ; or it has dried too quickly, and has not had sufficient time to soak into the wall. On the other hand, it must not present an entirely dead surface as if all the paint had soaked in, or there will be no sufficient hold for the next coat of paint. A day should now elapse. Second Coat. The second coat should be less thin and rather more oily than the first. It should be tinted slightly towards the finishing colour, but be kept much lighter than that will be. Any indentations, dents, or imperfections which the gloss of the colour will now have revealed must be carefully faced up with the putty knife (Fig. 53), and either ordinary or white lead stopping, made as previously described. The second coat should be given forty-eight hours to harden before commencing Fig. 53. Stopping or putty knife. to putty up. Allow the stopping a day to harden ; if putty is used it will require two or three days. Then the whole must be again glass-papered down with No, 1| paper, and well dusted. If five coats are to be put on, the third coat may be similar to the second. Third Coat. The third (or fourth) coat i.e., the last but one will be dependent upon the class of finish. The most usual finish for such walls is "flatting." Flatting. Flatting is colour thdt dries with a lustreless sur- face, the gloss being only about the same as that upon a new- laid egg shell. Flatting (having little binding or adhesive power, owing to the preponderance of turpentine over oil in its composition) requires to be laid on a tacky or adhesive under coat, or it will not wash. This is secured by the use of much oil in the coat before flatting, and the flatting is put on immediately the under coat is dry enough to work over. For the ingredients of both oil colour and flatting see Colour mixing. In flatting, if the walls are likely to have much wear and tear, and are passably smooth, a tablespoonful of copal varnish may be added to the flatting to harden it ; but if the walls are wavy and unsightly, as is often the case with old walls, a deader flat will be advantageous, in which case no oil at all is added to the paste white lead, but turpentine only. 148 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Between each coat, except the two last, it is desirable to gently rub down with No. 1 glass paper, used without a block or rubber. Very little pressure must be exercised, as the only object is to remove nibs, dust, or any light particles that may have adhered during the drying of the previous coat. Fig. 54. Stipplers. Flatting must always be done quickly and methodically and without confusion, and always upon a glossy under coat as described. It must be done before the under coat is too hard, or this will have no key or hold for the flatting. The flatting PLAIN PAINTING. 149 colour must be very thoroughly mixed and strained, and re- strained, and it is preferable to allow it to stand for a few hours after mixing, so that the commingling of the ingredients may be the more complete. For flatting large surfaces, two, three, or four men will be necessary, according to the height of the surface to be flatted. To ensure the joints being invisible, great care must be taken that the edges of the work do not commence to set. Each flank of wall must be continued without interruption from start to finish. The work should be commenced at the right-hand top corner, each man taking just as deep a section as he can well attend to. The top man should start first and keep half-a-yard in advance of the next man below him, who will take up and complete the work of the man above, immediately he leaves it for the next half yard. This method of working avoids collision and splashes or damage to the work below. In work- ing, every part must be well and evenly covered by the paint brush, and then regularly and evenly dabbed with the stippler. The stippler must not be trusted to, to spread the paint. The stippler has already been described in the chapter on brushes, and is here illustrated in various shapes (Fig. 54). Those provided with reversible handles are preferable. The bridge-handled stippler is preferred by many for ceiling work. The stippler must be used with only just sufficient force to get to the colour and produce a regular and uniform granulation of the surface, and must be used squarely so that the bristles are always at right angles to the wall when the brush strikes it. Painting on Stucco and Cement Walls. For stucco and rough finished walls, such as are found in the interior of churches and public buildings; and also for cement and sand finished walls, the treatment will be the same as for plastered surfaces, except that the first coats will require a larger proportion of oil, and less turpentine. No rubbing down will, of course, be required. Such walls should be repaired with Roman cement or oil mastic, and not with Portland cement, unless they can stand a few weeks prior to painting. External plastered walls, as in pargetted or open timbered work, should have a first coating of very thin colour, and boiled oil should take the place of raw linseed, except in the case of white paint, when it is better to use raw oil in the last two coats. For the composition of colour for the several coats see Colour mixing. In all other respects follow the treatment described for interior plastered walls. The treatment for out-door stucco walls will be the same as for internal work, except that boiled oil should be used instead of 150 PAINTING AND DECORATING. raw, as in last paragraph, and the proportion of oil to turpentine must be increased as in the recipes given under Colour mixing. A first coat of boiled oil and red lead is recommended upon the exposed sides of a compo or stucco house. The first coat on outside walls should never be attempted within three days after heavy rain. A reliable authority gives the following as his method of coating outside house fronts, compo : 1st coat, 3 Ibs. white lead, 1 pt. raw linseed oil, driers. 2nd 4 Ibs. \ pt. ,, \ pt. turpen- tine, driers. 3rd coat, white lead, driers, two-thirds oil, one-third turps. 4th one-third ,, two-thirds 5th ,, three-fourths one-fourth ,, It is arranged on the principle of alternating an elastic and a hard coating, and not upon the principle that is generally recommended by the writer j but much may be advanced in its favour for a stucco wall. Painting on Stone. Painting upon stone is not, or ought not to be, necessary or desirable. It is not a preservative in the true sense of the term. In cases where it is done, the same treatment as for stucco will be satisfactory. If the stone is very hard, the treatment for plastered walls should be followed. Stone may be successfully imitated or matched by painting. The work is finished in oil a few shades lighter than the colour of the stone to be matched, and when partially dry, freely dusted over with powdered stone dust of the same stone. The paint must be oily and tacky, and the stone sand must be thrown against it with some little force. The result is an extremely good imitation, and also a durable surface. Compo is often sanded after it has been painted a number of times, in order to restore its rough texture. Sand thus used has a remarkably good effect and stands the weather far better than a coat of paint. The ground colour for sanding on should have a little old varnish or fat oil in it and must be put on heavily. He-Painting Painted Walls. Wall work that has been previously painted will require two or three coats only when re-painting. It should first be washed down and thoroughly dried. This removes dust and dirt, smoke and grease, and ensures a good surface for the paint to dry upon. A little com- mon soda in the washing water gives a better key to the new paint by slightly cutting the hard surface shell of the old paint, but if used the greatest vigilance is necessary in well rinsing with clear water every hole and corner of the work. PLAIN PAINTING. 151 If the work has decoration or lettering upon it, this must be obliterated by rubbing well down with block pumice stone. Soda is sometimes used in the rubbing-down water, but this merely acts on the whole surface equally, and does not facilitate the levelling process. All paint has a tendency to become more transparent with age, and strong colours and lines will gradually become visible through the new painting by reason of this quality. When such cannot be obliterated, it is well to give a coat over the whole ground of some positive colour which is more assertive than the old decoration, and allow it a couple of days to harden. Stopping for previously painted walls, unless the walls are greatly damaged, may be done with putty. The cracks should tirst have a coat of thin paint, or oil and driers, to make the putty adhere. Large patches should be made good with Parian cement and dry white sand. The smaller the proportion of sand used the better will the patch dry out. These cement patches will require an extra coat of priming or two, to bring them to the same condition of surface as the surrounding wall. The first coat for the whole wall will be thinned with half oil and half turpentine ; the wall will then require glass papering with No. 1 paper. The next coat will require five-sixths oil, and one-sixth of turpentine if the wall is to be finished flatted, and will be ready for the flatting on the next day. If it is to be finished in gloss, the second coat may be two-thirds oil and one- third turps, and the final coat five-sixths of boiled oil and one- sixth turps. This last coat will be all the better for the substi- tution of half oil varnish for the boiled oil. See also Colour mixing. The foregoing remarks refer to internal walls. Outside walls that have been previously painted should be treated in the fol- lowing manner : Washed and stopped, all repairs touched up with priming twice. The whole painted one or two coats, as necessary, of colour thinned with two-thirds boiled oil and one- third turpentine, and finished as described for new walls and in Colour mixing. Three coats in all will usually be necessary. It is always economical to give one coat more than would be absolutely necessary in order to " cover ; " otherwise the old dirty coatings will soon commence to "grin" through the new paint, and afford an instance of undesirable resurrection. It is computed that if two coats can be made to " cover," a third adds 50 per cent, to the durability and life of the work. It may here be remarked that beyond a certain point, succes- sive coatings of oil paint are not of any advantage, but tend to 152 PAINTING AND DECORATING. lessen the protective value of painting. It is not easy to dog- matise in this matter, and say at what point the change occurs ; but as soon as the thickness of the new coats is sufficient to resist the atmospheric influences upon the lower ones, and prevent further hardening, no useful purpose is served by adding to them, and if they be added to, the result is a mass of soft leathery matter which is readily acted upon by changes of tem- perature, always yields to pressure, and will have to be removed entirely before the condition of the work can be improved. In painting new walls it will sometimes be noticed after the first coat is on that there are small bunion-like protubei-ances visible. These are probably bits of quicklime or stone which are still in active operation upon the surrounding plaster ; they should be cut out and the holes filled with stopping or putty. Let the hole be well painted first. In all stopping, care must be taken to cut the holes as much dovetailed as possible, and to wet for plaster or cement, and paint for putty stopping, so that the stopping will keep in the hole or crack, and adhere to its surroundings. Painting on new plaster or damp walls should never be at- tempted. New walls take six months to dry sufficiently for paint- ing. This time may be shortened by keeping up good fires, or by charcoal braziers stood about the house, and free ventilation. Duresco or distemper should be used, if it is necessary to colour the walls before they are dry ; but inasmuch as a house is not fit for habitation till they are dry the necessity ought not to arise. Painting New Wood-work. Painting upon new wood-work will require at least four coats ; a creditable surface cannot be produced with a less number, and the wood-work must be well finished by the joiner in order to allow of a good surface with four coats only. It is presumed that the work has left the joiner's hands in a proper condition for painting. If so, all the plane marks will have been obliterated, all nails well punched below the surface level, bits of glue removed, running or loose knots replaced by sound wood, and the work finally glass-papered. If these points have not been attended to, they must be, before the painter can set to work. The work will first require a thorough dusting with the brush, and the removal of any specks or nibs. If the plasterer has been at work after the wood-work has been fixed there will probably be a few splashes, which should be removed with the chisel knife, taking care not to cut the surface of the wood-work. The knots must next be treated so as to stop any exudations from them, and close the pores round about them. Patent PLAIN PAINTING. 