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 THIRD EDITION, Revised and Enlarged.
 
 All Rights Reserved. 
 19O7.
 
 ir )) ^ 
 
 THE Manual now laid before the public has been made 
 possible by the sifting and arrangement of many years' 
 notes of all that has appeared worthy of record, in processes, 
 combinations, and practices connected with the trade 
 coming under my notice during practical work. For the 
 past twelve years I have tested all recipes and methods in 
 a room set apart for the purpose, with the ultimate object 
 of collating them in a form for publication. The need of a 
 comprehensive manual for technological classes in house 
 painting and decorating has provided the opportunity for 
 carrying out my intention, and I now, for the first time, 
 issue the whole in a concise and orderly form for refer- 
 ence. 
 
 The chapters follow the sequence, and cover the ground 
 adopted by me in lectures given to the students at the 
 Manchester Technical School for House painting and 
 Decorating; and, feeling that the possession of a very 
 advanced education should not be necessary to the under- 
 Standing of such a work, I have endeavoured to convey the
 
 matter in as simple and direct a form as is consistent with 
 the subjects treated of. 
 
 The scope of the volume being limited to elementary 
 facts, the underlying chemical and scientific reasons for 
 methods and processes have only been dealt with where 
 they immediately concern the working painter and decor- 
 ator. Colour and ornament have been lightly touched 
 upon in a practical and popular manner where unavoid- 
 ably intermixed with the practice of the craft, but the 
 principles laid down are based upon a wide experience. 
 
 For additional information upon materials, I refer the 
 student to Hurst's Painters' Colours, Oils, and Varnishes. 
 Graining, sign writing, marbling, and paperhanging have 
 only been touched upon in so far as principles are con- 
 cerned ; the space at disposal preventing a more lengthy 
 treatment. I have felt it necessary to devote more space 
 to such subjects as have hitherto been but superficially 
 handled e.g., plain painting, colour mixing, distemper- 
 ing, and the technique of decorating. 
 
 I have written as a painter to painters, and if the infor- 
 mation is sometimes dogmatic in form, I believe it to 
 be reliable in substance. I shall be at all times pleased 
 to receive additional facts, corrections, or notes for the 
 benefit of future editions. 
 
 The illustrations, initials, and head and tail pieces are 
 intended, not as ideal designs, but as explanatory of the 
 text and of the application of the principles advocated in 
 the book, for which purpose they have been specially 
 drawn.
 
 PREFACE. vii 
 
 I am indebted to Messrs. Hamilton & Co. for illustra- 
 tions of brushes and samples, and to Messrs. Mander Bros., 
 Messrs. Harland & Co., Messrs. Reeves & Sons, Messrs. 
 Lewis Berger & Sons, Messrs. Wilkinson, Hey wood & Clark, 
 The Silicate Paint Company, and many others for assist- 
 ance, both directly and indirectly most of the materials 
 recently used for testing and experiment having been 
 presented by these firms to the technical class which 
 
 I conduct. 
 
 WALTER JOHN PEARCE.
 
 PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. 
 
 THE present edition of this book will be found to contain much 
 new matter and mention of many new materials and processes. 
 
 An exhaustive correspondence with manufacturers and care- 
 fully conducted experimental tests have enabled me to sift and 
 reduce the new matter to the smallest and most readily accessible 
 proportions. 
 
 I take this opportunity of thanking many of the foremost 
 firms for keeping me supplied with samples of their latest 
 productions, which are at all times welcomed. It is not possible 
 to speak authoritatively upon paints and varnishes without 
 ample opportunity of keeping them under lengthened obser- 
 vation and putting them to practical tests of long duration, 
 which, in the interests of the students for whom this book is 
 primarily intended, I am always ready to do. Many materials 
 are not dealt with at length because no such opportunity has 
 been afforded. 
 
 The rapidity with which certain new materials and ideas have 
 become common to the whole trade during the past few years, 
 due in a measure to demands created by change of fashion and 
 taste, is most remarkable, and indicates further revolutionary 
 changes in trade practices. 
 
 The coloured plates have been re-drawn, and many minor 
 alterations made in the diagrams. 
 
 WALTER J. PEAKCE. 
 
 RESTHAVBN, 29 LANSDOWNB ROAD, 
 WEST DIDSBDKY, LANDS.
 
 GENEKAL CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 INTRODUCTION, ... 1-4 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 The Principal Reasons for Painting General Special Practical 
 Application Economy in Working Cleanliness in Work- 
 ingTrade and Health Causes of Bad Health among 
 Painter? Clients' Requirements, 5-12 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 WORKSHOP AND STORES. 
 
 Efficient Premises a Necessity THE PAINT SHOP Position 
 Lighting Must be Dry Water Heating Arrangements 
 Ceiling Colouring Fittings and Furniture Colours, Driers, 
 Oils, &c., required on Paint Bench Drawers to Paint Bench 
 for Tools Palette Knives for Paint Stone To Clean Paint 
 Stone Brush Trays Brush Washer or Smutch-Can Zinc 
 Covering for Paint Bench Ready-made Colours Large 
 Kegs Drawers for Powder Colours Weighing Machine and 
 Scales Rough Day-BookOil Tanks Whiting and Plaster 
 Bins " Pickle " Cask Smudge Keg Flour Barrel 
 Shelves Cupboard Pigeon Holes Paint Mill THE PAINT- 
 ING-ROOM Wall for Large Cartoons, &c. Benches and
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Drawers Reference Book's Gas Portable Benches Paint 
 Stone Muller and Knives Sign- Writers' Easels Entrance 
 Way s Shelves Heating Stores Fittings Use Return 
 of Empty Packages Storing of Parts of Cases Putting up 
 Material for a Job Despatch of Material for a Job MANAGE- 
 MENT OF PAINT SHOP Waste Returned Residuum Paint- 
 Fat Colour and Smudge Salvage of Fat Colour and Smudge 
 Thinnings for Smudge Prevention of Skinning and Har- 
 dening of Stock Colours White Lead Conservation of Tube 
 Colours Stock Articles Enumerated Purchase of Stock, . 13-30 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 Ladders Selection Mode of Using Ladder Brackets Scaffold 
 Poles Planks Scaffold Construction Trestles Steps 
 Cords Window Brackets Cradles Pulley Blocks Paste 
 Boards Paint Bench Trestles Dust Sheets To Protect 
 Stone Floors, Tiles, &c. Testing Scaffolding Marking and 
 Repainting Plant Cartage Storage of Scaffolding Iron 
 Rods and Tube for Scaffolding Small Articles Buckets- 
 Cans or Kettles Pots or Pans Small Pots, &c. Stock 
 Drums or Kegs Mixing Boards Burning-off Lamps Char- 
 coal Burners Strainers Plant Book Rough Entry or Day 
 Book for Paint Shop Quantity of Plant required on Jobs, . 3148 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF BRUSHES, TOOLS, &c. 
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 
 
 Hog-hair Various Hair used in Brushes Foreign Brushes 
 French Brushes Methods of Fixing Hair Selection Test 
 of Good Brushes Distemper Brushes The Best Distemper 
 Brushes Sizes Wash-off, Caustic, and Lime-white Brushes 
 Painters' Dusters Paint or Ground Brushes Patent 
 Ready-made Brush Bridles How to Bridle a Brush Varnish 
 Brushes Sash Tools Stipplers Paperhangers" Brushes
 
 CONTENTS. XI 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Fitches Softeners Stencil Tools Sable Writers Brushes 
 Found by the Employer The Purchase of Brushes True 
 Economy in Brush Buying Storage of Brushes, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 PIGMENTS White Lead Tests Zinc White Other White- 
 Ochres Umbers Browns Chromes Dutch Pink Artists' 
 Yellows Reds Blues Smalts Greens Blacks Consis- 
 tency of Colours Ground in Oil Commixture of Pigments 
 Derivation of Pigments Adulterations of Pigments Test for 
 Staining Power in Pigments Twelve Colours for Oil Colour 
 Box Whiting Coach Painters' Colours Ready Mixed Pig- 
 ments DRIERS Drying Agents for Paint Liquid Driers 
 and Terebine Powder Driers French Powder Driers 
 PAINTERS' OILS Turpentine Linseed Oil Size Glue- 
 Mediums and Binders Washable Distempers Plasters and 
 Stoppings Glass Paper and Smoothing Materials Import- 
 ance of Good Pigments Comparative Prices of Materials, . 70-92 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PAPER AND OTHER HANGINGS. 
 WALL HANGINGS. 
 
 Wall Papers Qualities Varieties Dimensions Comparison 
 between Wall Paper and Painting Selection of Wall Papers 
 Hints on Choice of Wall Papers for Special Purposes- 
 Relievo Wall Hangings Lincrusta Walton Fibrous Plaster 
 Sheet Metal Friezes Jute Canvas for Wall Hangings, . 93-100 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 HANGING PAPER. 
 
 Tools Preparation of Walls Measuring for Papers Paste- 
 Edging Papers Hanging Pasting Matching Lining
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Papers Papering Ceilings Lining Cracked Ceilings Panel- 
 ling and Borders Removal of Fittings Hanging Relief 
 Materials Glue Paste Paste for Anaglypta, . . . 101-114 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 COLOUR MIXING-. 
 
 Mixing Clairecolle Mixing Distemper Mixing Paint Effects of 
 Oils and Turps in Mixing Paint Drying Action of Paints 
 Action of Raw Oil versus Boiled Oil Protective Agency in 
 Paint General Hints on Paint Mixing Colours Recom- 
 mended for Tinting and Staining Paints Opaque and 
 Transparent Pigments Matching Colour in Paint Important 
 Rules for Matching Colours Mixed Tints and Colours 
 Quantity of Paint to Cover given Area Stopping Complete 
 List of Distemper Stainers Media for Decorative Painting in 
 Distemper, 115-133 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 DISTEMPERING. 
 
 DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 
 
 Advantages Objections Mixing Distemper Surfaces for Dis- 
 temper Colour Limit of Distemper Durability of Distemper 
 Cleaning Distemper Work Whitening Ceilings and Walls 
 Washing off Old Distemper Stippling Distemper American 
 Distemper Painting Plaster prior to Distempering Damp 
 Walls Duresco and Distemper, 134-144 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 ON PLAIN PAINTING. 
 
 Definition Object Qualifications of Paint Painting on New 
 Plaster First Coat on New Plaster Second Coat Third 
 Coat Flatting Painting on Stucco and Cement Walls
 
 CONTENTS. XH1 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Painting on Stone Re-painting Painted Walls Painting 
 New Wood-work Stopping Filling up Re-painting Old 
 Wood-work Burning off Old Paint General Hints on 
 Painting Wood- work General Notes on Painting Spreading 
 and Consistency of Paint Sequence of Coats in Painting 
 Knotting on Work Prior to Painting Sizing on Painted 
 Work Technical Terms Descriptive of Paint Washing 
 Down Prior to Re-painting Knots Rubbing Down Tar 
 Spots Painting Round Edges Dusting Fat Edges Hints 
 on Flatting Faults in Painting Cracking Blistering 
 Cissing Striking or Flashing Ropiness Ladders Grinning 
 Through in Painting Drying of Paint Time for Outside 
 Painting Effects of Undercoats in Finish Re-touching 
 Rubbing Down Priming Painting Signs, &c. Painting 
 Metal-work Re-painting Old Iron- work Painting Hot 
 Pipes and Boilers, &c. Painting Rough Wood-work Quick 
 Paints Painting Canvas Acid Resisting and Insulating 
 Paints Fire-proof Paints Luminous Paints, . . . 145-172 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 STAINING. 
 
 Woods for Staining The Artistic Limitation of Staining 
 Classes of Staining Water Staining Chemical Staining 
 Water Coating Oil Staining Varnish Staining Spirit 
 Staining Improving Natural Graining Comparative 
 Utility of Stains Application of Stains List of Colours 
 for Water Coating Wood List of Deepening Stains 
 Ornamental Staining, 173-182 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 VARNISH AND VARNISHING-. 
 
 Varnish Classes of Varnish Oil Varnishes Spirit Varnishes 
 Elastic and Hard Varnishes Successive Coats of Varuish 
 Applying Varnish Principal Varnishes in Use Straining
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAtJES 
 
 Varnishes Hints on Varnishing Surfaces for Varnishing 
 Felting Down Varnish Polishing Varnished Work Faults 
 in Varnishing Pinholing and Cissing Pock Marks or Pitting 
 Grittiness Specks Cracking Wrinkles The Use of 
 Enamels Lacquers Testing Varnishes White Polished 
 Enamel, ...... 183-195 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 IMITATIVE PAINTING. 
 
 What is Graining? Limitations to Graining, &c. The Condemna- 
 tion of Graining The Intentions of the Grainer What to 
 Imitate in Graining Positions Suitable for Graining Limits 
 to Imitation Varied Methods of Graining, .... 196-201 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 GRAINING. 
 
 Graining Oak Pollard Oak Mahogany Walnut Pitch Pine- 
 Rosewood Maple Satin Wood Ash Fancy Woods- 
 General Hints, 202-211 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 MARBLING. 
 
 White Marble Sienna Marble Italian Pink Marble Black and 
 Gold Marble Grey Marbles Red Marbles Green Marbles 
 Lapis Lazuli Graniting Devonshire Marble Alabaster 
 St. Anne's Marble 212-215
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Methods of Gilding Old Gold Size Japanners' Gold Size Water 
 Gold Sizes Burnish Gold Size Matt Gold Size Isinglass 
 Gold Size Clear Size for Gold Tools for Laying Gold- 
 Laying Gold Leaf To Prevent Gold Sticking to Ground 
 Burnish and Matt Gilding Glass Gilding Platinum and 
 Silver Laying and Metalling Bronzes Lacquer for Metals 
 Preparing Open Grain Wood and Stone for Gilding, . . 216-228 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 LETTERING AND SIGN- WRITING. 
 
 Shaded Lettering Illegible Type in Lettering Books on Letter- 
 ing Forms of Letters Changed by Environment Rules for 
 Construction of Letters Lettering and Methods of Work 
 Colouring of Lettering Enrichment and Prominence of 
 Letters Setting and Sign- Writing Pounces Painting 
 Letters Hints on Using Sable Pencils Writing on Silk- 
 Glass Embossing Etching Glass General Notes on Sign- 
 Writing, 229-245 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 DECORATION GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 Importance of Colour Position of Ornament Scale in Ornament 
 The Consideration of a Decorative Scheme Laws in 
 Decoration and Ornament, 246-259 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 
 
 Qualities in Distemper for Decoration Sketch Designs Setting 
 
 Out Ornament Stencils and Stencilling Distemper Painting, 260-270 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 PAINTED DECORATION. 
 
 Comparison with Distemper Stencilling in Paint Hand- 
 painted Ornament Contrast of Gloss and Flatting, . . 271-276
 
 ILV1 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 RELIEVO DECORATION. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Relief Materials Gesso and its Treatment Decoration of Relievo 
 
 Materials generally Sgraffito, 277-282 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 COLOUR. 
 
 Colour in Historic Ornament Theory of Colour The Chromatic 
 Circle Classes of Colour Combination Colour Values and 
 Qualities Requirements for the Study of Colour How to 
 decide a Colour Scheme Useful Rules for the Colourist 
 Colour Combinations for Decorators Effects of Artificial 
 Light on Colour, . 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 
 
 Methods of Measuring Work Estimating. 297-299 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 COACH PAINTING. 
 
 Differences between House and Coach Painters' Work Preparation 
 for Coach Painting Filling up Finishing Varnishing 
 Lining and Decorating Ship Painting, 300-305 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 PAINTERS' TECHNICAL CLASSES, . 
 
 INDEX 311
 
 LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATES IN COLOURS. 
 
 Plate I. Polychromatic Colour Scheme, .... Frontispiece 
 
 ,, II. Complementary ,, ,, , . . facing page 56 
 
 ,, III. Monochromatic ,, ,, . . . ,, 140 
 
 IV. Analogous ,, ... ,, 244 
 
 PLATES IN BLACK AND WHITE. 
 
 Plate 1. Decorative panels designed for conventional 
 
 colouring, facing page 6 
 
 2. Decoration of house front above shop, . . ,, 10 
 
 3. Panels designed for naturalistic colour treatment, ,, 12 
 
 4. ,, ,, flat naturalistic colouring, . , 16 
 
 5. ,, ,, flat polychromatic colouring, , 26 
 
 6. Selection of contrast in paper hangings, . ,32 
 
 7. Contrasting arrangement of paperhangings, . , 48 
 
 8. Diagram showing drop pattern, .... ,64 
 
 9. Panel designed for semi-natural colouring, . ,78 
 
 10. Panels suited to stained wood decoration, . ,86 
 10a. Combined wall paper, ,96 
 
 11. Panels designed for monochrome painting, . . , 120 
 
 12. Simple stencils, illustrating importance of contrast, ,, 136 
 
 13. Design complete in itself at all distances from the eye, ,, 154 
 
 14. Outline patterns for staining upon wood, . . ,, 160 
 
 15. Naturalistic patterns for staining in flat colourings, ,, 162 
 
 16. Simple borders for practising brush work, . . ,, 170 
 
 17. ,, ,, . 188 
 
 18. Original treatment of plain alphabet, ... 204 
 
 19. Lower case letters for same, .... 206 
 
 20. Original alphabet, modern, 220 
 
 21. Gothic, ,,236 
 
 22. Letters for glass embossing 252 
 
 23. Degrees of conventionality in floral designs, . 258 
 
 24. Influence of pattern upon colour effects, . 268 
 
 25. Constructive decoration in application, . ,, 284 
 
 26. Borders for one colour stencilling, ... ,, 294 
 
 27. Natural ties in stencil work, .... ,,296 
 
 28. Stencil friezes for blended stencilling, . ,,300 
 
 29. Friezes for polychromatic colouring, ... ,, 302 
 
 30. Patterns stencilled over joints of wall paper, . ,,304
 
 practical operations involved in painting and 
 decorating must be based upon sound theoreti- 
 cal knowledge, otherwise they are invariably 
 unsuccessful. Sound theories, in their turn, 
 must have a basis of definite and clearly 
 understood facts. Hence, the student, when he has 
 acquired theoretical knowledge, must further culti- 
 vate the ability to correctly appreciate the postulates, 
 or existing facts and conditions of each particular 
 field of operation, in order to attain practical success. 
 In other words, like the surgeon, he must first 
 diagnose his case, then apply his theoretical know- 
 ledge to it, and finally, operate. 
 
 In no other realm of mechanical labour is this method 
 more obviously necessary than in painting, because in no 
 other class of work are there more ever- varying conditions. Each 
 particular class of work has its own requirements and sur- 
 roundings, and, beyond this, each individual case will vary 
 materially from the same kind of case elsewhere. 
 
 One of the main factors in the decadence of good craftsmanship 
 in the trade has been the lack of this perception of what is re- 
 qiiisite, and the adoption of a striving for superficial and often 
 unnatural effect, embodied under the phrase "what looks well." 
 The wholesale provision of manufactured decorations, designed and 
 coloured for anywhere in general and nowhere in particular, has 
 fostered this spirit of lazy acceptance, and dwarfed the faculty of 
 critical perception of what is suitable for given positions and uses. 
 Exquisite and well designed as are the decorations supplied by 
 many art manufacturers, even work admitting of so much indi- 
 viduality as do many of the stencilled friezes, becomes hackneyed 
 by repetition. Such decorations as these are frequently out
 
 2 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 of character and out of harmony with the surroundings in which 
 they are placed. The insinuating charm of work possessing in 
 some part individual hand labour makes this class of decoration a 
 dangerous obstruction to improvement in the quality of work 
 designed and executed in situ. It is not enough that the general 
 style and scale of a frieze or a ceiling shall accord with its 
 associated decoration, but the repeats, the angles, and the whole 
 setting out of the ornament ought to be determined upon the spot. 
 
 The habit of working to a ready-made specification, drawn up 
 by persons devoid of a knowledge of the chemical and technical 
 aspects of the craft, has also done much to discourage the practical 
 interest of the craftsman in his operations. This has removed from 
 him any responsibility for technical failures, and set up that de- 
 structive standard of comparison, cheapness, which is another foe 
 to thoroughness and good workmanship. Nothing, on the other 
 hand, is more helpful than an intelligently drawn specification 
 from a man who understands the capabilities and peculiarities 
 of the materials and the craft. Such a specification, in the 
 hands of one who can detect any attempts to go behind it, is in 
 every way conducive to the elevation of the trade. 
 
 In order to arrive at a correct appreciation of the position, and 
 to use theoretical knowledge to the best advantage, the question 
 that first demands settlement is the all-important and common- 
 place one What is the precise object to be attained in the case 
 to be dealt with 1 Success, as has been pointed out, depends 
 upon the shrewdness with which we completely survey the 
 position and sum up the postulates. A man may be a very 
 dictionary of recipes and processes, but unless he commences in 
 this way he will certainly fail as a decorator. The principle which 
 in criticism will be applied to all our work is the question Does 
 it fulfil its primary object? If it fails in this it fails in every- 
 thing, for no amount of technique or elaboration or costly 
 material will compensate for the lack of fitness for purpose. 
 
 First, then, what is the end generally to be attained 1 
 
 A compliance with the hard matter of fact laws of utility 
 is inseparable from good taste and sound craftsmanship. Beauty 
 is so inextricably bound up with fitness, especially in relation 
 to arrangements of form and colour, that we may almost assent 
 to the proposition that in this connection abstract beauty cannot 
 be considered to exist at all. The " beautiful " is determined by 
 more or less fixed rules based upon fitness ; it admits of no 
 excess and no deficit. It must comprehend due proportion and 
 purposeful distribution of parts. Incongruity of association 
 must be absent, the sensation it should give is one of satisfied
 
 INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 complacency and sufficiency and of precise suitability. A feel- 
 ing of extravagance, superabundance, redundancy, or waste 
 destroys this impression. It cannot certainly exist conjointly 
 with any lack of fitness either in material, form, or colour. 
 
 In the division of mechanical work the same rules apply. 
 The excellence of work is in a large measure dependent on its 
 efficiency in fulfilling the purpose for which it was executed. 
 What would be an excellent finish for one class of work would 
 show bad judgment and ignorance if used for some other position. 
 Utilitarian considerations are of relatively greater weight with 
 the average Briton than purely esthetic considerations, and 
 whilst the endeavour of the decorative house painter should 
 always be to cultivate and forward the aesthetic side of his 
 craft, if he can show that the two considerations are really 
 inseparable, he will go far toward persuading the householder 
 to be less chary of spending his money for the purpose of 
 making his home and surroundings well-preserved, tasteful, 
 cleanly, beautiful, and refined. 
 
 The question of colour deserves far more consideration than 
 the average house painter gives to it. When we consider 
 thoughtfully the very large quantity of external painting that is 
 done yearly, and the lamentably tawdry, muddy, or dirty 
 results, and contrast these with what might be done by the 
 same amount of labour and material in the hands of a good 
 colourist working in accord with a common well-defined scheme, 
 we are astounded at the supiueness of those in authority, whose 
 tastes are supposed to be cultivated. We almost pine for compul- 
 sory legislation on the subject. Take, for instance, the west-end of 
 London, where acres, yea miles, of frontage are painted annually, 
 and practically the whole triennially. Just imagine a standard 
 three or four colours made compulsory for outdoor work for a 
 period of five years, and what a different scene the place would 
 present ! Our cities, instead of reflecting the dirt and smoke in 
 the colouring of the walls and roofs, might be cheery and even 
 elevating to the senses. 
 
 Is there some weighty element that makes for the universal 
 sadness and badness] We believe there is, and that it is in 
 great measure due to a total misconception. Ninety per cent, 
 of persons appear to think that the one desideratum in a paint 
 is that it " wont show the dirt." This is quite desirable, but 
 when the desideratum is obtained by using "dirt colour," it 
 evidences a lack of thought and a failure to appreciate the value 
 of colour. In however dirty an atmosphere they may be placed, 
 clean looking tints will look cleaner than the dirty sombre ones ;
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 and under the ordinary deposits of soot and dust, bright colours 
 will have a generally cleaner and brighter appearance than 
 greys and drabs. Yellows, blues, and reds, when bright in hue, 
 will actually be improved and toned by the acccumulation of a 
 normal quantity of dust. These facts should be borne in mind, 
 and no opportunity allowed to pass unimproved when the 
 surroundings of our life may be cheered and brightened by a 
 little of one of God's best gifts to man, " colour."
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 
 
 'OUSE PAINTING is undertaken for 
 three principal reasons : 
 The first is for preservation. 
 The second for cleanliness. 
 The third for beautiftcation. 
 General. These three principal 
 reasons are placed in the above order, 
 because the quality of cleanliness is of 
 greater importance to the community 
 than that of beauty ; and further, be- 
 cause the first necessity provides the 
 reason for the very existence of the 
 craft. In addition to these reasons, the 
 fact is also apparent, that it is not possible to have complete and 
 true beauty if the first two qualities are absent. 
 
 These three principal requirements may be termed the general 
 reasons why house painting as a craft is a necessity of modern
 
 D PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 life. They must be kept fully in view, and given due and 
 relative prominence when determining what is to be done and 
 how we will do it. 
 
 Health and art have been said to be twin sisters, and, in the 
 old English sense, science meant knowing what to do, and art 
 expressed the act of doing what science dictated as necessary 
 and right. Thus, health, science, and art are inseparably inter- 
 mixed ; each makes for each. It is the artistic surroundings 
 that induce health ; it is health that produces the perfect man ; 
 and the perfect man physically is the perfect man aesthetically. 
 The separation of art and work is quite a latter-day innovation, 
 the two being really indissoluble. As has been pointed out, art 
 means the act of doing work, provided the doing is scientific, 
 right, and true. 
 
 Again, science is exactness, viz., truth; thus we see that truth 
 must be in work to ennoble it into art ; art work, therefore, is 
 true work. It is interesting to note how in old times this idea 
 was firmly rooted in the mind of the people. In the Bible, as in 
 many other old books, the idea of a connection between truth 
 and beauty is constantly met with. Take the phrase " beauty oi 
 holiness,"or wholeness viz., freedom from moral imperfection or 
 inaccuracy, and many other instances of similar kind ; every- 
 where the relation between truth and beauty is insisted upon. 
 
 Special. Next to these general reasons, there are more 
 special and particular reasons which apply to each separate 
 part of the work, and which will be found to vary with each 
 particular set of circumstances surrounding the work. 
 
 These particular reasons are of no less importance, and must 
 be looked for, discovered, and considered, if the craftsman desires 
 to have the credit of being a sensible and successful workman. 
 
 For instance, there are the following : 
 
 Some parts of the work will have much wear and tear ; 
 
 Others will have little or none. 
 
 Some will be exposed to the weather ; 
 
 Some will be in protected situations. 
 
 Some will be seen by daylight only ; 
 
 Some will be seen by gaslight ; 
 
 Some will be seen by both daylight and gaslight, 
 
 Some will need constant cleaning ; 
 
 Some will be out of reach and, therefore, difficult to clean. 
 
 Business premises must look smart and attractive. 
 
 Signboards must compel attention. 
 
 Some rooms must be quiet and unassertive. 
 
 Some work will be for places of amusement and gaiety ; 
 
 Some for places of gravity and seriousness. 
 
 In different business houses the class of goods shown must be considered.
 
 PLATE i.-DECORATIVE PANELS DESIGNED FOR CONVENTIONAL COLOURING. 
 
 To face p. 6.]
 
 THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 7 
 
 In public places the class of frequenters must be taken into account. 
 Architectural features may need emphasizing ; 
 Other features may require disguising. 
 
 Personal idiosyncrasies of clients need respecting, and a host of other 
 special requirements need taking into account. 
 
 All these, it may be noted, are points altogether apart from 
 workmanship or technique, and are often overlooked by good 
 craftsmen, but no amount of good detail or workmanship is a 
 substitute for the proper and due recognition of them. The 
 failure to appreciate their importance will lead to error, miscon- 
 ception, and dissatisfaction. 
 
 Practical Application. As an illustration of the simplicity 
 with which these considerations apply themselves in practice, it 
 may be useful to glance rapidly through an ordinary dwelling- 
 house which, we assume, has to be re-painted. It will then be 
 seen that, though apparently it is a difficult matter to remember, 
 and to apply so many principles to an ordinary job, the diffi- 
 culties vanish on the approach and application of a little common- 
 sense reasoning. 
 
 First, the outside of the house will be exposed to wet, heat, 
 and frost. To meet these demands the work must be finished in 
 hard, glossy colour with a good body ; each coat must be 
 thoroughly dry before the next is applied. The colours chosen 
 must be of a permanent character, those having the greatest 
 weather-resisting properties being preferable. We must re- 
 member that the destructive action of the elements will commence 
 upon the surface. In the colouring, allowance must be made for 
 the action of the weather, and also for the surrounding brick, 
 tile, slate, or stone. 
 
 The Entrance Door should be particularly well finished, as 
 being the first thing that the visitor to the house sees and 
 examines. 
 
 Upon entering the house, the remarks that apply to the 
 entrance door will hold good in regard to the hall. Effort should 
 be made here to convey an impression of comfort, warmth, and 
 homeliness. It should, moreover, be a reflex of the tastes and 
 character of its owner. Any undue parade of gilding or expensive ' 
 material will impart an unpleasant air of chilling grandeur and 
 ostentation, which better befits a public building than a home. 
 The display of wealth should be reserved for more pi'ivate apart- 
 ments. The colouring of the hall should be low in tone and 
 richly quiet in effect, suggesting comfort and even opulence, 
 but forming a simple contrast to the entertaining and other 
 rooms opening out of it. The finish of the work should be hard
 
 8 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 and durable, with, few ledges upon which dust can accumulate, 
 as it will be less shut in than the rooms. 
 
 If there is a Vestibule before entering the hall proper, it may 
 be safely treated in brighter colouring, as it will be a mere 
 passage-way, and a little extra brightness or even hardness will not 
 offend the eye in passing by to the same extent that it would do 
 in a room where we have to stay for a length of time. Here again, 
 the colour should have a hard and durable surface, readily 
 washable, as it will be more exposed to dirt than the hall. 
 
 In the Lining-Room^ the surroundings may be so treated as tc 
 be redolent of cheery comfort and prosperity. Full-toned, rich, 
 juicy colouring and decided treatment will give the necessary 
 effect (see coloured plate No. II.). As the time spent in the 
 room is not of long continuance, we may indulge in fairly decided 
 hues without fear of tiring the eyes. Again, as the room will 
 be much used at night, we must make allowances in colouring 
 which will be determined in character and extent by the kind of 
 artificial light used, a subject which will have attention in a later 
 chapter. The ornament, too, may be so selected as to be 
 especially appropriate to the room ; not necessarily consisting of 
 bunches of game and vegetables, but yet in harmony with the 
 fact that the room is principally used for eating and drinking. 
 A great charm in old work is the evidence of thought and 
 meaning, without vulgar parade of facts, which results in 
 appropriate symbolism only noticeable to the thoughtful and 
 initiated. 
 
 Next we come to the Drawing-Boom. Here we have quite a 
 different key to work in lightness, grace, cheerful brightness, 
 and free play for fancy a room used for work, music, dancing, 
 reading, and other recreations, giving unlimited scope for the 
 absence of conventionalism. It is par excellence the ladies' room, 
 and in its decoration we may cultivate a certain femininity of 
 style, without weakness, in pretty contrast to the more masculine 
 treatment accorded to the dining-room. Here, too, we have less 
 rough wear and tear than in any room in the house. The pre- 
 sence of nic-nacs and bric-a-brac tends to more care in cleaning, 
 We may, therefore, use our most delicate tints without fear of 
 their being injured, and indulge in fine and beautiful surfaces. 
 In this room the afternoon and evening are usually spent, and 
 light colours will assist the light. They must also, of necessity, 
 be used as a fitting background to delicately tinted evening 
 dresses, and as a foil to the complexions of the ladies ; hence we 
 carefully avoid hot colours as salmon or terra-cotta, and prefer 
 soft greens, greys, or delicately broken yellows.
 
 THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 9 
 
 The Breakfast or Morning-Room next compels attention. Cheer- 
 ful hues should here aid in raising the spirits and setting the 
 keynote for the day. Neither too heavy nor too light, the 
 colour and ornament should be healthily contrasted, suggestive 
 of life and motion. All effects of colour conducive to somnolence 
 should be avoided. If a foliage paper is introduced, let it 
 represent a vigorous, upward, spring-like growth and freshness ; 
 and avoid autumn leaves and winter stems, drooping, heavy- 
 scented flowers, and drowsy colouring. We are hardly as con- 
 scious as we should be of the powerful influences of little things 
 in our surroundings. The eye, more than any other sense, 
 conveys its impressions with electric force and rapidity, and 
 with a certainty of result which we are slow to trace to its real 
 
 The Library and Study will each in its turn suggest thoughtful 
 and sober treatment. Here we may use tertiary colouring and 
 forms without a disturbing or startling element. The decoration 
 should not court attention, but it should be so studied in form 
 and meaning as to lead the mind back by suggestion to books. 
 Quotations and mottoes will not be out of place, especially if 
 they embody the ideas and principles of the master of the 
 house. 
 
 General quotations that apply anywhere are not to be recom- 
 mended, nor is it good taste to exhibit moral injunctions in 
 the guise of quotations, unless in nurseries, schoolrooms, or 
 children's rooms. The colouring should not be heavy and 
 depressing, but of a medium depth. 
 
 Next in reference to these rooms generally, one may be very 
 lofty and another too low ; they may be badly lighted, or too 
 gaunt and cheerless by reason of large windows. All these, 
 and similar faults, must be, to the best of the decorator's power, 
 corrected and improved by his colouring and treatment. 
 
 The Bedrooms will also engage the same kind of attention. 
 Their treatment must be cleanly, airy, and cheerful, not too 
 insistent, and forming a good contrast to the staircase and 
 landings. Purity of tint and freshness of colour will attain this 
 end. The free ventilation must not be interfered with by 
 cooping up windows. The surface of the walls must not be too 
 absorbent. The size and paste used should be deodorised and 
 sterilised by the addition of a little carbolic acid, essence of 
 cloves, or some other similar purifier. All traces of minute 
 fungus growths must be removed by thoroughly washing the 
 walls. Musty and mouldy odours must be traced and their causes 
 removed. In this connection it is well to remember that all
 
 10 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 cupboards should be ventilated. The painted work must be 
 made easily washable, and all crevices likely to hold dust or to 
 encourage moth or insect life should be scrupulously filled up. 
 Patterns of disturbing element and pronounced line, or of an 
 angular tendency, should be discarded. 
 
 In the Children's Nursery or Bedrooms all these points need 
 more emphatic attention, and especially the matters of colour 
 and surface finish. A sanitary paper which can be sponged, or 
 something equally durable and washable, should run up as high as 
 the hands of the children can reach. Enamel or varnish finish is 
 best for the wood- work. White or light wood- work that shows 
 finger marks and dirt will have an educational value which will 
 repay the trouble of-occasionally sponging them off and lead to the 
 use of handles and finger plates, besides having a cheerful and 
 purifying effect on the senses. The presence of plenty of white 
 surface in the nursery enables the eye to discern colour, improves 
 the sight, temperament, and digestion, stimulates the exercise of 
 the muscles, and materially improves the circulation of the 
 blood and general health, especially if it be judiciously present 
 in conjunction with pure tints and cheerful bits of good 
 colouring. This fact has long been recognised on the Continent 
 and applied to the manufacture of toys, and is being more and 
 more acknowledged and acted upon by scientists and medical 
 men. This subject will receive more attention in a later 
 chapter. 
 