153 knotting, a mixture of naphtha and shellac, is the modern com- position for the purpose. A mixture of red lead and glue size was formerly used ; one of red lead and liquid Duresco is also operative. Two thin coats of the knotting, one upon the knots and the second carried a little distance beyond, are better than one thicker coat. To make assurance doubly sure, in the case of very bad knots, a layer of silver or aluminium leaf may be laid upon the second coat of knotting while it is still tacky, or upon a coat of japanners' gold size laid on over the second coat of knotting. A. coat of red lead and size allowed to dry, and a second coat with silver leaf laid upon it while wet, is an effective method of dealing with knots. Gold leaf is still better than silver leaf, because though thinner it is less " pinholey." In the case of bad knots requiring this treatment, the knotting and metal raise the knot a little above its surroundings ; it is, there- fore, a good plan to scrape the knot down with a sharp steel plane iron or scraper before treating it. Knots also project by reason of the shrinkage of the softer wood around them ; the scraper will be useful to correct this tendency. The quirks of mouldings should have special attention before painting. They are sometimes rough, and, if so, will gather a quantity of paint and become unsightly ; a folded piece of glass paper (middle 2) should be run through them. The work will then require redusting and is ready for first coat or " priming." The constituents of the various coats will be found in Colour mixing. In priming, the colour should be laid on freely and allowed sufficient time to penetrate. No time is saved by hasty priming, as it is of the utmost importance that the wood should take up all the colour it requires, and still leave enough upon the surface to present a good ground for the second coat. The colour should not be so thin as to wholly sink into the wood. A fruitful source of blistering is the lack of combination between this coat and the next, owing to the priming having been of thin spirit colour and wholly absorbed by the wood, leaving no key for the second colour. The practice of priming wood-work many days or weeks before it is second coated is an extremely bad one, and conduces to the same result. The object is to lay well hold of the wood, stop further absorption, and give a tacky key for the next coat, and unless this threefold object is attained the value of the workman- ship is materially reduced. It is essential that the work be of dry and well-seasoned wood if a good job is to be made of the painting. The work must be weather dry when primed. Im- mature or ill-seasoned wood will contract in the soft parts and 154 PAINTING AND DECORATING. leave the grain standing above the general surface a form of relievo decoration to be strenuously avoided. Pithy or sappy wood must be treated as knots ; if it occurs in a first-class job it ought to be removed altogether. Particular care should be taken when priming, that all holes and cracks have a full share of paint so that the putty will adhere, and especially that the nail heads are well painted or they will rust and push out the putty. Stopping. If the work is to be finished in four coats it is well to stop all the larger holes at this stage with ordinary putty for commoner class work, and with white lead putty for best rooms (see Colour mixing}. The stopping or putty knife has already been illustrated ; the shorter and stilfer glazing knife (Fig. 55) is Fig. 55. Glazier's stiff putty knife. useful for wood- work, for bevelling up or stopping over nail heads where some pressure is required to get the putty home, and this tool should find a place in the painter's kit. The chisel knife (Fig. 56) is also a necessary aid in the preparatory work. Fig. 56. Chisel knife. In stopping, the great points to be observed are, that the ground upon which the stopping is put is tacky enough to hold ft, and that sufficient coats are put above it to conceal the stop- ping effectually. This is especially important in cases of mere shallow indentations. All stopping requires pressing solidly into its place and there must be none left on the surrounding surface. It is recommended that work be stopped two days after painting. It should then stand a clear day before re-painting. After stopping, slightly rub down, and then proceed to " second coat." In rubbing down, caution is requisite in order to avoid rubbing off the arrises or sharp edges. Carelessness in this respect will make a new door look as unsightly as an old one. If as much solicitude be shown to keep the moulds sharp and clean as is usually shown to get the broad surfaces smooth, the result will be an ample reward in improved appearance. PLATE 13.-A DESIGN THAT IS COMPLETE IN ITSELF AT ALL DISTANCES FROM THE EYE. To face p. 154.] PLAIN PAINTING. 155 The glass paper should be folded and bent to fit the mouldings, and little corks, cut for covering with glass paper, may be used for the broader members. Every edge should possess its full complement of coats in their integrity. Any further slight stopping may now be done with hard putty or hard stopper (see Colour mixing). If a highly-finished surface is required, the filling up must be done at this stage, in which event three coats afte*r tilling up will be necessary. If not, then the third and fourth coats may be proceeded with. All glass papering must be done prior to the last coat but one, or the scratches will show through the finished work. This does not infer that any nibs, &c., should be allowed to remain upon the work, as such can be removed without a general rubbing down, and without scratching the ground. These coats will be dealt with later in detail. rilling up. Filling up is done in order to level a surface which is too generally uneven to allow of effective stopping. The process is employed upon plaster, wood, and other grounds. The cheapest method is that of distemper filling up, usually limited to walls, but sometimes used upon wood-work. For distemper filling, take equal parts of the finest flour plaster of Paris used by modellers, and fine whiting ; mix well together dry, add warm weak size, stirring well till it becomes of a consistency that can just be applied with a brush. The amount of size must be judged by testing, and by the class of ground on which it is desired to work. Use at once before it begins to cool or thicken. A porous ground will need more size than a non-porous one, and vice versd. A quarter of a pound of concentrated size to a gallon of water makes a size of average strength for this purpose. Give repeated coats, as necessary. After it is dry, rub down with No. 1|- glass paper stretched over a wooden block, and prime with priming rather thin so as to penetrate the whole thickness of the filling up, and saturate it. Use the filling when warm, and before it thickens or sets. Ordinary size and whiting is sometimes substituted for the above filling. It should be made of the consistency of batter. Patent wood filling is better for wood-work than distemper filling. Harland's slate filling-up powder is a perfect one. There are other good makes which the writer has not tested to the same extent. Sold in powder they require mixing with turpentine and thinning with Japan gold size. The proportion of turpentine will be about half to half of Japanners', modified to suit special cases. Lay on repeated coats smoothly with a soft flat brush, allowing time for each coat to dry hard. Deep 156 PA1WTING AND DECORATING. depressions may be filled with some of the same, mixed stiff as putty, and laid on with the broad knife. When hard, rub down with block pumice stone and water till level, dry well, and paint as before. A handy filling is made from dry white lead or yellow ochre and white lead, or from yellow ochre alone. They are all pre- pared in the same way as the patent filling, and rubbed down similarly. Wliite lead has the objection of being dangerously poisonous. When rubbing down it is not possible to keep the hands free from danger of contamination ; and if rubbed down in a dry state with glass paper, the particles of lead find their way into the eyes and nostrils. These objections do not apply to white lead ground in oil and used as a paint. Yellow ochre has too much water in its composition and too great an affinity for water to make a reliable filler. A quickly made, and for many purposes a handy filling (as the materials are usually on the job, whatever class of job it may be) can be made thus: Mix together paste white lead in oil, one part; whiting in turps, one part; whiting in Japan ners' gold size, one part. Apply as a stiff paste with the broad knife, leaving as little upon the surface as possible. It hardens quickly ; rub down as before. Small dents, &c., can be filled up with ordinary distemper thickened to a putty with plaster, and when set, rubbed down with block pumice stone lubricated with boiled oil and turpentine. The pumice for rubbing down filling should be of open grain, and sawn across the fibre so as to have a sharp cut. The prepared pumice blocks sold by coachpainters' colour manufacturers, and made in varying degrees of fineness, are labour saving. Glass paper should be used over a block of wood or cork, about 4| by 3 inches, and 1 inches thick. A piece, of grit stone should be kept at hand for freeing the surface of the pumice stone of accumulated paint. See JNote on p. 172. Re-painting Old Wood- work. In painting wood-work that has been previously painted, the condition of the work is the first consideration. If it is a paint-finished surface, smooth, and free from cracks and blisters, all that is necessary is to wash well, dry, and proceed with the same last two or three coats as specified for new wood-work. The stopping should be done before any re-painting, in the case of two-coat work ; and after the first coat, in the case of three-coat work. Stop with hard stopping. If the work is sound, but rough, first rub down with hard block, or prepared block pumice stone, then wash and pro- ceed as before. If sound, but varnished, the varnish coat, or at least the major part of it, should be removed by a good rubbing PLAIN PAINTING. 157 with pumice stone and water; the procedure will then be as before. If cracked, but hard, the pumicing must be carried on till the cracks are obliterated, unless they extend to the wood, which is not usual. In some cases, where the cracks are separ- ated by sound patches of hard paint, they may safely be filled up with filling. Many painters treat cracked wood-work in the following way : A coat of oil colour is put on, and, while freshly wet, the work is rubbed down with a gritty piece of pumice. A certain portion of powder is ground off the pumice and forms a filling, which is deposited by the rubbing into the cracks, form- ing a solid filler. When sufficiently rubbed the work is lightly laid off with the paint brush in the usual way, and allowed to dry. If the work to be re-painted is soft and tacky, blistered, or orerloaded with repeated painting, it will be necessary to remove the old paint, and commence again as if treating new wood-work, except that the priming must be sharper colour. It is essential that all bare places, repairs, &c., shall be brought forward to the same condition of surface as the rest of the work, prior to commencing to re-coat the whole. This may often be done by coating with quick-drying colour, or thin patent knotting, if time is of importance ; but a better method is to coat in the usual manner for new work. In touching up patches of this description, soften off the edges by " badgering " in towards the patch with a dusting brush or dry tool, so as to prevent the edges showing up when the work is painted all over. The finishing coats upon new or old wood-work will be the same in character. For inside work it is usual to finish either in flatting, bastard flatting (i.e., an egg-shell gloss), enamel, or varnish. The two latter methods of finish are dealt with under the head of Varnishing. For cellars, kitchens, and offices, an oil finish is sometimes adopted, but it is not to be recommended, as it catches dirt and is less easily cleaned than varnish or enamel. For flatting, the thinnings used must be almost all turps, a little varnish being added to harden it. The amount of varnish may be slightly increased for doors and window bottoms. French oil or good copal varnish should be used. For bastard flatting three-fourths to two-thirds turpentine, and the remainder boiled oil and varnish will be found satisfactory. For work that is to be finished in varnish or enamel, a bastard flatting makes the best ground. Some prefer an absolute flat for the purpose. Burning off Old Paint. The removal of old paint is achieved either by burning off, or by dissolving with a paint solvent. For outside work, where the smell of the burning paint is not 158 PAINTING AND DECORATINO. objected to, the lamp or charcoal brazier, or even a gas flame, has every advantage. The lamps made especially for the pur- pose are to be preferred, as more cleanly and economical, and more easily controlled than fire or gas. Lamps are described and illustrated in Chapter III. The lamp is held in the left hand, and a broad chisel knife in the right ; the flame is allowed to play on the portion of the work immediately in advance of the knife, and as soon as the paint is sufficiently soft, it will be found that the knife readily slides along the bare wood, removing the paint in its course. Once started, the lamp may be kept moving as fast as the knife inclines to travel after it. When possible to do so, keep the knife below the Iftmp, AS the ascend- ing heat gradually prepares the work above for the full blast of the flame. A little practice enables the operator to establish a sympathetic movement of both hands in unison, and the work becomes quite mechanical. Always follow the grain of the wood. Never attempt to burn more than you can remove with the knife, but allow the knife to dictate the speed of the lamp, as when once heated and cooled again the paint becomes harder than before, like a stoved enamel. Do not allow the paint to " fire," and do not scorch the exposed portions of bare wood from which the paint has already been removed. Attack the broad flat surfaces first, using a 4^-inch broad knife for the stiles, so as to take them at one sweep. A narrow chisel knife must be kept handy for flats, mouldings, edges, &c. Pieces of thin, shaped, steel scrapers may be made to fit ogee or other mouldings. A plumber's shave hook (Fig. 57), with inter- changeable head, is useful for moulded and intricate work. The tools must not be too sharp, or the wood may be damaged by them. Fig. 57. Shave hook. When the paint has all been removed, the work will require rubbing down to remove odd particles of burnt colour which have stuck, and to smooth the rough surface left by the knife. Pumice stone and water may be used for this, as, owing to the previous priming being still in the wood, it will be impervious to moisture to a great extent. This fact alone is a strong argument in favour of burning off as against solvents. Some PLAIN PAINTING. 159 painters use turps and a little oil instead of water; if the work is done in damp, cold weather, it is a good plan. The superfluous oil and turps is of course rubbed off with cotton waste or rags. When water is used, the work must be allowed to thoroughly dry before re-painting. The remaining method of paint removing is by the use of a strong alkaline or lime solvent. Ordinary soda and a little lime is the commonest preparation. Caustic soda, potash, black ashes, and many patent removers are used. Harmer's Egyptian clay is a good remover if the instructions for use are carefully followed. After the use of any of these solvents the work must be thoroughly soused with clear water, and the quirks and cracks well washed out before the work has a chance of ab- sorbing the solvent. The work must next be allowed to thoroughly dry. Before painting, it is desirable to adopt the precaution of coating the work with a solution of acetic acid or vinegar to neutralise the effect of any soda residue. The work must again be allowed to become bone dry. It may then be knotted and primed, as if it were new work. This plan is considered cheaper than burning off, and if proper care be taken to carry out the instructions here given, it is satisfactory. It is certainly less cleanly, and there are many points in it where a little carelessness would have serious results in the after painting. Doors should not be unhinged and laid down for the purpose of stripping, as the alkali is liable to work under the moulds and into the grooves and interstices if this is done. If unhinged, they should be stood upright against a wall. Solvents are preferable for indoor work in an occupied domicile ; but where a house is given over to the painters, the burning-off lamp is better. When working indoors, the floors must be well protected, or the soda will blacken them. Water- proof paper pasted down to the floor is the best protector. The old pitch paper is the best for the purpose, as it withstands the alkali as well as the water. A reliable old-fashioned plan of treating " pickled " wood- work was to give it a coat of strong alum size and red lead. General Hints on Painting Wood-work. In finishing wood- work when a very fine surface is required the badger softener may be lightly used, or, if in white lead, the hog-hair softener. The work must first be carefully laid off in the usual manner and then crossed and re-crossed lightly with the softener. In flatting, the work may be finished with a flat fitch-hair varnish brush, and the mouldings with a swan quill camel hair. Stippling 160 PAINTING AND DECORATING. should not be resorted to for wood-work, as it leaves a granular surface which is easily soiled. This remark does not apply to transparent glazes, but to body colours. In painting mouldings, care must be taken to first well rub the colour into the quirks. A door, if to be painted in one colour, should be painted in the following rotation : Rebate, edges, top right-hand panel mould- ings, panel, top left-hand panel mouldings, panel, bottom panels in same order, top muntin, bottom muntin, top, middle, and bottom rails, right-hand stile, left-hand stile ; frame, commencing with back edges, and then with the meeting bead, and working right round, bringing all on together from bottom right-hand, up and across lintel, and down the left-hand frame. This order is not arbitrary, and must be modified when varnishing and enamelling. Doors and windows should never be closed until the paint is quite dry. Before painting, all impedimenta, as locks, handles, hooks, finger-plates, sash-fasteners, and blind brackets should be taken off. Necessary fastenings may be replaced with temporary old ones. Some locks will require to be left on for safety ; these must be kept clean. The time spent in taking off fittings is regained in the free course given to the painter. In painting a room, commence with the windows, cupboards (if any), doors, mantel, and skirting. It is always possible that the two latter will soil the colour and brushes. The door being the most important as to finish, the brushes will be well worked in and yet perfectly clean if this routine be followed. In painting a sash window take the runners first, then the meeting bar and outer sash, then inner sash, next frame, and, finally, sill. Do not paint the sash cords, and be very sparing of the paint upon the runners, top and bottom rails, and meeting bars. Never paint that portion of the runners that is hidden when the window is closed, except one bare coat at the finish. In painting walls, commence each flank at the top right-hand corner. Commence a cornice over the door in the nearest angle and work to the left right round the room. Commence a ceiling near the window and work away from the window. General Notes on Painting. The following general notes must be acted upon in all classes of painting. Spreading and Consistence of Paint. The amount of paint put upon the work should be as little as can be properly spread unless when priming new work. The brushes must be kept free from excess of colour and the paint well worked out before attempting to lay off. Two thin coats are better than one thick one for all classes of work, and for really first-class work PT,ATK U.-OUTUNE PATTERNS FOR STAINING UPON WOOD. To, face p. 160.] PLAIN PAINTING. 161 the less paint that is put on at each operation, consistently with a proper covering of the ground, the better will the ultimate result be. " Less paint and more painting " is the observation the writer is compelled to make to quite 90 per cent, of painter students. An overloaded coat of paint picks up and retains dust and dirt, is easily damaged by smearing when wet, does not dry from the bottom, but skins over, and cannot be laid off free from ropiness. Paint should never be used too thin or oily. There must always be enough pigment to keep the oils in their place. Thin oil colour will expand unduly, and thin flatting will crawl and crack. Thick podgy paint is equally dangerous ; it must be thin enough to spread without ropiness and yet to stay where it is put, and it should not flow after being spread, unless it be of the varnish or enamel class. It must not be so thin as to run back in the brush when working overhead. Colour of correct consistence will spread easily and comfortably, and if the painter cannot lay his colour off fairly well it is probable that there is some fault with the colour itself. The painting brushes should not be stood or dipped over the bristles in the colour ; but a little colour should be taken up on the point of the brush and patted against the side of the can to distribute it among the bristles. Some pigments are heavy, and are liable, however freely they are ground, to sink to the bottom of the can. In such cases do not use the brush, but keep a stirring stick or spatula in the can for occasionally stirring the mixture. Large surfaces require, first, a sufficient quantity of paint dis- tributed at short intervals, covering a panel or patch of wall say half-a-yard by a yard. This must then be spread evenly, crossed and re-crossed and, finally, laid off lightly. All wall surfaces are laid off perpendicularly ; borders less than a foot wide hori- zontally. Wood-work should be laid off in the direction of its grain and construction. Ceilings should