 Economy in Working. The relation between real economy 
 and fitly applied decoration has already been noticed in its 
 bearing upon the client. It is equally important to note that 
 economy of procedure has an important bearing on the workman, 
 and is directly dependent upon the use of method, order, and clean- 
 liness. This will be shown in detail as each part of the work 
 involved is discussed, but the present place is most suitable for 
 general remarks on this important aspect of house painting. 
 Haphazard work the taking of things as they come, and the 
 absence of a specific order of procedure is responsible for dis- 
 satisfaction, loss of time, the breaking of engagements, and often 
 bankruptcy ; but what more concerns us at present is that it is 
 absolutely impossible to obtain good results in workmanship 
 without attention to these points. The following short rules 
 will, therefore, perhaps be found helpful : 
 
 The best order in which to carry on the various parts of the 
 work, so that each portion is prevented from exerting any 
 damaging effect upon that which is previously finished, must be 
 studied. The work must be so arranged that dust is absent
 
 PLATE 2.-DECORATION OF HOUSE-FRONT ABOVE SHOP. 
 To face p. 10.]
 
 THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 11 
 
 when wet paint is about, that paint is dry when papering is 
 being done, that floors are not wet when we are varnishing, and 
 that many other similar contretemps are avoided. Rooms must 
 be finished in such order that it is not necessary to carry on work 
 in them, or traffic through them, after they are completed. The 
 work should commence, in theory, at the farthest point from the 
 front door, and be completed in due sequence, until the painter 
 finds himself outside. 
 
 The external painting of windows, &c., should be done before 
 the inside of the room is finished. 
 
 In painting a room the work that involves the use of steps, 
 &c., should be done first. 
 
 Cleanliness in Working, Then comes the great question of 
 cleanliness in working. All fittings should be carefully covered 
 or removed before commencing work, and not after they are 
 already soiled. There should be no unnecessary moisture put 
 on the floors in stripping walls or washing down, even though 
 apparently it can do no harm. Splashes and spots must be 
 avoided, even though the floors are covered up, and the hands 
 and clothes kept religiously free from paint. 
 
 Trade and Health. As an occupation, the painter's is one 
 of the healthiest in the building trades, providing only that 
 moderate cleanliness is observed in person and habits. It has 
 been proved beyond doubt that the volatile products given off 
 by oils, &c., used in painting are not only innocuous, but 
 beneficial. That white lead in particles does not mingle with 
 the air we breathe ; that the smell arising even from the use of 
 arsenical colours is equally non-poisonous ; and that the only 
 possible methods of introducing painters' poisons into the system 
 are through the pores of the skin by the totally unnecessary 
 handling of the pigments, and through the mouth by eating food 
 with painty hands, are all facts well known to scientists. 
 
 Causes of Bad Health among Painters. There are a few 
 prevalent favourite methods of useless " self-sacrifice " that may 
 be here noted. 
 
 First, the use of tools and brushes with unclean handles, 
 by which the paint on the handle is deliberately forced into the 
 pores of the skin of fingers and hands. There is no excuse for 
 this dirty, but common, practice. The handles should be scraped 
 clean with a sharp bit of glass or a steel scraper, working from 
 the bristles, and should then be coated with knotting. 
 
 Second, the filthy habit of putting the hands into colour when 
 mixing, a habit as unnecessary and absurd as any in the trade, but 
 clung to by ancient and thoughtless practitioners as a sort of fetish.
 
 12 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Third, the use of the finger and thumb nails in lieu of a knife 
 for scraping off spots of white lead and other matters, frequently 
 followed by biting the nails. 
 
 Fourth, and perhaps most prolific of danger, the use of white 
 lead putty, and stopping with the hands instead of with a knife 
 and stopping board. 
 
 Fifth, the rubbing down of white lead filling in a dry con- 
 dition, with consequent inhalation of dust. 
 
 Sixth, a general aversion to soap and water, and sometimes 
 the substitution therefor of turps and oil, which serve the better 
 to convey the poisonous particles into the perspiratory system. 
 
 These points will mostly come up for discussion later, but 
 deserve a place at the front, hence their mention here. 
 
 Clients' Requirements. In conclusion, it must not be 
 supposed that the painter will always find it possible to give 
 the rein even to his rightly-guided instinct in matters of taste and 
 detail. Clients' requirements have to be studied, as well as the 
 personal prejudices of the untrained. 
 
 The wise painter, therefore, has to find a via media betwixt 
 what he believes to be the correct treatment and what his client 
 requires, and will best consult his own interests and those of 
 his client by bringing the one into harmony with the other that 
 is, by doing what his client actually requires in what lie knows to 
 be the best way, rather than by endeavouring to press his own 
 views too persistently, always remembering that in matters of 
 mere technique it is due to his self-respect to have hia own 
 wsy.
 
 PLATE 3.-PANEL8 DESIGNED FOR NATURALISTIC COLOUR TREATMENT. 
 
 To face p. 12.1
 
 13 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 is necessary to deal briefly with the 
 accommodation requisite for workshop 
 and stores, and the manner of arranging 
 and managing them to the best advan- 
 tage. 
 
 The class of premises used, the par- 
 ticular exigencies of town and country 
 work and available space, and the 
 various classes of business involved, all 
 serve to make it impossible to admit of precise 
 description ; but in so far as the practices recom- 
 mended here will be based upon, and assume the 
 existence of efficient accommodation, it is perhaps 
 as well to detail what may be regarded as quite 
 necessary, and to indicate the more important 
 desiderata in a well regulated establishment. 
 
 Economy of Proper Storage Boom. In 
 the first place, it will be desirable to have two separate shops 
 and an additional store room for materials; which will be called, 
 respectively, the paint shop, the painting room, and the stores. 
 A paved and covered yard or shed should be retained for the
 
 14 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 plant and appliances, as it is important that ladders, poles, and 
 planks should be kept dry. As indicating the importance of 
 small matters of this kind, it can be shown that many tons a 
 year are saved upon the cartage account of a large establishment 
 by the use of a covered place for storage of planks and poles. 
 On one occasion a large consignment of scaffolding was sent from 
 London to a church in the country in a wet and sodden state. 
 After standing in the dry for some weeks it was re-consigned to 
 London, and the difference in cost for carriage was nearly two 
 pounds sterling. In many such ways the adoption of careful, 
 methodical, and orderly ways of managing a business conduces 
 to the saving of money. 
 
 The Paint Shop. The paint shop must be quite 24 feet long 
 by 14 feet wide, and a room of this proportion will be found 
 more convenient, if properly lighted, than a squarer form of 
 shop. 
 
 Position. It should be on the ground floor, for the con- 
 venience of taking in heavy goods, and generally facilitating the 
 removal of material in and out. 
 
 Lighting. It must be well lighted; this is an absolute 
 necessity, and may be regarded as of the very first importance. 
 In the winter months, gas, or artificial light of some kind, will 
 be requisite. A T pendant in the centre, and a couple of side 
 brackets will suffice, fitted with good incandescent burners. 
 An ideal shop should have side lights all along the north side. 
 Roof and sky-lights are an abomination, as besides the danger 
 of breakage by stones or hail, experience proves that wet and 
 dust at times will come in, and that spiders and flies have a 
 particular partiality for dropping from them. But more to the 
 purpose, the direct sky-light, changing as it does in character 
 from hour to hour, is deceptive and difficult to work under if 
 making and matching tints. It is too glaring and strong to be 
 a comfortable working light. The north is the best side for 
 lights if it can be so arranged ; and if these are set at a slight 
 angle out of the perpendicular viz., the lower portion of the 
 sashes set out 4| to 6 inches further than the tops, the lighting 
 can hardly be improved upon. The sashes can be hinged at the 
 top, and open otitwards for ventilation. 
 
 Must be Dry. The shop must be a dry one, as many materials 
 deteriorate if kept in a damp atmosphere. 
 
 Water. A supply of water will be required, with sink and 
 waste. 
 
 Heating Arrangements. A gas stove or fireplace in a safe 
 corner. A shut-in stove is safest, but the danger of fire, if
 
 WORKSHOP AND STORES. 15 
 
 ordinary care is used, is more remote than at first appears, as 
 but few of the ordinary materials are inflammable without actual 
 and purposeful ignition. The fireplace or gas stove will be 
 required for heating water, size, glue, paste, &c., and should be 
 large enough and strong enough to hold a glue kettle or a 
 3-gallon bucket. 
 
 Ceiling. The ceiling, if there is a room above, must be dust- 
 tight, and not mere open joists and ordinary floor-boards, or the 
 dust will percolate through, and the colours will need continual 
 straining. 
 
 Colouring. It should be white in colour, to assist tbe light. 
 The floor should be of stone or concrete. It is immaterial 
 whether the walls be of feather-edge board or brick, so long as 
 they are solid and dust-tight. They are whitened, as, though 
 there will be little of them seen, it is as well to get all tbo 
 additional light that can be reflected from them. 
 
 Fittings and Furniture. The fittings necessary will be strong 
 shelves, a cupboard or two, and strong benches. 
 
 First, a long bench under the windows, about 2 feet 8 inches high 
 and 2^ feet wide, with stout supports, will be the mixing bench. 
 It should be furnished with three paint stones. These may be 
 slabs of Purbeck or other hard even-grained marble, or French 
 burrstone, without flaws, about 2 feet square and 1| inches 
 thick. One of the three may be smaller, and of white marble, 
 for use for fine bits of colour. A cheaper substitute for a marble 
 slab is a sheet of stout plate glass set in white lead to make it 
 solid. To keep it in place, a fillet of wood may be screwed to the 
 bench on each side. This will also protect it from being chipped. 
 Rough cast plate will do if levelled by rubbing with coai-se 
 emery and another piece of thick glass till an even surface is 
 produced. The front edge of the stones should be set level with 
 the edge of the bench. A muller will be required for each stone, 
 as, although every colour can be purchased ready ground for use, 
 the good workman will often prefer to grind his own in special 
 mediums for special jobs, and is not always satisfied with the 
 degree of fineness attained in the paint mill. It is also unneces- 
 sary to keep such a comprehensive stock when the means for 
 grinding up a bit of special colour are handy and familiar. 
 Beneath each stone there should be a drawer for material for 
 cleaning the bench. Cotton waste or odd rags are used for this 
 purpose, but the most efficacious and most lasting material, one 
 which never seems full of paint, and which does not ignite if 
 heated by long confinement in the drawer, is a material known 
 in the old-fashioned trade as " shreds." Whether commercial
 
 16 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 and economical development has or has not driven it out of the 
 market at a price within the painters' scope for such a purpose is 
 uncertain, but of its absolute efficacy and cleanly application and 
 power of absorption there is no doubt. It was obtained from 
 curriers, and appeared to be the dressings or scrapings from the 
 interior sides of the coarser hides. Cotton rags or waste, when 
 saturated with oil, are a fruitful source of fires by spontaneous 
 combustion, and should be shunned unless they can be cleared 
 out periodically under skilled supervision. 
 
 Colours, Driers, Oils, &c., required on Paint Bench The space 
 at the back of the stone will be the place for small kegs of 
 tinting colours available for use when mixing. Ochres, Umbers, 
 Sienna, Venetian and Indian reds, red lead, vegetable black, and 
 Prussian blue should be kept there, within easy reach of the 
 hand. Space between the stones at the back will accommodate 
 patent driers and white lead, of which a small keg should be 
 specially set apart for the same purpose, as the frequent dipping 
 of palette knives into the large casks is liable to soil the contents 
 and disturb them unnecessarily. Upon the paint-mixing bench 
 we shall also require small hand cans, spouted for pouring, to 
 hold raw and boiled oil, terebine, turpentine, and a generally 
 useful varnish for adding to colour. Plenty of room must be 
 left between the paint stones for standing and straining the 
 colours that are being made up. 
 
 Drawers to Paint Bench for Tools. Narrow drawers between 
 the paint-stone drawers will be useful to hold the mixing or 
 palette knives, a piece or two of pumice stone for cleaning off 
 any hard spots that dry upon the stone, and for occasionally 
 cleaning down the stone thoroughly in addition to the general 
 wiping down after use, a few clean rags, pieces of straining 
 muslin of different degrees of fineness and string, also a hammer, 
 tacks, a screw-driver, shears or large scissors, a cork screw, a 
 cask opener, a case opener, odd corks and bungs, taps for racking 
 off the oil and turps, and many other odds and ends that 
 experience will dictate. 
 
 Palette Knives for Paint Stone. There should be a pair of 
 palette knives to each stone, of from 8 to 1 2 inches long in the 
 blades, for different quantities of colour. 
 
 To Clean Paint Stone. A word may be interposed here on the 
 method of cleaning down the slabs after use. Expert handling of 
 the palette knives will leave the stone almost clean enough to dine 
 from, but it may be stained by strong colours, as Prussian blue ; 
 or varnish or turps colour may stick near the edges. To 
 thoroughly clean, put a little whiting on the stone and rub it up
 
 1S97 
 
 PLATE 4.-RANEL8 DESIGNED FOR FLAT NATURALISTIC COLOURING. 
 
 To face p. 16.]
 
 WORKSHOP AND STORES. 
 
 17 
 
 in a little raw linseed oil, work it over the surface with the 
 muller as if grinding colour ; collect and take it up with the 
 knives, and put it into the keg reserved for odd bits of light 
 colour. This will leave stone, knives, and muller all clean, and 
 a wipe over with the " shreds," or a rag, or cotton waste does 
 the rest. 
 
 Brush Trays. On the bench near the stones a place must be 
 set apart for the brushes. A tray of zinc, divided into sections 
 by bars across the top, and large enough to hold the number of 
 brushes generally in use, must be provided. It should be 
 5 inches deep, so that the brushes may be suspended in the 
 water and not rest on the bottom. 
 This is accomplished by boring 
 holes through the handle or stock 
 of the brushes or tools, and slipping 
 a piece of steel wire through the 
 hole, the ends of which will rest 
 upon the divisions of the tray. The 
 holes must be bored at a height 
 which will permit the whole of the 
 bristles to be in the water. A 
 tinned tray or an iron one will 
 rust and corrode. Zinc is the best 
 material, as it can be easily scraped 
 free from paint, and will withstand 
 the action of water, turps, or oil. 
 A smaller tray may be provided for Fi g- L Skeleton elevation of 
 i i i , -i smutch-can. A, Inner can. B, 
 
 brushes kept in oil. Outer can. 0, Mouth of toner 
 
 In putting away the brushes, it can . j^ Sloping top of inner can 
 is well to scrape as much paint as to prevent splashing. E, Filter 
 possible out of them and rinse them of perforated zinc to prevent 
 in turps, otherwise the water will * hi k tur P s , Corking up from 
 f,' ., . ,, . , , bottom. The turps will reach 
 
 cause the oil m the paint to congeal up to the dotted H e F 
 
 and become "furred" in the brushes. 
 
 Brash Washer or Smutch-can. For the purpose of washing 
 the brushes, smutch-cans or rinsers will be necessary. A double 
 galvanised or tinned iron kettle made as in Fig. 1 will be a good 
 form. The inner kettle has a bottom of perforated copper or 
 copper gauze, the top edge is sufficiently sharp to scrape the 
 edge of the brushes or to free them from excess of turps, and 
 overhangs to prevent splashing. The perforated bottom allows 
 all solid matter to pass through and settle, and prevents it from 
 working up again. After scraping the brushes out on the stone, 
 thoroughly rinse them in the turps in the smutch-can. It is 
 
 " 
 
 "^^T 3 
 
 A 
 
 --F... 
 
 
 />-^v 
 
 I^r-'T'.'.rs 
 
 V;> ^ll" 
 
 IS.*& 
 
 
 B
 
 18 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 a good plan to have one for preliminary rinsing, and a second 
 for cleaner turps. To thoroughly rinse, whirl the brush round 
 in the turps, by spinning the handle between the palms of the 
 hands. To free it from turps, do the same thing, but keep 
 the brush higher so that it does not touch the turps. A further 
 spinning in an empty can or keg will leave the brush almost 
 dry, in which condition it is safe to put it into the water tray. 
 Varnish brushes may be treated in a similar way before being 
 stood in oil, but they will be fully dealt with under the heading 
 of brushes. 
 
 Zinc Covering for Paint Bench. The spaces between the paint 
 stones, if covered with stout zinc, will be kept much cleaner, 
 and scrape and clean down more readily than if left in the bare 
 wood. Stout No. 11 gauge zinc will be suitable; allow the 
 zinc to go under the stones, dress it square over the edge of the 
 bench, and nail to the edge. 
 
 Ready-made Colours. All colours that it is possible to make 
 up at the shop should be sent to the job ready for use, except 
 thinning, but of course this only applies to jobs near the shop. 
 
 Large Kegs. Under the paint bench, a suitable place may 
 be found for large kegs of colour, casks of whitelead and driers, 
 barrels of ochre and Umber, &c., from which the smaller kegs on 
 the paint bench are kept supplied. 
 
 Drawers for Powder Colours. A nest of drawers will 
 be found truly economical for powder colours. The drawers 
 should vary in size, and be easily pulled out; each drawer 
 should have an all-round solid partition dividing it from the 
 other drawers to prevent an inter-mixture of the colours. They 
 may have lids, but this is not material if the drawers are self- 
 contained. They should not be too large, as they can be 
 replenished frequently from the stock in stores. The great 
 advantage accruing from the use of drawers is, that the drawers 
 can be taken across to the stone or bench, thus avoiding the 
 carrying of dips of dry colour on the tip of the knife, and conse- 
 quent waste. Where the dry colours are kept in bulk in casks, 
 there is generally a series of coloured tracks on the floor between 
 the casks and the paint stone. Another gain is the cleanliness 
 and freedom from dust and grit in the colour. In sending dry 
 colour to a job, on no account send it in paper packages. 
 Tin canisters should be collected and set aside for the 
 purpose. 
 
 Weighing Machine and Scales. A weighing machine for heavy 
 goods, and scales and weights for lighter packages, are necessary. 
 These should not only be in the shop, but their use should be
 
 WORKSHOP AND STORES. 19 
 
 insisted on, and all goods coming in or going out should be 
 weighed and entered. 
 
 Rough Day-book. For this purpose a rough day-book should 
 be placed on a small desk in close proximity to the scales, and 
 near the door. This is not a manual on book-keeping, even for 
 painters, but it may be noted with emphasis that the initial 
 stage of book-keeping begins here. One book, always at hand, 
 fixed (like a chained Bible) if desired, must contain a record of 
 everything that goes in or out of the shop and stores. Material, 
 tools, plant, or objects to be, or that have been, painted, must 
 all be set down in the order they occur, with the date and name 
 of destination or derivation. The sorting off of these various 
 items is a matter for the clerks at a future stage. 
 
 Oil Tanks. In a place removed from the tire or stove, tanks 
 are required for the oils one for raw linseed, and one for 
 boiled oil, and a couple for turps. It is generally the practice 
 to buy two kinds of turpentine. One, the best Russian; and 
 the other, American. Sometimes French is also stocked. These 
 should not be mixed, as they have special qualities which, if 
 kept separate, are valuable under different sets of circumstances. 
 The tanks should hold about 120 gallons each or more. Square 
 tanks take least room. Wood, zinc-lined, and with taps near 
 bottom, or galvanised iron are the best. The advantages of 
 large tanks are many. One is, that as the oil is generally new 
 it becomes matured by being stored in bulk for a little time. 
 Another, that by mixing the different consignments a more 
 uniform quality is maintained ; and another, that the contents 
 of the barrels can be checked and examined when they are 
 racked ; there is thus an avoidance of much waste. 
 
 Whiting and Plaster Bins. A large box or bin for the whiting 
 must be set in a dry corner, and smaller ones for the plaster and 
 Parian cement, mastic, and sand, Portland cement, <fcc. These 
 will occupy the further side of the shop. The centre part of 
 the floor may be taken up by the barrels of dry tinting colours 
 or other items of the kind. 
 
 "Pickle" Cask. A place must be reserved for a cask of 
 "pickle" in which to throw the pots and cans which require 
 cleaning. This is made from potash, black ash, or caustic soda 
 and water, and must be strong enough to remove the paint, 
 but not so strong as to attack the metals of the cans as well as 
 the paint in them. Zinc cans must not be put into this solution, 
 or they will be dissolved. An old oil or turpentine cask may 
 be cut down to serve the purpose of a "pickle tub." 
 
 Smudge Keg Two casks should be retained to hold oddments 
 
 of paint smudge, and one to hold refuse and skins.
 
 20 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Flour Barrel. A barrel to hold a sack of flour, with tight- 
 fitting lid, may be stored in a dry corner. 
 
 Shelves. Strong shelves will be necessary at the ends and 
 back of the shop, sufficiently wide to hold paint cans, tins of 
 varnish, paint in use, and other matters. The bottom shelf may 
 be a foot wider than the others, so as to serve for packing upon. 
 Never arrange hooks along edges of shelves. The practice 
 results in waste of time in removing the articles hung upon 
 them, prior to being able to take things from the shelf behind, 
 or in knocking down the objects from the hooks in the endeavour 
 to save the trouble of moving them. In reaching up to the 
 shelves, there is also danger of the hooks catching in the sleeves. 
 Do not have the shelves further apart than necessary for the 
 goods intended to be stored on them. 
 
 Fig. 2. Paint mill. 
 
 Cupboard. A cupboard may be retained for the brushes not 
 in use, and another for glasspaper, glue, concentrated size, special 
 colours, &c. 
 
 Pigeon Holes. A set of pigeon holes to hold artists' colours 
 in large 1-lb. tubes (now so much sold for tinting purposes) will 
 be requisite, if there is much good work done in the shop. Each 
 hole should be plainly marked with the colour it contains. 
 
 Paint Mill. A paint mill (Fig. 2) is desirable for grinding up 
 rough colour, making hard stopping, and other like purposes.
 
 WORKSHOP AND STORES. 21 
 
 A small sized one, to hold about 28 Ibs. of white lead, will be 
 sufficient. One constructed to grind on the cone principle, with 
 a side handle, can be easily screwed to one end of the paint 
 bench. 
 
 Other small conveniences will be mentioned under the various 
 headings for which they are required, and need not be specially 
 referred to here. 
 
 The Painting Room. The painting room will next be con- 
 sidered. This apartment is required for the purpose of working 
 in, as its name implies. 
 
 There are a large number of small jobs which have to be done 
 in the shop, such as the painting of signs, the writing of facia 
 glasses and advertisement boards, the painting of fittings and 
 furniture, gilding, and other matters of a similar kind. There 
 are also many operations which it would be better and more 
 profitable to do in the shop, which are at present muddled 
 through on the job for want of proper accommodation, such as 
 the decoration of material, the preparation of drawing pounces 
 and stencils, and priming of new work prior to fixing. 
 
 The size of the room should be larger than that of the paint 
 shop and of a similar shape. It must be well lighted and, pre- 
 ferably, in the same manner. A first-floor room above the 
 paint shop and stores would present many advantages over a 
 ground floor. The floor of the room should be of wood and the 
 walls and ceiling whitened. The remarks made as to the 
 character of the ceiling and the absence of sky-lights apply with 
 no less force in the painting room than in the paint shop. 
 
 Wall for Large Cartoons, &c One wall that is well lighted 
 will require to be boarded with close, flush-jointed boards of 1 
 inch in thickness, for the purpose of working painted canvasses, 
 banners, cartoons, or large drawings upon, or for the tacking-up 
 lengths of anaglypta or linoleum for decorating. 
 
 Benches and Drawers. Under the windows a fixed bench oi 
 convenient height may be placed, about 2 feet 8 inches high, 
 running the length of the room. It may be supported upon 
 pedestals of drawers for holding stencil plates and drawings, 
 pounces and cartoons. These drawers should be 3 feet 6 inches 
 long and the full depth of the bench from back to front, which 
 should be not less than 30 inches. Shorter drawers may be 
 arranged between these, allowing sufficient room for working at 
 the bench upon stools with the knees under it. They will be 
 required for a few materials, as gilding, writing, and stencilling 
 tools and materials, gold leaf and metals, bronzes, special colours, 
 gelatine, isinglass, cotton wool, and numerous articles of this kind.
 
 22 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Reference Books. A few books of reference and examples of 
 lettering may be usefully kept in them. 
 
 A bar from pedestal to pedestal may be fixed as a foot-rest. 
 Gas. The gas brackets should be fitted to the window 
 frames, and have universal swivel joints to bend in any di- 
 rection. Shades made from tin, coloured white upon the inside 
 and green upon the outside (with Duresco not paint), will be 
 required for writing and gilding in the winter evenings. The 
 shades must be removable. 
 
 Portable Benches. Other benches will be required, but it is 
 convenient to have them portable, as at times the floor space 
 will be required for furniture, or even for setting out upon. It 
 
 is specially useful for planning 
 panelled ceilings, so as to 
 arrive at the exact templates 
 for stencils and pounces. The 
 benches will, therefore, take 
 the form of trestles and boards; 
 6 trestles of the form shown 
 in Fig. 3 will suffice. A piece 
 of 4J-inch x 3-inch deal, 40 
 inches long, forms the top of 
 each, and three supporting legs 
 are halved into this, or, better 
 still, dovetailed at such an 
 angle that the legs stand 9 
 inches apart on the floor in 
 the clear, two on the outside 
 and one on the inside. The 
 inch yellow deal boards upon 
 They should be all about 
 
 Fig. 3. Portable bench trestle. 
 
 boards are tongued and grooved 
 
 battens of the same thickness. 
 
 40 inches wide, and differ in length from 15 feet to 5 feet. 
 
 There may be four or five of them. The battens should be 
 
 screwed on so that they can be easily taken off and re-clamped, 
 
 as they shrink or twist. 
 
 Paint Stone Muller and Knives A small paint slab say 
 18 inches circular, will be handy, provided with a glass 
 muller and a pair of 8-inch knives. 
 
 Sign- Writers' Easels. For the convenience of sign-writing, 
 one or two common easels will be necessary. For heavy signs, 
 a good plan is to have a couple of primitive easels made as 
 follows : Two 9-feet lengths of 3 inches by 1| inches are 
 fastened together by battens nailed across at top and bottom, 
 leaving them a clear space 1^ feet across, and forming a rectangu-
 
 WORKSHOP AND STORES. 23 
 
 lar frame. In the long sides of this frame, f-inch holes are bored 
 for stout pegs of oak. These easels will lean against the walls 
 at any angle, and will hold any shape or proportion of sign, 
 as two or three of them can be used in conjunction. They are 
 also handy for lengths of lincrusta, which may be tacked to the 
 battens ; they are then easily stood in any position, and in front 
 of each other without rubbing. 
 
 Entrance Ways. The room must have a sufficiently large 
 doorway to admit articles of furniture or large boards, and, if it 
 be an upper floor, it is best to have an outside staircase with 
 good large double doors at the top. If, on the other hand, a 
 small staircase exists indoors, there may be an arrangement of 
 casements, and a pulley block or crane above them, so that work 
 may be taken in and out with as little danger of damage as 
 possible. 
 
 Shelves. A few shelves will be requisite, also a cupboard or 
 two to keep colour clean and free from dust, when in use from 
 day to day. 
 
 Heating. A heating stove is necessary ; a close coke one 
 will be found safest and most convenient. 
 
 Stores. The next room for consideration is the store room, 
 or stores. It must be a dry room on the ground floor, in which 
 a fairly equable temperature of about 60 can be maintained. 
 If possible, it should adjoin the paint shop, so as to save time 
 and labour in transferring goods from one to the other. But 
 little light is necessary ; indeed, for many materials, an excess 
 of light is undesirable. 
 
 Fittings. The whole four sides of the room may be shelved 
 for varnishes and japans, kegs of colour, and other items of 
 stock. A few drawers are desirable for small articles, sash 
 tools, stencil tools, sponges, leathers, &c. Brushes, dusters, 
 limers, and distemper brushes should be hung from the ceiling 
 in bunches of 3 dozens For this purpose, and to accommodate 
 new cans or kettles and buckets, the whole of the ceiling may be 
 fitted with rows of galvanised hooks, like those used by butchers 
 and in larders. 
 
 The upper shelves should be kept for articles requiring a 
 particularly dry place. Glasspaper, concentrated size, and glue 
 will come under this denomination, as will dry colours, lacquers, 
 and spirit varnishes, knotting, &c. Then below these will come 
 the oil varnishes, japan, stainers, enamels, &c., and below these 
 the oil colours and colours ground in water, and heavier goods. 
 On the floor, which should be of stone or concrete, we place the 
 heaviest goods casks of white lead, driers, Umber, and ochre,
 
 24 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 barrels of oils and turps, firkins of powder colour, and kegs of 
 Duresco, paint-remover, and other like matters. 
 
 Use. The stores should be used for goods in unbroken 
 packages only. Each particular article should be represented in 
 the paint shop as well as in the stores. If this is done, the value 
 of the stock can be much more readily ascertained. In the 
 stores only whole packages are retained, rendering stocktaking 
 easy. 
 
 The stock in use in the paint shop consists entirely of partly- 
 used packages, which, it is safe to assume, are upon an average 
 half full. As the assortment of goods in use in the paint shop 
 will not materially vary, it can always be taken to be "as before," 
 the real difference in value being in the actual stores. 
 
 Keturn of Empty Packages. As each cask or package is 
 emptied of its contents it must be headed and hooped up and 
 set aside for sending back to the manufacturer, and as soon as a 
 sufficient quantity is got together to make a consignment, they 
 should be despatched. This should be done at least once a 
 quarter. 
 
 Storing of Parts of Cases. A bin under the paint shop bench 
 can be reserved for lids, heads, and portions of packing-cases 
 that have to be removed and ultimately returned, as, if the shop 
 is kept properly clean and the goods are to be easily got at, 
 these will not be required during the use of the contents, except 
 in special cases where it is desirable to exclude the air from the 
 contents. 
 
 Putting up Material for a Job. A word or two may fitly 
 
 be added here on sending material to a job. All jobs repeat 
 themselves to a greater or less degree. A general list may, 
 therefore, be made of the materials usually required, to be 
 supplemented as occasion demands. It may be divided under 
 the heads of outside painting, inside painting, paper-hanging, 
 and distempering. 
 
 All the usual tinting colours should always be included, as it 
 is not possible to know exactly what may be required. If the 
 lists are printed ones, a large column may be left for filling in 
 the quantities of each article. In making out the list it will 
 only be necessary to mark one or two articles, as the others will 
 follow in proportion. Thus, the quantity of whitelead for an 
 inside job will govern the quantity of staining colours, oil, 
 driers, turps, terebine, putty, and glass paper, unless under the 
 existence of special conditions. 
 
 In these special cases the list could be marked first for the 
 normal and afterwards for the extra quantity of any given
 
 WORKSHOP AND STORES. 25 
 
 article. Thus, if the bulk of the painting were white and the 
 job would take 2 cwts., the list would be marked for ^ cwt., which 
 would carry the necessary amount of et ceteras, and in the extras 
 column it would be again marked 1J cwts. whitelead extra, 
 which would infer extra thinnings, but no extra stainers. 
 
 Or, again, a job requires extra quantities of Indian red and 
 black, the whitelead entry would carry a certain amount of 
 each as stainers and the extra column would ask for, say, 14 Ibs. 
 black extra and 28 Ibs. Indian red extra, which would infer the 
 extra oil necessary for them. 
 
 The great value of having a set form or general list is that, 
 by this method, small items are not forgotten. Such items as 
 varnishes, papers, &c., must, of course, be particularised. 
 
 Despatch of Material for a Job. The storekeeper or paint 
 shop clerk, who superintends the sending out of stuff, must keep 
 a stock of necessaries ready to hand for prompt despatch. A 
 supply of clean pots and cans should also be always in hand. 
 Empty bottles and jars should be stored in an odd corner, and 
 when returned dirty must be at once put into the pickle and 
 allowed to clean themselves. 
 
 Management Of Paint Shop. Before leaving the subject, 
 it is as well to deal briefly with the economic side of the paint 
 shop management. 
 
 Waste. A considerable amount of waste is the unwitting 
 result of ignorance and thoughtlessness, but the direct waste in 
 this way is even less than the waste of labour and the unsatis- 
 factory results of injudicious attempts at economy. 
 
 Returned Residuum Paint. On every job, however well it 
 may be regulated, there will be a certain amount of residuum. 
 This does not always depend upon the skill with which the job 
 is managed, but is frequently due to the character of the job in 
 hand. The less varied the class of work in a given job, the 
 more likelihood will there be of a large amount of waste colour. 
 In a job of mixed character there will be plenty of opportunities 
 for using up the odds and ends. An inside job of painting, if it 
 be confined to the principal rooms, will of necessity result in this 
 overplus, and unless it be intelligently dealt with on its return 
 to the shop it will be wasted or worse than wasted. 
 
 Fat Colour and Smudge. Paint, after being thinned for use 
 with a proper quantity of driers and spirits, soon becomes 
 partially oxidised, and, consequently, viscid and greasy. This 
 is partially due to the exposure to the atmosphere, with the 
 consequent loss of the more volatile portions of the oils and the 
 rapid absorption of oxygen ; and partly to the chemical action
 
 26 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 of the added driers, and sometimes of the pigments upon each 
 other. This explains why paints sold prepared ready for im- 
 mediate use seldom prove satisfactory, even if of tolerably good 
 quality as far as the ingredients go. Such paint is technically 
 known as " fat." Fat colour has thus lost some of its power of 
 hardening, is bad in drying, and most readily softens under 
 ordinary heat. In practice it will be difficult to spread, and, 
 consequently, more turpentine is added, which, when evaporated, 
 leaves behind it further resinous matter, so that the amount 
 of gummy matter in the paint is more than necessary for the 
 binding and cohesion of the pigment, and prevents it hardening 
 off. Most of the returned colour that comes to the paint shop 
 will be of this character, and the larger part of it will probably 
 be colour that has been mixed with a large quantity of tur- 
 pentine, which, when fat, is more unmanageable than fat oil 
 colour. 
 
 It will be perceived from these remarks that "fat" colour 
 in the condition in which it is returned is only available for the 
 very roughest of outside work. Even when treated, it is not 
 capable of so hardening as to make it a safe paint for work 
 likely to be much handled, or for work which is situated in 
 direct sunlight. It will not dry dead or flat. 
 
 Salvage of Fat Colour and Smudge. The method recommended 
 for putting it to the best use is to first throw it together in 
 kegs kept for the purpose one for light tints, one for medium 
 tints, and one for dark shades. All blues should be kept to- 
 gether separately, as the addition of blues will render the other 
 warm tints useless. It must be allowed to settle, and a lid 
 placed over it to retard "skinning." The tops may then be 
 skimmed off and used for grinding up with common dry colours 
 for outside painting, a little turpentine being added to free the 
 "fat" oils. 
 
 The bottoms or settlings will be useful for priming, if thinned 
 with turpentine, excepting for very good work or for first coating 
 new plaster or stucco, painting rough unwrought timber, or 
 rough brick walls, outside painting under eaves and outhouses, 
 &c., always bearing in mind that it must be thinned with 
 turpentine, as there is already a plethora of oils present. 
 
 Thinnings for Smudge. For thinning all "fat" colour, the 
 cheaper grades of turpentine and substitutes for the same are 
 even better than the best commercial turps, because they 
 volatilise more completely, and leave less resinous gum be- 
 hind ; for new paints, however, they are useless, as the absence 
 of this resin means absence of binding properties. In the fat
 
 PLATE 5.-RANELS DESIGNED FOR FLAT POLYCHROMATIC COLOURING, 
 To face p. 26.]
 
 WORKSHOP AND STORES. 27 
 
 colour there is already enough binding medium, and all that is 
 required is a thinner, to enable the paint to be spread easily 
 and evenly, which, after fulfilling this purpose, volatilises 
 rapidly, leaving little or no residuum. 
 
 The same quality, or absence of quality, fits these commoner 
 spirits, for the purpose of brush washing. They are more 
 penetrating and solvent in their action than a good turpen- 
 tine, and where turps is given as the best medium for cleaning 
 certain brushes, cheap grade turps may be used with advantage. 
 