be laid off across or athwart the light. Sequence of Coats in Painting. No absolute rule can be laid down for the composition and sequence of coats of paint; but as a general working regulation, subject to particular omis- sions, the under coats should dry more quickly and be harder than those above them, and the difference between two adjoining coats should not be very great. The priming and flatting coats are invariable exceptions, and depend upon the kind of surface treated and the finish required. In outside work that has to be varnished, the varnishes will follow the same rule, and the last coat of paint under the varnish must be less elastic than the varnish is. 11 162 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Knotting on Work prior to Painting. No intercoating medium should be used which will have the effect of separating the paint from its groundwork. Some authorities recommend the application of a coat of shellac varnish or knotting all over wood- work prior to painting. This is clearly a pernicious practice, as it transposes the paint into a mere detached shell, instead of allowing it to form a surface to the wood itself by absorption. The natural key, the porosity of the wood, is destroyed, and a fruitful cause of blistering is set up. Knotting coated with spirit colour and varnished has been given in technical papers as a cure for paint blistering. It is not, how- ever, painting at all, in the accepted sense of the term, and does not fulfil the functions of oil paint. Sizing on Painted Work. Sizing on painted work is a very universal and an equally unscientific practice. No better method could be devised for obstructing the natural preservative function of paint than the interposition of a coat of size between the paint and its ground. It is a most unsanitary practice, binding all the dirt and grease into a mass which the paint does not penetrate. Its action upon the appearance of the work is not prejudicial, if the size is weak ; but it effectually prevents proper cohesion of the paint to its ground, or to the under coats of paint. It is a foreign matter, and has no business there at all, and no good excuse for its presence. Its use for the purpose of stopping the suction of plaster prior to painting is distinctly damaging to the wall. The practice is a dishonest one in most cases, and the writer does not remember it ever being openly specified in a straightforward manner. In short, it is generally made to do duty as a coat of paint. Technical Terms Descriptive of Paint. The following are technical terms used in speaking of paint : Paint is usually termed " colour." " Sharp " colour is paint in which turps predominates. ' Oily " colour is the converse. ' Round " colour is paint that is stiff. 'Stiff" colour is thicker than round. ' Thin " colour is of liquid consistency. 'Fat" colour is greasy, oily, or stale colour. ' Quick " colour is colour that dries quickly. ' Slow " refers to slow-drying colours. Washing Down Prior to Re-painting. Outside work should always be washed down prior to painting. It is curious PLATE 15..-NATURAL TREATMENT FOR CONVENTIONAL FLAT COLOURING jacep. 162.] | N 8T A|N8. PLAIN PAINTING. 163 that while in London and in the south-coast seaside resorts, this practice is pretty universal, in Manchester, Birmingham, and Sheffield, where it is much more necessary, the practice is more honoured in the breach than in the observance. Knots. Be especially alert not to miss knotting any of the small knots in light tinted work ; brown spots will come through in a few weeks where the knots are missed. Rubbing Down. In rubbing down, if three pieces of pumice are used alternately, and indiscriminately rubbed face to face occasionally, they will produce an absolutely level surface. Tar Spots. Upon outside work it sometimes happens that tar spots are found. Tar is very destructive of paint, and they should be thoroughly washed off with turpentine. Brunswick or Berlin black are also dangerous if painted over, their composition being bituminous. Painting Bound Edges. In painting the wood- work of an ordinary room, paint well round the edges so as to paint under the edges of the wall paper, and well stop the angles formed by the wall and the architrave mouldings, and other wood-work. This keeps out dust and causes the edges of the paper to adhere thoroughly. Dusting. The duster must be in constant use, as the con- tinual moving and dusting creates fresh dust continually, and all dust adds to the roughness of the work. Fat Edges. Fat edges must be always guarded against. This common fault is that of allowing the paint to accumulate on the edge at right angles to that which is being painted. The brush should always be drawn out toward the edges of the work, and not in from the edge, and any accidental accumulations must be lightly removed with the point of the brush. Hints on Platting. If flatting does not turn out solid and satisfactory, the work must be repainted in oil colour. It is quite useless to attempt to reflat on a flatted surface, as the new coat will dissolve the former one and cause it to work up, making a worse finish than before. The rougher the wall the stouter it is desirable to use the flatting colour ; and the rougher the stipple, the less the wall will show up any imperfections. Flatting will do a great deal to hide unevenness and bad places in an old wall. Faults in Painting ; Cracking. Cracking in paint is caused by the under coats of paint being more elastic than the upper one ; consequently, when they are expanded by the sun's heat or other causes, the upper coat is not accommodating and splits. The same result is brought about whether the elasticity of the under 164 PAINTING AND DECORATING. coats is due to their ingredients, proportions, or to their not having properly dried before the upper coats were put over them. It must be borne in mind that oil expands in the process of oxidising viz., the oxygen is added to it, and nothing is given up to make room for it. Turpentine, on the contrary, contracts strongly, especially if barely spread. This can be well seen if a small patch of the two oils are put upon a piece of glass : when dry the linseed oil will show a wrinkled surface due to expansion, and the oil of turpentine will have a concave surface, and appear to be drawn in from the edges. If the superincumbent surfaces are not nearly related to each other in drying power, or if the varying power is not maintained in equal ratio, either cracking or blistering is pretty sure to result. Blistering. Blistering is a more general fault than any other, and may well be termed the bete noir of the painter. It is brought about by various circumstances and conditions, but the actual and direct cause is always the same. Moisture is imprisoned, expanded by heat or other causes, and finds its neces- sarily enlarged accommodation in a blister, which will occur wherever there is least resistance, and where there is imperfect cohesion between the paint and its ground. The moisture may be water, gas, spirit, or oil. It may be inherent moisture in the wood ; acquired moisture between the coats of paint ; resinous moisture from knots ; unoxidised oil in the paint ; water in the pigment, in the oil or in both, or a number of less usual faults. Sometimes the work may be damp or frosty at the time of painting, and this dampness is shut in by the paint. Sometimes the wood itself contains constitutional water. Frequently there exists free resin oil in the knots. In any case the result is mechanically the same, the heat playing upon the surface ex- pands the moisture; steam or gaseous vapour is formed and the paint rises. A close examination of the blister will clearly show between which coats the imperfect adhesion allowed the blister to form. Knots are frequently the locale of blisters, because inherent or acquired moisture in the wood itself naturally finds its exit through the open ends of the sap channels surrounding the knot. For a similar reason, cross-grained wood, because of the number of open sap vessels it contains upon its surface, will blister more than straight-grained wood. The resin in the knot often gives rise to blisters immediately above the knot itself, because the resin oil keeps the colour soft or softens it and allows it to be expanded. Curiously, too, the very precautions taken to protect the paint from the action of the knot results in a smooth, keyless PLAIN PAINTING. 165 surface from which the paint is easily lifted by the vapour. This hard shellac in spirits has no affinity for the paint, and refuses to attach itself to it or to hold it. If a blister be pricked when hot and rising, the pin-hole will allow the steam to escape, and it will not get any larger ; indeed, it may be pressed back into its place. All woods which show a large percentage of water in their analysis will blister readily. To prevent blistering, care must be taken that due cohesion and relative expansion is obtained between the various coats of paint used, and that the particulars referred to as important in outside painting are attended to. All knots, especially resinous ones, must be effectually treated, even to the extent of having very bad ones cut out and the places filled in with sound wood. If work is very much exposed to strong sun it is advisable to abstain from the use of a large proportion of oil, and to substitute an oil varnish for a portion of the usual oil. The use of poorly- bound turpentine colour is not a cure, such colour having no protective power. A blistering tendency may be much aggra- vated by the use of " fat " colour. New oil colour should be used. Stale fat colour will blister of its own defects. Blisters are fairly sure to rise if the second coat is put on while the one before it is not thoroughly dry. The use of an excessive quantity of driers also leads to blistering. The desideratum required both for preservative purposes and to prevent blistering is a perfectly homogeneous steam-tight jacket of paint, firmly attached to its ground in every part. If too elastic, it will blister on the slightest provocation ; and if too inelastic, it will crack. Paint will blister upon other paint, independently of the material painted, if the necessary conditions for a blister viz., imprisoned moisture and imperfect adhesion are present, but this is, of course, much less frequently the case upon other than wood surfaces. So-called blisters upon cement and stone are frequently caused by the action of nibs of unslaked lime ; those upon iron are caused by rusting in spots. Cissing. Cissing is the term given to the contractile action of water or paint upon a very oily surface of new paint. Varnish frequently cisses upon oil paint. The tendency is overcome by a brisk rubbing with a damp chamois leather, or a damp sponge and a little fuller's earth ; about an ounce of the earth is dis- solved in a half-bucket of water. Sometimes it may be cured by rubbing with a dry rag and powdered whiting. Striking or Plashing Striking or flashing is the name given to oily or shiny patches occurring in flatted work, and is caused by a too free use of the colour in irregular patches, or by the under 166 PAINTING AND DECORATING. coat of paint not being properly dry when the flatting was done. In some parts of the country the same term is employed when oil colour goes off in dead patches, which are not the result of absorp- tion. This is, however, akin to blooming in varnishes, and is the result of frost or fog damp, and not defect for which the paint or painting is responsible. Bopiness Ladders. " Ropiness" is the term used to express a too apparent use of the brush, a corded surface, caused either by the colour being podgy or the brush coarse, and used with too much force in the laying-off ; the term is applied to paint when it is thick and sticky, and will hold together like treacle. " Ladders" are formed by carelessness in laying-off. The term expresses the condition of things when, in laying-off for the last time, there are missed places showing the transverse laying-off between the final brush strokes. Both of these last defects are due to the painters' carelessness or want of skill. Grinning Through in Painting. "Grinning through" is caused by the top coat being too thin and transparent, or too sparely applied, or by its being either too light or too dark, or too far removed in hue to cover its ground colour. It is only applicable to colour intended to be solid and dense in finish. When done intentionally the same effect is termed " scumbling" or "glazing." All light tints should have the ground colour a few shades deeper and richer than the flatting, and very deep colours should have the ground colour a few shades lighter than the flatting. The reason for this is that the flatting alters in colour as it dries ; in painters' language " it goes down to its ground," so that the differences noted are really correctives to prevent grinning. Drying of Paint. The drying of paint is an important factor in its durability and in its successful application. Paint is not dry immediately it appears to be so to the touch ; indeed, the drying process in oil colours goes on g-s long as the life of the work permits, getting less and less perceptible as the amount of oxygen taken up by the oil is smaller and smaller, until at last the paint becomes a brittle and useless shell of dead pigment. It is important that a certain amount of this oxidisation should take place in the under coats before they are covered and shut in by the later coats, as during the first and rapid portion of this "drying" as we term it, the process is accompanied with a con- siderable amount of movement and shifting of the particles of colour. If a piece of work be painted coat upon coat of oil colour before each coat is sufficiently dry, this movement will cause the top coat to break up and open out under a voluntary PLAIN PAINTING. 16? effort of the undercoats to obtain the necessary oxygen for their proper hardening. Four days is not too much to allow for the proper drying of oil colour which will nominally "dry" in twenty-four hours. The period may be shortened by additional driers, but a good rule is to allow all paint to stand four times as long as it takes to arrive at superficial dryness. Paints dry better in a free and equably well ventilated room than in a close warm one. In the use of driers the surface must be taken into account. Copper and oak are particularly anti-drying. Pine and cast-iron are particularly good. Quick-drying paint is usually stronger in odour than slow-drying. The obnoxious smell of paint may be changed into a comparatively pleasant one by the addition of a few drops of oil of spike lavender, which will also act as a drier. In like manner eau-de-Cologne may be added to spirit varnishes and lacquers to meet the wishes of fastidious people. The smell of paint may also be modified by placing large pans of water in the room in which the painting is being done. Time for Outside Painting. The time for outside painting is largely a matter of opinion. The writer considers that the summer time is undoubtedly the best time, because of the absence of dampness in the atmosphere, and the equable temperature of the nights. Spring and autumn come next. No outdoor work should be attempted in frosty weather. Frost destroys the qualities of the oil on which the stability of the work depends, and drives moisture deep into the wood-work. Effects of Undercoats in Finish. The undercoat of the densest paint always has a decided influence on the colour of the finished work. This is especially noticeable in flatted work. It is often desirable to obtain richness by painting the last coat but one in brighter colours than the required effect of the finished coat. Thus a coat of vermilion-toned pink under a rosy pink finish will give a depth and soft richness otherwise unobtainable. The bloom of an apricot can be represented by painting a pink over a full bright orange tone. The peculiar charm of the turquoise can be got by using a pure blue over a green, and so on ad infinitum. Richness in colour may often be obtained by tinting the pigment with a transparent stainer. Thus raw sienna and white makes a richer yellow than ochre and white. The com- mixture of two transparent colours produce washy results, but the use of two solidly opaque colours mixed together produces chalky heaviness. Retouching. Painting must never be retouched after it has commenced to set. If it should get rubbed and damaged it had 168 PAINTING AND DECORATING. better be left to dry, as any touching up at this stage will only make a bad matter worse, and such accidents frequently are less observable when the paint has finished drying than when actually occurring. If such places do mar the finished work, it is best to repaint the whole piece at once. Rubbing Down. Rubbing down must be accomplished by even and regular pressure, with special care to avoid rubbing the paint bare upon projections, mouldings, &c. In rubbing to produce a level surface as in felting down or rubbing filling up preparations, a rotatory motion is used. In rubbing slightly to remove dust, nibs, &c., between coats it is better to follow the direction of the grain of the wood. In work that is to be treated transparently viz., glazed, stained, or varnished the scratches are less liable to show if in the direction of the grain. The use of felt and powder pumice is not recommended for oil paint generally. All that is desirable between the coats of paint may be accomplished with glass paper ; while for preparatory rubbing upon old paint the natural or prepared block pumice is a far quicker and more reliable method. When the glass paper clogs in rubbing down oil paint, a little powdered whiting may be used under the paper, or a sprinkle of dry pumice powder. Priming. Care must be taken that wood-work is thoroughly dry when painted, and especially when primed. Knot the end grain parts of the wood, also sappy portions, with a coat of diluted knotting. It will save an extra coat of paint on these porous portions, and at the same time it does not entirely destroy its absorptive power. Painting Signs, &c. Painting for sign-boards for lettering in gold, or work for elaborate decoration, require special qualities and care. The work must be hard enough to stand working upon and washing. For this reason, colour made up in turpen- tine and varnish is the best for the purpose, and will give a good hard, reliable and durable finish. Slow drying varnish should be used for the purpose. If time is not pressing it is by far the best plan to varnish the board and allow it time to properly harden before putting on the writing. Painting Metal Work. In painting metal work, iron requires the greatest amount of attention. The paint for iron- work should be harder than that for wood-work, as there is not the same liability to shrinkage or swelling, and less absorption. If varnish take the place of oil in the later coats, and the other ingredients be used as recommended for wood- work, a good and permanent job will certainly result, and the additional cost is balanced by additional durability. Enough varnish or boiled PLAIN PAINTING. 169 oil must always be used to prevent hardness and consequent chipping. Red lead is regarded as the best paint for iron, and may be used for the two first coats with boiled oil and a little turpentine. The great point to be observed is to be sure that the iron is well dried before painting. Cast iron is spongy in texture and absorbs dampness readily. If all iron castings were well coated with red lead and boiled oil while still warm, there would be little trouble with rust. As soon as the casting cools it com- mences to absorb moisture, and one-half of the efficacy of paint- ing is lost by the delay. Many other pigments are useful for iron- work, and are recom- mended especially for the purpose. The oil, however, is the real protector, and if that is there and good, the pigment only plays a secondary part, the oil being itself an actual preservative against rust. Re-Painting Old Iron- Work. Old iron- work should not be washed with water prior to painting, but should be scraped and well rubbed with card wire and coarse emery cloth. The rust may be scrubbed off by the use of a lubricant, as paraffin. Special wire scrub brushes are made for this purpose by Messrs. Hamilton & Co. It should not be painted within a week of wet weather, so that no water can be imprisoned under the new paint. After the first and second coats any colour may be used, as for wood- work. In re-painting old iron-work, a coat of red lead should be first used, or half of red lead may be added to the colour used, if it can be done without prejudice to the covering power of the finish- ing colour. Black has a good preservative effect on iron-work, especially animal blacks, which are greasy in nature ; any of the carbonic blacks can be mixed with red lead to produce a good and durable brown. Rust, if allowed to accumulate under paint will go on spread- ing and lift the paint off. One of the fruitful causes of rust in iron-work is the unprotected condition of the portions which are scnewed or bolted together before painting. All iron-work ought to be painted in sections before being fitted together. Painting Hot Pipes and Boilers, &e. Hot water pipes, coils, and hot air grids and boiler cases must be painted with japanners' colour. This is made from equal parts of japanners' gold size and turpentine, and varnished with japanners' varnish. Fire stoves and gas stoves can, by the use of this preparation, be painted in any colours, or bronzed, gilded, &c., and yet stand great heat. The practice of blackleading stoves is quite un- necessary, except for the actual bars and parts in direct contact 170 PAINTING AND DECORATING. with the fire. All the other portions look far better enamelled, the same colour as the other painted work in the room. Copper and zinc require scratching or roughing to take the paint well and hold it firmly. A coat of Duresco is a good method of treatment, over which is added a coat of varnish or varnish colour. Oil colour must never be used as a first coat, as it will peel off. Copper must be well washed with turpentine rags before painting, to remove any machine oil or grease. In all metal painting, good sharp colour is to be used for the first coat, if the metal has been turned, drilled, fitted, or worked upon. For castings this is not so necessary. Painting Rough Wood-work. In painting the rough ex- terior boarding of sheds, barns, and outhouses, and for rough fences, it is sometimes necessary to use a cheaper material than ordinary oil paint. In such cases for new wood-work, Stockholm tar and boiled oil in equal parts make a capital preparation, giving the effect of stained pine at a moderate cost. It should be mixed by heating together and well stirring. Ordinary gas tar and turpentine, with some pitch added, is better than plain gas tar, and dries a fairly hard and weather-resisting black. Tar should always be applied hot for effective results, and pitch added to increase its hardening. These tar mixtures are all impervious to water, and good preservatives for rough wood-work. Quick Paints. It is often desirable to paint and finish small articles quickly. Shellac varnish, or patent knotting with powder colour added, dries very rapidly with a good gloss, bears handling, and stands well. Another method is to use distemper, or water colour, and then varnish with spirit varnish. Patent knotting is an extremely useful agent in touching up or making good little odds and ends at the finish of a job, and can be utilised in many ways. It must be of the best quality, made from naphtha and good shellac. As a rapidly drying varnish to stand handling it may be considered perfectly satisfactory for small surfaces. Some of the methylated knotting sold is not equally to be recommended for these purposes. Painting Canvas. In painting canvas, the absorption must be stopped by sizing, or, as the oil paint oxidises, the canvas will become brittle and useless, indeed, a slow combustion process goes on which in time quite destroys the fibres. Acid Resisting and Insulating Paints. Paints and enamels are now manufactured to resist acids and electrical currents. Harland's air-drying resist enamel is useful for these purposes, and may be used for electric light fittings and surroundings. BORDERS FOR BRUSH-WORK PRACTICE. PLAIN PAINTING. 