 Prevention of Skinning and Hardening of Stock Colours. It 
 should not be necessary to point out that all waste caused by 
 allowing colours in their paste form to harden or skin over is 
 easily preventible. All that is required is to effectually keep 
 the air from them. 
 
 On oil colours, pure linseed oil is best for the purpose. The 
 colour should be pressed level, and care must be exercised that 
 it is not stirred up or mixed with the oil in any way. In taking 
 colour from the keg it should be sliced out with a small trowel 
 or similar tool, and not dug out of the middle with the point of 
 the knife. As little oil as will cover the colour should be used, 
 not over half-an-inch in depth, and it may be occasionally changed. 
 Some prefer to use boiled oil or nut oil for the purpose. If the 
 colour remain open for a length of time before getting used up, 
 the lids may be kept over the kegs. They ought also to be 
 kept over all rapidly-drying colours. Certain colours are better 
 bought in collapsible tubes, which we shall refer to in a later 
 chapter. 
 
 Colours ground in turps may be kept in condition by turpen- 
 tine, used in the same way as oil for oil colours, but changed 
 more frequently to prevent "fattening." Water colours may be 
 preserved by covering with water to which a little glycerine has 
 been added. 
 
 Whitelead. Whitelead and patent driers are very usually 
 kept under water. If great care is exercised and the water is 
 not allowed to get locked up in the lead by carelessness in taking 
 out portions of lead, it is not objectionable, but, unless the lead 
 is of very stiff and putty-like consistency, there is a danger of 
 the water getting beaten into the whitelead. When water is 
 used, the lead, when required, must be well patted and knocked 
 about on the paint stone, to drive out the water, before any 
 thinners are added to it. 
 
 Conservation of Tube Colours, Tube colours, if used very 
 seldom, have a tendency to become "fat" and "leathery." If 
 they are kept in a canister or elsewhere shut in from the air,
 
 28 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 they will remain longer in good condition. Crimson lake has a 
 bad tendency to become "leathery" independent of external 
 conditions, but even this is retarded by keeping the tube in a 
 jar of water. 
 
 Stock Articles Enumerated. It will be advantageous to 
 here mention the articles required for stock in a small shop. The 
 various articles will be fully described under the heading of 
 materials, and are merely enumerated here to give an idea of the 
 relative quantities required of each for an average class of 
 business. 
 
 List of Stock Required. 
 
 1 ton of white lead. 
 1 cwts. patent driers. 
 
 2 barrels turpentine. 
 
 1 barrel boiled linseed oil. 
 1 , , raw linseed oil. 
 
 6 gallons terebine. 
 6 ,, patent knotting. 
 
 Oil Colours. 
 1 cwt. ochre in oil. 
 1 , , burnt Umber in oil. 
 4 ,, raw Umber in oil. 
 4 ,, Indian red in oil. 
 4 Venetian red in oil. 
 14 Ibs. Prussian blue in oil. 
 28 vegetable black in oil. 
 28 , . Oxford ochre in oil. 
 28 ,, raw Sienna in oil. 
 28 , , burnt Sienna in oil. 
 28 ,, lemon chrome in oil. 
 14 , , orange chrome in oil. 
 
 Putty, Pumice Stone, Cements, dec. 
 
 1 cwt. linseed oil putty. 
 
 4 ,, lump pumice stone. 
 14 Ibs. pumice stone powder. 
 
 1 ream of glass paper assorted, one half being No. 1 J. 
 
 1 ton whiting. 
 
 5 cwts. plaster Paris. 
 
 2 ,, Parian cement. 
 
 2 Portland cement. 
 
 2 ,, oil mastic. 
 
 \ dry whitelead. 
 
 1 ,, dry red lead. 
 
 Dry Colours. 
 1 cwt. dry ochre. 
 4 dry Venetian red.
 
 WORKSHOP AND STORES. 29 
 
 4 cwt. burnt Turkey Umber. 
 28 Iba. dry lime blue. 
 7 common ultramarine. 
 
 emerald green. 
 
 lemon chrome. 
 
 vermilion. 
 
 Indian red. 
 
 lamp black or drop black. 
 
 mahogany lake. 
 
 drop black ground in turps. 
 
 Vandyke brown ground in oil. 
 
 burnt Umber in water. 
 ,, Sienna in watar. 
 blue black, 
 raw Sienna, 
 each sundry fancy colours in dry powder and 1 Ib. tubes of fancy 
 
 oil colours, as lakes, best blues, yellows, Terra Verte, &c., to 
 
 be added as required. 
 
 water. 
 
 14 Ibs. sugar of lead. 
 14 litharge. 
 
 1 sack good rye flour for paste. 
 1 cwt. concentrated size. 
 28 Ibs. best glue. 
 1000 best deep gold leaf, one-half transferred, and the other in plain 
 
 books. 
 1000 silver leaf. 
 
 1 Ib. bronze powders, assorted. 
 2000 aluminium leaf. 
 
 3 gallons lacquers assorted. 
 14 Ibs. oil gold size. 
 6 gallons japanners' gold size. 
 
 Varnislies. 
 
 20 gallons good outside oak varnish. 
 20 ,, inside 
 
 best pale copal 
 
 best pale carriage ,, 
 
 common hard oak varnish. 
 
 each of maple, white copal, encaustic, flatting, and other 
 
 special varnishes, 
 best black Japan in quarts. 
 Brunswick black in quarts, 
 best white enamel. 
 
 Sundries. 
 300 paint cans 
 200 paint pots. 
 
 Brushes as required. 
 5 cwts. white Duresco. 
 2 liquid ,,
 
 30 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 1 cwt. peacock blue Duresco. 
 1 ,, lemon yellow. 
 1 ,, bright red. 
 
 (These will make most tints, but if special tints are required in 
 
 any quantity they had better be ordered ready-made). 
 1 ,, laminated lead in sheets. 
 56 Ibs. filling up powder. 
 1 cwt. paint remover. 
 
 Lamp for burning off paint. 
 1 dozen paint and distemper strainers. 
 
 This will form a useful and sufficiently varied stock from which to carry 
 out any ordinary jobs. 
 
 Purchase of Stock. Unless for very large businesses it is the 
 better plan to purchase each article as required irrespective 
 of the rise and fall of the market, and it is hardly necessary to 
 enforce the truism that in all departments the best is really the 
 cheapest. Of course, every rule has its exception, and there 
 may be times when it is provident to buy more largely of a 
 particular material, but the master-painter should not go out of 
 his way to speculate on the rise and fall of values. A thing 
 is not cheap if there is not a fairly immediate use for it. It 
 is not necessary to say more on this head here, as it will be 
 dealt with in detail under materials.
 
 31 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 |HE plant and appliances required by 
 painters are largely the same as those 
 needed by other branches of the 
 building trade; and the treatment 
 of this branch of the subject will 
 be little more than an enumeration 
 of, and a specification of, the principal 
 items. 
 
 Ladders. Ladders come first, both 
 in order of importance and in cost. 
 The form slightly varies in different 
 parts of the country. The ladder 
 best constituted to meet the demands 
 of the general house painter is formed from the two halves of a 
 sound fir pole, lightened down to a size just sufficient to bear the 
 strain of its length. The staves or rounds, sometimes called 
 " rungs," are of ash, oak, or hickory; and for painters maybe placed 
 10 inches apart from centre to centre. At each ten staves or so, a 
 wrought-iron bolt is inserted, either below or through the stave, 
 and secured by washers and nuts or rivetted over, on the outside 
 of the ladder. Sometimes an iron stave half to three quarters of
 
 32 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 an inch thick is substituted for the oak stave at intervals ; in 
 either case the object is to hold the sides of the ladder together. 
 The width of the ladder between the staves is to some extent 
 regulated by its height, but at the top they must be just wide 
 enough to allow a man to stand with both feet side by side 
 easily. Ladders for general builders are heavier, and the staves 
 are placed more closely together to facilitate the easy ascent 
 with heavy weights. Ladders are required of various lengths, 
 ranging from 10 feet to 60 feet. The most generally useful 
 are from 24 to 40 rounds long. A good ladder should have 
 plenty of spring in it, and both sides should give equally, 
 forming a perfect curve when suspended by its two ends, the 
 curve, of course, being less sharp at the foot end of the ladder 
 than at the top. 
 
 Selection. Of two ladders of equal length, the lightest should 
 be preferred, other points being equal ; as in the painting trade 
 no great strain is put upon the ladders. In selecting a ladder, 
 buy it before it is painted, and look for straightness of grain and 
 solidity of wood to the heart. Avoid pithy centred wood or 
 wood that is sappy, in the outer rings especially. Notice that 
 the holes are clean bored for the staves, that the staves fill them 
 properly, and that in wedging the staves the side has not been 
 split or shaken. 
 
 Mode of Using. When a ladder is too short for a particular 
 purpose, it is sometimes spliced by lashing another ladder to it. 
 This is done either while the ladders are on the ground, when 
 it is a comparatively simple matter, or after the first ladder has 
 been reared up. 
 
 In the first method the long ladder is placed upon the ground, 
 and the shorter one laid upon it. At least six rounds should 
 be covered. The bottom stave of the top ladder should then 
 be firmly lashed to the sixth stave from the top of the lower 
 ladder, and the cords carried up the sides round each stave, 
 bringing the sides of the two ladders firmly together, working 
 over each round to prevent the top ladder slipping, and finishing 
 off by lashing the top stave of the lower ladder to the sixth 
 from bottom of the top one. The lashing must be repeated in 
 an exactly similar manner, so as to obtain equality of tension 
 and spring. Strong flax sash cord are better than scaffold ropes 
 for splicing, as they take less room and leave the rounds clear 
 of encumbrance. 
 
 In use, the spliced ladder should be placed so that the top 
 ladder is beneath the lower one that is, the position in which 
 they are laid on the ground is reversed. If this is done there
 
 PI-ATE 6.-SELECTION OF CONTRAST IN PAPER HANGINGS. 
 To face p. 32.]
 
 PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 33 
 
 is no obstacle to the ascent, and no trap to catch the unwary 
 when descending, both of which faults occur if the top ladder is 
 in front of the lower one. Another advantage is, that all knots 
 are on the underside, out of the way. 
 
 Ladders should be painted with boiled oil. The addition of 
 red or white lead adds materially to the weight. The oil is the 
 true preservative element in paint, and any light pigment may 
 be added merely to give distinctiveness without needlessly adding 
 to the weight of the ladder. In common with all plant, ladders 
 should be lettered with the name and address of the ownei-, both 
 for the sake of easy recognition and for advertisement. They 
 should be branded with a hot iron on every 10 feet, for protec- 
 tion, as the painted name can easily be obliterated. In addition, 
 ladders and steps should always be numbered. This simplifies 
 entering and aids identification. 
 
 London painters probably possess the best and longest ladders 
 in the Kingdom. The London form of painter's ladder combines 
 the maximum strength with the minimum weight. Many in use 
 in the West of London are 80 feet in length. 
 
 In raising and lowering long ladders considerable variance of 
 procedure exists. The methods are necessarily changed by 
 change of circumstances. Whenever possible a ladder fall or long 
 rope should be used, both for the sake of safety and economy. 
 It is let down from a window or roof, and one end is fastened 
 round the top stave of the ladder. The end of the ladder is 
 placed against the wall, a curb, or is "footed" by a couple of 
 men, and the man at the top hauls in the rope. As soon as the 
 ladder is up, the two men at the foot can guide it into position. 
 A ladder of any length can be easily raised by three men in this 
 way, and an ordinarily long ladder by two. In raising such a 
 ladder without the fall or rope at least four men will be necessary. 
 The two shortest and heaviest men should always foot the ladder, 
 or, if it can be set against a curb, one will suffice at foot. When 
 partly up, the amount of leverage exerted by the long end of the 
 ladder is considerable. The use of a shorter ladder as a crutch 
 to take the weight while the men shift positions or rest is often 
 resorted to in the case of very long or heavy ladders. The fact 
 that by this means a man can reach so much higher than the 
 other men, gives him increased power over the weight and makes 
 his assistance trebly useful. 
 
 In connection with the use of ladders the following warnings 
 are necessary: The ladder must be firmly set on both legs. 
 Both top ends must rest equally against the wall or other 
 support. The foot of the ladder must be at such distance from 
 
 3
 
 34 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 the wall, that when sprung by pressure upon itself it will not 
 recoil to a vertical position. If the ladder has more than thirty 
 rounds it should be lightly secured by a cord at or near the top. 
 Seen in front elevation it should always be perpendicular. If 
 the ground is not level, one end must be wedged up to make 
 it so. 
 
 Ladder Brackets. From ladders to ladder brackets is but a 
 step. There are several patterns, the simplest being the best. 
 One of the simplest consists of a Y-shaped iron, having the split 
 ends of the Y hooked, to clip the stave of the ladder. At the 
 bottom of the Y, or single end, is a ring and chain having a hook 
 at the end. It can be used either over or under the ladder, and 
 is merely hooked on the stave by the double end and the chain 
 hooked a few staves higher up in such a way that the Y-iron 
 forms a horizontal rest for the plank. Another simple form is a 
 fixed triangular bracket, the top of which forms a level bearing 
 for a plank. A turned up end prevents the plank from slipping 
 off, and the side of the triangle which rests against the ladder is 
 continued above the angle and provided with hooks by which it 
 is hooked over the staves of the ladder. 
 
 Preference should be given to those forms of plank supports 
 which do not depend upon the strength of one stave of the 
 ladder, and which have no loose working parts, as pins, &c. 
 
 Scaffold Poles. For scaffolding halls, public buildings, stair- 
 cases, &c., a few good scaffold poles are requisite. These should 
 range from 20 feet to 40 feet long. Fir poles are used for the 
 purpose. They should be straight, light, and free from large 
 shakes. A seasoned fir pole always contains a number of small 
 superficial cracks, but these should not extend into the wood 
 below the outer annular rings, and are not to be mistaken for 
 defects. 
 
 In selecting poles, notice that the butt end of the pole has 
 not been thinned down, but tapers naturally, gradually, and 
 regularly from butt to top, and that the pole is not too heavy 
 for its length. New poles should be barked, and all roughnesses 
 taken off with a spokeshave. It is a good plan to char the 
 bottom ends of painters' scaffold poles, and to well saturate the 
 top ends with boiled oil and red lead, as they get less use than 
 a general builder's poles, and this plan will preserve them. 
 
 Planks. Planks are the next items of importance. Local 
 usages and prejudices prescribe many slight differences in 
 thickness, quality, and breadth. 
 
 A plank should be selected for its toughness, lightness, and 
 Stiffness; a large amount of spring in a plank, although indi-
 
 PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 35 
 
 cative of strength and toughness, is an element of danger. A 
 springing plank on trestles will sometimes of its own action 
 and recoil, close up and overthrow the trestles before attention 
 has been drawn to the fact that they were closing up. On the 
 other hand, a plank that will not bend is probably a cross- 
 grained one, and will snap off like a carrot if overweighted. 
 Good spruce is better than pine for planks if it be free from 
 large knots. Wood from small trees is the toughest for 
 ordinary work. One and a-half to 2 inches by from 9 inches 
 to 11 inches is a good thickness and breadth, and from 10 to 
 16 feet in length will be most useful. In selecting a plank, 
 choose a fir or spruce board in which the centre portion of the 
 board has formed the heart of the tree. Long knots running 
 transversely through the board near the ends are useful, as 
 they prevent the ends splitting, but on no account must these 
 knots occur near the centre of the board, or the board will snap 
 across at the knots when under pressure. The portion of the 
 board between the ends should be quite free from large knots. 
 If there are a number of small knots equally distributed so as 
 not to interfere with the free play or spring of the board, they 
 are of no consequence ; indeed, the board will wear better for 
 their presence. 
 
 Sometimes it is the practice to clamp the ends of planks with 
 hoop iron, to prevent splitting. This is a clumsy practice not 
 to be recommended for painters' planks. It makes the plank 
 unfit for use in a good house, as, when set down on end, it 
 scratches the floors. The irons are also dangerous to the hands 
 of the workman. They work loose, too, and sometimes trip a 
 man up or tear the clothes. If it be deemed necessary to 
 protect the ends against a tendency to split, a three-eighths of 
 an inch augur hole and a glued dowel in it through the board 
 3 inches from each end will do so. The corners should be 
 cut off, so that if the board is dropped on one end, it does not 
 get all the force of the blow on the extreme points, a thing 
 which often starts a board to split. 
 
 Scaffold Construction. The subject of scaffold construction 
 will not be dealt with in the present work. It is usually left to 
 special hands, who have had special experience, and does not 
 come within the range of ordinary painters' work. 
 
 A few self-explanatory sketches of ties and knots which may 
 be of occasional use are, however, given here. 
 
 In Pig. 4, 1 and 2 represent the method of tying cross poles 
 or ledgers to uprights, back and front view ; 3 and 4, the 
 method of attaching slings to uprights to take a plank without
 
 36 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 ledgers, the plank resting in the slings, back and front view 
 given ; 5 is the method of tying two ropes together to make a 
 longer one, to use as a ladder fall or for haulage ; 6 and 7 show 
 the method of tying two uprights viz., splicing poles to add 
 to their height, back and front view ; 8 is the same for per- 
 manent scaffold, wedged and the ends tucked in ; 6 shows the 
 
 Fig. 4. Scaffolding knots and ties. 
 
 appearance of this method when seen from the back ; 9 is a 
 suspensory sling used for dropping the pole a stage lower than 
 the supporting ledgers; 10 and 11 show the hitch and half hitch 
 used for hauling poles and planks to the top of the scaffold, a 
 ready method that cannot slip. The technical names for these 
 knots differ with localities. 
 
 Trestles. Trestles, or tressels, are double ladders hinged
 
 PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 37 
 
 together at the top and arranged for use in pairs to support a 
 plank. Both sides of the trestle being equally available for use, 
 it is not the practice to insert staves on both sides at every step, 
 but to omit one alternately on each side, thereby proportionately 
 lightening and cheapening the construction. 
 
 A single trestle or ladder set upright in a fixed frame or 
 stand is used in the Midlands, but the extra thickness required 
 to make the trestle of sufficient strength, and the ungainly 
 shape of the stand at bottom, causes it to compare unfavourably 
 with the ordinary hinged trestle. This trestle cannot be used 
 apart from a plank, and is not easy to ascend and descend. 
 
 The trestles in common use appear generally to err on the side 
 of weight and clumsiness. If designed with a more scientific 
 knowledge of construction they might be equally safe and of 
 half the weight. They are frequently set out and made by an 
 ordinary carpenter in his slack time. If made in hard wood they 
 might be less cumbrous and would last longer. No staves, 
 except a stay bar, are required in the lowermost 2 feet, and for 
 high trestles staves 18 inches apart are quite close enough. 
 Some of the trestles and steps used in the north of England are 
 so substantial as to materially interfere with the view of the 
 general effect of the work in progress and the free movement of 
 the men. It occurs to the writer to mention here, as a companion 
 fault, that many decorators have their steps, &c., painted in such 
 a pronounced and assertive fashion as to interfere with one's 
 sense of colour and correct judgment. This should be avoided. 
 The top of the trestles should not be wider than will con- 
 veniently hold a wide plank; the bottom should slope out to 
 from 2 to 3 feet, according to the height of the trestle, so as to 
 give stability. 
 
 A form ot trestle used on the Continent has much to recom- 
 mend it. It is especially steady in use; it leaves the wall clear 
 and impedes the worker less than the usual form. The sides are 
 made of ash, lance- wood, or hickory, and are curved to the well- 
 known Eddy stone lighthouse form. The middle staves are thus 
 shorter and lighter, and the stability is retained. They are 
 hinged at the top in such a way as to be readily disconnected 
 and used singly as short ladders. 
 
 Trestles range in height from 6 to 20 feet, the generally useful 
 being from 8 to 10 feet. 
 
 Steps. Steps, or step ladders, commonly referred to as a pair 
 of steps, a name generally misapplied, are so common as to need 
 little or no description here. 
 
 The fronts, or steps proper, consist of a couple of boards 3 or
 
 38 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 4 inches wide and an inch thick, between which are set flat steps 
 about 9 inches apart, and at such an angle as to be horizontal 
 when the steps are in use. They are kept in position by a back, 
 consisting of two (3 inches by 1 inch) sides framed up to the neces- 
 sary width by tenoned rails and hinged to a fixed back piece at 
 the top. They are held open at the correct angle by cords pass- 
 ing from the back to the sides of front. Above all is a top board, 
 
 Fig. 5. Steps. 
 
 rather broader and wider than the steps, but not necessarily more 
 than 6 inches in breadth. 
 
 The form and details of steps vary considerably. Fig. 5 
 shows a usual form. There are a number of patent patterns, 
 but when the wear and tear and other matters are taken into 
 account they do not appear to be equally serviceable to the
 
 PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 39 
 
 painter. The old style steps can be readily adapted to various 
 positions, spaces, and uses. 
 
 They should be of tine dry pine, light, with strong wrought- 
 iron hinges ; the framing together must be strong and accurate 
 to stand the knocking about it is necessarily subjected to. 
 Strength and lightness combined should be the idea aimed at 
 in selecting a serviceable "steps." The hinges should be of 
 L-form, and fitted on the inside, so that there is no strain on 
 them when the steps are in use. The edges of the top piece 
 and back should be shot on the bevel, so that when the steps 
 are open the weight is taken off the hinges. In practice, in 
 order to economise time, they are more often hinged on the 
 outside, so that all the weight falls upon the hinges, and 
 gradually loosens them. Steps are often made wider at the 
 top than is necessary ; 9 inches between the sides at the top 
 is quite wide enough ; the width at the bottom depending on 
 the height of the " steps." 
 
 Cords. Scaffold cords are an important item, being costly 
 if purchased without proper consideration. Good hempen cord 
 prepared by saturation in Stockholm tar is to be preferred for 
 outside work. For indoor work lighter cords without tar are 
 preferable, especially for securing scaffolding to beams, columns, 
 and structural work. A cord made from a number of strands 
 is better than one made of a few. A cord ^ inch in diameter 
 is usually selected for ordinary scaffolding, but practice varies 
 according to the quality used, and a ^-inch cord may be as 
 strong as an inch one. Thin cords are more easily manipulated, 
 and a fine quality |-inch cord will outlast a |-inch cheaper one. 
 Long cords for pulley blocks and ladder falls should not be so 
 tarred as to be stiff. From 50 to 100 feet is their usual 
 length. Tarred ropes must be used for scaffolding which has 
 to be left standing out of doors for months together. 
 
 Many special appliances are used in certain districts, and 
 are more or less peculiar to those districts, but our space will 
 not allow us to do more than just mention ne or two of these. 
 
 Window Brackets. Window or gallows brackets, to fit 
 on to sills and project over the thoroughfare sufficiently to allow 
 the painter to paint outside sashes, frames, and louvre shutters 
 or sun-blinds, are used in the south of England and in London 
 and the home counties. They are especially useful at seaside 
 resorts, where external sun-blinds are much used. In principle 
 they are merely large brackets ; the back of the bracket rests 
 against the wall outside ; the top plank extends into the room, 
 and a series of holes and pins, or a ratchet attachment, allows a
 
 40 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 second back plank to be adjusted on the inside to the thickness 
 of the wall, which it grips immediately below the window. 
 
 Cradles. Cradles or boats are suspended scaffolds for 
 lowering from the roof in narrow streets or busy thoroughfares, 
 thus replacing ladders. They are also useful in cases where 
 buildings overhang rivers, or where glass houses or abutting 
 buildings prevent the use of ladders. They consist of a broad 
 plank slung on iron hangers, with hand rails for protection. A 
 couple of poles are run out from the roof, and pulley-blocks 
 rigged on their ends through which the suspending ropes are 
 worked. The loose ends of the ropes are carried down and are 
 under the control of the men using the cradle, who raise and 
 lower themselves as required. 
 
 Pulley Blocks. Pulley blocks have already been referred to. 
 Single and double blocks are required. They are useful for 
 many purposes, as for taking stuff up to the top of the scaffold, 
 the erection of poles, and the erection and striking of scaffolding. 
 Paste Boards. Paste boards and trestles are requisite for 
 the paperhangers. Paste boards are light ^-inch pine boards, 
 21 inches wide, for cutting and pasting upon. They are usually 
 made from two 11 -inch boards, each 6 feet long, hinged together 
 so as to fold for the convenience of carrying. The ends should 
 be tongued with hard wood tongues. A groove is cut into the 
 
 end grain of the board 
 inch wide, and an inch 
 deep, and a piece of oak or 
 ash glued into the groove. 
 The hinges should be brass 
 butts fixed with long fine 
 screws. This allows the 
 board to be used on both 
 sides, and the brass hinges 
 will not rust. Some 
 paste boards are made 
 with ledgered backs and 
 wrought - iron back flap 
 hinges, which are neither 
 so light nor so convenient. 
 Fig. 6.-Paperhanger' S trestle. If both sides are ava ii a bl e 
 
 for use one side can be 
 
 kept for pasting narrow work and oddments, and the other for 
 work which does not soil the board. 
 
 The trestles to hold the boards are made in several ways. 
 The best are small shut up trestles, in pairs ; one for each end
 
 PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 41 
 
 of the board, consisting of two light frames each hinged together 
 with webbing or light hinges (Fig. 6). They are compact and 
 firm. Another good form is a collapsible X-shaped trestle 
 (Fig. 7) made from 1-inch by 1^-inch stuff, and pivoted so as to 
 
 Fig. 7. Paperhanger's trestle, 
 
 close one within the other when not in use. Sheard's patent 
 combination board and trestle has recently placed all others out 
 of date. 
 
 Paint Bench Trestles. Bench trestles, similar in construc- 
 tion to the first-mentioned paperhanger's trestles, but rougher 
 and heavier, are recommended for the portable paint bench. A 
 board constructed of four 6-feet lengths of 6-inch x 1-inch flooring, 
 and battened at the back, forms the top. Paperhanger's boards 
 should never be used for a paint bench, because of the danger 
 of oil working into the paper ; neither should the provision of 
 a proper paint bench be left to chance, but a bench such as is 
 here described should be sent to all jobs of any size or import- 
 ance. 
 
 Dust Sheets. Dust cloths or drop sheets are frequently 
 neglected. They form a most necessary part of the painter's 
 outfit. Rough unbleached sheeting of a coarse make, 2| yards 
 wide, in lengths of 5 yards each will be necessary. They should 
 be stamped with the owner s name, and sent to every job in 
 sufficient numbers to cover up the floors and furniture. With 
 those who care for a clean and tidy house, a sufficiency of cloths 
 form a powerful recommendation, and no outlay on plant brings 
 a better or more profitable return to the employer. A few 
 narrow 1-yard wide cloths are useful for covering passages, stairs, 
 hand-rails, <kc., and a few square ones for throwing round gai
 
 42 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 fittings and small objects. Some smaller, heavier, close-woven 
 cloths, about 1 yard by 1^ yards, for men to move about with 
 them when doing dirty jobs, as when rubbing down or burning 
 off, are very desirable. The canvas used for packing bales of 
 paper is of little use as drop cloths, as, from its coarseness, the 
 spots of paint and distemper splash right through them. A few 
 heavy twill or sail-cloths of very large size are desirable for 
 covering the whole floor of a room, when it is likely to be in the 
 painter's hands for some weeks. This will stand the constant 
 wear and tear of men and trestles. The material of which shop 
 blinds are made is good for this purpose, and the expense should 
 not be grudged when it is considered that the use of such means 
 to protect the floors, does so much to ensure the confidence and 
 respect of the client. 
 
 All dust sheets should be hemmed round and stamped near 
 the edges, or they are apt to become smaller by degrees and 
 beautifully less, as strip by strip is appropriated for paint rags. 
 
 To Protect Stone Floors, Tiles, &c. It may be noted here 
 that the best method of protecting tile or stone floors where much 
 painting is being done, as in churches, &c., is to liberally strew 
 the floor with sawdust. This absorbs the spots of oil paint as 
 they fall and prevents irreparable injury where soft stone is in 
 question. It also prevents scratching or grazing upon tiles, 
 when shifting scaffolding about. 
 
 Testing Scaffolding; Marking and Repainting Plant. All 
 scaffold-poles, planks, steps, &c., must be periodically examined 
 and tested for flaws, loose hinges, rotten cords, and similar defects. 
 Every article should be marked anew with the full name and 
 address of the owner, both as a safeguard against loss and as a 
 good advertisement. They should be both branded and lettered. 
 
 The re-painting should be done at stated periods when other 
 work is slack, and should not be overdone, as every coat of paint 
 adds to the weight and consequent cost of handling and cartage. 
 
 Cartage. Oartage is a question which may fairly be con- 
 sidered in this connection. It is not possible to make any 
 general rule for this item, as circumstances in urban, suburban, 
 and rural districts and city centres all vary. A hand-cart or 
 truck must of course be kept; or two, if necessary. In few town 
 cases is it economical to keep one's own horses and carts, but in 
 suburban or country districts a light cart is a necessity. 
 
 A valuable general principle is that apprentices or skilled 
 workmen should not be employed in the handling or haulage of 
 scaffolding. Labourers and horse power are cheaper and more 
 effective. The delegation of this work to the skilled craftsman,
 
 PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 43 
 
 though in no sense derogatory to him, inevitably lowers his 
 standard, lessens his pride in his craft, and gradually makes him 
 a rougher and more careless workman, besides which it is 
 unprofitable to the employer. 
 
 Storage of Scaffolding. The storage of scaffolding is a 
 matter that is frequently overlooked. All classes of scaffolding 
 require putting under cover, if possible. Ladders should be 
 well supported to keep them straight, and not be suspended by 
 the two ends. A good plan is to form a rack with rollers, so 
 that the sides of the ladders do not get all the paint scratched 
 off them in getting them in and out. When ladders are hung up 
 by one side there is a tendency to loosen the staves. Poles may 
 be laid on the ground, and piled one upon another, but the 
 lower ones should be kept ventilated by being raised on short 
 cross poles or they will draw dampness from the soil. If the 
 ladders and poles cannot be kept undercover, the next best plan 
 is to keep them erect, safely kept in place by rails, cords, or 
 chains. They must be quite upright with no strain on them. 
 Planks may be set on edge, with air spaces between them, firmly 
 supported so that they are kept straight. The outhouse in 
 which the steps and trestles, as well as the foregoing scaffolding, 
 are kept will be better if freely open to the air viz., with lattice 
 sides. They must be kept dry or, when taken indoors, the joints 
 will shrink and the wedges fall out. 
 
 Iron Eods and Tube for Scaffolding. In considering the 
 question of scaffolding, it may be borne in mind that ordinary 
 iron barrels (gas-piping) with the usual elbow and tee joints and 
 sockets are very useful adjuncts; difficult bits of work may 
 often be reached by the use of them. The writer has seen them 
 used with considerable ingenuity in theatres and churches. 
 
 The weight sustainable by a 30 feet drop of |-inch bore iron 
 gas-pipe, connected in the ordinary way by f-inch iron threaded 
 sockets, is, in a vertical pull, no less than 4^ tons. Even 
 an ordinary gaselier with f inch connection, if properly 
 fixed, will sustain a weight of 2 tons. The knowledge of these 
 facts is often turned to profitable account by painters who are 
 also plumbers and gasfitters, as is usual in London suburbs and 
 many other places. Due regard must be paid to the question of 
 leverage, as the threads will not stand diagonal pressure in any 
 great degree. 
 
 Small Articles. In addition to the scaffolding, very little 
 actual plant is required except brushes, which will be dealt with 
 in a separate chapter, but the few remaining small goods which 
 are now enumerated are indispensable.
 
 44 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Buckets. As buckets for distemper, washing off, &c., ordinary 
 2- and 3-gallon galvanised pails or buckets are the best. 
 
 Cans or Kettles. Paint cans or kettles are made of tinned 
 iron, galvanised iron or zinc. Of these, a large number is 
 requisite. Zinc will scrape out easily, but will not stand paint 
 solvents or removers. Tinned and galvanised iron can be left 
 soaking in the pickle tub till the paint will rinse off. Three, 
 four, five, and six, and a small number of eight-inch cans are 
 required, the same in height as in diameter. In some parts of 
 the country they are made bucket or tapered shape. The gain 
 in convenience is counterbalanced by their increased liability 
 to overturn. Some cans are made with provision for hooking 
 to ladders for outside work, and some have a nick in the handle 
 to keep the ladder hook in the centre. 
 
 Pots or Pans. Thumb or hand pots or pans are desirable 
 for distemper colours, and are useful for many purposes. Ordinary 
 red-clay or brown-clay pots, glazed on the inside, are made for 
 this purpose, with handles at the side. Iron vessels must not 
 be used for distemper, as they rust, but zinc ones may be used, 
 and are extremely light and serviceable. 
 
 The pots must be thoroughly soaked in water before use, and 
 after being well soaked, they may be used for paint ; the larger 
 sizes are very convenient for general mixing. Pots are some- 
 times made with a lip to facilitate pouring. In the larger sizes 
 this is an advantage. 
 
 Small Pots, &c. For small bits of colour, galipots, jam pots, 
 and small tins may be accumulated ad libitum. Bottles, both 
 of glass and sheet tin, with wide necks or with narrow ones 
 should also be stored up for use. Odd plates, saucers, and cups 
 are always useful in the paint shop, the former for using over- 
 graining or glaze colours from, and the latter for using on the 
 finger when picking out cornices and similar work. Tin handled 
 drinking mugs are also light and extremely convenient for this 
 work. 
 
 Stock Drums or Kegs. Drums, kegs, and varnish bottles for 
 storage and mixing purposes may be retained instead of being 
 returned. Many up-to-date firms now send all small quantities 
 up to 2 gallons in free packages, so that there are always plenty 
 of small tins available. It is better to repaint all drums that 
 are retained, your own distinctive colour, as soon as you decide 
 not to return them. This will prevent errors arising. 
 
 Mixing Boards. Mixing boards as a substitute for the paint 
 stone on the jobs, and for making up tints when upon the 
 scaffolding, may be made from f-inch pine boards, about 12 inches
 
 PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 
 
 45 
 
 by 9 inches and 15 inches by 10 inches irrespective of handles. 
 A handle may be left at the narrow end, making the shape like 
 that of the back of an ordinary hair brush, with a hole through 
 
 Fig. 8. Paquelin lamp. 
 
 the handle to hang it up by when not in use. If covered 
 thin sheet zinc they will keep clean and scrape easily. 
 
 Burning-off Lamps. For removing old paint nothing is more 
 
 with 
 
 Fig. 9. Swedish lamp. 
 
 effective than the spirit lamp, which is made in several forms. 
 The writer prefers the "Paquelin" lamp (Fig. 8), to all others.
 
 46 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 This lamp can be used indoors and out, and in any position is 
 easily controlled, and the blast is strong and steady. All the 
 working parts are renewable. It is made in different sizes, and 
 a medium lamp burns at full blast for nearly two hours, giving 
 a heat of 1500 degrees Fahr. The spirit used is benzoline, and 
 the action of the blast is automatic, commencing as soon as the 
 blast chimney is heated to the flash point of the oil. 
 
 Fig. 10. The Invincible British blow lamp (Allen's patent). 
 
 Other good lamps are the Swedish torch (Fig. 9), the Invincible 
 CFig. 10), and the Etna, which differ in the method of producing 
 the blast. Barthel's patent automatic is also a useful pattern. 
 
 Fig. 11. Patent strainers for paint or distemper. 
 
 Charcoal Burners. In some situations charcoal burners are 
 useful, and several patterns are on the market. They are 
 especially recommended for burning-off large flat surfaces. 
 
 Strainers. Strainers for both distemper and paint are requisite.
 
 PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 47 
 
 Those with removable bottoms which allow of the gauze being 
 readily replaced by new are the most convenient. They may 
 be made by any tinman. Two patterns which have been tested 
 and found useful are illustrated here. A is suitable for either 
 paint or distemper, but the other is especially designed for paint, 
 and the perforated bottom prevents any mishap owing to breaking 
 away of the gauze under the weight of paint. These strainers 
 will be found very convenient, as the gauze can be easily taken 
 out and replaced ; the arrangements for this purpose being very 
 handy and effective. As shown in the illustration, the clips B 
 secure the band C, and thus firmly hold the gauze D in position. 
 A new strainer with loose interchangeable bottoms and no under 
 edges has been recently introduced by Mr. Bennett, of Manchester. 
 Other sundries will be mentioned in connection with the 
 operations with which they are used. 
 
 Fig. 12. Hamilton & Co.'s improved paint strainers. 
 
 Plant Book. The importance of a correct record of the 
 whereabouts of plant, and the assurance of its due return to the 
 shop, cannot be too strongly emphasized. A plant book in 
 which each item is tabulated should have a page devoted to 
 every job, with columns for date and enumeration. This ensures 
 the return of each item sent out. A second book should be 
 kept as a stock plant book, in which a page is devoted to every 
 article, and its whereabouts clearly entered from the preceding 
 book. The employer can then see at a glance where the par- 
 ticular ladders or trestles are, and judge whether they are at 
 liberty to be fetched away and taken elsewhere. 
 
 Rough Entry or Day Book for Paint Shop. The work of trans- 
 posing the entries from the rough day book to the plant book 
 will of course be the duty of the clerk, and will not be done at 
 the workshop, where the only book that is necessary is the rough
 
 48 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 day book, in -which everything, plant or material, that goes out 
 or comes in, must be set down in the order of its coming or 
 going, for future separation and allocation in the office. 
 
 Quantity of Plant Eequired on Jobs. In sending out 
 plant to a job a complete and sufficient quantity should be sent 
 at once to avoid additional expense of single items going in 
 supplementary journeys. It may be calculated that a pair of 
 steps or a trestle will be necessary for each man sent, and a 
 plank to each two men. For every man on an outside job one 
 ladder will be necessary, this allows for splicing and contin- 
 gencies. These suggestions are, of course, comparatively useful. 
 A better plan is to know exactly what will be the actual require- 
 ments by a careful look round the job itself. Scaffolding must 
 be calculated for with care and accuracy, length and number of 
 poles, planks, number of ropes, wedges, &c., as all these items, 
 in the absence of a correct list of requirements, may mean an 
 unnecessary amount of haulage. Two cans, and a bucket, and a 
 set of brushes, are the minimum allowance required for each 
 man. A good plan is to have a printed requisition form setting 
 forth all the items usually required, and having spaces for filling 
 in the quantities. This saves much time and thought, and 
 obviates the possibility of important items being left out. There 
 must be a space left for contingencies, as there are many items 
 that are only occasionally required which it would be useless to 
 enumerate. A copy of this form can be filled in by the foreman 
 or the employer when making out the estimate. 
 
 There are many additional items of plant which are required 
 in shops where special classes of work are predominant.
 
 7CONTRASTING ARRANGEMENTS OF PAPERHANGINGS, 
 Tojmcep. 48.]
 
 49 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 
 
 RUSHES for painting are various and 
 costly, ranging from coarse dusting 
 brushes to those composed of the 
 finest and rarest hair found in the 
 animal kingdom. Various kinds of 
 hair and bristles adapt themselves to 
 special manipulative processes ; thus 
 the variety used is considerable. The 
 bristles are set in holders and handles 
 of wood and metal of various kinds 
 and shapes, and are held together 
 by twine, cord, wire, metal bands, 
 quills, and other contrivances. 
 
 Hog-hair. The principal ordinary kinds are made from hog's 
 hair of various qualities, obtained from Russia, America, and, in 
 lesser quantities, Germany and France. With this is mixed for 
 the commoner brushes other less expensive substances, as horse 
 hair, whalebone, vegetable fibre, &c. 
 
 Hog's hair is divided into grades ; the finest, used for small 
 tools of the very best quality, is usually termed " Lyons hair," 
 and comes from Prance. This is not available for very large and. 
 
 4
 
 50 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 long brushes. The next quality used for best varnish and paint 
 brushes is termed "lily hair" or "best whites." Then come 
 "yellow " and " grey " bristles, and, finally, " black," which are 
 the cheapest. 
 
 Various Hair used in Brushes. Brushes for fine lining, artist's 
 work, graining and special processes, are made from a large 
 assortment of hair ; among the most important are ox hair, or 
 taurus hair, fitch hair, camel hair (which is not obtained from 
 the camel now, but from the fox), bear hair, sable hair, badger 
 hair, and others. Indeed, nearly all fur-bearing animals are laid 
 under contribution to the cause. 
 
 Hog-hairbrushes are more freely sophisticated than any others, 
 and they form the bulk of the whole list of brushes. The 
 articles used for adulteration are horse hair, cow hair, whale- 
 bone, and vegetable fibre, the latter being usually the fibrous 
 sinews of the evergreen aloe leaf, a plant found in South America, 
 and having thick, fleshy, long, spear-like leaves. 
 
 Foreign Brushes. A large variety of hog-hair brushes are 
 made in Germany and in America for export, and find their 
 way into this country. Most of the bristles used in them are of 
 fair quality and genuine hog hair ; but it is so dressed and 
 bleached that it is not safe to assume its quality without a 
 practical test. A large amount of care is bestowed in making 
 these brushes presentable for the market, and practical utility is 
 sacrificed thereby. Actual experiment proves that in wear the 
 bristles that have been so bleached have less spring and durability 
 than ordinary English grey brushes of similar weight. 
 
 French Brushes. French brushes are usually carelessly and 
 clumsily made, so far as appearance goes, but in working they 
 are excellent, and it will be found that proper allowance has 
 been made in French brushes for swelling, wearing in, &c. They 
 are often dipped in glue size and allowed to dry, in order to keep 
 them in good shape till they are required for use, a proceeding 
 that does not improve their saleable appearance, but a good one 
 from a practical standpoint. French scene painting and dis- 
 temper tools are particularly serviceable. 
 
 Methods of Fixing Hair. The method of tying or binding hog- 
 hair brushes are so varied that space will not admit of par- 
 ticularisation. In practice, it will be found that heavy metal 
 ferrules are objectionable ; that for large brushes string binding 
 is liable to get cut, to burst, or to rot ; that the method selected 
 should offer the least possible harbour for grit, the lodgment of 
 hard colour and water; and that it should be capable of scraping 
 and cleaning without danger of loosening the hairs.
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 51 
 
 Selection. Oare must be taken in making a selection that 
 brushes intended for paint shall stand both turps and water 
 without coming to pieces, as some brushes made for special pur- 
 poses will not do so. Hog-hair brushes should be soft at the 
 point, the hair being split and divided at the ends when left in 
 their natural state. Inferior bristles are cut and trimmed up at 
 the ends, and are thereby rendered coarse and stiff. In a well-made 
 brush the bristles are sorted into lengths, and any irregularities 
 are corrected by a process of grinding or scraping the bristles. 
 The selection of brushes made from good hog-hair is not a diffi- 
 cult matter to a man who understands the techniqtie of painting, 
 because he knows the qualifications of a good brush and looks 
 for them. The most that a maker of a poor brush can do is to 
 make it present an appearance of the real article. 
 
 Test of good Brushes. The first test of a good brush is its 
 price. The value of hog bristles, fit for the best brushes, is 
 about 10s. per Ib. Allowing for a margin of waste in making up, 
 it is thus at once apparent that 8 ounces of genuine bristles in a 
 brush, means a cost of at least 5s., plus the cost of making-up. 
 But this is merely a negative test, because a spurious brush may 
 be sold at a high figure. 
 
 The next test is microscopic. The horny appearance of the 
 true bristle is thus readily distinguishable from all kinds of fibre, 
 while its complete sectional form prevents its confusion with split 
 whalebone or with horse hair. Next, the spring of the brush is 
 a fairly reliable test, especially if single hairs be bent at a sharp 
 angle and then released. 
 
 A final, and most reliable, test for fibre is to singe the hairs 
 singly. The true bristle frizzles up and gives off an offensive 
 odour, while the fibre burns clear and is odourless. Different 
 hairs give off different odours, which are distinguishable with 
 practice. Fibres leave an ash after burning, bristle leaves 
 none. 
 
 Returning to the microscopic test a good complete bristle 
 tapers from root to point, while horse-hair tapers much less, 
 indeed, to any but a keen eye, it is apparently of the same thick- 
 ness throughout its length. 
 
 From these remarks it will be apparent to the practical man 
 that he need not be imposed upon by the substitution of other 
 materials for bristles. The real difficulty of selection lies in the 
 distinguishing of the different qualities of the genuine article, 
 and here there is a wide field in which to buy experience. 
 
 The microscope will again be of assistance, revealing any 
 defects in the condition and preservation of the bristles, ex-
 
 52 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 posing hollo wness, dryness, lack of solidity and bleaching or 
 other doctoring up of cheap bristles. It will further show if 
 all the bristles are of the same quality. It would, however, 
 take a complete course of study to become an expert in the 
 quality of bristles. The safest plan is to buy of a maker who 
 has a reputation to maintain, and to use practical judgment 
 in the selection of what feels to be a brush having the qualities 
 you know that such a brush requires. 
 
 A brush, the bristles of which have any tendency to spread 
 outwards, should be avoided. The wood core of the brush 
 should not be too large, or it will cause separation of the brush 
 and hollowness in wear, nor should the core project too far into 
 the brush, but only sufficient to take the pressure of the 
 binding. The quantity of bristle should be compared with the 
 size of the brush, by winding a piece of string tightly round 
 below the stock. The diameter of the core should not be more 
 than one-third that of the brush. 
 
 Fig. 13. Two- and three-knot distemper brushes. 
 
 Distemper Brushes. The following list comprises most of 
 the general brushes used in the trade. 
 
 Distemper brushes for large surfaces, as walls and ceilings, 
 are made in various qualities of bristle and of various patterns. 
 They are made in separate knots of hair, each knot separated 
 by and bound to the stock. Two-knot brushes (Fig. 13) are the 
 most generally used, but three and four knots get over the 
 ground more quickly, and are preferable for large ceilings or
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 
 
 53 
 
 walls. The labour is proportionately heavier, so that the saving 
 is not great. 
 
 The three-knot brush (Fig. 13) is the commoner kind used for 
 rougher work. Distemper brushes are also made in the flat form 
 shown in Fig. 14, in which the bristles are evenly distributed 
 along both sides of the stock, and kept in place by leather bands 
 nailed to the stock. This form is used in country places, and is 
 a favourite in the North of England, 
 
 Fig. 14. Nailed stock distemper brushes. 
 
 The Best Distemper Brushes. Two patterns of these are 
 shown, the smaller one being the Yorkshire pattern. Another 
 form, and one fast becoming a favourite, consists of a single 
 flattish knot of bristles kept in place by a copper or brass band 
 (Fig. 15). The better qualities of this description are used in 
 America and elsewhere, for painting compo or weather boarded
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 outsides where a considerable space has to be covered. Various 
 patterns, showing the most important variations in make, are 
 
 B'ig. 15. The best form of distemper brush. 
 
 illustrated (Figs. 16, 17 and 18). Some of the slight differences 
 of form are due to local prejudices. 
 
 Fig. 16. Common tin bound distemper brush. 
 
 The American brush (Fig. 17) is light and sparse in bristle, 
 and is particularly well adapted for the plastico and gypsum 
 
 Fig. 17. American distemper brush. 
 
 preparations which are apt to set and harden in the stock of 
 full bristled brush.
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 
 
 55 
 
 Sizes. Distemper brushes are denominated by the weight of 
 hair they contain, which ranges from 8 to 12 ounces. They 
 
 Fig. 18. Wall, shingle, and weather boarding brushes. 
 
 are also distinguished by the number of knots, and in the case 
 of flat brushes by their breadth, ranging from 3^ to 8 inches. 
 
 Wash-off, Caustic, and Lime-white Brushes. Wash-off 
 brushes (Fig. 19) are like distemper brushes in form, but made 
 
 Fig. 19. Wash-off brush. 
 
 from cheaper hair. Some brushes are made for use in strong 
 alkali, and vegetable fibre is used for these in place of hair. 
 They are made in both the knot and nailed stock forms. 
 
 Special round coarse fibre brushes are made for applying
 
 56 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 caustic solutions and paint removers (Fig. 20). Lime-washing 
 brushes are a cheaper form of distemper brushes, but another 
 form, shown in Fig. 21, is also used for lime. 
 
 All the foregoing brushes should be well soaked before use, 
 not only when new, but also after any length of disuse. They 
 
 Fig. 20. Caustic brush. 
 
 must be thoroughly washed out, after using, in warm water and 
 rinsed in cold water. If they have been used in Duresco, or 
 other washable distemper, they must be thoroughly freed from 
 all trace of it by rinsing in vinegar. They must on no account 
 be left standing in any preparation containing lime for a length 
 
 Fig. 21. Loose head lime white brush. 
 
 of time, neither should they be left in water sufficiently long for 
 it to attack the binding. 
 
 Painters' Dusters. Dusters that is, brushes for removing 
 the dust from work prior to painting, and for sweeping the 
 margins of the floor near the skirting, treads and risers, <fec. 
 are made in many forms (Figs. 22, 23, and 24). 
 
 The pattern used in Manchester (Fig. 23), and in the North 
 generally, is better for getting into corners than the round 
 duster, and is especially useful on staircases. Dusters should 
 be occasionally washed, the bristles only being wetted, or they 
 may be loosened from the stock. 
 
 For dusting down brickwork or compo walls prior to repainting
 
 SfflfiM
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 57 
 
 fibre scrub-shaped brush (Fig. 25) is used. It is also very 
 
 Fig. 23. Manchester painter's duster. 
 
 Pig. 24. London painter's duster. 
 
 necessary for well brushing fences or gates near the ground, and 
 kindred purposes.
 
 58 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Paint or Ground Brushes. Paint or ground brushes is the 
 name given to the larger brushes used for oil painting. They 
 are made in a variety of forms of which we illustrate the more 
 
 general types. No. 1 (Fig. 26) 
 shows a knot brush. This 
 brush is elliptical in form and 
 keeps its shape when in use 
 fairly well. No. 2 is an oval 
 wire - bound brush. These 
 brushes, which are termed 
 Fig. 25. Fibre scrub brush. O val, are more correctly 
 
 speaking elliptical. It is a 
 
 reliable form of brush, and is readily cleaned and changed from 
 colour to colour. No. 3 is a round brush, and No. 4 is a 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. No. 3. 
 
 Fig. 26. Paint or ground brushes. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 "flat oval." All these brushes are wire-bound, and the wire 
 binding is soldered together to prevent untying. They are
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 59 
 
 made by C. A. Watkin's patent, and we regard them as the most 
 perfect brushes in the trade. 
 
 Ground brushes are made in sizes distinguished by numbers, 
 and weights in ounces which designate the weight of bristle in 
 the brush, as Nos. 1 to 8, and 1 oz. or 1/0 to 8 oz. or 8/0. The 
 4/0 brush is usually the best size for general purposes. 
 
 Before putting a new brush into paint it is desirable to soak 
 the stock of the brush if it be a string-bound one or has a wooden 
 stock. Many of the better patterns made now do not require 
 soaking, asthe bristlesare held in place by mechanical contrivances. 
 Do not wet the bristles, but hold them open and pour water into 
 the centre, or stand them handle down in water up to the binding 
 for a few hours. When not being used, after having once been put 
 into the paiut, they must be submerged to the stock in water, or 
 if not likely to be used for some time, they should be well 
 washed in hot water and soap. These rules apply to all brushes 
 used in paint. Yellow bar soap is better than any other for this 
 purpose. 
 
 Patent Ready -Made Brush Bridles. When new, a ground 
 brush or tool will require tying up, or bridling, so that the 
 bristles are not too long for use. This added binding will 
 require partially removing, from time to time, 
 as the bristles wear down. A ready-made 
 bridle (Fig. 27) is supplied by brushmakers. 
 
 How to Bridle a Brush. Most practical men 
 prefer to bind on their own bridling, a process 
 somewhat difficult to adequately describe in 
 words. There are several methods of accom- 
 plishing the purpose. Our illustration describes Fig. 27. Brush 
 one of the neatest. It represents the pro- bridle, 
 
 cess of tying up a 4/0 round brush. A knot 
 of whipcord is used for the purpose of making the bridle. Taking 
 the brush in the left hand, make a cross loop at the end of the 
 cord, and lay it on the brush as in 1 A (Fig. 28) ; then, on the 
 opposite side, place a loose loop of ordinary twine or string, 
 which will not form part of the finished bridle, but is merely for 
 the purpose of bringing the end through from the top of the 
 bridle when the binding is finished. Then, keeping the two 
 loops in place with the thumb and forefinger, proceed to wind 
 the cord round the brush, starting from the binding and working 
 toward the tips of the bristles. 1 A and 1 B show the upper and 
 under side of the brush when three or four coils have been wound 
 round. Do not wind too tightly. Continue plain winding till 
 within about three strands of the required height, but in the last 
 
 ,
 
 GO 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 three intertwine the cord as shown in 2 B and 3 B, and in the 
 last round of all, thread it through the two loops. Then draw 
 the loops down as shown in 2 A on the one side, and in 3 B on 
 the other side. In the latter case disengage the twine loop 
 which is done with, and draw the loose end of the cord through 
 until tight. Then knot the two loose ends as in E, and drive a 
 tack through the centre of the knots into the stock (as in C). 
 D shows the finished bridle and gives the correct proportional 
 depth of bridle to brush. The size of the cord is purposely 
 exaggerated to show the twisting more clearly. It will be 
 noticed that in this method, both the straight cords are kept 
 inside the bridle, thus making a neat and strong finish. 
 
 IB VfflV 2 B C 2.A 
 Fig. 28. Bridling a brush. 
 
 3B 
 
 To partially release the bridle and lower it, take out the 
 tacks, and unthread the last few coils by passing them over the 
 ends of the bristles. This may be carefully done without cutting 
 and without allowing the ends to slip under. Tighten up as 
 before, and re-knot, cutting off the unnecessary ends of cord.
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 
 
 61 
 
 Messrs. Bennett have recently introduced a useful addition 
 to paint brushes that require bridling. It is known as the 
 Joyce patent shoulder and loop, and is a practical improve- 
 ment. 
 
 Varnish Brushes. Varnish brushes (Fig. 29) are similar 
 in form to the foregoing, but, in consequence of their never 
 being used upon rough preparatory work to break them into 
 shape, they are bevelled for use. In the case of paint brushes, 
 their use in rough work accomplishes this bevelling. Varnish 
 brushes are also specially cemented to withstand the action of 
 spirits, and are not always made to resist water, as they are not 
 supposed to be put into water. 
 
 Fig. 29. Ordinary varnish brushes, three patterns. 
 
 The bristles are usually of a superior quality, finer and 
 straighter than those used in any but the very best paint 
 brushes. 
 
 Flat varnish brushes (Fig. 30) are a more recent innovation 
 than the preceding form, and are designed for coach and highly- 
 finished wood-work, and for use in the enamels now prevailing. 
 They are of far better form for leaving a highly-finished surface 
 than the oval or knot brush, but do not last so long in wear if 
 used on ordinary general work. 
 
 An additional form of varnish brush is shown in Fig. 
 31, which is useful for general outdoor work, sashes, fences, 
 and gates, railings, &c.; also an ordinary varnish sash tool 
 (Fig. 33).
 
 62 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Varnish brushes of every pattern, when not in use, should be 
 suspended by the handle in oil or varnish, and care taken that 
 the bristles do not touch the bottom of the vessel. 
 
 Nickel Plated Cases. Polished Cedar Handles. 
 
 Fig. 30. Bevelled flat varnish brushes. 
 
 Fig. 31. A form of varnish brush for general work. 
 
 Fig. 32. Varnish tool specially recommended for paper varnishes. 
 
 Sash Tools. Sash tool is the name given to the smaller 
 brushes used in painting. The forms they take are legion, 
 and a few selected patterns are shown (Figs. 33 to 35), with 
 notes on their special uses. They are intended for the smaller 
 parts where the 4/0 brush is too large and bulky, and also
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 
 
 63 
 
 for cutting up the edges of work, sash bars, &c. The same form 
 of brush is used as an auxiliary to the distemper or flat brush ; 
 they should therefore stand the action of both water and 
 temperature. The same class of tools are frequently used for 
 varnishing. 
 
 Fig. 33. Sash tool, string bound, ordinary form. 
 
 Fig. 34. Copper bound sash tool C. A. Watkins's patent. 
 
 Fig. 35. Sash cutting tool in tin. 
 
 Fig. 36. The Ensign Brand, newest method of fastening bristles 
 into brushes. A copper ferrule closed over the bristles by 
 patented machinery. 
 
 Tools are known by numbered sizes ranging from 1 to 12. 
 Paint tools must be kept suspended in water when not in use, 
 or may be washed and put away.
 
 64 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Stipplers. Stipplers are brushes used for producing a soft 
 and even surface to paint and distemper. The brush is dabbed 
 against the painted wall after the paint has been spread, and 
 while it is still wet, producing a granular instead of the usual 
 brush-marked surface. Stipplers must be washed in soap and 
 water, ordinary yellow soap, not soft soap, and dried and hung 
 up so that the bristles remain straight. The water must not be 
 boiling, and the wooden portion of the brush should not be put 
 into the water. Dip the tips of the hairs in and then rub them 
 across the soap till there is a composite lather of soap and paint, 
 then rinse. Do not scrub or bend the bristles unnecessarily, 
 
 Fig. 37. Hog-hair "fitches" in tin, round and flat. 
 
 Fig. 38. Hog-hair lining fitch in tin. 
 
 Fig. 39. French hog-hair tool string-bound for distemper painting. 
 
 Fig. 40. Quilled hog-hair for stippling and distemper lining. 
 
 but give the soap time to amalgamate with and destroy the oil 
 in the paint. Shake out the surplus moisture, dry by stippling 
 on a cloth and leave hung up or stood on edge. Never leave 
 the brush lying on its back, or the water will cause the back to 
 buckle up. In common with all other brushes, the bristles, if 
 they get doubled up, or "crippled" are materially injured, and 
 the injury is more or less permanent. Care must therefore be 
 taken that brushes are so packed or stored as to keep them 
 straight. The best way to remedy accidental crippling is to
 
 
 
 PLATE 8.-TWO BREADTHS OF A DROP PATTERN PAPER. 
 To face p. 64.]
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 65 
 
 stand the bristles of the brush in hot water for a quarter of an 
 hour. Then straighten them with a comb or the hand and leave 
 them to dry slowly. Stipplers are illustrated in the chapter on 
 Painting. 
 
 Paperhangers' Brushes. Paperhangers' brushes are of soft, 
 long, pliable bristles set in knots, and are used for pressing the 
 paper on to the wall or ceiling. They are illustrated in the 
 article on paperhanging. 
 
 Pitches. "Fitches," or hog-hair brushes in tin or albata 
 ferrules are used for decorative work, picking out enrichments, 
 painting mouldings, and the painting of ornament. They are 
 made both round and flat in section. Fitches are also made with 
 a bevelled edge for lining. They are used in distemper and in oil, 
 and when laid aside should be washed in soap and water or stood 
 in water. The latter course is apt to rust them and corrode the 
 tin or rnetal ferrules. They are numbered in sizes 1 to 12. 
 
 The usual term for fitches is derived from the fact that they 
 were formerly made of fitch hair. To avoid confusion, they are 
 usually to be found catalogued as "hog-hair tools in tin," but in 
 the trade the word "fitch" is universally employed to denote 
 them. 
 
 Softeners. Softeners are brushes used for blending or 
 softening one colour into another, or for softening down the 
 brush marks in painting. They are made in both hog hair and 
 badger hair, set in knots in a wooden handle, and are illustrated 
 in the chapter on Graining. They must always be well washed 
 in soap and water immediately after use, or they will become 
 coarse, harsh, and useless. After washing they should be hung 
 up to dry. It is especially important that the water used for 
 washing should not be too hot, and that they should be rinsed in 
 cold water and whisked as dry as possible before leaving them. 
 The hog-hair softener is used for heavy body colours and varnish 
 colour, and the badger for glazes, water-colour, and similar 
 purposes. They are illustrated, and all other graining brushes 
 are dealt with under the head of Graining and Marbling. 
 
 Stencil Tools. Stencil tools or brushes (Fig. 41), as their 
 name implies, are used for stencilling. Large, sizes are made in 
 sets or small inserted knots in a wooden stock. The smaller 
 sizes are set in tin. Still smaller ones, sometimes termed 
 "poonah" brushes, are quilled and thread-bound. Stencil tools 
 must be washed out in hot water and soap after using, and 
 thoroughly dried. To keep the bristles straight, soak them in 
 cold water after washing. They must not be allowed to lie in 
 the hot water, or the cement in winch the bristles are set may 
 
 5
 
 66 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 give way. They must not be soaked in turpentine, unless 
 specially made to withstand turpentine. 
 
 Sable Writers. Sable writers' and sign-writers' brushes 
 need little description other than the illustrations given in 
 another part of the book. Red sables are the best in quality, 
 and are recommended for use in heavy pigments as white lead, 
 or upon a rough wall. Brown sables are superior for use in 
 deep colours which have little weight, and for use on sign boards 
 and glass. They are a little less costly than the red hair. Ox 
 hair writers are useful on the rougher kinds of compo wall, and 
 for large coarse work. They are less than half the cost of sables. 
 
 Fig. 41. Stencil tool in tin and in sets. 
 
 Camel-hair writers are only of use in working under-hand upon 
 a bench, but are especially recommended for glass-painting, or 
 for use on tiles or other hard shiny surfaces. They are quite 
 useless for heavy pigments, as white lead. Writers are made in 
 both metal and quill settings. The latter work best; the 
 former, of course, stand rougher usage. The setting does not 
 affect the life of a pencil if properly cared for. Short sables of 
 red and brown hair, and also short ox hair, fitch hair, and camel 
 hair, are used for various classes of work by the decorator. 
 Extra long sables, known as riggers, are used for underhand 
 tracing and outlining. Liners are long sables having a square 
 top instead of a point. The hair is about 2 inches long, and they 
 are used, as their name implies, chiefly by coach painters. 
 
 All the foregoing pencils are known in size by the size of their 
 quills, as swan, goose, duck, crow, &c. Pencils in ferrules 
 are sometimes numbered from 1 to 12, commencing with the 
 smallest. They all require washing out in turpentine and 
 moistening with grease or Russian tallow when not in use. This 
 should be done as follows : The whole of the paint should be 
 rinsed out by agitating the brush in a vessel of turpentine ; the 
 brush must then be dried by pressing on an absorbent piece of
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 
 
 G7 
 
 cloth, and the tallow should be well worked in to the stock or 
 heel of the brush by careful manipulation of the left thumb and 
 forefinger, taking great care not to cripple the hairs. It should 
 be drawn gently through the fingers, the tallow being pressed 
 into the brush, and left with a fine point. These pencils should 
 be kept in a tin case or box to prevent vermin nibbling them 
 for the sake of the tallow. 
 
 Swan quills (Fig. 42) are full pencils of soft camel or other 
 
 
 Fig. 42. Swan quills in quill and in ferrule. 
 
 hair, somewhat stumpy, and with straight cut points. They are 
 used for laying even washes of colour on mouldings, bands, or 
 small surfaces. They are mostly made in quills, but sometimes 
 in metal ferrules, and are made in four sizes, 1 to 4, com- 
 mencing where the smaller pencils leave off. 
 
 A larger kind of camel-hair round brushes are known as 
 " mops or dabbers " (Fig. 43), and are used by gilders and for 
 lacquering and spirit varnishing. 
 
 Fig. 43. Camel-hair domed mop quill and wire bound. 
 
 Camel-hair brushes of flat form (Figs. 44, 45, and 46), set in 
 tin, are used for laying washes of colour, for spirit varnishes and 
 ormolus, and for lacquers, isinglass, and other sizes, &c. The 
 hairs are firmly set in tin and secured by cement and rivets. 
 They are known by their width in inches, which range from | to 
 4 inches. They vary greatly in quality and also in thickness. 
 
 When used in lacquers or varnish, these brushes should be 
 washed in methylated spirits otherwise, in water. Spirit
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 washed brushes should be kept in a canister free from the air. 
 This keeps them soft. 
 
 Brushes Pound by the Employer. The tools and brushes 
 described here are such as are always found by the employer, as 
 
 Fig. 44. Thin camel-hair, flat, unri vetted. 
 
 Fig. 45. Best thick camel-hair, flat, rivetted. 
 
 Fig. 46. German domed camel-hair, flat 
 
 they are worn out during the progress of the work. Other tools, 
 which are sometimes found by the workman, will be described in 
 their separate connections, together with their uses. 
 
 The Purchase of Brushes. In the purchase of brushes one 
 element of importance is frequently overlooked. Each class of 
 brush and each pattern require different treatment in use. Some 
 are made to stand water and some turpentine, some both, and 
 some neither. Nothing but a personal acquaintance with a 
 particular make of brush will enable a man to use it to the best 
 advantage. Familiarity with a particular pattern of brush or 
 tool in painting, as in other trades, leads to expertness. It is 
 quite as unreasonable to expect the best and most economical 
 results from a workman to whom you are continually giving 
 different makes of tools and brushes, as it would be to expect a 
 man to write his best hand with a strange kind of pen. 
 
 Mere caprice and lack of thought is responsible in many
 
 PAINTING BRUSHES. 69 
 
 instances for a continual change of policy in respect to brushes, 
 and causes a sacrifice of efficiency and the destruction of many 
 good brushes because they are unfamiliar to the men, in addition 
 to much loss through ignorance of the character of the brushes 
 themselves. 
 
 True Economy in Brush Buying. It cannot be too 
 strongly laid down that the truest economy is to obtain the best 
 quality of brushes, and to always adhere to the same kind for the 
 same work. Personal observation has convinced the writer that 
 of two employers doing a fairly equal business, both in volume 
 and class, one may be spending just double what the other 
 spends upon brushes and tools, and yet have no increase in 
 efficiency. 
 
 Storage of Brushes. Brushes should be carefully stored. 
 It is absolutely necessary that they be kept in a moderate 
 temperature. Heat and dryness will cause the wood stocks to 
 shrink and perhaps crack, the animal glues to split and crack, and 
 the twine to loosen. On the other hand, dampness or frost will 
 destroy the glue, rust the metal, cause the wood to swell and the 
 leather to give way, and rot, and finally burst the twine. Next, it 
 is equally important that they be laid so as to avoid crippling. 
 The tools should be kept in the boxes or packages in which they 
 are supplied, free from dust and dirt. The camel-hair and sable 
 brushes are very liable to be attacked by moth. Pepper, 
 camphor, or insecticide may be placed in the drawers with them 
 to keep away these pests, who will soon do a pound's worth of 
 damage, and will, when once established, remain till every brush 
 has been ruined. Most of the brushes illustrated are made by 
 Messrs. Hamilton & Co., and are personally known and have 
 been used by the writer for many years, but this fact does not 
 by any means imply that they are the sole manufacturers of 
 reliable brushes.
 
 70 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 {OR a complete manual of materials 
 used in painting, the reader is 
 referred to Hurst's Painters' Col- 
 ours, Oils, and Varnishes. 
 
 In the present Chapter the 
 principal necessary materials are 
 merely enumerated, and their 
 technical qualities noted. 
 
 PIGMENTS. Pigments claim 
 first attention. 
 
 White Lead. The staple white 
 lead, from which all tints in oil 
 are prepared, is a carbonate of lead with which is present 
 about 25 per cent, of lead hydrate, or water. When pure it is 
 a stable and dxirable pigment of great body and good working 
 quality. In consequence of its cost it is much adulterated, 
 chiefly with barytes, China clay, &c. When genuine, it is 
 frequently badly prepared, bad in colour, or accidently impure. 
 
 Tests. There are simple tests, rough and ready, for adultera- 
 tion ; one of the easiest to apply is to put some white lead in a 
 ladle and convert it into blue lead by heat, weighing both the
 
 MATERIALS. 71 
 
 white lead and the resultant piece of metallic lead and comparing 
 notes. Another easy method is to mix up some of the paste 
 lead on a piece of glass, using a glass strip, with some sulphuric 
 acid. If a smooth paste results, the lead is free from earthy 
 adulteration. There is, however, no test equal to that of use, 
 and the painter soon finds out whether his white lead is up to 
 the mark by its behaviour in working, which will not only detect 
 actual adulterates, but what is equally important, shows him 
 whether the pigment is properly ground in good oil and is well 
 made, of good body and pure colour. 
 
 Brimsdown White Lead. White lead manufactured by the 
 Bischof method, by which the pigment is produced by the wet 
 process in about 48 hours, is said to cover better than the old 
 stack process lead, though it is identical in analysis. The 
 lead is first converted into litharge, this in turn to sub-oxide, 
 hydrated oxide, and, finally, basic carbonate. 
 
 White lead is useless as a water colour, but may be used in 
 every kind of oil, varnish, or other diluent common to oil colours. 
 It is sold in a dry powder as well as in a paste form ground in 
 linseed oil. White lead turns yellow and brown with age or 
 exposure to gas and impure air. 
 
 Permanent White Lead. White lead being a carbonate, is 
 attacked by all the deleterious gases present in the atmosphere 
 even the weak carbonic acid of rain-water gradually dissolving 
 it and eating away its surface. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to find a more permanent 
 substitute, but the only metal which hitherto has been found 
 to yield a good white is the metal zinc, and unfortunately its 
 density and refracting power are so low that it is very trans- 
 parent when mixed with oil. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to prepare a more permanent 
 lead compound which would retain the density and whiteness 
 of the carbonate without being so perishable. 
 
 Until recently these efforts were not crowned with complete 
 success, the want of success being due in some cases to the 
 failure of the process to yield a steady, good colour, but more 
 often to a fundamental difference in the character of the perma- 
 nent white so produced from that of common white lead. 
 
 The compound usually chosen to form the new white lead 
 was the sulphate, as it is a white body nearly as dense as the 
 Dutch carbonate, and it is the most permanent compound of 
 lead known. The causes of the difference between this pig- 
 ment and the common white lead were somewhat obscure till 
 the researches of Mr. J. B. Hannay, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., rendered
 
 72 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 more clear the cause of high pigmentary power in white pig- 
 ments, and showed it to be very closely identified with density 
 and refractive power. 
 
 By a comparison of various carbonates of lead, varying from 
 the neutral carbonate to carbonates of extreme basicity and 
 with different proportions of combined water, it was discovered 
 that the more highly basic the body was, and the less moisture 
 it contained, the greater was its pigmentary power or "body" 
 or opacity. 
 
 It was thus made evident that high basicity was absolutely 
 essential to obtain a white lead of the necessary density and 
 refractive power to form a white, lead of good covering power. 
 
 Now this had been entirely overlooked by former experi- 
 menters, and Mr. Hannay, who has devoted nearly twenty 
 years to the subject, set about to find if it were possible to 
 manufacture a sulphate of lead as highly basic as the "Dutch" 
 carbonate, and at the same time free from the water which the 
 Dutch hydrated carbonate contains when made by corrosion, 
 and he has succeeded in manufacturing by a new proces a 
 sulphate of lead as basic as the Dutch carbonate, and of even 
 higher density and refractive power. The process is automatic 
 and certain. 
 