171 Fire-Proof Paints. Asbestos fire-proof paints are also obtainable, but do not largely concern the house painter. They are useful for a variety of purposes which will occur to the reader, and are capable of a limited amount of artistic treatment. Full instructions for their use is supplied by the various makers. Luminous Paints. Luminous paint has also been placed upon the market, to which pigment the same remarks apply. Lubrose Paints. These paints are supplied quite ready for use and require no thinning. The pigment is incorporated during manufacture. They can be applied directly upon wood or any metal, or upon old paint. It is much used in Government Dockyards, &c., for metal work. In no case should oil or turpentine be used with it as the diluent is a form of wood naphtha. The manufacturer supplies a suitable "thinnings." Portland Cement. The old difficulty of painting upon Portland cement may be overcome by giving two coats of alabastine prior to oil painting. Grounds for Enamelling. Enamels should always be laid upon a hard ground without undue gloss. Three parts turpentine and one part linseed oil, with a little French oil varnish, will make a capital ground. There should be no oily or elastic undercoat. Two coats of the above paint on wood-work after priming, and one coat oil paint and one of the above on walls, will be a good ground for enamels. All enamels should be laid on liberally, and flat enamel should be stippled. Spray Painting. The distribution of paint, distemper, or stain by means of a spray diffuser in which the paint is forced into a fine spray by a jet of air has long been possible, though it is only recently that it has met with any trade recognition. Now, however, the use of an aerograph spray has become quite common for special purposes, and in America and on the Continent has been more generally used than in England. The rapidity with which it is distributed with a fine and even grain over any given surface, whether flat or modelled, without the intervention of a skilled painter, indicates an increasing demand for the process. It is already in common use in Government departments, for the preparation of paint samples by manufacturers, in works and mills where articles have to be painted prior to sending out, and in many other places. The Aerograph Company supply a machine that will spread anything from flatting or enamel to limewash far more quickly and evenly than any painter can possibly do so with a brush. 172 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Stencilling can be beautifully executed by its aid, and the colours can be blended together with the finest gradation. The initial cost is heavy, as it involves the cost of an air pump, a painter's outfit costing about 25. whilst a small outfit suitable for decorating and lithography can be obtained for about 10. "White Enamel. A rapid method of white enamelling is as follows : First coat on. new wood Alabastine, 2 measures ; water, 1 measure. Brush out well and lay off across grain. Second coat Add another measure of water to the above proportions, finish with the grain. Let dry and rub down with fine glass paper and cork. Third coat Raw linseed oil, driers, a very little white lead or zinc white, and -J turps. Fourth coat White enamel. Fifth, if desired Ditto. The alabastine holds up the gloss of the enamel, and the process is very rapid, as the whole can be done in two days. Solvent Removers. A new class of solvents prepared from benzine and similar spirits has recently been invented. Of this class Pyrol, Verdalene, and Pintoff are the leading makes. They have the immense advantage of leaving the work ready for painting again without any washing down or wetting, are easy of application and rapid in effect. The greatest objection to them is their strong odour,which pene- trates into every part of the house in which they are being used. They are also very inflammable, and require careful handling. Pyrol was the first of these solvents on the market, and the patent, which is of great value, is nowbeing tested in the law courts. Note to p. 156. A special filling composition has recently been gaining wide favour, known as Harland's enamel filling. It is in the form of a stiff paste, and a special thinning is supplied as a diluent. Under severe weather tests it has been proved a most durable filling, not given to cracking or peeling, and holding most tenaciously to the wood, iron, or other ground on which it is put. It may be spread stiffly with a trowel or broad knife, or it may be brushed on more thinly. It can also be mixed with dry white lead to make a hard and impervious " stopping." The base appears to be a finely ground hard slate or granite, and the thinning a special varnish diluted in correct proportion with oil of tur- pentine. Two coats may be applied at four hours interval, if necessary, but a safer plan is to coat morning and night. This filling cuts down specially well with natural pumice stone of a soft character, leaving a good ground for priming. It can be used either prior to or after painting. For front doors or shop fronts in exposed sunny positions, if the work is first coated with the tilling two or three coats, and then rubbed down and finished in the usual way, cracking or blis- tering are said to be impossible. A panel exposed to the sun and heat from May to December presented a perfect surface. 173 CHAPTER XL increasing use of hard woods and of closelygrainedsoft woods of fine marking and texture, such as cypress, sequoia, kauri, Canadian redwood, jarrah, and others, has rendered a know- ledge of staining of considerably increased utility to the painter. Indeed, unless he is content to pass a large proportion of his legitimate work over to the cabinet-maker and French polisher, it is absolutely necessary that he make himself acquainted with the art and craft of colouring and finishing woods in their natural grain. These woods when naturally finished have a superior effect to merely painted work. Formerly the only wood which was left to the staining of the house-painter was pine or deal, and the staining was invariably the mere imitation in colour of a more expensive wood. All other staining was done by French polishers. It is now quite customary to colour woods by stain- ing to any and every hue 174 PAINTING AND DECORATING. The Artistic Limitation of Staining. Staining may be defined as coating with a colouring matter which changes the hue without obscuring the grain or texture. It is accomplished either by the use of transparent colours or chemical action, or both. When, as is generally the case, it is applied to wood- wook, the colouring is, or should be, limited in range to such colours as are common to woods, or are suggestive of wood. Artistic instinct revolts against the fashion now in vogue among some classes, of staining woods in crude greens and steely greys, mauves, and peacock blues. These colours do not impart that structural solidity or importance to wood-work that is natural and proper. It is not at all necessary that the colour used should be the actual colour of any particular wood, as long as it is not so far removed from a woody colour as to be altogether unlike wood. Thus a bright red or an olive green, are not colours which we find reproduced in any actual wood, but they are so nearly allied to wood colours that they do not do violence to one's sense of propriety. Classes of Staining. Staining may be roughly divided into at least four classes Water staining, oil staining, spirit staining, and varnish staining. In addition to these, staining is used decora- tively to produce various ornamental effects. French polishers have a few other names for certain processes which are worthy of note viz., chemical staining, water coating, improving, in- graining, mottle staining, overgraining, &c. These devices are, however, seldom used by painters, but might be usefully em- ployed with more frequency. Water Staining is the application of aqueous coloured solutions obtained from colouring substances soluble in water and having no body in them, as walnut juice, logwood extract, gamboge, turmeric, indigo, the juice of berries and bark of trees, and some pigments having little or no body, as Prussian blue, burnt and raw Sienna, Vandyke brown, and alkaline dyes. Chemical Staining is the use of aqueous solutions not in themselves having colour, but which change the colour of the woods to which they are applied, as soda, lime, potash, ammonia, various sulphates and salts. Water Coating is the use of body colours ground in water, as ochre, Umber, Venetian red, chrome, drop black, &c. It is in reality a form of distempering, differing, however, in the fact that it is not all left upon the wood to dry. Size is added to bind the colour, as in distempering. This process, of course, hides the natural grain of the wood somewhat, and disguises its shortcomings and defects. STAINING. 175 Oil Staining is, as its name implies, the use of oil colours of a more or less transparent nature, as the Siennas, Vandyke brown, Prussian blue and brown, and the aniline and cochineal lakes. Varnish Staining consists in the use of varnish with the oil stains described in the last paragraph. The varnish is added to stop absorption, and prepare the work for varnishing or surface polishing. Spirit Staining is akin to oil staining, but certain aniline and other dyes are more tractable and more easily miscible in spirit than in oil or water mediums, and are consequently used in this form. Improving is a term used to denote a mere brightening of the actual colour of the wood, without changing its hue. It may be accomplished by either or any of the staining processes used singly or in combination. Natural Graining is the adding to the wood more markings, in order that plain pieces may be made fuller of interest and richer in grain. It does not imply a change in the kind of wood. All the processes used in ordinary graining, as mottling, pencilling, and overgraining, are resorted to in this operation. Wax Stains. Oak and other hard woods are often wax stained and polished by hand. Wax stains are made from a mixture of beeswax and turpentine, and oil colours, such as Vandyke brown, burnt Sienna, &c. They are applied freely when warm, and when well soaked in and hardened, say in twelve hours, a fine dull eggshell polish is produced by briskly rubbing with a hard shoe brush, or a roughish piece of jute canvas. Comparative Utility of Stains. Spirit stains evaporate so quickly, as to require great expertness in handling in order to avoid patchiness and unequal depth. Varnish stains are only useful where economy is of more importance than durability, and when a high finish is not requisite. A comparison between the different classes of stain shows that the most durable stain is an oil stain. This has a protective as well as a decorative value, and the oil, by reason of its slowness in drying, penetrates very deeply into the pores of the wood. Water stains are likely to raise the grain in the wood, and roughen its surface. They enhance the appearance of the grain if it be good, as the resinous parts resist the action of the water, and remain in strong contrast with the softer and spongy portions. They dry quickly and are inexpensive. Polishing or varnishing can be done upon all the different classes of stain. The processes are dealt with under the head of Varnishing. 