 As this white lead is prepared at a white heat, it is extremely 
 permanent and quite unaffected by the gases in the atmosphere 
 or by great cold and moisture. It has now come into very 
 general use both in Britain and abroad, and may be regarded 
 as the most important new development in painters' materials 
 of the century. We quote from the Government blue-book 
 viz., the Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and 
 Workshops for 1900 the following description : 
 
 "It has long been known that lead ore or galena may be 
 partially volatilised and oxidised into a good white, but for one 
 reason or another all attempts to establish the industry have 
 failed to obtain permanent commercial success. Mr. Hannay, 
 one of the experimenters who has devoted many years to this 
 subject, has recently brought his experiments under the notice 
 of a firm of colour manufacturers of Wolverhampton, and they 
 have gradually built up a large industry. The most important 
 improvement recently discovered by Mr. Hannay is the method 
 of insuring the total volatilisation of the ore and its conversion 
 into a very pure white, somewhat resembling zinc white in its 
 fineness of texture and beautiful colour, but which at the same 
 time is a pure white lead. It is chemically a true ceruse i.e.,
 
 MATERIALS. 73 
 
 it has the same basicity and constitution as the Dutch white 
 lead, but replaces the feeble carbonic acid by the more stable 
 sulphuric acid in the compound. 
 
 " In former processes it was attempted to combine the pro- 
 duction of pig lead with manufacture of a white pigment, and 
 this complication was the cause of much of the uncertainty 
 and failure of former processes. Mr. Hannay has, however, 
 succeeded in converting all the ore into one product white lead). 
 So quickly can the conversion be completed that lead ore from 
 the mines, which was taken out of the railway waggons in the 
 morning, has been converted into white lead, mixed with oil, 
 and used for painting a building in the afternoon of the same 
 day. 
 
 " The process is as follows : The galena (PbS) or lead ore is 
 heated in a furnace and volatilised ; it then passes through 
 oxidising chambers, into which air is sucked by means of a fan, 
 and lead sulphate (PbS0 4 ) is formed in fumes. These fumes 
 are filtered through textile fabrics and deposited in chambers as 
 a very fine powder. This is shaken down by means of ' shakers ' 
 into barrels." 
 
 The white lead so produced is a practically non-poisonous 
 brilliantly white pigment in the form of a powder of extreme 
 fineness. It is produced in the same manner as zinc white, and 
 has all the beauty and fineness of the latter, combined with the 
 high density and "body" of the lead. 
 
 The new white lead is extremely fine, consisting of from fifty 
 to one hundred particles to every one of the ordinary or corroded 
 lead, so that when mixed with oil it paints out with a very 
 glossy surface. This extreme fineness and all absence of 
 "caking" in the dry state renders it the only white pigment 
 which can be mixed from the dry powder directly by the 
 painter. 
 
 Thus all the waste of time and material caused by the har- 
 dening and skinning over of the corroded lead ground in oil, 
 and the "mess" occasioned by keeping white lead covered with 
 water in casks, the sides of which are incrusted with dirty lead, 
 are entirely avoided. 
 
 No straining is required, the powder mixing instantly with 
 the thinners, so that the paint can be prepared at the job, and 
 the remainder of the powder can be kept for future use without 
 deterioration. 
 
 The paint is made ready by simply stirring up the dry powder 
 with oil, turpentine, and thinners in the pot with the brush,
 
 74 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 and it mixes at once and paints out with an absolutely smooth 
 surface without specks or knots. 
 
 The new white has very high purity of colour and whitening 
 power, as can be proved by a test like the following : Two 
 equal lots of ultramarine were reduced to exactly the same 
 shade of blue tint by adding Dutch corroded lead and the 
 Mander-Hannay white, and accurately weighing the quantities 
 used. These two trials took 112 parts of Dutch and 72 parts 
 of Mander-Hannay, thus proving that the whitening power of 
 the Mander-Hannay is 35 per cent, greater than the Dutch. 
 
 Very extensive trials in actual painting of large buildings 
 have proved the same fact i.e., that the covering power of the 
 Mander-Hannay white lead is from 30 to 35 per cent, higher 
 than that of common white lead a fact to be expected when we 
 consider its extreme fineness, its great whiteness and purity of 
 colour, and its high basicity and density. 
 
 Zinc White. Next, we have zinc white ; a good pure white 
 pigment useful in oils for internal work, of high luminosity, and 
 especially useful as a permanent distemper white for special 
 purposes. It retains its colour well over gas. Its preparation 
 has been recently much improved as the result of an increased 
 demand for a non-poisonous pigment in place of white lead. 
 
 Oxide of zinc when finely ground and properly mixed is a 
 good white with a little less body than white lead. Its pro- 
 tective power and durability have never been tested to the same 
 extent as the latter. Its use is, however, gradually extending, 
 and both in a pure state or mixed with white lead it is a very 
 useful pigment, covering far more ground, weight for weight, 
 than white lead does, and standing well in colour under all 
 vitiated atmospheric conditions. It is also sold as Chinese 
 white. 
 
 Oxide of Zinc. One of the advantages of zinc white is its 
 stability in the presence of acids or salts. It is, therefore, 
 particularly serviceable for use at the seaside or in towns where 
 the atmosphere is chemically polluted, as sulphuretted hydrogen 
 has no effect upon its whiteness. Another point in its favour 
 is the fact that 7 Ibs. of zinc oxide will cover as much work as 
 11 Ibs. of white lead. 
 
 Zinc white is, in the first place, whiter than white lead, hence 
 clearer and more delicate tints can be made from it. 
 
 The fact that the use of white lead as a paint has been made 
 illegal in France and Switzerland, and is hedged round with 
 restrictions in other places, points to the conclusion that zinc 
 white will ultimately come into general use, and painters would,
 
 MATERIALS. 75 
 
 therefore, do well to accustom themselves to the more frequent 
 use of them. 
 
 It is, however, quite certain that the protective power of white 
 lead and linseed oil paint upon woodwork gives it a position 
 that is not yet seriously challenged by any other white pigment. 
 
 Orr's White. Up till 1874 zinc white was a name exclusively 
 applied to oxide of zinc. In that year J. B. Orr put his white 
 on the market as " Orr's zinc white." 
 
 Charlton white, Griffith's white, lithopone, and some others 
 are only Orr's zinc white under different names, and all depend 
 upon the chemical interaction and treatment of barium or 
 strontium and zinc salts. 
 
 The annual production of " Orr's zinc white" in this country 
 exceeds 6,000 tons. 
 
 " Orr's zinc white " is the almost exclusive white basis of all 
 the washable distempers now in use. 
 
 Other Whites. Pattinson's white is a form of lead white un- 
 equal to the ordinary white lead. Many patent whites have 
 been made and sold under fancy names, which have a zinc base, 
 as albissimma white, silicate white, and others. 
 
 Charlton white, a patent combination of barytes and zinc, is 
 a useful pigment with greater covering power than white lead, 
 but less weight. It has not the same value as a preservative on 
 outdoor work, but for interior decoration is preferable, as it is 
 non-poisonous, possesses many of the qualities of white lead, and 
 has but few disadvantages. It does not harden so thoroughly 
 as white lead, but keeps its colour far better. Its action upon 
 the pigments has not been demonstrated to the same extent as 
 that of white lead, but it appears to be without reproach in 
 this particular, except in its action upon some metallic colours. 
 
 The chief concern of the painter will be the covering power 
 of these various whites, and a simple test for this may be named 
 here. Take a page of ordinary evenly printed matter, black 
 letters on white paper, and give it a couple of coats of clear 
 - size ; then take 1 ounce of linseed oil and 1 ounce of the white 
 pigment, mix into a paint and apply with a new hoghair fitch. 
 Do the same with the other pigment that you require to 
 examine, and compare the result. The test may be carried 
 further by ascertaining how many coats of either it will i*equire 
 to entirely hide the black letters. 
 
 Ochres. Ochres come next in importance. Spruce ochre or 
 Oxford ochre, yellow ochre, and golden ochre, and Mander's 
 yellow are the yellow varieties principally used, the latter being 
 of a very fine hue. All are good, stable pigments, and are not
 
 76 PAINTING AND DECOEATING. 
 
 much adulterated. They are varieties of yellow earth. The 
 excellence of an ochre lies in its particular brilliancy of hue, and 
 its colouring properties or staining power. A common trick in 
 cheaper varieties is to grind it in oil when insufficiently dry to 
 increase its weight, and also to add clays and earths of little or 
 no colouring power to increase both bulk and weight. Ochres 
 owe their colour to the presence of iron. 
 
 Red ochre, light red, and burnt ochre are varieties of yellow 
 ochre subjected to calcination in kilns, but sometimes this is due 
 to volcanic action. The same remarks apply as in the case of 
 the raw ochres. 
 
 Raw Sienna is a translucent and strongly tinctured variety of 
 yellow ochre originally found in North Italy. Burnt Sienna is raw 
 Sienna calcined. Both the Siennas are permanent and valuable 
 pigments, and their relative value depends on their transparency. 
 
 Umbers. Raw Umber is a brown earth found in England and 
 in the Levant. It owes its colour to the presence of iron and 
 manganese. The Turkey Umber is the richest in colour. It is of 
 a greenish-brown. Burnt Umber is the result of calcining raw 
 Umber ; the colour changes to a more transparent and warmer 
 brown. 
 
 The whole of these earth colours are permanent and safe in 
 both oil and water colours, and can be purchased either ground 
 in linseed oil or in water, as well as in powder or lump form. 
 
 Burnt Sienna and burnt Umber are very hard to grind, and 
 it is therefore unwise to purchase them in dry form. 
 
 Browns. Vandyke brown is the only other brown in common 
 use by house painters. It is a peaty earth containing some 
 amount of bitumen and iron. Artificial Vandyke brown is 
 also much sold. The genuine article is rich in colour and very 
 transparent, a powerful stainer, and cannot easily be replaced by 
 any substitute. It is a bad drier, and changes colour and 
 substance under the heat of the sun. The artificial variety is 
 much less dangerous in use, dries well, but has not half the 
 depth or translucency and richness of the first named. Some of 
 the best Vandyke, brown in colour, is liable to fusion after use 
 in oil. In this quality it resembles bitumen or tar. If used in 
 a water-colour glaze upon a hard ground, and varnished, it may 
 always be relied upon. When used in oil there must be no 
 excess of raw oil, and the substitution of varnish for raw oil is 
 desirable. It should only be used when its transparency 
 demands it in preference to other pigments, as for graining, <fec. 
 
 Amongst other browns used by decorators, and for ornamental 
 painting, are Cappagh brown, Mander's Seville brown, Caledonian
 
 MATERIALS. 77 
 
 brown, asphaltum or bitumen, Prussian brown, and Spanish 
 brown. 
 
 Chromes. Chrome yellows are the most brilliant yellows 
 which are within commercial range of the house painter. Non- 
 scientifically, chromes may be described as white pigments dyed 
 yellow, and the different depths are produced by intensified 
 action of the yellow dye. In most chromes the white base is 
 white lead, and lead chromes will not retain their colour if used 
 in water. But chromes are also made on a barytes and zinc 
 white base under the names of lemon yellow, permanent yellow, 
 and non-poisonous chromes. These colours are fairly permanent 
 either in oil or water colour, but sometimes they gradually 
 assume a greener hue. Failing any other yellow that will 
 compare in price and purity of tone, lemon yellow is the best 
 pale yellow for distemper colour. Chromes are sold as pale, 
 middle, deep, and orange. 
 
 Dutch Pink. Dutch pink, a familiar colour in the scenic 
 artists' list, was much used by the older house painters. It is 
 transparent when of good quality. It is less permanent than 
 lemon yellow, and of a slightly olive tone. For glazing in oil 
 colour or for tinting in distemper it is useful. 
 
 Artists' Yellows. Other yellows available for the artistic 
 details of decoration are the cadmiums, gamboge, yellow lake, 
 Indian yellow, aureolin, Naples yellow, orpiment, pure orange, 
 or alizarin yellow. 
 
 Beds. Venetian red of commerce is an artificial preparation 
 of iron oxide. There is also a natural variety which is used 
 under the name of " rouge," and constitutes the base of the red 
 chalks so much used by artists. Venetian red is one of the best 
 and least expensive of painters' colours, and is extremely useful 
 and permanent in oil, water, or any other form. 
 
 Persian or Indian red is a natural earth owing its deep 
 purplish -red to a large percentage of iron. It is perfectly 
 permanent and useful in oil or water. 
 
 A number of red earths are sold under fancy names, all of 
 which owe their colour to red haematite or red iron ore, different 
 localities providing different qualities and hues ; all such colours 
 are absolutely safe for use in oil or water. 
 
 Vermilion is the brightest red at the disposal of the decorator, 
 and although costly can hardly be dispensed with. It is a 
 sulphide of mercury. Many qualities of artificially produced 
 vermilion are sold. In tint they range from orange to deep 
 scarlet. Vermilion is a permanent pigment and can be used in 
 oil or water.
 
 78 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Chinese or Derby red and vermilionette are factitious repre- 
 sentatives of vermilion at a lower cost, and are now generally 
 superseded by Mander's Persian red or new fast red. 
 
 Red lead is the least expensive bright red, and has all the 
 good qualities, as well as all the failings, of white lead as a 
 pigment. It is a most indestructible and strongly protective 
 agent when properly incorporated with its diluents. Orange 
 lead is a washed variety of red lead. 
 
 Brown lakes, as Victoria and mahogany lakes, damp lake, &c., 
 are useful for water colour, and some of them are suitable for oils. 
 They are prepared from aniline matter, and from other sources, 
 and their permanence and use depend upon their origin and 
 preparation. 
 
 Of artists' colours, crimson lake is used for obtaining delicate 
 pinkst It is a product of the cochineal. Though fugitive it is 
 sufficiently permanent for much ordinary house painters' work. 
 
 Crimson and scarlet alizarin are powerful reds of similar 
 character to the carmines and crimsons, but are permanent. They 
 are colours obtained from the coal-tar products. 
 
 A number of substances are now in the market under fancy 
 names which owe their richness of hue to the same source and 
 are reasonable in price. Some of the earthy reds are heightened 
 in hue by aniline dyes and make an inexpensive class of useful 
 bright reds. 
 
 The madders are too costly for any ordinary work, except for 
 fine touches in flower or figure painting. 
 
 Aniline Reds. Recently introduced reds of great value and 
 at commercial prices are Sunlight red, fire red, Antwerp 
 crimson, Bordeaux red (all these are Mander's colours), and 
 are due to the improvements in chemical research among the 
 aniline group of reds. 
 
 Blues. Prussian blue is the standard blue for oil colour use, 
 and is quite sufficiently permanent in oil for house painting. It 
 is useless in distemper, rapidly changing in colour as soon as 
 mixed with whiting or any form of lime. It can be safely 
 used in water as a glaze, and also with zinc white, if not upon a 
 lime surface. Antwerp blue is a finer tone of a similar class of 
 pigment, being slightly greener. The better qualities of Prussian 
 blue are sold under the name of Chinese blue and bronze blue. 
 
 New blue or artificial ultramarine is a permanent blue of 
 great purity. Its tint ranges from a fairly pure blue inclining 
 to green to a decidedly violet hue. It is absolutely permanent 
 in oil or water. 
 
 Lime blue is a cheaper pigment than artificial ultramarine,
 
 UTJ.P '897 
 
 PLATE 9. -PANEL DESIGNS FOR SEMI-NATURAL COLOURING. 
 
 To face p. 78-]
 
 MATERIALS. 79 
 
 and is frequently replaced by adulterated ultramarine. It is 
 made from copper and is unaffected by lime. It is not recom- 
 mended for use in oil. 
 
 Other blues made from copper are useful for distemper, especi- 
 ally for the production of pale sky blues. Of these Bremen blue 
 and blue verditer are the best known. A recent blue of fine hue 
 is azuline, introduced by Messrs. Mander Bros. 
 
 Cobalt is a blue of rare purity, but its price places it beyond 
 ordinary reach. It is useful for artists' work, and is permanent 
 in any medium. 
 
 Indigo is a useful blue for distemper or oil. It is not as much 
 used as it might be. It is economical on account of its intensity. 
 For deep neutral tones of blue it is unsurpassed. It is of suffi- 
 cient permanence for ordinary decoration. Smalt is a cobalt blue 
 not now used to any great extent. Strewing smalts were formerly 
 much used for sign boards, &c., and consist of fine particles of 
 blue glass, which is strewn over a coat of varnish and adheres to it. 
 
 Greens. Most painters' greens are admixtures of yellows and 
 blues, or yellows and blacks ; these are sometimes mixed in 
 manufacture and sometimes in grinding. The exceptions worthy 
 of note are emerald green, the finest and brightest green that 
 can be produced, for which there is no substitute. It is reliable 
 in oil or water, but lacks body, and is crude and staring in tone 
 if used without admixture. Natural green or terra vert viz., 
 green earth is a deep olive green of translucent character, useful 
 in oil or water, and permanent, but of no great power. Others, 
 in less common use, are verdigris, a copper green of great 
 intensity, but very poisonous ; only used in oil. Verditer, a 
 copper green of a fine bluish tone, useful for artistic purposes. 
 Cobalt green, expensive, but useful for the highest class of work 
 in oil or water. Viridian, a transparent pure toned blue-green, 
 quite permanent, and of great value to artists in oil or water. 
 
 The commonly known commercial mixed greens are bronze 
 greens and quaker greens, which are ochre and black or chrome 
 and black; Brunswick greens, in shades of light, middle, deep, and 
 ex-deep, are made from chrome and Prussian blue, with a base 
 of barytes. There are also the chrome greens made from 
 chrome yellows and Prussian blue, with less barytes. (There 
 are true chrome greens obtained chemically oxides of chrome 
 but they are expensive, and made for artists' use.) 
 
 Another useful class are emerald tinted greens viz., Bruns- 
 wick green, with an admixture of emerald green and common 
 mineral green ; a colour made up to match the true mineral 
 green or malachite, from verdigris and other ingredients.
 
 80 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 The decorator will find the green lakes and aniline greens 
 useful for glazes and stains ; also many fancy greens termed 
 peacock, Queen Anne, olive, <fcc. 
 
 Suffield green, of which there are several grades, is a recent 
 introduction that is rapidly displacing the older, cruder, and 
 less reliable inexpensive greens. It is permanent, unfading, and 
 of greater covering power than the greens of Brunswick type. 
 
 Blacks. Blue black is a charcoal black, permanent in oil or 
 water, but not absolutely black in colour. It is the best black 
 for use in water, being free from fatty matter. Lamp black is a 
 soot black of great opacity, slightly brownish in colour, useful in 
 oil, but not a good drier, and too greasy for water. Vegetable black 
 is a soot black of a higher order of merit. It is intensely black 
 and of a finer, silkier texture than lamp black. It is of extreme 
 density, and is very light in weight ; it also is too greasy for 
 water. Drop or ivory black is a carbon black from bones and 
 other animal refuse. It is, to use a double positive, a black black ; 
 indeed, the blackest black we have. It has less body than 
 vegetable black and makes a good glaze. It is a bad drier, and 
 better adapted for oil or spirit colour than for water colour. 
 Ordinary black paint as sent out by the dealer in paints, is 
 usually either lamp black or vegetable black, to which has been 
 added a certain amount of barytes, usually as much as can be 
 added without detriment to the colour of the black. Barytes 
 with black oxide of manganese is also sold as a black paint. 
 
 But a few years ago it was usual to grind the majority of these 
 pigments one's self, and certainly the obligation to do this made 
 the painter take a greater interest in the quality and nature of 
 his materials. Now, however, even the finest colours can be 
 procured ground in linseed oil, turpentine, or water, in the most 
 perfect manner and by highly scientific methods. 
 
 There are numerous most useful additions to the list of pig- 
 ments that space does not permit mention of, the most numerous 
 being the colours made from gas-tar residuum, the number of 
 which are constantly being increased and their purity of tone 
 intensified. 
 
 Consistency of Colours Ground in Oil. Colours ground in oil 
 should have about the consistency of butter, while those ground 
 in water may be slightly more solid that is, of the consistency 
 of soft clay. The finer colours should be purchased in collapsible 
 tubes, holding 1 Ib. each, and the commoner ones in J-cwt. kegs. 
 Those coming between these extremes may be in 7-lb. tins. 
 
 Matsine. Colours are prepared under this name by being 
 ground in a special matt medium, which dries hard and firm and
 
 MATERIALS. 81 
 
 with an eggshell gloss surface. It is useful for staining new work, 
 for scumbling or graining on painted work and for other purposes. 
 
 Commixture of Pigments. The commixture of pigments having 
 different derivations is a subject that is much overlooked. In 
 the present advanced condition of the science of chemistry we 
 can have no certain guarantee that the colours or pigments of 
 commerce are composed of just what we have supposed they are 
 derived from ; we are only able to form general deductions. It is, 
 however, safe to assume, for all practical purposes, that as long as 
 we know a pigment to be of mineral, or vegetable, or of organic 
 origin, whatever identical means have been used to produce it, 
 the origin will remain the same. 
 
 Derivation of Pigments. Broadly speaking, we have altogether 
 three classes : Mineral, both natural and artificial ; organic, 
 both animal and artificial; and vegetable, as indigo. 
 
 Now, each' of these classes will fail to prejudicially affect 
 others of the same class as that to which they themselves belong. 
 The first named may be taken as positively permanent, and the 
 last as representing fugacity. The more preparation, chemically, 
 a colour demands in its manufacture, the less able we appear to 
 be to depend upon its lasting powers. The moral of this is that 
 simple pigments are most dependable ; and whenever we can 
 produce our tints from ochres, earths, &c., we may be sure that 
 it is best to do so, from the double point of view of economy and 
 permanence; and when mixing, to use, where possible, each 
 class of pigment separately. 
 
 Adulterations of Pigments. The same difficulties meet us in 
 detecting so-called adulteration in purchasing pigments, inas- 
 much as the great desideratum of the painter is to get a paint 
 which shall meet certain requirements, and not necessarily to 
 obtain a given chemical compound. His business is chiefly to 
 ascertain whether the paints he purchases answer his purpose, 
 and are good relative value for their cost. It is really extremely 
 difficult for an expert chemist to say what is and what is not 
 adulteration, in regard especially to tinting colours. 
 
 In reference to adulteration, see that the colours are free from 
 grit or foreign matter, and test them for staining capacity, pay- 
 ing always a good price for a good article. Every respectable 
 firm prefers to sell a genuine article at its real value to those 
 who will prefer and appreciate such, rather than to deal at 
 cutting prices for inferior stuffs. The item of great cost is not 
 paint, but labour; and it takes a man longer to spread 2 Ibs. of 
 bad stuff over a given space, than 1^ Ibs. of good stuff over the 
 same ground 
 
 6
 
 82 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Test for Staining Power in Pigments. To test colours for 
 staining powers it is necessary to have standard samples ; obtain 
 tubes of artists' colour from a thoroughly reliable maker, and 
 mix, say ounce of each with 1 ounce of white lead of best 
 quality. The results should be painted on a piece of glass, and 
 preserved for reference. To use the test samples mix the same 
 weight of the colour to be tested viz., ounce with an ox nee of 
 white lead, and compare with sample. 
 
 Twelve Colours for Oil Colour Box. When filling an oil colour 
 box whose capacity is restricted to, say, 12 tubes, and permanence 
 is desired, the following will be found capable of matching 
 every other pigment with sufficient accuracy for the decorators' 
 purpose : 
 
 Flake white. Vermilion. 
 
 Ivory black. Cadmium yellow. 
 
 Cappagh brown. Aureolin. 
 
 Burnt Sienna. French ultramarine. 
 
 Raw Sienna. Cobalt. 
 
 Carmine. Viridian. 
 
 Whiting. Whiting is ground chalk (carbonate o/ lime), and 
 forms the basis of our distemper colours. All the ordinary 
 mineral colours may be used for tinting it, but it is destructive 
 to vegetable pigments. It has great body when finely ground. 
 A finer preparation than that usually sold is known as gilders' 
 whiting. Whiting is of no use as an oil paint. Its extreme 
 lightness and porosity permit it to absorb so much oil, that it 
 becomes almost transparent. 
 
 Prussian blue, Brunswick green, and the lakes are useless as 
 tinting colours in whiting, the two former rapidly changing 
 colour in a few days. 
 
 Indigo, the ochres, Umbers, Siennas, emerald green, blue- 
 black, Venetian or Indian red, vermilion, and lime blue, 
 or cheap fictitious ultramarine are suitable tinting colours for 
 distemper tinting, and will, in combination, produce almost 
 every conceivable hue. Chrome may be used for delicate tints 
 of cream colour, if not on a white lead base viz., lemon yellow 
 or barytes chrome. 
 
 Coach-Painters' Colours. The colours used in coach -painting 
 are similar to those used in house -painting, but are usually 
 sold either in dry specially impalpable powder, or ready ground 
 in turps or other prepared mediums. The latter should be sent 
 out in hermetrically sealed and full tins, so that no oxidisation 
 can take place prior to use. They are also put up in tubes 
 varying from 5 inches by 1 ^ inches to 3 inches by 1 inch in size.
 
 MATERIALS. 83 
 
 Messrs. Lewis Berger & Sons, of Homerton, have recently 
 introduced a patent tin and machine for extracting the colour 
 from same, which deserves wide recognition. It does for the 
 colour in larger bulk all that the tube does for artists' colours, 
 and any quantity from a teaspoonful to a can-full can be ex- 
 tracted clean and free from skins, <kc., at a moment's notice. 
 The principle is so simple, that the wonder is why it has not 
 been adopted years since. Many coach colours are sold ready 
 mixed in given tints, thus obviating all chance of danger in 
 mixing antagonistic pigments together, and though these 
 facilities may foster a lack of interest in the chemistry of 
 paints, in present-day pressure we are bound to take advantage 
 of every help which saves time and labour, and makes results 
 more certain. These paints are, many of them, sold under special 
 names, and a coloured tint card is issued for the guidance of 
 purchasers. 
 
 Silicate Paint. The silicate paints based on Charlton white 
 are now much specified by engineers, being anti-corrosive and 
 free from poisonous ingredients. The base is zinc with baryta. 
 
 Ready Mixed Pigments. Colours mixed ready for use are, 
 of course, mainly intended for amateurs, but where a large bulk 
 of work, as the exteriors of large public buildings, are concerned, 
 much labour may be saved by ordering in this form, if the 
 quantity required amounts to half a ton or more. 
 
 The past few years have, however, seen the introduction and 
 continually extending use of paints prepared ready for use 
 expressly for the painting trade. This has been the result of 
 a demand for hard finish in plain colours, both in glossy and 
 flat or dull surfaces. The supply of these paints is also due to 
 the fact that the mixing of many paint ingredients can be 
 better and more thoroughly accomplished by machinery in large 
 quantities at a time than by hand. Another contributory cause 
 is undoubtedly the high price and decreasing supply of tur- 
 pentine. Many substitutes for, and many combinations of, 
 turpentine with gums and other oils can be manipulated during 
 the preparation of ready-made paints, and by heat and chemical 
 additions can be made really efficient and economical substitutes. 
 Pigments and substances that are not usually recognised by the 
 painter may also be incorporated by the manufacturer with 
 success and assist in the production of good paint, when, if the 
 same substances were ignorantly added during the ordinary 
 hand mixing, they would properly be called adulterates, and 
 would be detrimental to the life of the paint. 
 
 Among the recent improved paints that are upon the market
 
 84 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 we find that Messrs. Lewis Berger's are thoroughly practicable 
 painters' paints. 
 
 DRIERS. Driers are necessary to almost all colours. Some 
 paints, as antimony, red lead, &c., have a strong affinity for 
 oxygen, and thus act as driers ; others, as verditer and lakes, 
 are of opposite character. The general painters' drier is termed 
 patent driers. The original patent drier was made from sulphate 
 of zinc, acetate of lead, litharge, and boiled linseed oil ; to make 
 it into bulk and to reduce its rapidity to reasonable limits, 
 white lead and barytes were added. It is now made in many 
 ways and of many materials, the above remaining the staple 
 ingredients. Copperas is frequently admitted into patent driers, 
 and vitriol in other forms than the sulphate of zinc. 
 
 Good patent driers should not deepen to brown in drying 
 or skinning; water should have no effect on it. The skin 
 formed should be tough and leathery. 
 
 Drying Agents for Paint. Eed lead is a drier. Sugar of lead 
 is one of the best and safest driers for lead paints. Litharge is 
 another good drier for all lead paints. Borate of lead and borate 
 of manganese are used to make drying oils. 
 
 Most of these substances are capable of causing pure linseed 
 oil to dry, if added in the proportion of about 1 Ib. to the cwt. 
 as their ulterior action on the paint is always detrimental, except 
 in the case of litharge, sugar of lead, and red lead with white 
 lead paints, a sparing use of them is recommended. The 
 ordinary commercial drier is often very low in drying power, 
 and consists of as much as 80 per cent, of barytes or whiting, 
 For ordinary purposes 1 Ib. to 14 Ibs. of white lead is excessive. 
 Varnishes may be utilised as drying agents, and are safe, if of 
 good quality. 
 
 Liquid Driers and Terebine. Liquid driers and terebine are 
 much used by painters, as they are conveniently added at any 
 stage of mixing, or after mixing. The more powerful kinds are 
 liable to be dark, and will discolour delicate tints. The pale 
 varieties are not such strong driers. Used too freely, all tere- 
 bines are strongly contractile, induce cracking, and some react 
 under heat as a kind of solvent, if very excessively used. Messrs. 
 Harland & Sons, of Merton, produce a reliable pale liquid drier, 
 and Powers, of Coventry, a good terebine. Different kinds of 
 driers should not be used in conjunction; indeed, the drying may 
 be retarded, instead of hastened, by adding one kind of drier to 
 paint that already contains another kind. The true effect of 
 most liquid driers is seen by the soft, sticky mass that will 
 form in the spout or about the neck of tins containing them.
 
 MATERIALS. 85 
 
 They must never be used in such excess as to overbalance the 
 natural oxidisation of the oil ; about an ounce of terebine to 3 
 Ibs. of colour is recommended. If the colour is very oily this 
 may be increased by one-half. 
 
 Seccoline, a combination of japanners' gold size and terebine 
 made by Messrs. Blume, is a medium between ordinary driers 
 and the latter. It is a safe and useful article which does not 
 discolour the tints, and is less contractile and solvent than most 
 of the older liquid driers. 
 
 Powder Driers. A good white powder drier for zinc or Charl- 
 ton white may be made by mixing in powder equal quantities of 
 sulphate of zinc, acetate of manganese, and sulphate of man- 
 ganese, and adding sixteen times their combined weight of white 
 oxide of zinc. 
 
 French Powder Driers. This is a similar composition to that 
 known as French packet driers, or powder driers. One ounce 
 of this powder is added to 7 Ibs. of ordinary paste zinc or Charlton 
 white. 
 
 PAINTERS' OILS. Painters' oils are usually bought by the 
 barrel of 36 gallons. Turpentine, linseed oil, and boiled linseed 
 oil are those in ordinary use. Nut oil, poppy oil, oil of lavender, 
 &c. , are used in decorative processes, and in picture painting. 
 
 Turpentine. The most important is turpentine. The best 
 turpentine should remain limpid and clear for at least a month, 
 if placed in an open jar and left exposed to the air ; a piece of 
 muslin laid across the jar will keep out dust, &c. It should also 
 leave no oily mark if a drop is dripped upon a sheet of note- 
 paper and held near a fire so as to allow it to evaporate. 
 Turpentine is prepared from many sources and is of varying 
 quality and smell. The odour of really good turps is 
 refreshing and not nauseous. Turpentine dries mainly by 
 evaporation, leaving behind a resinous and somewhat sticky 
 residuum. When used as a thinner, to paint, it causes it to dry 
 with flat, dead, or dull surface. American and Russian turpen- 
 tines are the most frequently used, the latter being considered 
 the best for general purposes ; but by far the greater part of the 
 turpentine used is American, and is perfectly reliable. 
 
 Petroleum and turpentine substitutes are used for low grade 
 work, and are dangerous and untrustworthy, unless for special 
 purposes. 
 
 Linseed Oil The next in importance is linseed oil. Colour 
 and smell are a valuable test for linseed oil in its raw state. 
 Compare the odour with that of good crushed linseed meal. So 
 also is the comparative test of weight, as against water. A
 
 86 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 measure of oil weighing 9 Ibs. 6 ozs., should hold 10 Ibs. of 
 water, if the linseed oil be what it professes to be. Oil dries by 
 oxidisation, remaining in the paint in the form of an elastic, 
 transparent, and leathery skin. 
 
 Boiled oil is linseed oil heated to boiling point, in which a 
 little manganese is generally steeped during the boiling process 
 It is also known as "drying oil." The chief fault in the boiled 
 oil of commerce is ropiness and viscidity. It should be a good 
 colour, quite as limpid as the raw oil, and should, if spread upon 
 a piece of glass, dry or have a skin over it in twenty-four hours. 
 Boiled oil is often dark and cloudy (if so it should be rejected), 
 and is slightly deeper and richer in colour than the raw oil. 
 
 Size, Glue. For distemper colours the binding medium is 
 size or glue. These materials are extracted from bones, horns, 
 hoofs, leather, skins, &c. 
 
 Two principal qualities are present in them viz., gelatinous- 
 ness and adhesiveness. 
 
 For painting purposes a gelatinous size is preferable to an 
 adhesive one, but for some purposes, as preparing walls for 
 papering, adhesiveness is desirable. The adhesive quality in 
 glue can be reduced, and the size therefrom purified by soaking 
 the glue for a couple of days in cold water preparatory to 
 dissolving it for use. This method also tests the quality of the 
 glue, as the best glues will absorb the largest weight of water in 
 a given time. One pound of good Scotch glue, when placed in 
 water for twenty-four hours, and taken out and weighed, should 
 weigh at least 7 Ibs. 
 
 The various products used in preparing and refining size 
 should be removed before the size is fit for use, as acids and 
 alkalies are often present in sufficient quantity to affect the colour 
 of painters' pigments. Pure gelatine size is insoluble in cold 
 water. The use of alum or vinegar in size is to precipitate the 
 adhesive portion of the compound, leaving the gelatinous part pure 
 and clear. It is added to the size while hot, and the size strained 
 after the addition. Overheating of size prevents its jellying. 
 
 The addition of oil of cloves or peppermint to size gives it a 
 pleasant odour, and prevents decomposition ; a lump of camphor 
 floated in it, or a teaspoonful of carbolic acid, has a similar effect. 
 
 Size is purchased in the form of cake glue, cake gelatine, 
 desiccated glue, or concentrated size, and in jelly form, known 
 as " patent size " and " double size." The concentrated size 
 known as Mander's, requires a 1-lb. packet to make 1| to 2 
 gallons of jelly size of usable strength. 
 
 Undoubtedly the most convenient form of size is the patent
 
 PLATE 10.-PATTERNS SUITED TO STAINED WOOD DECORATION. 
 To face p. 86.]
 
 MATERIALS. 87 
 
 jelly, especially for distemper, as in this form much of the 
 adhesive gluten has been extracted or precipitated, and the 
 remaining part is more or less pure gelatinous matter. It is so 
 treated as to keep good for a length of time. 
 
 It is a far more dependable and workable size for general use, 
 always maintaining a standard strength. The strength of a size 
 in solution may be tested by the same kind of instrument as 
 milk is tested by for added water viz., a lactometer, the specific 
 gravity of a size of sufficient strength for general use being the 
 same as that of pure milk. 
 
 The addition of sugar or glycerine to distemper colour keeps 
 it from drying rapidly, which is sometimes desirable. 
 
 Mediums and Binders. Starch, milk, gum-water, honey- 
 water, and beer are all used for fixing or binding water-colour, 
 as is also fuller's earth and other substances, but not generally 
 by the house painter. 
 
 Washable Distempers. Washable distempers are produced 
 in various ways, usually by the introduction of oils made 
 miscible with size by the addition of some solvent or medium 
 common to both, as the addition of enough alkali to saponify the 
 oil, or render it amenable to the action of water. They have a 
 use in the economy of painting, being especially serviceable upon 
 damp or new walls, and as damp- resisting media. The best 
 washable distemper in the market is that known as " Duresco." 
 
 Plasters and Stoppings. Plaster of Paris is gypsum. It 
 makes a good useful stopper for walls under paper, or for 
 distemper work, but cannot be painted upon for a few days with 
 safety. It is mixed with water. Caustic soda and powdered 
 resin added to plaster will make it more porous and extremely 
 tenacious. Plaster and red lead used mixed with oil makes a 
 good pointing between wood and brick. Keen's cement, a sub- 
 stitute for plaster for painted walls, can be painted upon at 
 once ; mix with water. Mastic cement is a cement used for 
 connecting wood and stone, or stone and metal ; it is mixed with 
 boiled oil. It can be made from slacked lime in powder, finest 
 sand and litharge, in equal parts, or with less litharge if not 
 required to set quickly. Putty is linseed oil and whiting, mixed 
 to the consistence of clay and well kneaded. It is used for 
 stopping ordinary painted woodwork, on previously painted wall 
 surfaces, and for glazing. 
 
 Plastine. The best substance, however, for glazing is "plas- 
 tine," a proprietary article of Messrs. Carson's, Battersea, which, 
 whilst forming a skin on the surface hard enough to paint on in 
 twenty-four hours, never gets bone dry or hard and brittle, and
 
 88 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 can always be cut out easily though holding tenaciously. It is 
 always soft, and, therefore, does not get wasted as putty does. 
 
 Hard stopping, dry white lead, and ordinary putty, or paste 
 white lead, and whiting are used for stopping after first coats. 
 
 Extra hard stopping is made with dry white lead and whiting, 
 and Japan gold size, boiled oil, and turps, and is used for facing 
 up when required to harden off at once. Filling-up powders are 
 preparations of clay, silica, or slate in dust form ; they are used 
 in hard varnish and turps. Harland's filling-up powder is a 
 very reliable one and rubs down well. 
 
 Glass Paper and Smoothing Materials. In the production of 
 smooth surfaces, several rubbing down materials are necessary. 
 First, glass paper for new wood, soft paint and distemper, 
 plaster, &c. Glass paper is strong paper coated with glue, and 
 strewn over with powdered glass, sand, firestone dust, or emery 
 powder. It should be flexible and stand repeated creasing with- 
 out breaking and the sand and other particles should adhere 
 firmly, as may be ascertained by slightly rubbing the surface 
 with the finger tips. The particles should wholly cover the glue 
 and be sharp and angular, points which can be determined 
 by examination with a magnifying glass. The glass paper 
 should be kept in a dry place and at a moderate tempera- 
 ture, as in a moist hot place grains will become detached. It is 
 made in degrees ranging from 0, very fine; to No. 3, very 
 coarse; 1^ is the most useful number for general work. The 
 numbers do not express the same degree of fineness in all makes, 
 those quoted being Oakey's. The life of glass paper in use varies 
 considerably ; if the glue used in making the paper is a poor one 
 it will clog immediately, especially on paint that is not too hard. 
 
 Firestone paper is good for rubbing distemper filling ; it clogs 
 less than other papers in working. 
 
 Pumice stone in blocks is used for rubbing old or hard 
 surfaces. It should be light in weight and open in grain. 
 Patent composition blocks are also made for the same purpose, 
 of varying degrees of grain from 1 to 4, and, being of even grain 
 throughout, are very convenient in working, especially for coach 
 or door work. Powder pumice is used for rubbing with a felt 
 and water, for finishing varnished or enamelled surfaces. It is 
 sold in several degrees of fineness. Rotten stone and putty 
 powder are used for polishing and fine finishing ; rouge and 
 fine flour for varnish polishing by hand. 
 
 Other materials, such as varnishes, will be dealt with, and 
 their merits discussed under their special headings. 
 
 Importance of Good Pigments. In conclusion, it is desir-
 
 MATERIALS. 89 
 
 able to insist on the use of the very best materials of every 
 description, and, in paints especially, not to rely too much upon 
 chemical analysis and chemical purity. It is frequently a source 
 of amazement to the initiated to find that after an architect or 
 surveyor has made sure that he is getting the real article used 
 that he has specified, he is really obtaining a material which, 
 though chemically pure, is of so low a grade, and made in such a 
 careless manner, as to be of far less value, from a technical point 
 of view, than that which he has rejected as adulterated. 
 The writer remembers a case, in which, for a large amount of 
 indoor painting, where covering: power was required to produce 
 a certain effect with a specified number of coats, a mixture of 
 best white lead and ^ Charlton white was being used, it 
 was condemned by the rather young and inexperienced architect. 
 The employer who had the job in hand was so disgusted at his 
 skill and honesty being called in question, that he at once 
 ordered a ton of white lead of a cheap grade, and produced the 
 warranty from the manufacturer; this was passed and used. 
 The work, however, looked 50 per cent, less satisfactory, while 
 the cost of material was just 40 per cent, less than it would have 
 been. The true way of ascertaining if the material is good is to 
 see how it behaves in working. 
 
 Comparative Prices of Materials. The following is a list 
 of some of the principal materials now in use, with their pre- 
 sent market values. The prices are for the best genuine 
 articles, except when more than one price is stated for the same 
 article, in which case the two prices represent the extremes of 
 quality : 
 
 White lead varies with the market price of the metal : 
 
 Present price, . . . 25/ to 16/ per cwt. 
 Red lead, .... 21/ 
 
 Orange lead 32/ ,, 
 
 Patent driers, . . . 28/ to 18/ ,, 
 
 Sugar of lead, . . . 6d. per Ib. 
 
 .Zinc powder driers, . . 4d. ,, 
 
 Putty, 10/ per cwt. 
 
 Zinc white in oil, . . . 36/ to 24/ ,, 
 
 Note. Its bulk is nearly double that of white lead. 
 
 Lead chromes in oil, . . I/ to 9d. per Ib. 
 
 Drop black in oil, . . . 6d. ,, 
 
 ,, in turps, . . 9d. ,, 
 
 Black paint, .... 24/ per cwt. 
 
 Prussian blue in oil, . . 2/6 per Ib. 
 
 Body blue, viz., blue paint, . 6d. ,, 
 
 Purple brown, . . . 4d. ,,
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Raw Sienna, .... 
 
 Burnt Siofina, 
 
 Raw Umber, .... 
 
 Burnt Umber, 
 
 Vandyke, .... 
 
 No. 1 Brunswick greens, 6d. 
 
 Quaker green, 
 
 Ochre yellow (English), . 
 
 Real Oxford ochre or Italian, . 
 
 Indian red, .... 
 
 Venetian red, .... 
 
 Red oxide, .... 
 
 Colours in powder 
 
 Chromes, .... 
 
 Zinc chromes, .... 
 
 Dry flake white, . 
 ,, zinc ,, ... 
 
 Vermilion, .... 
 ,, best Chinese, 
 ,, substitute, . . 
 
 Chinese red, .... 
 
 Indian , , 
 
 Metallic . 
 
 Oxide of iron red, . 
 
 Venetian red, .... 
 
 Vermilionette, 
 
 Carmine reds (aniline), . 
 
 Finest carmines, 
 
 Dutch pink, .... 
 
 Rose 
 
 Yellow ochre, 
 
 Italian . 
 
 Oxford 
 
 (best), . 
 
 Maroon lake, .... 
 
 Yellow , 
 
 Mahogany or Victoria lake, . 
 
 Rose madder, .... 
 
 Crimson lake, .... 
 
 Aniline lakes, .... 
 
 Emerald greens, 
 
 ,, tinted greens, . 
 
 Mineral green, 
 
 Royal greens, .... 
 
 Quaker and bronze greens, . 
 
 Veronese green, . . . 
 
 Brunswick ,, . . . 
 
 Chrome greens, 
 
 Antwerp blue, 
 
 Bremen ,, . . . 
 
 Azure ,, ... 
 
 Celestial . 
 
 Chinese ,, . 
 
 6d. per Ib. 
 9d. to 6d. 
 4d. to2d. 
 
 6d. 
 
 6d. 
 
 per Ib. to 20/ per cwt. 
 6d. to 4d. per Ib. 
 36/ to 18/ per cwt. 
 
 48/ 
 
 9d. to 6d. per Ib. 
 24/ to 18/ per cwt. 
 24/tol8/ ,, 
 
 1/3 to 6d. per Ib. 
 1/6 
 6d. 
 4d. 
 2/9 
 
 8d. to 4d. 
 3d. ,, 
 14/ per cwt. 
 14/tolO/ ,, 
 1/6 to 6d. per Ib. 
 2/3 
 4/ per oz. 
 4d. per Ib. 
 
 8/ per 'cwt. 
 24/ 
 28/ 
 6d. 
 1/6 
 6/ 
 2/6 
 4/ per oz. 
 IS/ to 3/ per Ib. 
 10/ to 5/ 
 l/to9d. ,, 
 6d. 
 2/ 
 1/6 
 
 6d. to 4d. 
 8/ 
 
 56/ to 22/ per cwt. 
 1/6 per Ib. 
 4/ 
 
 ,, (used for cobalt.) 
 
 2/3
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 Cobalt, . 
 Indigo, . 
 Lime blues, 
 Prussian blue, 
 French ultra, . 
 Verditer, 
 Brown lake, . 
 Mahogany brown, 
 Purple brown, 
 Raw Sienna, . 
 Burnt ,, 
 Raw Umber, . 
 Burnt ,, 
 Vandyke, 
 Vegetable black, 
 Lamp black, . 
 Drop 
 
 40/ per Ib. 
 
 56/ to 28/ per cwt. 
 
 2/ per Ib. 
 
 51 to 6d. 
 
 1/6 
 
 2/6 
 
 9d. 
 
 36/ to 16/ per cwt. 
 6d. per Ib. 
 8d. 
 
 18/ to 10/ per cwt. 
 241 to 20/ 
 
 9d. per'lb. 
 
 28/ per cwt. 
 9d. to 4d. per Ib. 
 10/ per cwt. 
 
 8/ per gallon. 
 
 4/6 
 
 7/ 
 
 8/ 
 121 
 
 Terebine, .... 
 
 Brunswick black, . 
 
 Pale paper varnish, 
 
 Hard oak . 
 
 Copal oak, .... 
 
 Best pale copal, ... 14/ 
 
 ,, French oil, ... 18/ 
 
 ,, white marble, . . . 21/ 
 
 Spirit varnishes, ... 7/ 
 
 Knotting 6/ 
 
 Methylated finish, ... 3/ 
 
 French polish, ... 6/6 
 
 Furniture varnish to dry in 3 hours, 10/ 
 Best black Japan, . . . 15/ to S/ 
 
 Japan gold size, 
 
 Flatting varnish, . 
 
 Body carriage varnish, . 
 
 Under coating body carriage varnish, 
 
 Best elastic finishing varnish, 
 
 Turpentine 
 
 Linseed oil, .... 
 Boiled oil, .... 
 Turpentine substitutes and mixtures, 
 
 Old "gold size 
 
 Bronze powders, 
 Glass paper, . 
 Lump pumice stone, 
 Pumice powder, 
 Rotten stone, . 
 French chalk, . 
 Glue, 
 Soda, . 
 Alum, 
 Patent size, 
 Double ,, 
 Concentrated size, . 
 
 7/6 
 10/ 
 22/ 
 20/ 
 24/ 
 
 3/6 
 
 2/6 
 
 2/9 
 
 2/ 
 
 2/6 per Ib. 
 I/ to 2d. per oz. 
 16/ per ream. 
 25/ per cwt. 
 
 4d. per Ib. 
 
 4d. 
 
 4d. 
 lOd. to 4d. 
 
 6/ per cwt. 
 16/ 
 
 Id. per Ib. 
 
 2d. 
 8d. to 6d.
 
 92 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Since this list was originally compiled a general advance of 
 10 per cent, must be allowed, and an additional advance of 20 
 per cent, on all colours derived from or dependent on copper. 
 Turpentine has advanced 50 per cent, and oil 25 per cent., but 
 these prices are again falling. 
 
 In connection with the testing of colours for staining power, 
 Messrs. Mander, of Wolverhampton, have recently issued a book 
 giving actual specimens of their principal colours painted full 
 strength, and also reduced by so many parts of white lead or 
 zinc white. This is an admirable plan, and altogether safeguards 
 the buyer, who has only to experiment likewise with the goods 
 supplied to find out whether the quality has been maintained. 
 It also permits the buyer to see exactly the effect of what he is 
 purchasing when in actual use.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 WALL HANGINGS. 
 
 iANGINGS have been used for the covering 
 up and embellishment of wall surfaces 
 from the earliest times. Probably the 
 first of the kind were skins of beasts. 
 Then with the introduction of weaving 
 came woollen and fibrous cloths, plain 
 or embellished by needlework or paint- 
 ing. Leather was a further development, 
 doubtless suggested by its greater dur- 
 ability, and the ease with which it could 
 be cleaned. Later came tapestry, stamped 
 and embroidered velvets, silks, and rich 
 stuffs of other material. 
 
 The use of hangings was doubtless originally suggested by the 
 necessity of keeping out draughts and colds in the rudely- 
 fashioned buildings of early date, and the dwellers in tents used, 
 and still use them for this purpose, as is exemplified to the 
 present day by the Nomadic tribes of the Soudan. The neces- 
 sity for a cheaper matei'ial than was in current use was evidently 
 felt, as no sooner was paper invented than it was used for the 
 purpose of wall decoration. 
 
 Wall Papers. The first wall papers were introduced into
 
 94 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 this country by William of Orange, and the first attempt at their 
 manufacture in this country followed immediately. They were, 
 of course, made in sheets, as the ability to make paper in con- 
 tinuous rolls was not acquired till quite a century later. They 
 were, moreover, stencilled, not printed ; the art of printing being 
 limited to smaller work, and being more costly at that date than 
 stencilling. Heavy taxation and duties considerably hindered 
 developments, and also checked the wholesome influence of 
 foreign competition ; a duty of as much as 5s. per piece being 
 enforced on all foreign papers imported, until a couple of genera- 
 tions ago. 
 
 Wall papers are broadly divisible into two great classes, 
 hand- and machine-printed. 
 
 A few are hand-painted, principally marbles, high-class friezes, 
 French scenic and landscape goods. Others are stencilled, or 
 partially stencilled, and partially printed and hand-coloured a 
 rapidly improving and increasing class. 
 
 The difference between machine - printed and hand-printed 
 goods is seen by a careful examination of the margin, which in 
 hand- or block-printed goods shows the register of the repeat of 
 each block. The finish of the pattern may also be observed at 
 the ends of the piece, a portion of plain ground being left clear of 
 pattern at either end ; whereas in a machine-printed pattern 
 there is an unbroken continuity. An expert will also detect the 
 difference in colour surface left by the block and the roller. 
 
 The practical advantage gained by the hand printing is mainly 
 that the matching of the paper is truer, and the colouring more 
 even, an inseparable drawback to machine printing being the 
 slight unevenness of tension which occurs as the roll of the paper 
 passes round the printing machine rollers, and the tendency to 
 slight oscillation of the paper from side to side. 
 
 In block printing each colour or tint is printed separately. 
 In machine printing any number of colours can be printed at 
 one operation, the paper coming under the whole of the variously 
 tinted rollers one after the other before leaving the machine. 
 
 Qualities. The different qualities of wall papers are many, 
 and are mostly distinguished in the trade by the class of grounds 
 on which they are printed. The number of printings, except in 
 hand-printed goods, has less influence in the assessment of cost 
 than would be supposed. 
 
 Varieties. The cheapest class of wall papers are pulps, in 
 which the natural colour of the paper itself, either as ground or 
 ornament, forms part of the finished surface. Then we come to 
 grounds, in which the whole paper is coloured with a ground
 
 WALL HANGINGS. 95 
 
 preparatory to printing the design upon it. The operation of 
 grounding the paper is done by machinery. Satins are papers in 
 which the grounds are polished or glazed before printing, by 
 rotary brushes actuated by machinery and the use of French 
 chalk. Micas, golden frosted, and crystal damask are papers in 
 which, while yet wet, the grounds are powdered with talc or 
 mica to produce a satiny sheen. The papers are rich and effective. 
 Embossed or stamped papers are those in which the ground or 
 pattern, or both, are stamped in relief. Papers which are 
 merely given an all over texture in stamping are termed grained 
 papers. Ingrain papers are pulps of a stout high quality, in 
 which additional colour and apparent texture are introduced by 
 the use of coloured fit>re added to the pulp during the paper- 
 making process. Sanitaries are papers in which the printing is 
 done in oil colours upon a heavily sized or otherwise prepared 
 ground. These papers, owing to the oxidisation of the oil, 
 become brittle and carbonised if kept in stock long, and have an 
 objectionable gloss. Sanitums and washables, either the ground 
 or pattern, or both, are printed in a washable distemper and 
 spirit colour insoluble in water. They are an improvement on 
 Sanitaries as they do not have the glossy surface. Pegamoid 
 papers are a recent introduction, in which, after printing in 
 ordinary colours, the paper is treated with an elastic water 
 varnish prepared from "pegamoid." Metal papers, as their name 
 implies, are papers in which pattern or ground is printed in an 
 imitation gold, metal, or in bronze powder, and are not to be 
 confounded with papers in which the metal is lacquered and 
 varnished. Golds; in these the real article, gold-leaf, is substi- 
 tuted for the imitation. 
 
 Flocks are divided into three classes. Plain, ordinary flock 
 has the pattern or ground of finely desiccated cloth known as 
 " flock." This is made to adhere to the paper by printing in a 
 tenacious gold size, and strewing or dusting the flock over the 
 size while it is tacky. Heavy flocks are those which are subjected 
 to flocking three or more times, thus making a raised pattern 
 some y 1 ^ to i of an inch high. These are used for painting, and 
 are frequently only printed in white for that purpose. Stamped 
 and relief flocks are those which are printed with several flock- 
 ings, but not from the same block, the relief being thus graduated 
 and alternated with the undulating surface of the pattern, and 
 afterwards stamped by hot dies with shaped relief. 
 
 Many varieties and combinations of these processes are to be 
 met with, making up an almost endless list of special effects and 
 special classes, many of which emanate from particular makers.
 
 96 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Varnished papers are those sold ready varnished by machinery. 
 The varnish used is a quick drying, white hard spirit varnish 
 that has little durability in it. It is far better to varnish paper 
 after hanging. 
 
 Imitation leatlwr papers are legion in their variety. Heavy 
 stamped paper pulps are sometimes printed before and some- 
 times after stamping, and are treated with metals, bronzes, and 
 lacquers in a variety of ways, all suggestive of stamped Cordovan 
 and Venetian leathers of the olden times. The description of 
 their manufacture does not fall within the scope of this chapter. 
 
 Dimensions. English wall papers are made in pieces 12 yards 
 long and usually 21 inches nett width that is, from 22 inches to 
 22 inches before trimming its edges. These dimensions are a 
 curious reminder of the days of taxed sheets. The original 
 paper sheets were what is termed by stationers and papermakers 
 "imperial" size viz., 22 x 31, and "royal," 24 x 19, &c. The 
 former, then the largest size made, were generally used for 
 paper hangings. The pattern was usually stencilled, that being 
 the cheapest method of working. A sheet of the paper prepared 
 with oil and cut out formed the stencil, which was laid on each 
 sheet in turn, and the pattern stencilled through. Of course a 
 margin was left of about | an inch, and this gave 21 inches nett 
 for the pattern by 30 inches nett. 
 
 When continuous paper was first allowed to be used, the 
 Act of Parliament limited its use to one or other of these 
 breadths, a higher duty being payable upon the broader paper, 
 and the length of a piece was limited to a score of the 21-inch 
 by 30-inch blocks pasted together, which roughly made 12 yards 
 by 30 inches. At the same time, in France and Holland, the 
 royal size paper was mostly used, and the import duty in the 
 pieces was calculated upon a paper 18 inches nett in width viz., 
 the width of a sheet in royal. These old sizes have never been 
 successfully departed from. 
 
 Most English papers are 22 inches wide by 12 yards long. 
 Certain papers are made of 30-inch width, usually such as have 
 not to be printed, and in a few cases those that have to be 
 printed by hand. They embrace lining papers plain and tinted, 
 ingrain grounds, hand-painted marbles, and a few block-printed 
 goods of large scale. All French and German papers are still 
 made 18 inches wide and 9 yards long ; the exceptions to the 
 rale are similar in character to the exceptions to the English 
 rule of 22 inches. 
 
 Friezes and borders are made of almost every width, but 
 21 inches, 18 inches, 10 inches, 9 inches, 7 inches, and
 
 PLATE lOa.-WALL PAPER WITH COMBINED FRIEZE AND FILLING. 
 
 BY JEFFREY & Co. 
 To face p. 96.]
 
 WALL HANGINGS. 97 
 
 5 inches are amongst the most usual. They are generally so 
 arranged that one or more exactly occupy the whole width of a 
 22-inch paper. 
 
 Composite Papers. The latitude allowed by modern machines 
 in printing irregular repeats has now brought about the use of 
 many specially-designed composite papers, on which the frieze 
 and filling are all upon one common ground. They require some 
 knowledge of design and taste in arrangement to properly hang 
 them. Some makers, principally American, have carried this 
 idea to great length with most successful decorative results. 
 Hand printers, like Messrs. Jeffrey, of London, have carried the 
 idea still further, and, as our illustration of their Standard Rose 
 design will show, with complete artistic success. Note how the 
 picture is hung to aid the general tout ensemble. 
 
 Comparison between Wall Paper and Painting. The relation 
 of wall papers to painting has now become so intimate, that 
 no hand-book on painting could be compiled without reference 
 to them. Their commercial and practical value far outweigh 
 their apparent temporary character, which is more fanciful than 
 real. A papered wall will actually last longer in fair condition 
 under modern necessities of domestic life than a plain-painted 
 wall, which can only be used when in a passage, staircase, or 
 room not continuously in use; unless it be provided with a 
 varnished or enamelled dado, which can be renewed when 
 requisite without re-painting the upper portion of the walls. 
 
 Selection of Wall Papers. The selection of papers for various 
 rooms and positions can only be dealt with briefly here. They 
 are subject, in as far as pattern and colour are concerned, to the 
 same laws as painted decoration, and, where necessary, will be 
 referred to in the chapter specially dealing with that subject. 
 The following may be taken as general rules : Light papers 
 are conducive to health as opposed to dark ones. A cheerful 
 colour is better for one's surroundings than a sombre colour. 
 In deep-coloured wall papers the lustreless surfaces enhance 
 the gloom of shadows, and, for the same reason, tame and pale 
 washy tints and undecided patterns become tamer and lose 
 character. Washable and sanitary papers should be retained 
 for the especial use of kitchens and offices, or passages. They 
 do not look well on the raking walls of staircases, as they 
 intensify any inequalities on the surface of the wall. They may 
 be used as staircase dadoes, or for staircases in lodging-houses, &c., 
 where a great deal of wear has to be endured, with advantage. 
 The lustreless sanitum papers are better for fillings to staircase 
 walls. Bathroom and W.C., housemaids' closets, and sculleries 
 
 7
 
 98 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 should be papered with a varnished paper, or varnished after- 
 wards. Sanitary papers varnish well if sized once after hanging. 
 Metal papers do not last long, especially in rooms where much 
 gas is used. Flocks should only be used in good rooms where 
 there is not much dust and gas viz., in high-class houses. They 
 are very serviceable wear, but soon look dusty. 
 
 Hints on Choice of Wall Papers for Special Purposes. Prefer- 
 ence should always be given to good, simple designs, in two or 
 at most three tints, where there are plenty of pictures and 
 furniture. Lively patterns in many colours will assist to furnish 
 comparatively empty rooms. Caution must be shown in the 
 selection of spotty patterns. These patterns are most effective 
 in halls, staircases, and very large apartments, but are disastrous 
 to the decorative effect of ordinary dwelling and sleeping rooms. 
 Pure- tinted papers look clean and healthful ; they are specially 
 recommended for use in bedrooms. Delicate floral patterns have 
 the same effect, and are specially suitable for town houses, giving 
 by their contrast a pleasant reminiscence of other scenes. Floral 
 papers should be tabooed for country houses, where they come 
 into awkward and distasteful competition with nature. 
 
 Style must be borne in mind in the selection of more than one 
 paper in the same room ; not absolutely to the extent of main- 
 taining one pure historic style in the two or more papers, which 
 is often impossible with the selection at disposal, but at least to 
 the extent of decorative harmony and fitness. 
 
 In selecting a ceiling, frieze, filling, and dado, due contrast in 
 style of pattern must be maintained, without incongruity. If 
 the ceiling be geometrical, the filling should be a free trail or 
 scroll pattern, and the dado again in geometrical or perpendicular 
 lines. If the ceiling is spotted, then the filling will require to 
 be an all-over pattern, either geometrical or scroll, and the dado 
 should contrast in plan with the filling. Preference should be 
 given to geometrical dadoes, as having most consistency and sense 
 of support. The geometrical basis may be a straight or curved 
 one, upright, horizontal, or square, and the filling should partake 
 of a contrasting character. Plates 6 and 7 illustrate good con- 
 trasting arrangements of pattern. A larger scale detail design 
 should not be placed above a smaller, unless in a very lofty 
 room for freize or ceiling, or unless the more emphatic contrast 
 in colour counterbalances the weakness in pattern. 
 
 A relief pattern material of whatever scale will always be 
 stronger in effect than a printed paper, and must not be used 
 above a printed paper except it be for a high frieze, or there 
 be something in the colouring and design of the paper which
 
 WALL HANGINGS. 99 
 
 makes it more pronounced in effect than the relief pattern 
 material. 
 
 Relievo Wall Hangings. Turning now to relief materials, we 
 have an abundant variety both in material and design in the 
 market. The most useful are, perhaps, the Japanese leather 
 papers. These, as the name implies, are made in Japan, and are 
 usually metallic in colouring, full use being made of the rich 
 hues of Japanese lacquers. Paper pulp, occasionally assisted by 
 cotton- wool, is beaten into a matrix or mould, and then dried and 
 hardened, metalled, and lacquered. They are made 36 inches 
 wide, in most cases, but sometimes less, and are in 1 2-yard rolls. 
 For dadoes they are rich and generally artistic in feeling. FO-- 
 the upper walls of smoke-rooms and dining-rooms they may also 
 be used with confidence. For ceilings they appear a little 
 ineffective and out of place, lacking that sharpness which suggests 
 rigidity and permanence. Certain materials used upon ceilings 
 seem to suggest that the ceiling is not duly supported and may 
 break away ; this is one of them and flock paper is another. 
 This may be merely due to a nervous sensibility on the part of 
 those who think so, but it is a curious fact that if the ceiling is 
 panelled by mouldings, this objection to Japanese papers on 
 ceilings is at once removed by the sense of added support given 
 by the mouldings. 
 
 Anaglypta is a hardened paper pulp of extreme durability and 
 utility. It, is capable of a variety of effective finishes which will 
 be dealt with later. It is usually 24 inches wide and 12 yards 
 long. It is pressed in iron moulds. 
 
 Cordelova is a similar substance but less hard and sharp, 
 accommodating itself to higher relief and to old style designs ; it 
 lacks the mechanical sharpness of anaglypta. 
 
 Tynecustle tapestry is also a very beautiful material. The name 
 tapestry is misleading; it resembles stamped leather in the low 
 relief, and modelled plaster in the high relief. It is in rolls of 
 any length required, and the usual width is 24 inches. It has 
 a canvas face which considerably enhances its commercial and 
 decorative value. 
 
 Tynecastle vellum is the same material with a vellum like 
 paper surface or face. It is cheaper than the tapestry. 
 
 All the above materials are made in panels of various sizes, as 
 well as in rolls, and the relief varies from 1 inch to | of an inch, 
 a material factor in governing the prices. Anaglypta is the 
 cheapest of these, and Tynecastle tapestry the most expensive. 
 This does not refer to art value, but merely to cost price. 
 
 Lincrusta Walton. Lincrusta Walton is a material made from
 
 100 PAINTING AND DEOO BATING. 
 
 solidified oil spread upon a cotton, linen, or paper backing, and 
 pressed by rollers into relief patterns. It has great durability 
 and is a good material to withstand dampness if it is well fixed. 
 It is highly sanitary, having a flat back. It has, however, some 
 drawbacks as a material compared with those already mentioned. 
 It will sometimes shrink, leaving open joints ; its effect is hard 
 and rather monotonous, the patterns being extremely sharp and 
 regular, and it deteriorates if kept long in stock. Its relief is 
 from J F inch to f inch in height. It is heavier in weight than 
 Cordelova, Anaglypta, or Tynecastle. For vestibules, bath- 
 rooms, and conservatories, steam boats and rail cars, it is 
 unrivalled. It was the pioneer of all the others in the market. 
 It is made in widths of 18 to 20 inches, and also in special 
 shapes and sizes. 
 
 Several additional materials of the kind might be mentioned, 
 but need not take up our space as they differ little from those 
 already enumerated. 
 
 Fibrous Plaster. Fibrous plaster viz., plaster on canvas 
 backing is now much used for friezes, but the fixing is a 
 plasterers' job rather than the painters'. 
 
 Sheet Metal Friezes. Thin sheets of metal are being used for 
 stamped relief friezes, dadoes, and borders ; iron, bronze, brass, 
 copper, and latten are used for the purpose. They are fixed with 
 a cement and round-headed copper nails. The use of them 
 appears open to criticism, unless they are of some substance, as 
 they suggest a sham. 
 
 Jute Canvas for Wall Hangings. Jute, woollen, and flax 
 cloths, both printed and stencilled, are a later innovation still, 
 and have the recommendation of texture and softness. Their 
 general introduction into first class work is so recent as to 
 scarcely justify criticism. The sanitary questions involved in 
 the pasting of such materials on the wall require consideration, 
 but in the straining after new and original effects this aspect of 
 the question appears to have been somewhat neglected and 
 overlooked. 
 
 Fabrikona. Since the first edition of this book was written 
 there have been many attempts to overcome this sanitary 
 objection, and a material is now on the market known as 
 "Fabrikona" and by other names; it is a dyed and protected 
 canvas that will not harbour germs or insects. Fabrikona is 
 the best of these and is made in a wider range of shades than 
 any other. It is 36 inches, and in some cases 72 inches, in width, 
 and is sold in 12-yard rolls. It can be painted or stained after 
 fixing or when the first effect has become dirty and worn.
 
 101 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 N the work of the paperhanger, two 
 primary qualities are essential 
 cleanliness, and precision or exact- 
 ness. 
 
 Tools. The paperhanger will re- 
 quire the following tools: Scissors, 
 of which two pairs are desirable, one 
 pair with long blades about 1 2 inches 
 over all for trimming or edging, and 
 a pair of shorter ones, say 9 or 10 
 inches, for cutting the paper when 
 wet. Paperhangers' scissors require 
 frequent washing, and are now ob- 
 tainable with nickel-plated blades 
 and japanned handles (Fig. 47) which 
 will be found a great advantage. They 
 may also be had with a 6-inch rule 
 engraved on the blade, but this does 
 
 not appear particularly advantageous, as the 2-foot rule should 
 
 always be at hand. 
 
 Rollers, of which he will require two, a 7-inch roller (Fig. 48) 
 
 for general use, and an edge or angle roller 1J inch wide with
 
 102 PAINTING AND DECORATING 
 
 handle at one side (Fig. 49) to allow of its being readily intro- 
 duced into the angles. In the joints, a roller made of earthen- 
 
 Fig. 47. Improved paperhangers' scissors, nickel-plated blades and 
 japanned handles. 
 
 ware, like a chair castor, is excellent. The rollers are of wood, 
 leather covered, and the general roller is additionally covered 
 with white flannel to offer a soft and clean surface to the paper. 
 
 Fig. 48. Paperhangers' roller. 
 
 Fig. 49. Paperhangers' angle roller. 
 
 This flannel covering is added by the workman and renewed as 
 occasion requires. 
 
 Putting-on brushes are used for ceiling or sanitary paper, or
 
 HANGING PAPER. 103 
 
 for papers which would be crushed by the use of the roller. 
 These are in two forms as here illustrated (Fig. 50). Many 
 paperhangers prefer the shoe brush shape, although this is not 
 specially made for the purpose. 
 
 A clicker's or shoemaker's knife to trim stout goods will be 
 necessary. 
 
 Other requisites are a 2-foot fourfold rule, a 3-foot steel 
 
 Fig. 50. Paperhangers' brushes. 
 
 edged, or solid steel straight-edge, which should be nickel-plated, 
 to prevent rust; a plumbline and bob, a chalk line, a small 
 hammer, a screw-driver and pincers to remove nails, screws, 
 or small fixtures which are better papered under than cut 
 round 
 
 It is a good plan to have a clean sponge and water at hand in 
 case of accidental soiling. 
 
 Preparation of Walls. Before papering walls, it is necessary 
 that they be properly prepared for the process. They should 
 present a slightly absorbent, even, and smooth surface, akin to 
 that of good notepaper ; that is, they should be more absorbent 
 than a painted surface, and less so than a distempered surface. 
 
 In re-papering old walls, it is necessary, both on technical and 
 sanitary grounds, that all the old paper be removed. This is 
 readily accomplished by well wetting the old paper, allowing 
 it time to saturate, and then using a paper scrape or broad
 
 104 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 chisel knife; a good one can be made by inserting a piece of 
 steel bedlath 5 inches wide into a wooden handle, and rivetting 
 it firmly through all. They can, however, be purchased of the 
 pattern here shown (Fig 51) for about Is. each. 
 
 The stripping of old walls is not usually done by the paper- 
 hanger, but by painters' labourers or apprentices, as it is a job 
 requiring little skill. 
 
 Care must be taken not to dig into the walls with the scraper, 
 
 Fig. 51. Paperhangers' scraper. 
 
 or to damage the edges of the woodwork. When there are more 
 thicknesses than one, they may all be removed together if well 
 soaked. Flock or varnished papers and some sanitaries will 
 require hot soda water, which entails great care in its use, or 
 the skirting and frames will be sure to suffer damage. 
 
 After the paper has been scraped off, a great deal of paste 
 will still be adhering to the walls ; before this has time to re-dry 
 it should be scrubbed off with a short wash brush and warm or 
 hot water. If the walls are good, they will now be ready for 
 re-papering as soon as dry, but any holes, &c., must be stopped 
 in the same way as for distempering, and all nibs and roughness 
 removed by glass paper use 2 to 2 glass paper on a cork 
 block, 1 inches thick, and rub with a circular sweep. 
 
 Particular care must be taken to stop cracks or angles, and 
 the joints between woodwork and walls, top of skirting, and 
 round door frames. If the ceiling has been whitened after the 
 walls have been stripped, look well for spots and splashes, and 
 rub them level. If much stopping has been done, or the walls 
 are new, they wili require sizing with a coat of weak size. A 
 little whiting may be added to take away the colour of the size. 
 