176 PAINTING AND DECORATING. The great desiderata in staining are clarity, evenness, and depth. Application of Stains. Large brushes should be used, and the work saturated and brushed in, so that the wood takes as deep a colour as the colour of stain used will make it. It is always better to err on the light side in making up the stain, as the work can always be gone over again to deepen it further. It is difficult to evenly manipulate a very deep stain on white wood in one coat. A flat duster or a softener may be used to remove brush marks and keep the stain even. It will sometimes be necessary to stain wood in such a way as to subdue or partially hide the natural markings. This can be well done by the use of oil stains, and stippling, or flogging it while fully wet, and before it has entirely soaked in. Water staining upon new wood-work should be done upon the unprepared wood as it has left the plane, and without glass papering. It will require sizing prior to varnishing, if the varnishing is to be limited to one or two coats ; but the work will be more durable if the sizing be omitted, and a further coat of varnish given instead. Resinous woods, such as pitch pine, should be oil stained, or varnish or spirit stained, and not sized before varnishing. In varnishing woods in their natural colour, sizing may be used either before or after the first coat of varnish, to assist in stopping the absorption, or a coat of thin knotting may be used first instead of the size. Varnish only is, however, the best for transparency and durability. This will necessitate at least three, generally four, coats of varnish. Cheap and fairly good finish may be secured by twice sizing and once varnishing. Staining Floors. When staining floors they must first be thoroughly cleansed. After washing in the ordinary way, dilute oxalic acid may be used to remove stains of ink or iron rust, &c. Floors should always be oil or beeswax stained, so that the stain penetrates well into the wood . Oil stained floors can be varnished, but beeswax stain must be polished with beeswax and turpentine and a stiff, short shoe brush a somewhat laborious and costly process for the housekeeper. It is necessary that whatever is used, the wood should be thoroughly well saturated. Sizing and knotting preparatory to staining is not to be recommended, as, if this is used, the stain will chip off and tread up white and shabby-looking in a short time. It is possible to add to the prominence of the grain of wood by staining. This can be done by using water stain hot, or by oil stain made much deeper than the work is to appear when STAINING. 177 finished. In either case the stain should be laid on freely and allowed to thoroughly soak in. In the case of oil stain it may be allowed a quarter of an hour to penetrate, and the superfluous stain may then be wiped off with rags. Oiling Woods. Linseed oil is applied to wood before polish- ing or varnishing or without any after operation, to bring out the lustre, colour, and beauty of the grain. Boiled oil should be used for this purpose, and it should be of good quality ; a little terebine must be added to assist the drying. Before staining wood-work, go over the end grain and sappy portions with a coat of thin knotting so as to reduce the absorbency of these parts. If this is not done they will come out black against the other portions of the work. It is necessary to bear in mind that all woods have a tendency to deepen in colour when exposed to the atmosphere. This is extremely noticeable in pine, which rapidly darkens. The staining should therefore be lighter and brighter than you wish the work to appear when permanently toned with age. Allow- ance should also be made for subsequent varnishing and polish- ing. It is also the nature of all oils and varnishes to deepen and become discoloured with age in a greater degree than the natural wood will do. When oil or varnish stains are used upon wood, without the intervention of size or shellac, this tendency will be mutually assisted, and the darkening or ageing goes on at an increased speed. Woods containing a large quantity of oil or resinous matter deepen more quickly than dry light woods. List of Stains. The following list of stains may be used for the classes of staining indicated : Water Staining. Stephens' or Mander's prepared stains. Vandyke brown in water. Raw and burnt Sienna in water. Raw and burnt Umber in water. Indigo in water. Blue black in water. Mahogany lake in water. Alkaline dyes (not to be used with aniline dyes). Aniline dyes (not to be used with alkaline dyes). Yellow lake in water. Terra vert in water. Gamboge in water. And other transparent or partially transparent pigments. Oil Staining. All the pigments named above, and others that are trans- 12 178 PAINTING AND DECORATING. parent but ground in linseed oil and with a little liquid driers, Japanners' black (best) thinned with turpentine; bitumen or asphaltum thinned with turpentine. Spirit Stains. Boiled and macerated solutions of the various dyewoods and dyestuffs as logwood, Sanders wood, Brazilian redwood, ani- line powders, dragon's blood, turmeric, arsenate of copper, saffron, indigo, and others ; also various berries, cochineal, &c. Chemical Staining. Alkaline manganates, permanganate of potash and Epsom salts, liquid ammonia, carbonate of soda, bichromate of potash, acetic acid, and other substances. Water Coating. Ochres, Umbers, Venetian red, lamp black, rose pink, all in size. The following stains and dyes, &c., are recommended for the special purposes named : To deepen the natural colour of oak, mahogany, and other woods. 1 oz. Bichromate of potash. 1 oz. Carbonate of soda. 1 quart boiling water. Apply with a large sponge, as this mixture destroys brushes. To deepen oak. Stand the article in a room, in which place open saucers of liquid ammonia and seal up all the crevices, so that the fumes do not escape. Or, coat the article with a saturated solution of ammonia diluted with water. Walnut stain. 1 oz. Epsom salts, 1 oz. permanganate of potash dissolved separately in 1 pint each of boiling water, and mixed together and applied hot with a fibre (not bristle) brush or a sponge. Mahogany stain. Spirits of wine, 4 oz., dragon's blood, 1 oz. Dissolve and thin with methylated spirit to required depth. Rosewood stain. A decoction of logwood and red Sanders wood in naphtha, is boiled to extract the stain. Green stains. Yellow arsenic and indigo, or indigo and turmeric dissolved in water or spirit. Yellows and yellow browns. Strong decoctions of tea, coffee, saffron, turmeric, or aloes. These may be intermixed. STAINING. 179 Reds. Decoctions of cochineal, Brazil chips, logwood, or archil. These may be mixed with the above yellows. Grey and brown. Decoctions of vinegar in which a few scraps of iron have been placed. Black. Lamp black or gas soot ; the latter is a jet black (collect it upon an iron plate). Greens. Wood, indigo, verdigris, or vitriol added to the above yellows or reds. Blues. The above four are used in green stains- Water coatings to produce all prepared in size Mahogany. Venetian red and ochre and mahogany lake. Rosewood. Mahogany lake, rose pink, and lamp black. Oak. Burnt Umber and ochre. Ebony. Irony black. Satin wood or maple. Yellow ochre and chrome. Walnut. Burnt Umber and Venetian red* Apply these while the size is in solution, and wipe down with a dusting brush, leaving streaky marks: size and varnish. This process is useful for temporary office work or cheap furniture. Ornamental Staining. Many decorative effects are obtained by the skilful use of staining, and the following processes may be briefly recapitulated here : Effects much resembling inlay or intarsia work may be obtained in several ways, all differing in detail and appearance. A pattern may be cut out of lining paper and gummed or pasted to the panel, care being taken not to soil any other portion than that covered by the paper. The paper should be well sized before the pattern is cut out of it. When the paste has dried, the panel may be oil stained, the paper protecting those portions of the wood that it covers. When the oil stain is dry, a little soaking with water will detach the paper, leaving a clean wood pattern on a stained ground. The paste or gum prevents the oil stain from running underneath the paper. Patterns may be stencilled in knotting or spirit varnish upon a panel ; the portion thus stencilled upon will resist water stain, which may be applied to the remainder of the panel, resulting in a pattern of clear wood upon a stained ground as before. Colour may be mixed with the knotting or varnish and a poly- chromatic effect produced in the same way. A stencil may be put upon the bare wood in deep rich varnish stains blended by stencilling, and the whole panel afterwards stained with a sponge and water stain to the required depth. A stencil may be put upon the bare wood in solid body colour, or in gold or 180 PAINTING AND DECORATING. silver, the panel being first clear sized, or not, as the worker prefers. When this is dry the panel may be stained all over with various stains in water, and the superfluous stains wiped off with a leather, leaving the gold or other surface clear and clean. A panel may be sized twice with clear size and decorated in any desired manner upon the clear wood ground, the wood being allowed to show through the painting. When the painting is dry the panel may be washed, removing the size with warm water, and then stained to any depth, the stain allowed to penetrate, and then the superfluous stain wiped off clean, leaving the painting clear and effective. Another method of decorating in stain is to pounce the design upon the bare wood, and outline the pattern with fine brown or black lines, then stain between the lines with oil, spirit, or water stains, and finally, varnish. The brown lines will keep the stains from impinging on each other. If light lines are desired the panel will require first sizing twice, then outlining in Bruns- wick black, then washing to remove the size, next staining in water stains, and, finally, the Brunswick black must be removed by a free use of turpentine. Several different depths of stain may be obtained upon one panel by commencing with the bare wood and using water stains. Stain with the lightest stain required first, all over the panel. Then coat the portions which are intended to remain in that depth with thick white hard varnish, and again stain the panel over with the next deeper stain; when this is dry cover the parts that are to remain this depth with the varnish and allow it to dry ; then stain all over again with the next depth of stain, and again varnish the parts that you desire to be finished in that depth ; and so on, till the whole of the stains are in. Finally, remove the varnish by applying methylated spirit and a sponge, which will not affect the stain, and polish or varnish in the ordinary way. Another method of procedure that may be adopted is to size and varnish the panel, and then coat any parts that you wish to remain uncoloured, with Brunswick black. Then stain the panel over with a water colour stain, which will not penetrate; allow it to dry and remove the Brunswick with turpentine, leav- ing the water colour uninjured. This is one of the best methods of obtaining clear, sharp lines of light stain upon a deep ground. Gilding may be done upon the bare wood and afterwards the wood-work way be stained (of course it is assumed that the wood is sized before gilding in the ordinary manner, first with glue size, and afterwards with oil gold size). The glue size must be STAINING. 