 Damp walls occur and frequently require treatment. A 
 temporary cure may be effected under paper, where such a 
 method could not be used on a painted or distempered wall. 
 The commonest method is to hang thin sheets of laminated lead 
 to the wall with stout paste, and tack down the edges with small 
 copper tacks. This is temporarily effectual, but if the cause of
 
 HANGING! PAPER. 105 
 
 dampness is not removed it will in time spread beyond the 
 limits of the impervious lead and find a way out. Another way, 
 useful for basement walls, or walls against the inside of which 
 the earth has been allowed to rest, is to chip off the whole of the 
 plaster affected, down to the bricks, and spread on the bricks a 
 coating of Limmer asphalt, or a mixture of pitch, tar, and brick 
 dust. The coating should be \ an inch thick ; strew the surface 
 with sharp gravel and then re-plaster with a quick setting plaster 
 or cement. All such cures must be accompanied by external 
 removal of the cause. If the outer wall is stone and the rain 
 percolates through it, a coating of red lead and linseed oil will 
 stop the influx. If the damp rises from the ground a damp 
 course must be put in, consisting of air tiles, slates, or pitch. 
 If the dampness results from bad drainage of surface water, 
 there must be a dry area made, and plenty of surface drain pipes 
 put in. 
 
 Measuring for Paper. Assuming the room is ready for 
 papering, the requisite quantity of paper must be ascertained. 
 There is an arithmetical method of doing this, which is theoreti- 
 cally accurate. There is also a rough working method, which, 
 from the dissimilarity of rooms and cases, gives more correct 
 workable results. The first method is to measure entirely round 
 the room, and to multiply the result by the height between the 
 skirting and cornice. This gives the area in square feet ; divide 
 this by 9 to bring it into yards, and then by 7, the number of 
 super yards in a piece of English wall paper. The result is the 
 number of pieces required. There must be deductions made for 
 doors and windows, and 10 per cent, added for waste and 
 matching. 
 
 The second method is to take a stick 21 inches long, or a roll 
 of paper, and measure how many breadths of paper are necessary, 
 ignoring short ends above doors and under windows, and calling 
 all the rest full lengths. Mentally calculate how many of these 
 lengths can be cut from each piece of 12 yards, remembering 
 that any lengths between 8 feet and 10 feet will only go thrice, 
 allowing for matching and waste (most rooms are between these 
 two heights) ; divide the number of breadths required by the 
 number each roll will cut, and you have the number of rolls 
 required. Thus a room 9 feet high taking 42 breadths 
 requires 14 rolls. 
 
 Paste. The paste must now be made. For ordinary work, 
 2 Ibs. oi flour must be stirred into a smooth thin batter in cold 
 water, and boiling water poured upon it, still stirring the whole 
 time, till it assumes a transparent appearance and thickens. Take
 
 106 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 care to pour in the water gradually and evenly, and stir regularly 
 to avoid lurapiness. Some good pastry flour does not make good 
 paste. A rye flour is good, and some kinds of wheat are better 
 than others. It is well to test it. 
 
 A table-spoonful of oil of cloves or peppermint will give a 
 pleasant odour to the paste and prevent it fermenting or sour- 
 ing ; or a very little carbolic acid will prevent its putrefying. 
 Alum is added to paste by some to strengthen and bind it, but 
 it is liable to destroy some of the colours used in paper 
 printing. 
 
 Paste boards and trestles will be required for pasting upon, 
 and a short, handy pair of steps to reach the top of the wall. 
 
 Edging Papers. Trimming the paper is accomplished in 
 several ways. For ordinary work, many men sit upon a chair, 
 stretch their legs out stiffly in front of them, and, unrolling a 
 piece of paper, allow it to roll down to their feet, where it is 
 kept in position by the upturned toes ; they then commence 
 edging on the right hand side, re-rolling with the left hand ; a 
 cut with the shears in the right hand is succeeded by a roll up 
 with the left hand until the piece is completely edged. Great 
 rapidity and precision can be obtained by this method. Others 
 unroll the paper on the paste board and cut the two edges con- 
 secutively for the length of the board, then roll, slide on, and 
 unroll the next length, which is similarly treated. 
 
 A yet better method for good papers is to trim with a knife 
 and straight-edge. A piece of plate-glass or sheet zinc is neces- 
 sary to cut on to avoid damaging the board. 
 
 Both edges should always be trimmed, but in a thin paper 
 only one should be trimmed quite closely, the other edge may 
 be allowed an eighth full for lapping over. In trimming a plain 
 ground paper where there is no pattern to edge to, it is usual to 
 drive a needle point or shoemaker's awl into the edge of the 
 paper as a guide, or to cut a notch into the end with a tenon 
 saw as a guide to cut it. 
 
 Machine Trimmers. Several forms of practical paper trimmers 
 are now in general use. The most practical is the Gates 
 machine, the latest pattern of which will accurately trim or- 
 dinary papers on both edges at the rate of 60 or 70 per hour. 
 The operator has only to exercise ordinary observation and 
 guard against faulty rolling or printing. The machine unrolls 
 and re-rolls the paper automatically at the same time as it trims 
 the paper, and, if the paper is correctly printed and rolled at the 
 outset, the action is purely mechanical. If the machine is kept 
 clean and in good order, it will last for several years of average
 
 HANGING PAPER. 
 
 107 
 
 work. Additional fittings are now supplied which enables this 
 machine to trim relief materials. 
 
 The illustration clearly shows the construction of the machine. 
 A heavier make, with additional fittings, is supplied for Lincrusta 
 and heavy materials for which the "cut" is clean, and the relief 
 is not injured in the process; it also trims ordinary papers. As 
 in the case of all such improved methods, the adoption of the 
 machine has been much retarded by ignorant prejudice. An 
 enormous saving of time and an accuracy of edge are obtained 
 by its use that will immediately commend it to the scientific 
 and trained worker. 
 
 Fig. 516. Gates Machine Trimmer. 
 
 Paper-trimming machines of several kinds, and suitable to 
 every class of hangings, may now be obtained. A descriptive 
 notice of the most usual will be found at the end of this chapter. 
 A good machine is that known as the Gates trimmer. Messrs. 
 Hamilton also supply a hand-wheel, known as the Simplex, 
 which is worked against a straight edge, and is much used in 
 both Canada and the United States. 
 
 Hanging. The hanging must be commenced on either side 
 of the window, or principal window, and worked round to the
 
 108 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 door or other convenient stopping place. By this rule the 
 edges, when they lap, are against the light, and are not emphas- 
 ised by any shadows. Some thought is necessary to avoid 
 showing where the papering is finished up, as this place will 
 not be likely to match peri'ectly. Over the door, or in the 
 angle of the chimney breast, is usually the place selected, and 
 some men show great ingenuity in so dodging the pattern, that 
 no half leaves or half flowers are left exposed at the point of 
 juncture; a zig-zag cut will appear much less obtrusive than a 
 perpendicular joint. 
 
 The paperhanger requires an apron with a large waist pocket 
 or pouch, so that his scissors, plumb-line, rule, and roller are 
 always within reach of his hand ; and a pair of light steps just 
 tall enough to allow him to reach the top of his paper and to 
 take up no superfluous space. 
 
 The trimming completed, the breadths are now cut to their 
 proper lengths. Commence cutting them off face upwards upon 
 the board, and cut each short or long length as required, using 
 up the odd ends for the former purpose. Cut all that go one 
 way to the door, and see that they match properly, then turn 
 them over and arrange them, so that they are well back on the 
 board. Pull forward the first breadth and arrange it, so that 
 the bottom end and the matching edge just cover the end of the 
 board, and the other edge is safely laid on the next breadth. 
 Lay the paste on evenly and swiftly with a good distemper 
 brush, a 2-knot or flat, working from the centre to the margins 
 in all directions, commencing from the bottom of the paper. 
 The left hand must be resting firmly on the paper to keep it 
 from slipping while it is being pasted. No portion of the board 
 will be exposed if the paper is laid as directed. 
 
 Pasting. When pasting the last piece, one edge must 
 be finished first, and then the other brought over to the edge of 
 the board. The length of the board being but 6 feet, it will be 
 found that only a portion of the length has been pasted. The 
 bottom end is now lifted up and folded over, so that there is 
 room on the board to pull the remainder of the length up and 
 paste it. A few inches of the top end are now turned down so 
 as to facilitate handling, and the piece of paper is taken up and 
 placed upon the wall. Before rolling it down it is tested by the 
 plumb-line for uprightness. The same routine is followed with 
 the rest of the breadths, careful attention being paid to the 
 matching. The breadths must be split into two in turning 
 angles, as the angles of the room are never perfectly true. In 
 splitting breadths the upper part should be folded as well as the 
 bottom end ; this lessens the length to be split, and enables the
 
 HANGING PAPER. 109 
 
 operator to be guided by the visible pattern on the outside of 
 the folded length. 
 
 No papers should be hung with an absolutely butt or level 
 joint unless they are very stout, a far better result is obtained 
 by hanging thin papers with an eighth of an inch lap joint. 
 
 Under the best class of papers it is usual to use a white 
 lining paper, which improves the surface of the wall. It must 
 be hung in the same manner as an ordinary paper, with a little 
 lap at the edges, and when perfectly dry the laps must be well 
 glass-papered down. Walls or ceilings that are lined for painting 
 or distempering upon, are lined in the same manner. 
 
 In working round the room full breadths only should be used, 
 leaving the odd places to be filled in with the cuttings later on. 
 When nearing a door or window, if the portion required is more 
 than half a full breadth, a full one should be used, and the 
 portion not required cut out and hung somewhere to dry, so as 
 to be available for filling up some other small space. If only a 
 narrow strip is necessary, it is better to use a short length full 
 breadth sufficient to go over the door, and leave the lower part 
 to be afterwards filled in. Whether short or long breadths are 
 used, the match must be retained by always using the full 
 breadth ; even if it has to be split both portions must be used, 
 and this rule must be observed until the place of finishing is 
 reached. It matters not which side of the room is hung first, 
 but each side must in turn be started from the window, and 
 continued without a break in the pattern to the finishing point. 
 
 Matching. The matching edge is always placed on the board 
 towards the operator, because in that position it is less liable to 
 accidental soiling with wet paste. Measurements for splitting 
 are also always more easily taken from the near edge. To obtain 
 a good match the operator should hold the paper with the pasted 
 side towards the wall, and the top few inches falling over the 
 fingers towards him so as not to soil the cornice or ceiling, and 
 while keeping the off-edge well away from the wall, gradually 
 approach the near or matching edge to the piece last hung ; 
 having secured the accurate point of matching, in as far as 
 height is concerned, the forefinger should hold it firmly in place, 
 the paper being actually in contact with the wall at this point 
 only a manipulation with the other hand of the off-edge will 
 now allow it to swing pendulum-like till the match is secured 
 all the way down, then, and not till then, can the paper be 
 allowed to settle against the wall. If this is carefully done it 
 becomes very easy to keep a vertical and true match. Do not 
 " handle " the paper, but allow it to attach itself to the wall of its
 
 110 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 own weight and gravitation, after doing which it can be brushed 
 or rolled firmly on, and will not require any coaxing to get it 
 into its proper place. It is important that the same length of 
 time should elapse between the pasting and final hanging of 
 each breadth of the ptper, as when very damp with paste it 
 expands and interferes with a true match being obtained. 
 
 When hanging very short pieces, as dado or frieze lengths, it 
 is often advisable to paste two pieces to start with and hang the 
 first one, and then paste a third and hang the second, and so 
 continue, thus giving a little more time for each length to 
 become soaked and pliable. 
 
 It is very necessary to be sure, methodical, and regular, and to 
 go about the work without hurry or confusion. 
 
 Some papers by reason of their design do not repeat hori- 
 zontally, but diagonally. These are known as " drop patterns." 
 It will often happen that such patterns create great waste in 
 matching on account of the length of the repeat. This can fre- 
 quently be avoided by cutting the lengths alternately from two 
 rolls of paper instead of consecutively from one roll at a time. 
 (See diagram, Plate 8). 
 
 The first length hung must be plumbed truly upright, or the 
 pattern will run out either up or down as the case may be at the 
 ceiling line, and at every few lengths the plumb-line must be 
 used as a check. When cutting off the top and bottom, the line 
 is marked by running the point of the scissors blade along the 
 angle, at the same time keeping the end off the ceiling or skirt- 
 ing with the other hand. Be guarded against allowing the 
 pasted paper to touch the paint work, skirting, or architraves, 
 and if it does so, wipe off the marks with a damp, clean sponge 
 at once, or it will damage the paint. 
 
 Lining Papers. Lining papers are used as a ground for dis- 
 tempering upon, and for protection of the more costly papers. 
 When used for the former purpose they should be trimmed to 
 remove the burred edge, and hung with a very slight lap ; but 
 when merely used to improve the surface of the wall for a better 
 paper they may be hung with a butt or even joint; or if lapped, 
 the lap must be well glass-papered down before the finishing 
 paper is put on. Lining papers must be allowed to dry thoroughly 
 before the other paper is put over them or blisters will result. 
 
 Papering Ceilings. In papering a ceiling it is necessary to 
 have two steps and a plank, so that the entire length can be put 
 up at one operation ; for large ceilings two men, or a man and a 
 lad, will be desirable. Commence near the light and work from 
 it ; let the joints run across the light, not from it. If working
 
 HANGING PAPER. 11] 
 
 without assistance, a straight-edge or T-square is useful to sup- 
 port the paper. 
 
 Paperhanging upon painted walls is very liable to turn out 
 unsatisfactorily, as the paste is a strong solvent for paint. A 
 good plan is to hang first with stout lining, using a paste made 
 with glue size and ordinary paste, but not too strong. The 
 glue size will set quickly and prevent the action of the paste 
 upon the paint ; stout buff paper in sheets will answer well as a 
 lining, but not newspapers, as the ink often works through the 
 top paper. 
 
 Before hanging the lining paper the wall must be well washed 
 with soda water and when dry rubbed down with glass paper, to 
 give a key for the paste. Take care that the joints of the top 
 paper do not come immediately over those on the under lining. 
 
 Lining Cracked. Ceilings. Badly cracked ceilings or walls 
 may be lined with unbleached calico or sheeting. This is 
 applied upon a good heavy coat of glue size and paste laid on 
 freely, and the canvas stretched tightly and well rolled or 
 brushed into it ; a few tinned tacks driven in at the edges serve 
 to keep the canvas tight while drying out, and the surface is 
 sometimes well-sized while it is still wet with the paste. The 
 joints should be closely butted, and the selvedge edges cut-off 
 the calico. Calico 1 yard wide will be found easy to hang, and 
 wide enough for most purposes, but for ceilings 72-inch sheeting 
 is better. The hanging of wide sheeting requires care to avoid 
 blisters or creases. It is well to have the canvas lightly tacked 
 to a rod at each end, so that it can be held taut while rolling 
 and brushing down the central portion. If the pieces are cut a 
 few inches longer than requisite the rods can be cut away instead 
 of untacking the canvas. 
 
 Panelling and Borders. Panelling and borders must be 
 set out in pencil on the wall prior to hanging ; borders should 
 not be hung on the face of the filling paper, but a space should 
 be left for them. 
 
 If the border is set out with a soft black lead pencil, when the 
 filling is hung the line of setting out will transfer itself to the 
 pasted back of the paper, and no further guide for cutting off 
 the filling to its proper length will be found necessary. To keep 
 borders straight they should be placed in position at both ends, 
 and then by a gentle pressure of the palm of the hand stretched 
 taut before rolling down. 
 
 Removal of Fittings. All fixtures that can be removed, 
 should be ; as a far neater finish is got than can be obtained by 
 cutting round them.
 
 112 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 This particularly refers to bell and gas fittings, shelf brackets, 
 and picture hooks. Care must also be taken to wash down all 
 fixtures such as marble mantels before papering, especially close 
 to the wall where the paper will finish against, as this cannot 
 be properly done after the paper is hung. 
 
 Accidental soils or stains upon a new paper can best be 
 removed by the use of clean cold water and a corner of sponge ; 
 to touch up the spot some of the same colour should be worked 
 up with water from an odd piece of the same paper and applied 
 with a camel-hair brush. Sanitary papers can be sponged freely 
 without injury. Flock and satin or mica papers should on no 
 account be brushed, as they will show every mark ; the roller 
 is far safer to use. Plain grounded papers also show any undue 
 use of the brush, especially when hung at a diagonal angle with 
 the light, as on a staircase. The roller will leave no trace if 
 properly used and not allowed to catch or drag. Take care that 
 the paper is pressed well into the angles of the wall, or it will 
 shrink and draw across the angles. Stamped or embossed papers 
 require to be hung quickly without much soaking, or the em- 
 bossed pattern will work out and the paper match badly. If a 
 paper is found to be a bad matching paper, it is well to see that 
 it is accurately matched at about the level of the eye, as any 
 slight mismatch near ceiling or floor will be less observable. 
 Before cutting up the lengths of paper, look over the rolls and 
 see that they are all of one tint, as slight differences due to the 
 time of printing are sometimes apparent. If so, they must be 
 sorted up ; those of one tint kept for the light side of the 
 room, and those of the other for the dark or shadow side, then 
 the difference will not be noticed unless it is very great. 
 
 All paint work must be dry before papering, and all the edges 
 that come in contact with the paper must be finished. The 
 parts that do not touch the paper can be finally coated after the 
 paper is hung. 
 
 Hanging Relief Materials. The various relief decorations 
 are hung in a similar way to paper, except that they require 
 trimming on a piece of glass or on a sheet of zinc, with a steel 
 straight-edge and knife. They will require a close, even, butt 
 joint. 
 
 Glue Paste : Paste for Anaglypta. Glue paste is used. It 
 is made in the following manner : To half a bucket of paste 
 made in the ordinary way, add, while the paste is hot, 1 Ib. of 
 strong glue; ^ Ib. Venice turpentine may be added instead of the 
 glue, or a |-lb. packet of concentrated size may be stirred in 
 while the paste is very hot.
 
 HANGING PAPER. 113 
 
 The manufacturers of these goods all supply special instructions 
 for fixing their own Materials. Careful planning is necessary, 
 and good setting out before cutting up the material, so as to 
 avoid waste. 
 
 Anaglypta requires soaking with paste before hanging. Thin 
 paste is applied freely to the back of the material, and it is set 
 aside until it becomes pliable. 
 
 Cordelova does not require much soaking, neither does Tyne- 
 castle tapestry or vellum. 
 
 For Japanese leathers, the glue paste may be half the strength, 
 and for Lincrusta Walton it must be fully strong. 
 
 If Lincrusta is hard it may be placed in a warm place to soften. 
 
 None of these materials may be rolled, or the relief will be 
 damaged. 
 
 Hollow-backed materials, like Cordelova or Anaglypta, may be 
 strengthened by using paste mixed with plaster of Paris to fill up 
 the recesses before putting on the wall. It can be applied with 
 a palette knife. Dirt or paste can easily be washed off any of 
 these with soap and water. Lincrusta may be cleaned with 
 turps. 
 
 Cordelova and Tynecastle vellum are lightest in weight and 
 best for ceiling work. Anaglypta and Lincrusta both stand 
 wear well. 
 
 Some notes on the selection of pattern will be found in a later 
 chapter. 
 
 Shrinking. The trouble experienced in papering upon a 
 painted wall has been now met by the introduction of a material 
 which is better than ordinary clairecolle as a preparation before 
 papering. It is known as klingcona, and appears to be a vege- 
 table glue modified in some special manner so as to be more stable 
 and less gelatinous than ordinary glue. It is made by the 
 manufacturers of Fabrikona, and was brought out to meet the 
 objectionable crawling and shrinking that followed the use of 
 Fabrikona over paint or varnish. 
 
 The Ridgley Hand Trimmer is a useful plane-like instru- 
 ment that is made to run along a metal straight-edge. It trims 
 paper cleanly, whether wet or dry, and is of great assistance in 
 trimming lengths, panels, &c., which the larger machine will not 
 do so well. 
 
 In place of using the scissors for cutting the wet paper round 
 casings, upon skirtings, cornices, &c., the use of roller cutters is 
 now becoming general. They have long been in common use in 
 America. The illustrations fully explain themselves. 
 
 8
 
 114 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 " Ideal" Casing Knife. With these knives the paper can be trimmed 
 on the wall while wet. 
 
 "Standard" Wheel Knife for Angle Cutting. Convenient to use with 
 any straight-edge, as the hand is held clear. 
 
 Paperhanger's Knife for Cutting on the Board. 
 Fig. 51c. American Paperhangers' Knives.
 
 115 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 is a belief fostered by those out- 
 side the painting trade that if 
 the colour is only mixed ready 
 for use by a practical man, it is 
 easy enough to make a practical 
 job. Although this is far from 
 being a correct view, it is 
 nevertheless perfectly true that 
 unless the colour is properly 
 mixed no man can make a 
 practical job with it. 
 
 The mixing of paints can 
 rarely be made the subject of 
 definite recipes, each particular 
 case of ground, finishing, and 
 intermediate colour must be 
 governed by the particular cir- 
 cumstances of its own case, and more harm is done by cut and 
 dried instructions on this point than good. The bon mot attri- 
 buted to Opie that colour must be mixed "with brains," contains 
 all that can be said on the subject without fear of contradiction.
 
 116 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 In order to give an idea of the methods adapted for particular 
 purposes, it will be necessary to give a few formulae, but they 
 must be taken to apply strictly to the conditions associated with 
 them here ; it is of great importance that all the conditions of 
 the work in hand should be carefully considered before adopting 
 any of them. 
 
 The compounds will first be dealt with irrespective of tints, 
 colours, or grounds, it being inferred that they arfe required for 
 a good average surface of a kind usually treated with the 
 material or pigment under consideration. 
 
 Mixing Clairecolle. Clairecolle, or size preparation for under- 
 coating for distempering, is made in the same manner as the 
 distemper itself, next described, but the proportions of the 
 ingredients are different. To make 2 gallons, take 1 Ib. of good 
 glue, or 4 Ibs. of patent size, jelly form, or 1 Ib. of concen- 
 trated powder size; dissolve it in enough water to make 7 
 quarts; and add 1 Ibs. of whiting soaked in a quart of water. 
 When alum is added the quantity will be 1 ounce of powdered 
 alum. 
 
 Mixing Distemper. Distemper, also called whitewash, and 
 size colouring. Take two clean buckets, and put into the first 
 some good whiting broken into lumps not larger than walnuts. 
 Pour upon it, without agitation, clear cold water more than 
 enough to cover it ; allow it to stand awhile until thoroughly 
 soaked ; then pour off the water carefully, and stir with a stick 
 or bat to ensure that it is quite soaked through, and to break 
 it up. It should now be of the consistency of very soft clay, 
 batter, or mud viz., it should be just possible to stir it with the 
 exertion of some force. Now warm some jelly size, about half 
 as much in bulk as you have of the batter, and of a strength 
 that would, when cold, turn out of a mould and keep its shape 
 viz., the strength of an ordinary table jelly as served up. The 
 size must not be boiling hot. Slowly pour this, part at a time, 
 into the batter, stirring the while, until it is all in. This will 
 reduce the batter to the consistency of cream. Stir it thoroughly, 
 and strain, while hot, through a distemper strainer, or a piece of 
 coarse muslin, cheese or butter cloth, into the clean bucket. 
 Cover it up and set aside to get cold. When cold it is ready for 
 use and should present the consistence of thick clotted cream. 
 Before use beat it up, as the whiting has a tendency to settle 
 while cooling, and the size to rise to the top. This may be over- 
 come by an occasional stir whilst cooling, which will also prevent 
 skin or scum arising. The tinting colours may be added either 
 before or after the size, but before straining. They should be
 
 COLOUR MIXING. 117 
 
 wetted up to the same consistency as the whiting, and, prefer- 
 ably, added prior to the size. The quantity of size to whiting 
 depends upon the exact amount of water in the whiting, which 
 in apparently dry whiting, varies considerably. If the method 
 of proportioning given above is closely followed, any little excess 
 or deficit of water is corrected by the amount of size added. If 
 the proportions are governed by the consistence at various stages 
 a lot of needless weighing and measuring is also avoided, and 
 the results are more uniform and workable. Too little size 
 fails to bind the pigment, and when dry it will rub off on the 
 hands and clothes. Too much size will cause the distemper, 
 when dry and heated, to flake, crack, and curl off. Many 
 writers advocate the use of the hands for mixing distemper. 
 The custom has the sanction of age and prejudice, but after 
 mature consideration it must be condemned as an unnecessary 
 and uncleanly habit. 
 
 To thoroughly mix distemper having an excess of staining 
 matter in it, pass it twice, or even thrice, through a wire-gauze 
 strainer. A distemper strainer may be quickly made by crossing 
 the ends of four pieces of wood and nailing them together like an 
 Oxford frame, and tacking a piece of canvas over it so as to hang 
 down a little in the centre like a shallow bag. 
 
 Some workers prefer when mixing distemper to use the size 
 in a cold i.e., jelly form. The main difference in effect is, that 
 there is not such an intimate commingling of the ingredients, 
 and, consequently, the mixed distemper slips over the work more 
 easily, the particles of size acting as lubricators. The finished 
 work done in this way can never look so fine and solid as when 
 a thorough intermingling of the size and the pigment has taken 
 place. Distemper mixed with chilled size is, however, useful on 
 a hot or porous ceiling, or one that has been previously coated. 
 
 Alum is sometimes added to distemper. This has a solvent 
 action on the size, and reduces it to a liquid state, so that if it is 
 added to cold size distemper, it produces the same result as if the 
 distemper had been made from liquid size, and had failed to 
 " chill." The action of alum upon certain pigments is bad, and 
 its use in distemper is not recommended unless under special 
 condition?. 
 
 For deep colours it is merely necessary to substitute a pig- 
 ment, as ochre, Venetian red, kc., for either the whole or a 
 part of the whiting. If the pigment is a fine powder colour 
 it will not require soaking, it only needs mixing on a slab or the 
 paint stone, to the same consistence as described for the whiting 
 by the addition of cold water. Never add dry colour to dis-
 
 118 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 temper, even in small quantities, without well rubbing it up in 
 water, or the particles will be sure to work up in streaks when 
 laying on. The addition, to distemper of various matters for 
 special conditions of work will be found treated of in the chapter 
 upon distempering. 
 
 Distemper should not be strained through an excessively fine 
 strainer, as the particles of whiting which give body, luminosity 
 and purity of tint are not so small as to pass through a very fine 
 one, unless the whiting used is of an exceptionally finely-ground 
 quality. 
 
 Mixing Paint. Paint in light tints for general use, from a 
 white-lead base are recommended to he prepared as follows : 
 Take two clean cans, kettles or pots, into one put a little linseed 
 oil, and whirl it round to oil the sides of the can and prevent 
 the white lead sticking to it. Add enough white lead for the 
 work in hand. With a bat or flattened stick or spatula, stir into 
 this enough raw linseed oil to make a smooth, raw paste, add 
 patent driers about one-twentieth in bulk of the paste-lead, and 
 mix well in ; continue to add oil until the stick will not stand 
 upright in the centre of the paint without carefully balancing. 
 Then add any staining colours (colours ground in oil) that are 
 required. If a large quantity is added, of course additional 
 driers will be requisite also. Thin with turpentine, to a thick, 
 creamy consistency, and strain through a fine wire gauze or a 
 piece of muslin into the other clean can. It may here be noted 
 that for all general purposes metal gauze strainers are better 
 than any other, because they break up the paint and separate 
 the particles as it passes through. A little oil or turps as 
 desired will be added to the colour when ready for use. 
 
 In the foregoing directions, weighed proportions are purposely 
 avoided, as so much difference exists in the consistency and 
 weight for bulk of the materials used, and when the proportions 
 are made to appear interdependent on bulk and consistency 
 these differences correct themselves in the working out. 
 
 Contradictory as it may seem, the old-fashioned rule-of-thumb 
 methods in this way become very reliable, even more so than 
 scientific measurement and weight ; as all scientific calculations 
 must be based on exact and similar conditions ; which are not 
 met with in the ordinary commercial materials used by the 
 painter. 
 
 For mixing a small quantity of this class of colour, the white 
 lead should be put out upon the paint stone and worked up with 
 the palette knives to the same consistency, and by the same 
 rules. It may be strained directly from the stone. In mixing
 
 COLOUR MIXING. llg, 
 
 colours on the paint stone far greater command is obtained over 
 them, and a more thorough commingling of the different in- 
 gredients is possible ; moreover, when matching tints, the 
 advantage of having the whole bulk of colour spread out on view 
 is considerable. 
 
 Zinc white paint for general purposes and Charlton white are 
 mixed in the same manner; but as they will absorb more thinners 
 they will require more driers, and must be thinned with a mix- 
 ture of two- thirds linseed oil and one-third turpentine where oil 
 alone is specified for the white lead paint. Zinc or powder 
 driers should be used instead of the patent driers. This is pre- 
 ferable, though not essential. 
 
 If white lead in bulk is very unusually thin and oily, the oil 
 may in part be abstracted from it by thinning it with turpentine 
 and allowing it to stand. The oil will rise to the top and may be 
 poured off. 
 
 For mixing colours in the keg or bucket, or in cans or pots, 
 sticks or spatulas may be made and kept. A flat stick, smooth 
 and rounded at the handle end into a bat shape, of hard, tough 
 wood, ranging from inch by 1 inch to 1 inches by 3 inches, 
 and about double the depth of the receptacle they are to be used 
 in, will be what is required. 
 
 The following recipes are for paint, irrespective of tint or 
 colour, and are recommended for special purposes. They must 
 be mixed by the methods previously described, and will be 
 found to provide for most sets of circumstances. Their adoption 
 for particular work must be governed by proper and careful con- 
 sideration of the exact conditions of work and requirements in 
 each individual case. 
 
 The differences are mostly in the proportion of oils and driers 
 used. All weights and measures are approximate, and a little 
 variation in the substance and quality of the raw material used 
 will sometimes be found to upset the exact proportions given, 
 which must be adopted with reason and common sense, and 
 checked by the consistency described as necessary in the first 
 method of mixing given. As a general rule, the turpentine 
 should be added last as it rapidly evaporates, and its legitimate 
 effect upon the paint is thus lost. When possible, it should be 
 added immediately before use. 
 
 Effects of Oils and Turps in Mixing Paint. Many working 
 painters have a lazy habit of throwing in the turps first, because 
 it saves time in beating up the white lead i.e., it dissolves the 
 paste. It should be borne in mind that the action of oil and 
 turpentine as thinnings differs, not only in the drying result,
 
 120 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 but also in the immediate result, and that in a somewhat 
 peculiar and irregular manner. As oil is added to colour, it 
 changes into a soft, butter-like consistency at first, and then 
 gradually becomes more and more liquid, soft and silky in work- 
 ing. The flow or spreading capacity is increased exactly in pro- 
 portion to the oil added. If turps be added at various stages it 
 will have different effects at different stages. When added to 
 stiff colour it does not appear at first to thin the colour as oil 
 would do; but acting upon the oil, it produces a paste hardly less 
 stiff, though lighter in weight than before. When the quantity 
 of turps added is increased gradually, the mass becomes puffy 
 and appears aerated, intractable, and loses spreading capacity as 
 the turps is still added. At a certain stage it will suddenly 
 become limpid, and thins more rapidly than would be expected 
 from the quantity of turps put in. If the colour is thinned to a 
 creamy consistency with oil before any turps is added, and turps 
 be then added, the thinning effect at once asserts itself. If the 
 turps be added first, and the oil later, a slight tendency to floc- 
 culence is noticeable in the colour, and it works less tractably 
 than if the oil had been first added, until it has stood for a couple 
 of days, by which time a more complete conglomeration appears 
 to have taken place. 
 
 Proportion Table for Paints. 
 Paints for Various Purposes. 
 
 Priming on new deal or pine. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Patent driers, 7 ounces. 
 Raw linseed oil, 11 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 7 ounces. 
 
 Another priming. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Yellow ochre in oil, 1 Ib. 
 Patent driers, f Ib. 
 Linseed oil (raw), pint. 
 Turpentine, \ pint. 
 
 Priming for indoors to be finished in white. 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Red lead, 4 ounces. 
 Patent driers, 4 ounces. 
 Linseed oil (raw), 8 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 9 ounces.
 
 PLATE ll.-RANELS DESIGNED FOR MONOCHROME PAINTING, 
 To face p. 120.]
 
 COLOUR MIXING. 121 
 
 Priming for outside, dark finish (old recipe). 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 
 Black lead, 1 Ib. 
 
 Patent driers, J Ib. 
 
 Boiled linseed oil, 10 ounces. 
 
 Turpentine, 7 ounces. 
 
 Another (modern ditto). 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Lamp black in turps, 4 Ib. 
 Patent driers, f Ib. 
 Boiled linseed oil, f pint. 
 Turpentine, pint. 
 
 Priming on oak or other hard wood, and on work which has 
 been stripped of former paint by burning with lamp or charcoal 
 brazier. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 
 Red lead, } Ib. 
 
 Patent driers, 4 Ib. 
 
 Linseed oil, 7 ounces. 
 
 Turpentine 12 ounces. 
 
 Priming on work that has been pickled off with alkali and 
 treated with acid. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Red lead, 4 Ibs. 
 Linseed oil, 6 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 16 ounces. 
 
 Second coat colour for inside new wood-work, or as first coat 
 on old work that is in good condition, or third coat if to be 
 finished in oil. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 
 Red lead, 2 ounces to 6 ounces, according to the required 
 
 depth of finishing colour. 
 
 Driers, Ib., regulated by amount of red lead. 
 Linseed oil, 8 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 9 ounces. 
 
 Second coat for outdoor wood-work. 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Red lead, Ib. 
 Patent driers, 5 ounces. 
 Boiled oil, 9 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 5 ounces. 
 
 First coat for new plastered walls. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Red lead, 2 Ibs. 
 Patent driers, 4 Ib. 
 Raw linseed oil, 1 pint. 
 Turpentine, 1 pint.
 
 122 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Second coat on same. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Patent driers, Ib. 
 Raw linseed oil, f pint. 
 Turpentine, | pint. 
 
 Oil coat on walls prior to flatting. 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Patent driers, J Ib. 
 Kaw linseed oil, 14 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 2 ounces. 
 
 Ground colour for graining upon in oil, outside work. 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Stainers, ^ Ib. 
 Patent driers, 6 ounces. 
 Boiled linseed oil, 8 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 5 ounces. 
 
 If raw oil be substituted for boiled oil, as some prefer, increase the 
 patent driers to 9 ounces. 
 
 Ground colour for graining upon in oil on inside work. 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Stainers, Ib. 
 Patent driers, 4 Ib. 
 Raw linseed oil, 7 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 6 ounces. 
 
 Ground colour for graining upon in water colour or for crayon 
 marbling, outside work. 
 
 White lead and stainers, 7 Ibs. 
 Terebine or liquid driers, 3 ounces. 
 Raw linseed oil, 5 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 7 ounces. 
 
 Ground colour for water graining, inside work. 
 
 White lead and stainers, 7 Ibs. 
 Terebine, 4 ounces. 
 Raw linseed oil, 4 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 8 ounces. 
 
 Flatting for interior walls. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Patent driers, i Ib. 
 Turpentine 14 ounces. 
 
 First coat on new compo, outside work. 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Red lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Boiled oil, 30 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 7 ounces.
 
 COLOUR MIXING. 123 
 
 Second and third coat on same, and also for first coat on pre- 
 viously painted outside walls. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Red lead, f Ib. 
 Patent driers, f Ib. 
 Boiled oil, 10 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 6 ounces. 
 
 Finishing coat for outside oil colour work or compo, stone, 
 iron, &c. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Driers, 2 ounces. 
 Boiled linseed oil, 13 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 3 ounces. 
 
 Finishing coat for outside wood-work in plain colours, glossy 
 finish. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Patent driers, 3 ounces. 
 Boiled linseed oil, 12 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 4 ounces. 
 
 The last two are greatly improved by the use of a pint of good outside 
 oak varnish in lieu of half the boiled oil and turpentine. 
 
 Colour for last coat before flatting wood-work. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Patent driers, 4 Ib. 
 Raw linseed oil, 13 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 3 ounces. 
 Flatting colour for walls. 
 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Patent driers, 2 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 1 pint. 
 Raw linseed oil, 1 ounce. 
 