181 washed off with warm water after gilding is done, and then the panel can be stained all over. These ideas can be extended, elaborated, and used in con- junction with advantage ; their scope being only limited by the invention and resource of the decorator. White wood and pine is an admirable ground for flower and decorative painting. Aniline powder colours ground in egg white to the consistency of tube colours, and used in the same manner as tube colours, have the compound property of colouring the work, staying where they are put without spreading, and stopping the suction. They have a soft and velvety effect, and the wood can be stained or varnished over after they are stopped out with a coat of egg size, or spirit varnish, and wiped off cleanly from the painting with a clean soft rag. Decorative effects upon plaster can be produced by the use of stain. The plaster ground must not be too hard or impervious nor too highly trowelled. Oil and spirit stains are the best for this class of work. Decorative effects on stains should be somewhat conventional in design, as the grain of the wood showing through the stain, while adding beauty to the texture, and imparting luminosity to the work, makes any attempt at naturalistic painting unsuit- able to the material and to the method. Flowers, fruit, figures, and ornament can be painted in body oil colours upon stained wood grounds, obscuring the grain, with perfect good taste and a good effect. Patterns which have the effect of inlay are admissible, but good judgment is not consistent with any attempts to imitate inlay, rnarqueterie, or intarsia work, especially as when freed from the trammels and limitations that surround the practice of these arts, much greater scope is afforded the designer. Stained ornament upon natural woods is so beautiful in itself that it is quite superfluous to attempt to make it appear other than it is by taking advantage of its superficial resemblance to inlay. The aim of the decorator should rather be directed to taking full ad- vantage of the freedom possessed by the brush as contrasted with the saw, and of the ease and cheapness of the manipulation when compared to that of inlaying. The sketches distributed through this chapter are suggestive of the class of design best suited to the method, and are indica- tive of the direction that the work should take. Matsine. A notable addition to the available staining sub- stances is the range of transparent colours sold under the proprietary name of " Matsine." 182 PAINTING AND DECORATING. This material is a preparation of very transparent pigments gound in spirit with a certain amount of fixative. It gives an extremely clear dye-like stain, adds to the life of the wood, wipes clear off the hard grain, and sinks into the soft parts deeply. It is ready for immediate use when thinned with turpentine, and leaves a satisfactory finish much akin to wax-polish without further treatment, or may be varnished in the usual manner without sizing. Matsine stains are useful for tinting, or can be used for trans- parency painting. They are the best medium for tapestry painting. Wood Fillers. A new material that is now much used is wood filler a substance for stopping the pores and forming a base for polish or varnish. Blume's liquid filler, with stains specially made to follow it, is one of the most satisfactory. Naphthaline Stains. These are coining into favour for cheap work. They have great penetrative power, dry rapidly, and combine well with pine woods. A rich brown when used full strength, they can be modified by adding ordinary oil stainers. Cracks in Stained Floors. After numerous trials, a new " crack filler " has been devised by an American manufacturer. Johnson's crack filler will not chip away or kick up, and takes the stain, especially their own wax stains, admirably. No other substance has quite the same properties, as it comes between putty and alabastine in character. 183 CHAPTER XH. ARNISH is a material of transparent or semi-transparent appearance, and is used either as a protective or preserva- tive agent, or as a means of obtaining a high finish. Varnishes are sometimes coloured by reason of their composition, as in black varnish or Japan ; or by the addition of dyestuflfs, as in lacquers. Japans and enamels are admixtures of varnish and colouring matter, sometimes in a transparent and sometimes in an opaque form. Classes of Varnish. There are water varnishes, as gum Arabic or isinglass dissolved in water. Spirit varnishes, viz. : Gums or resins dissolved in spirits, as patent knotting, or white hard varnish, French polish, &c. Oil varnishes, viz.: Gums and resins dissolved in oils, as mastic varnish, copal oak varnish, Work LAFAR,Technical Mycology - - - 58 LAMBERT, Glue, Gelatine, Ac.,- - - 65 LARARD (C. E.), Eng. Calculations, - 25 LAW (E. F.), Alloys, 49 LAWN (J. G.), Mine Accounts, - - - 42 LEEDS (F. H.), Acetylene, - - - - 61 LIECKFELD. (G.), Oil Motors, - - il LIVERSIDGE, Engine-Room Practice, - 19 MACKENZIE (T.), Mechanics, - - - 35 MACLEOD and WALKER, Met. Chem.. - 51 M'LAREN, (R. S.), Elem. Mech. 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THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ENAMELLING ON IRON AND STEEL. BY JULIUS GRUNWALD, Technical Chemist and Works' Manager. CONTENTS. Introduction. The Raw Materials. The Mixing, Dissolving, and Appli- cation of Enamel. Heating and Pickling Goods in the Rough. Correct laying on. Baking Enamelled Ware. Decoration of Enamelled Objects. Photo-Ceramics in their Application to Enamels. General and Statistical Chapter. The History of Enamels and their Uses. INDEX. " Combines the theory and practice of enamelling in a most effective manner." Iron and Sttel Trades' Journal. In Large Svo. Handsome Cloth. With Plates and Illustrations. 75. 6d. net. THE MANUFACTURE OF INK, Handbook of the Production and Properties of Printing, Writing, and Copying Inks. BY C. A. MITCHELL, B.A., F.I.C., F.C.S., & T. C. HEPWORTH. "Thoroughly well arranged . . . and of a genuinely practical order." British Printer. ^LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. GHARLKS GRIFFIN cfc CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 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Introductory THE COMPOSITION, MANUFACTURE,. ASSAY, and ANALYSIS of PIGMENTS, White, Red, Yellow and Orange, Green, Blue, Brown, and Black LAKES Colour and Paint Machinery Paint Vehicles (Oils, Turpentine, &c., &c.) Driers VARNISHES. " A THOROUGHLY PRACTICAL book. . . . Satisfactorily treats of the manufacture of- oils, colours, and pigments. " Chtmical Trades' fou^nai. In Crown Svo. Handsome Cloth. With Illustrations. 53. THE PAINTER'S LABORATORY GUIDE. A Student's Handbook of Paints, Colours, and Varnishes. BY GEORGE H. HURST, F.C.S. " This excellent handbook, . . . the model of what a handbook should be." Oils- Colours, and Drysalteries. THIRD EDITION, Revised. In Crown Svo. extra. With Numerous Illustra- tions and Plates (some in Colours), including Original Designs. 12s. 6d. Painting and Decorating: A. Complete Practical .Manual for House Painters and Decorators. BY WALTER JOHN PEARCE, LKCTCBER AT THKUANCSKSTKR TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR HOnSK-PAINTIMO AND DKCORATIHO. 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Raw Material and its Preparation. Vulcanisation. Rubber Mixings. Manufacture of Soft Rubber Goods. Manufacture of Hard Rubber Goods. Regeneration of Waste Rubber. Specific Gravity of Rubber Goods. INDEX. "Can be recommended as a very practical and useful work." Nature. In Large Crown 8vo. Fully Illustrated. 53. net. GLUE, GELATINE, AND THEIR ALLIED PRODUCTS, A Practical Handbook for the Manufacturer, Agriculturist, and Student of Technology. BY THOMAS LAMBERT, Analytical and Technical Chemist. CONTENTS. Historical. GLUE. GELATINE. Size and Isinglass. Treatment of Efflu- ents produced in Glue and Gelatine Making. Liquid and other Glues, Cements, &c. Uses of Glue and Gelatine. Residual Products. Analysis of Raw and Finished Products. APPENDIX. INDEX. "A sufficient account of modern methods of working, chiefly from a practical standpoint. -A book . . . of real value.'' Chemical News. In Large 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 155. net. LEATMEFt TRADES' CHEMISTRY. 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SECOND EDITION, Thoroughly Revised Throughout. In Two Large Volumes. Handsome Cloth. 45. A MANUAL OF DYEING: FOR THE USE OF PRACTICAL DYERS, MANUFACTURERS, STUDENTS, AND ALL INTERESTED IN THE ART OF DYEING. BY E. KNECHT, Ph.D., F.I.C., CHR. RAWSON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Hwd of the Chemistry and Dyeing Department of LU Head of the Chemistry and Dyeing Department the Technical School, Manchester; Editor of " The of the Technical College, Bradford ; Member 1 of the Society of Dyers and ColourUU ; " Council of the Society of Dyen and Colour!**; And RICHARD LOEWENTHAL, Ph.D. GENERAL CONTENTS. Chemical Technology of the Textile Fabrics- Water Washing and Bleaching Acids, Alkalies, Mordants Natural Colouring Matters Artificial Organic Colouring Matters Mineral Colour* Machinery used in Dyeing Tinctorial Properties of Colouring Matters Analysis and Valuation of Materials used in Dyeing, &c., &c. " This authoritative and exhaustive work . . . the MOST COUPLBTK we have yet seen. on the subject." 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Dr. STEWART'S ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF PHYSICS was designed as an introduction to the following :- A TEXT-BOOK OF PHYSICS. By J. H. POYNTING, Sc.D., P.B.S., Professor of Physics, Birmingham University, And Sir J. J. THOMSON, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. In Five Volumes. Large 8vo. Sold Separately. INTRODUCTORY VOLUME. FIFTH EDITION, Eevised. Fully Illustrated 10s. 6d. PROPERTIES CXF MATTER. CONTENTS. Gravitation. The Acceleration of Gravity. Elasticity. Stresses and Strains. Torsion-Bending of Rods.-Spiral Springs ._ Collision. Compressibility of Liquids. Pressures and Volumes of Oases. Thermal Effects Accompanying Strain. Capillarity. Surface Tension. Laplace's Theory of Capillarity. Diffusion of Liquids Diffusion of Gases. -Viscosity of Liquids. -!NDBX. "We regard this book as quite indispensable not merely to teachers but to physicists of everr grade above the lowest." University Correspondent. VOLUME II. FIFTH EDITION. Fully Illustrated. Price SB. 6d. SOUND. CONTENTS. The Nature of Sound aiid its chief Characteristics. The Velocity of Sound In Air and other Media. Reflection and fiafraction of Sound. Frequency and Pitch of Notes. -Resonance and Forced Oscillations. Analysis of Vibrations. The Transverse Vibrations of Stretched Strings or Wires Pipes and other Air Cavities. Rods. Plates. Membranes. Vibrations maintained by Heat. Sensitive Flames and Jets. Musical Sand. The Superposition of Waves. INDKX. " The work . . . may be recommended to anyone desirous of possessing an BAST UP-TO-DATE STANDARD TREATISE on Acoustics." Literature. VOLUME III. FOURTH EDITION, Revised. Fully Illustrated. Price 15s. HEAT. CONTENTS. Temperature. Expansion of Solids. Liquids. Gases. Circulation and Convection. Quantity of Heat; Specific Heat. Conductivity. Forms of Energy; Conservation ; Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. The Kinetic Theory Change of State ; Liquid, Vapour. Critical Points. Solids and Liquids. Atmospheric Conditions. Radiation. Theory of Exchanges. Radiation and Temperature. Thermodynamics. Isothermal and Adiabatic Changes. Thermodynamics of Changes of State, and Solu- tions. Thermodynamics of Radiation. INDEX. "Well up-to-date, and extremely clear and exact throughout. ... As clear as- it would be possible to make such a text-book "Nature. Remaining Volumes in Preparation LIGHT; MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. 74 CHARLES GRIFFIN fc CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. In Crown 8vo. With Diagrams. Cloth. 10s. 6d. net. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY OF STATISTICS. BY G. UDNY YULE, Honorary Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society of London,