 Bastard flatting egg shell, glass, flat finish. 
 White lead, 7 Ibs. 
 Japanners' gold size, 2 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 12 ounces. 
 Pale copal varnish, 2 ounces. 
 Boiled linseed oil, 1 ounce. 
 
 Note that a given quantity of turpentine will make a given 
 quantity of white lead thinner than the same quantity of oil 
 will do. 
 
 Drying Action of Paints. The whole of the foregoing 
 recipes are based on the assumption that paste white lead is 
 used, ground in good linseed oil that is, in oil which is neither 
 unduly old nor too new. The circumstances under which 
 boiled oil is used should be specially noted. Boiled oil should 
 be used for most outside work, as it stands the weather better
 
 124 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 than raw linseed, retaining its gloss for a more lengthened 
 period. It should also be used for such colours as are bad driers, 
 or are too dark to stand the addition of a white drier without 
 loss of purity of hue, though for this latter purpose terebine 
 and liquid driers may be used. The boiling of the oil has 
 increased its body and altered its structure to such an extent 
 as to make it more elastic ; that is to say, that while its drying 
 has been hastened by the addition of manganese, the thickening 
 that has also taken place, prevents its reaching so extreme a 
 point of hardness after it has taken up a certain amount of 
 oxygen as the raw linseed oil which goes on oxygenising for an 
 indefinite period. 
 
 The addition of oxides and other agents for the purpose of 
 increasing its drying powers, are productive of acidity in the oil, 
 and detrimental to its protective power, its gloss, and its per- 
 manency. An excess of driers added to oil paint is, therefore, 
 extremely detrimental. It causes the drying to take place in 
 an unnaturally hasty manner, so that the outer surface of the 
 paint is rendered impervious to the air before the paint under- 
 neath has taken up sufficient oxygen to harden it. This partially 
 sealed-up paint never properly hardens afterwards. 
 
 Action of Raw Oil versus Boiled Oil. Boiled oil is the 
 proper oil to use in all cases where japanners' gold size is used 
 as a drier, or where liquid driers, varnishes, or other forms of 
 " cooked oils " are also used. There cannot be a proper intimate 
 commixture between raw oil, and any form of cooked oil, without 
 the intervention of heat, especially in cold weather. Turpentine, 
 on account of its solvent power and penetration, will combine 
 with these oils and varnishes without the use of artificial heat. 
 
 In drying, the commercial boiled oil has a tendency to darken 
 rapidly ; indeed, exposure to the air or light will darken the oil 
 itself Raw linseed oil, on the contrary, will bleach when exposed 
 to light ; hence its great value for pale tints of colour. The 
 better quality of boiled oil, which has been boiled without the 
 addition of drying agents, has not this fault to the same degree, 
 but it is not wise to use it for whites. 
 
 Protective Agency in Paint. It must be borne in mind 
 that in the mixing of all paints the dry pigment must be 
 regarded as mere colouring matter and body. In only a few 
 cases has it any real protective power, and this principally in the 
 staple white lead and its relatives. That the protective powers 
 of even white or red lead only comes into operation when mixed 
 with an oil, and saponification is produced, must also be well 
 remembered. It is the effect of the oil upon the pigment that
 
 COLOUR MIXING. 125 
 
 makes the oil into a protective skin or shell. A volatile oil, 
 without much residue, combined with a pigment does not act in 
 this manner. Volatile oils, such as turpentine, are only used to 
 dilute the paint in order that it may be conveniently spread. 
 They will not even bind the particles together, or prevent their 
 rubbing off at a touch as soon as they have evaporated. Linseed 
 oil (either raw or boiled, or in some compound form) or some other 
 oil of the same class is, therefore, a necessity for all paint in 
 sufficient proportion to form a skin or mass, and to bind the 
 particles cohesively together. 
 
 General Hints on Paint Mixing. On no account must dry 
 colour in powder be thrown into the can and stirred into the oil. 
 It will have little value as a paint when thus served. Always 
 mix colour either ground in oil or in turpentine. If the colour 
 be in powder form, and is a very impalpable powder, it may be 
 rubbed up on the paint slab with a palette knife before being 
 put into the can. When dry colour is not properly mixed before 
 use, the particles will continue to absorb the oil after the paint 
 is spread, resulting in a dead and unequal surface, besides in 
 some cases working up stronger and streakily when the work is 
 in progress. 
 
 In mixing a number of tints for the same job, prepare or thin 
 down, or partially thin down enough white for the whole job 
 prior to making the separate tints. It is helpful to the colourist 
 to tone this mass of white to the palest tint he is using, so that 
 unity and harmony may run through the whole of the tints used. 
 In a room where yellows and reds predominate, a pale cream 
 may be used as the base colour for making all tints from, and in 
 a green room the white may be toned a pale green tint, in a 
 blue room a pale blue tint, &c. In making the various colours 
 for a room it is always advisable to, as far as possible, restrict 
 oneself to the use of one yellow, one red, and one blue. This 
 also contributes to the unity of the colouring as a whole. 
 
 Colours Recommended for Tinting and Staining Paints. 
 The colours used for tinting should be the cheap staple colours, 
 as ochres, earth reds, Prussian or common ultramarine blue 
 unless it is quite impossible to produce the required colours 
 from them. This is not recommended for economical reasons 
 only, but because such tints are more pleasing and, generally, 
 more harmonious. Avoid the use of such colours as browns or 
 blacks for lowering the tones of brighter colours. Colours 
 should be toned by the addition of their complementaries. Thus 
 to lower the tone of a yellow, add blue and red. To lower a 
 blue, add red and yellow, and to lower a red, add blue and
 
 126 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 yellow. By doing so purity and luminosity are retained, and 
 only the hue is affected. The addition of Umbers, &c., lowers 
 the standard of purity in a greater degree than it affects the 
 hue. 
 
 Opaque and Transparent Pigments. Colours are divided 
 into two great classes, those that are opaque and those that are 
 transparent, or more properly speaking, translucent. Some 
 colours are neither the one nor the other, but come midway 
 between them. 
 
 An opaque colour may be described as a colour that has body; 
 that appears about the same colour when mixed with oil as it 
 does when dry ; and that has the same appearance whether laid 
 on thickly or thinly. A transparent colour has no body or 
 covering power, is deepened considerably by the addition of oil, 
 and looks paler the more thinly it is painted over a light ground. 
 Semi-transparent colours are those that come between the two 
 classes, as terra vert, emerald green, &c. 
 
 All are used for tinting, but the addition of a very large 
 proportion of transparent stainers lessens the covering power of 
 the paint. In graining, marbling, &c., where the ground colour 
 is required to show through the top coat to a more or less 
 degree, transparent colours are indispensable. 
 
 Matching Colour in Paint. In making and matching tints 
 the colour to be matched should always be examined separately 
 from its surroundings, which alter its appearance. This may be 
 done by placing a piece of white paper having a hole in it, over 
 the colour to be matched, and examining the colour through the 
 hole. 
 
 To obtain pure blue, both yellow and red must be absent ; 
 the addition of one of them will still produce a pure colour, 
 though not a pure blue; while the addition of a third lowers the 
 scale of hue and causes it to approach neutrality. To obtain 
 pure red, yellow and blue must be absent, and to obtain pure 
 yellow, blue and red must be absent. All greys, drabs, and 
 browns contain the three elements of yellow, red, and blue in 
 varying degrees of combination, and black, which is the border 
 line between deepest grey and deepest brown, is the result of a 
 neutralising combination of these three colours in such propor- 
 tion that each kills the effect of each. Ideally these proportions 
 are yellow 3, red 5, blue 8. Grey may be said to be black with 
 some yellow taken from it. Drab is black with some red taken 
 from it. Brown is black with some blue taken from it. The 
 addition of a white or black pigment to coloured pigments 
 always adds to their bluishness. In the case of reds they look
 
 COLOUR MIXING. 127 
 
 more purple, in the case of yellows they appear greener, and 
 in the case of blues they appear bluer. 
 
 In matching a colour first take its base, then its most pro- 
 minent component, and gradually add its toning or lowering 
 elements as the case may be. For instance, in matching a fawn 
 colour, take white and thin it to a workable consistency ; then 
 add ochre or Sienna, and afterwards the burnt Sienna or red 
 ochre ; last of all secure the precise match by a touch of blue or 
 red as may be necessary. 
 
 Important Rules for Matching Colours. Remember that 
 a colour may always be made to appear brighter than it is, by 
 the presence of its opposite or complementary colour. If 
 matching a poppy, leaf and flower, the amateur colourist will 
 probably make the red too pure a scarlet, and the green too 
 crude a green, and will find a touch of brown to the red, and of 
 grey to the green, necessary when he comes to compare them 
 with nature. 
 
 The effect of adding a given quantity of a colour to a tint of 
 its own family, and to a tint of another class, varies considerably. 
 This must be constantly kept in mind when matching. Thus it 
 will be found that the slightest possible touch of red, added to a 
 blue or green tint, will totally change it ; whilst the same 
 quantity of the same red, added to pink or warm yellow, would 
 hardly effect a noticeable change at all. 
 
 There are a number of facts relating to colour which it is 
 important for the colour mixer to be acquainted with, embodied 
 in the chapter upon " Colour in decoration," but the points 
 noted here are absolutely essential to the painter, and are based 
 upon the practical results that accrue in the mixing of ordinary 
 painters' pigments. 
 
 Mixed Tints and Colours. To assist in the identification of 
 certain colours and shades, and in the recognition of their 
 components, the following list of mixed tints are given as 
 suggestions. They are equally applicable to oil or distemper, 
 subject to conformity with the lists of colours specified for use 
 in oil only, and water only, respectively. 
 
 Colours which may not be used in oil : 
 
 Lime blue. 
 Damp lake. 
 Sepia. 
 
 Bremen blue. 
 Lime greens. 
 
 Dutch pink. 
 Gamboge. 
 Zinc chromes. 
 Blue verditer. 
 Rose pink. 
 
 Vandyke brown, crimson lake, Dutch pink, and indigo may 
 used as glazes. They are bad driers and fugitive,
 
 128 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Colours which may not be used in distemper: 
 
 White lead. 
 Red lead. 
 Lead chromes. 
 Prussian blue. 
 
 Antwerp blue. 
 Bitumen. 
 Prussian brown. 
 Brown lake. 
 
 Vegetable greens. Vegetable lakes. 
 
 Common vermilionette. I Naples yellow. 
 
 Prussian white and madder lakes, Antwerp blue and Prussian 
 brown, may be used in water colour as glazes, and afterwards 
 varnished or sized, but not with or upon lime. 
 
 In mixing different pigments together, some are absolutely 
 safe to exert no bad influence on others; some are liable to 
 change others slightly if they are not pure and well made ; and 
 yet others are destructive of each other. 
 
 The following lists, though incomplete and unscientific in 
 compilation, will be found to be just what are required by the 
 colour mixer to enable him to select those pigments which will 
 lead to the best results, and to use the safest combinations. In 
 the advanced state of chemical science, a variety of causes, such 
 as uncertainty of origin, varied processes of manufacture, and 
 special diluents, may upset the result as tabulated ; so that they 
 must not be regarded as absolute. 
 
 Colours that usually combine well with each other : 
 
 Zinc white. 
 Venetian red. 
 Cobalt. 
 Indian red. 
 Raw Sienna. 
 Yellow ochre. 
 Raw Umber. 
 
 Burnt Umber. 
 Burnt Sienna. 
 Chrome green (oxide). 
 White lead. 
 Whiting. 
 Cadmium. 
 
 Common ultramarine. 
 Vermilion. 
 
 All blacks. 
 
 Malachite green. French blue. 
 
 Of these the cadmiums, vermilion, and common ultramarine 
 sometimes act prejudicially on the lead and whiting, and inva- 
 riably hasten the discolouration of white lead owing to the 
 action of the sulphur. Colours containing sulphur should be 
 lightened by the addition of zinc white. The greens, reds, and 
 blues derived from aniline sources are safe with any of the 
 above colours. 
 
 Colours that are destructive of each other and ought on no 
 iccount to be mixed together : 
 
 Cadmium yellows and emerald green. 
 White lead and vegetable lakes. 
 Aureolin and indigo. 
 Emerald green ana ultramarine
 
 COLOUR MIXING. 
 
 129 
 
 List of Composite Tints. 
 PRINCIPAL INGREDIENTS GIVEN FIRST, REMAINDER IN ROTATION. 
 
 Pompeian red, . 
 Pompeian yellow, 
 
 black, 
 blue, 
 
 Flesh tints, 
 
 Fawn colour, . 
 
 Buff, 
 
 Wallflower brown, . 
 
 Poppy red, 
 
 Red for walls, termed terra 
 cottas, . 
 
 Bright red, 
 Salmon for walls, 
 Brighter, .... 
 Colour for walls between 
 
 salmon and fawn, . 
 Chestnut brown, 
 Daep chestnut brown, 
 Vandyke red, . 
 Bay brown, 
 Brick reds, 
 
 Chocolate, 
 
 Leather brown, 
 Light ,, 
 
 Woody brown, . 
 
 Brown, 
 
 Pink, brightest, 
 
 Vermilion and Italian ochre ; or, vermilion, 
 
 chrome, and a touch of ultramarine. 
 Italian ochre and white, toned with a touch 
 
 of ultramarine and vermilion. 
 Ochre, vermilion, and ultramarine. 
 White, ultramarine, a touch of vermilion 
 
 and Italian ochre. 
 ,, and burnt Sienna. 
 ,, vermilion, and ochre. 
 ,, ochre, and lake. 
 
 Naples yellow, and a little vermilion and lake. 
 White, burnt Sienna and ochre. 
 
 ,, raw Sienna, raw Umber, Venetian 
 
 red. 
 
 ,. ochre, Venetian red, a little Umber. 
 Chrome yellow and brown lake. 
 Orange, vermilion, carmine, and brown 
 
 lake. 
 
 Alizarine scarlet and Indian yellow. 
 Venetian red and ochre, or 
 
 ,, ,, chrome and white, or 
 ,, ,, and chrome. 
 ,, ,, and orange vermilion. 
 White, Venetian red, and chrome. 
 ,, vermilion and ochre. 
 
 ,, ochre, chrome, and lake. 
 
 Burnt Sienna, ochre, and chrome. 
 
 ,, ,, and Vandyke brown. 
 
 Vermilion and Vandyke brown and lake. 
 Brown madder, ,, ,, and vermilion. 
 
 Burnt ochre. 
 Red ochre. 
 
 Yellow ochre and Indian red. 
 Venetian red. 
 Burnt Sienna, vermilion, ultramarine, and 
 
 lake. 
 
 ,, ,, Indian red, and black. 
 
 Venetian red and black. 
 Ochre and brown lake, white. 
 
 ,, burnt Umber, burnt Sienna, and white. 
 Orange chrome, raw Umber, and white. 
 Venetian red and Prussian blue, and burnt 
 
 Sienna. 
 
 Red lead and Indian red, Vandyke brown. 
 Burnt Umber and orange chrome. 
 Vermilion and Vandyke. 
 Burnt Sienna and black, and vermilion. 
 Indian red and mid chrome. 
 Rose madder and white.
 
 130 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Pink for walls, 
 
 A good cold black, . 
 
 ,, warm 
 Pearl grey, . . 
 Cool grey, 
 
 Fine pearly grey for walls, 
 Useful ,, ,, 
 
 Cold grey, 
 
 Warm 
 
 Warmer 
 
 Bright French grey, . 
 Useful distemper grey, 
 Sky blue, . 
 
 Sandstone (red), 
 
 (yei.)- 
 
 Pea green, 
 Willow green, . 
 Slate green, 
 Seaweed green, 
 
 Sea green, 
 Grass green, 
 Spring green, . 
 Ivy green, 
 
 Distemper green, 
 
 Duck's egg green, 
 Apple green, 
 Tea green, 
 
 Grey green, 
 Bronze green, . 
 Olive greens, 
 
 Tints of olive green, 
 Sap green, 
 
 Sage green, 
 Blue sage, . 
 
 Primrose green, 
 
 yellow, 
 Daffodil, 
 
 Cream tints, . 
 Drab, 
 
 Mansfield stone, 
 Straw colour, . 
 Hyacinthine blue, 
 
 White, vermilion. 
 ,, Venetian red. 
 ,, orange chrome and lake. 
 Ochre, emerald green, and ivory black. 
 Ivory black, Indian red, Venetian red. 
 White, Prussian blue, and lake. 
 White, Prussian blue, and lamp black 
 emerald green and vermilion. 
 cobalt and Venetian red. 
 and blue black. 
 
 Venetian red, Vandyke brown, 
 lake and Vandyke brown. 
 
 ,, ultramarine. 
 
 lime blue, damp lake, blue black. 
 Bremen blue in water, 
 cobalt in oil. 
 
 red ochre and brown ochre, 
 yellow ochre. 
 
 , pale Brunswick green. 
 Ochre and indigo, 
 White, burnt Sienna and black. 
 
 ,, chrome, yellow lake and indigo. 
 ,, mid chrome and Vandyke brown. 
 ,, cobalt and raw Sienna. 
 ,, ochre and cobalt. 
 ,, mid chrome and black. 
 Yellow ochre, burnt Sienna, ultramarine. 
 Chrome, burnt Sienna, and Prussian blue. 
 Whiting, Dutch pink, and lime blue. 
 
 raw Sienna, and blue black. 
 White, Prussian blue, lemon chrome. 
 ,, ,, cadmium yellow. 
 
 ,, ,, burnt Sienna and 
 
 chrome. 
 ,, terra vert. 
 Deep chrome and black. 
 Ochre and French ultramarine. 
 Mid chrome and black. 
 
 ,, ,, and burnt Sienna. 
 
 Add white and pale chrome. 
 White, raw Sienna, Prussian blue, burnt 
 
 Sienna. 
 
 black, and burnt Oxford ochre. 
 ,, ,, Prussian blue, and burnt 
 
 Oxford ochre. 
 
 ,, lemon yellow, Prussian blue. 
 ,, pale chrome. 
 ,, pale cadmium or chrome, Venetian 
 
 red. 
 
 mid chrome, a little vermilion. 
 Umber and ochre and Indian red. 
 Umber and Venetian red. 
 pale chrome and raw Umber, 
 ultramarine and rose madder.
 
 COLOUR MIXING. 
 
 131 
 
 Apricot, . 
 
 Peach, 
 Orange yellow, 
 
 Old gold, . 
 
 A better old gold, 
 
 Pale golden yellow, 
 
 Turquoise blue, 
 
 Metallic blue, . 
 
 Peacock blue, . 
 
 Neutral blue, . 
 
 Grey old blue, . 
 
 China blue, 
 
 Moonlight blue, 
 
 Sea blue, . 
 
 Deep sea blue (intense), 
 
 Slate, ' . 
 
 Warm grey slate, 
 
 Lilac, 
 
 Lavender, . 
 
 Silver grey, 
 
 Steel grey, 
 
 White, mid chrome and vermilion, and a 
 
 touch of lake. 
 
 ,, deep chrome and carmine. 
 Cadmium orange, or orange chrome and 
 
 burnt Sienna. 
 Ochre and burnt Sienna. 
 Mid chrome, vermilion, burnt Sienna, cobalt. 
 Italian ochre and white. 
 White, cobalt, and emerald green. 
 Cobalt and emerald green. 
 Ultramarine, white and emerald green. 
 White, Prussian blue and burnt Umber. 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, Sienna. 
 
 Indigo and cobalt, raw Sienna and white. 
 Cobalt and white, with Vandyke brown 
 Cobalt, lake, indigo, white and yellow ochre. 
 Indigo and cobalt, brown madder, and white. 
 
 Wl 
 
 ite and blue black. 
 
 , , , , lake or Venetian red. 
 Prussian blue, and lake, 
 vermilion, and Prussian blue, 
 black, and indigo. 
 
 cobalt, blue black, and Vandyke 
 brown. 
 
 The foregoing list might be indefinitely extended, but will be 
 found to comprise a large number of the most generally required 
 tints and shades. Most of the colours may, of course, be com- 
 pounded of other than the pigments named. The following 
 additional hints are given for general guidance : 
 
 Bright reds and blacks make rusty browns, but rich browns 
 are obtained by mixing two low-toned reds or a red and brown. 
 Bright greens are made by using pure blues and yellows ; dull 
 greens, by yellows and purples or orange and blues. Bright 
 orange tones are made by mixing pure yellows and pure reds ; 
 dull Orange by yellow greens, and red, or by brownish reds 
 and yellow. 
 
 Quantity of Paint to Cover given Area. It is important 
 that the colour mixer should know the quantity of paint re- 
 quired to cover a given area. This will be found to vary 
 considerably with the texture of the surface to be covered 
 and its power of absorption, and equally so with different 
 classes of pigments and paints. The writer has proved by 
 practical experience that the following mixture covers 40 
 square yards of previously painted wall, there being practically 
 no absorption : 
 
 7 Ibs. white lead. 
 
 10 ozs. patent driers. 
 
 1 pint linseed oil. 
 
 J pint turpentine.
 
 132 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Also, that 64 square yards of the same wall were covered 
 by the following mixture : 
 
 7 Ibs. Charlton white (zinc and baryta). 
 2 pints linseed oil. 
 \ pint turpentine. 
 Ib. patent driers. 
 
 It will be noted that both paints when mixed and strained were 
 of the same consistency the difference in. the bulk of the lighter 
 pigment accounting for the difference in the thinning required. 
 
 Further it was tested that the following mixture would cover 
 30 square yards of a new plaster wall not previously painted, 
 prepared, or papered : 
 
 7 Ibs. white lead. 
 12 o/s. drier. 
 1$ pints linseed oil. 
 4 pint turpentine. 
 
 From these data the approximate quantity required for any 
 particular work can be ascertained. 
 
 This chapter would be incomplete without some allusion to 
 the composition of stopping. 
 
 Stopping. Putty is prepared by beating together the in- 
 gredients upon a stone slab or hard-wood table with a mallet 
 or pounder. In well-ordered shops a stout wood club is kept for 
 the purpose, square at the end and gradually rounded off into 
 a handle i.e., like an Indian club, but square sided. If the 
 paint stone is a thick one it answers the purpose of making the 
 stopping on ; but if it is thin, a paving stone or stout block of 
 teak will do. 
 
 The dry ingredients are powdered, sifted, and mixed together 
 with the knife till they reach the consistency of clay ; then 
 more powdered material is added and gradually beaten into the 
 mass with the club till stiff enough for use; the degree of stiff- 
 ness depends on the work for which it is required. 
 
 Ordinary putty is made of dry whiting and raw linseed oil. 
 Hard putty is made of equal parts of dry white lead and whiting 
 with a little litharge and linseed oil. Hard stopping is made 
 from paste white lead, dry white lead, and japanners' gold size, 
 or hard drying varnish. Extra hard stopping may be of dry 
 white lead and litharge in equal parts beaten up with japanners' 
 gold size and boiled oil. The addition of varnish or japanners' 
 gold size tends to make the stopping work coarsely and stickily, 
 and when no special hurry is necessary, ordinary hard putty is 
 preferable. Litharge or red lead will hasten the hardening of 
 putty.
 
 COLOUR MIXING. 133 
 
 Complete List of Distemper Stainers. The following list 
 is recommended as affording a complete palette for tinting dis- 
 temper for every class of work, including paper staining and the 
 matching of wall paper tints : 
 
 Blue black. Damp lakes. 
 
 Pulp azure blue. Carnation paste. 
 
 Bremen blue. Pulp azure lake. 
 Lime blue, various tints. ,, magenta lake. 
 
 Pulp raw Sienna. ,, maroon lake. 
 
 burnt Sienna. ,, mauve lake. 
 
 raw Umber. French ochre. 
 
 burnt Umber. Italian ochre. 
 
 Vandyke brown. Dutch pink. 
 
 African green. Rose pink. 
 
 lime greens. Venetian red. 
 
 Olympian green. Imperial yellow. 
 
 mineral greens. Pulp chromes. 
 
 Media for Decorative Painting in Distemper. For highly 
 executed decorative work, such as flower and fruit painting in 
 distemper, a good medium is composed of stale eggs well beaten 
 up in vinegar and diluted with water, as it does not "jelly" 
 as size does, and remains open a long time. 
 
 A London recipe for distemper, to be made in the manner 
 previously described, has the following proportions which may 
 commend themselves to Metropolitan painters : 
 
 4 "balls" whiting. 
 2 Ibs. Young's patent size, 
 and sufficient water to cover the whiting. 
 
 A Scotch distemper is described as : 
 
 12 Ibs. whiting ; size, as given previously. 
 2 ozs. alum ; 2 ozs. soft soap. 
 
 It is very fast, for passages, schools, &c. Tinting colours for 
 lime wash should be restricted to ochres, Umbers, lime blue, lime 
 greens, charcoal or lamp black, and earthy reds (as Venetian). 
 
 External lime wash for farm buildings, &c., may be made as 
 follows : 
 
 Lime, bushel, slaked with 1 gallon of milk and remainder of water, 
 1 Ib. salt and 4 lb. sulphate of zinc to make it withstand the weather.
 
 134 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OP 
 DISTEMPER. 
 
 'iSTEMPER is paint made from pig- 
 ments diluted with water, to which 
 some adhesive substance is added to 
 fix it to the ground on which it is 
 used. The application of distemper 
 is usually limited to plaster, stucco, 
 brick, or stone surfaces, as the atmo- 
 sphere in this country is too humid 
 and changeable to allow of its suc- 
 cessful Tise xipon wood. 
 
 Advantages. It is the cheapest 
 
 preparation used by the painter and decorator. It is principally 
 noteworthy for the purity of the tints obtainable and for the 
 rapidity with which it may be worked, both for large surfaces 
 and for decorative details. Though usually relegated to the 
 attics and offices of our houses and to the upper portions of our 
 public buildings, it is by no means incapable of considerable 
 artistic expression, and is a worthy companion and equal in 
 this respect to oil paint. It is the material used by scenic 
 artists and by continental decorators, in whose hands it has
 
 DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 135 
 
 been shown to be capable of the highest and best results. Most 
 of our wall papers, too, are manufactured in the same medium, 
 its soft and suant surface, its freedom from gloss, and its re- 
 flective power under strong light fitting it admirably for this 
 purpose. Many of the valuable " old masters " in the National 
 Gallery and other picture galleries, indeed all those painted 
 prior to the 15th century, are painted in some kind of distemper 
 medium. 
 
 Objections. The standard objections to distemper as a 
 decorative medium in this country are the facts that it is readily 
 attacked by damp and cannot be washed. These reasons should 
 not operate against its use in dry buildings nor in situations 
 where it is out of reach, as on friezes, &c. Painted work, unless 
 in situations where it is much handled, seldom or never is 
 washed down in actual practice, although frequently selected 
 because it is washable. 
 
 Mixing Distemper. To make a successful job in distemper, 
 the colour must be properly mixed so as to bind and not rub off, 
 spread easily, and dry quickly. For particulars, see the chapter 
 on " Colour Mixing." 
 
 Surfaces for Distemper. The wall should present a good 
 surface for the reception of the material ; not too smooth, but 
 about as rough as a sheet of No. 2 glass paper is the best surface 
 for the medium. It is hardly possible to produce a successful 
 surface on the smooth lime-putty finish of ordinary English 
 plastering. There should be good sharp sand in the finishing 
 coat to give a grip or key for the distemper. A cement finish 
 gives a capital surface for distemper decoration. 
 
 The surface must be properly prepared, all the old distemper 
 completely washed off, and the absorption made equal over the 
 whole surface by a coat of preparation viz., size or clairecolle. 
 Particular attention must be paid to greasy or smoky walls, or 
 to walls impregnated with stale paste and size. Such matter 
 should be removed by a good washing with water in which a 
 little weak disinfectant has been dissolved and to which a few 
 teaspoonsful of vinegar have been added. 
 
 There must be no grit or unmixed material in the distemper. 
 It must be put on rapidly and regularly and allowed to dry off 
 quickly with free ventilation. The deeper the tint used, the 
 more important it is that no time be lost in putting on or 
 drying off. 
 
 Colour Limit of Distemper. There is no colour limit to 
 distemper, any and every tint and shade, from white to black can 
 be successfully used if the right ingredients are properly mixed
 
 136 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 and judiciously applied. Any paperhangings pattern-book amply 
 illustrates this fact. 
 
 Durability of Distemper. If used in a suitable position, 
 distemper is quite as lasting a medium as paint ; indeed, in some 
 respects even more so. It does not discolour witb age or with 
 impure gases in the air ; it will clean and dust down if properly 
 tempered. The ruined houses of Herculaneum and Pompeii and 
 the tombs of Egypt show that distemper has stood the attacks of 
 time for centuries. 
 
 Cleaning Distemper Work. To clean down distemper work, 
 use a lump of well-leavened dough, dust off the loose dust with 
 a dusting brush and rub lightly in one direction with the ball of 
 dough, kneading the dirt into the centre of the ball after each 
 rub. Dirt does not cling to distemper with the same tenacity 
 that it does to the receptive surface of oil paint ; the lustreless 
 surface has no grip for the floating particles of carbon and other 
 matter. 
 
 Whitening Ceilings and Walls. Ceilings are frequently 
 distempered in pure white. A crude white made from whiting 
 only is unsatisfactory, it should always be toned either to a warm 
 greyish white, or to a warm creamy white sufficiently to give a 
 distinct tinge. Creamy or ivory tints are most desirable 
 greenish or bluish tints less so. 
 
 In distempering a ceiling or wall, always work from the light, 
 and lay off as little as possible, and in a variety of directions, 
 always inclining to the direction from which the light comes, so 
 that any edges left may be away from the spectator and facing 
 the light, they will then cast no shadow. 
 
 The preparation for distemper is that previously described 
 as clairecolle. A new ceiling or wall is first rubbed down with 
 glass paper and all cracks stopped. These may be stopped with 
 a mixture of whiting and plaster of Paris and water. The 
 quantity of each may be gauged to make a stopping of equal 
 porosity to the wall or ceiling. One-half of each will be a fairly 
 good general proportion. It is a bad plan to use size or dis- 
 temper in the stopping, as it causes it to contract when drying. 
 Keen's cement, or Parian cement, or a mixture of lime and sand 
 may be used ; the last takes longer to set than the two former. 
 The principal concern is to use a stopping which, when lird, 
 will present a surface of the same or a similar character to the 
 wall itself, especially in absorbent power. 
 
 In preparing the crack or hole for stopping, it must be under- 
 cut at the sides to form a dovetail or key, and cracks should be 
 cut out quite half an inch in width to enable the operator to face
 
 PLATB 12.-8IMPLE STENCILS ILLUSTRATING IMPORTANCE OF CONTRAST. 
 
 To face p. 136.]
 
 DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 137 
 
 the surface up level, as a wall is usually out of plane on the two 
 sides of the crack, and if an attempt is made to stop the crack 
 without cutting it out at all the surface of the stopping will 
 probably present a bevelled edge instead of being in plane with 
 the wall. The broader the crack is cut out the less this will be 
 noticeable. The crack or hole must be soaked or the stopping 
 will not adhere to the dry porous surroundings, which will 
 draw the moisture from the stopping before it has time to set. 
 All loose plaster near the hole must be removed, or the new 
 plaster will pull it away as it sets. The stopping being dry and 
 the surface having been glass papered, the work is ready for 
 clairecolleing. 
 
 Treatment of Stains in Ceilings. Should there be any damp 
 places or stains, they had better be treated to a coat of paint. 
 Flatting, which has plenty of driers in it, should be used, and it 
 should be of the same tint as the surrounding plaster. 
 
 Clairecolleing. The whole must then be clairecolled ; ordinary 
 weak jelly size in which a lump of alum as big as a walnut 
 has been dissolved in 2 gallons of the size is a usual pre- 
 paration. This may in ordinary cases have a pint of the finishing 
 distemper added to it. In most cases the alum may safely be left 
 out, but for a hot or porous ceiling its use is a safeguard against 
 the distemper working heavily in the finishing coat. Some 
 painters add a little soap and others add oil, but these substances 
 are foreign to the character of genuine distemper and frequently 
 exert a damaging effect upon the tinting colours used afterwards. 
 In addition they add to the fixative quality of the distemper in 
 an annoying degree, and prevent clean washing off on subse- 
 quent occasions. 
 
 However good the surface of the plaster is, it is better to 
 prepare it by a coating of clairecolle, as this ensures that the 
 work will be equally non-absorbent, over its whole surface. The 
 surface of even the best of newly plastered work is always, 
 owing to the trowelling, harder in some portions than in others, 
 as the larger particles of lime and sand gather together and the 
 finer parts absorb more water than the coarser. 
 
 If the space to be covered is a large one it is a good plan to 
 omit the colouring matter and also whiting, to size the ceiling 
 with alum size, and to distemper while it is still damp. This 
 keeps the distemper free and wet on the edges for a much longer 
 time, and allows the necessary pauses for scaffold shifting, 
 without danger of the break joints showing up. In such a case 
 a little less size and more body is used in the distemper to counter- 
 balance that picked up, in the working, from the clairecolle or size.
 
 138 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 The use of alum is especially recommended where the dis- 
 temper has been mixed with chilled size, but the preferable 
 practice is to mix distemper with warm size, and to leave the 
 alum out whenever it is unnecessary, as it precipitates chondrin 
 (one of the essential elements and active components in the size) 
 and reduces it to a liquid consistency which often results in bare 
 and shady finish. 
 
 A very bad wall or ceiling may be hung with lining paper 
 prior to distempering. No preparation or clairecolle will be 
 necessary upon a white lining paper, unless it be upon a very 
 large surface, and then a very weak size may be coated on, to be 
 followed at once with the distemper. Lining paper should not 
 be painted prior to distempering; this stops its power of absorp- 
 tion, and retards the rapid and even drying out of the distemper. 
 
 In laying on size or clairecolle it should be done evenly, sparely 
 and without unnecessary motion. The same ground must not 
 be covered twice, and it should be done slowly and deliberately 
 to avoid the size frothing and clogging. 
 
 Laying on Distemper. When putting on the finishing dis- 
 temper it should be laid on boldly, freely, and equally, with a 
 light free sweep of the brush. It does not require crossing or 
 spreading. Each brushful of colour should be expended on its 
 own little space, and left as finished, before taking another dip. 
 Never attempt to use a second coat over ordinary distemper. 
 If unsatisfactory, wash off and recommence. See that the pre- 
 paration of the work has been properly attended to, as on this 
 more than on anything else depends the finished effect ; but 
 when actually laying the finishing coat, go right ahead, put the 
 distemper on and leave it to dry out with confidence in the 
 result. Use the portion of the brush nearest the tips of the 
 bristles, and do not bang the ceiling with the whole side of the 
 brush; an amateur may be recognised at once by the slap, 
 dab, bang, bang motion that he invariably adopts. Lay off 
 quite indiscriminately in all directions, as long as the distribution 
 is equal over the whole surface. The great difference between 
 painting and distempering is that, whereas paint needs spreading 
 on barely, distemper requires laying on fully and freely. Pay 
 particular attention to the stirring of the distemper, as some 
 tinting colours (as blues) will rise to the surface, and others (as 
 reds) will be heavier than the whiting base, and sink to the 
 bottom of the bucket or can. If the distemper has been made 
 with hot size, and stirred while chilling, the necessity for stirring 
 during use will be done away with, as the size will hold the 
 particles in suspension as soon as it becomes a gelatinous mass ;
 
 DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 139 
 
 but if not, then a stick must be kept at hand for stirring 
 occasionally. Do not stir with the laying-on brush on account 
 of the danger of the brush gathering the particles from the 
 bottom of the bucket, and retaining them until the brush is 
 used, producing streaks of dark colour. The room in which the 
 work is being done must not be overheated, otherwise the jelly 
 of the distemper will assume a watery form, the work will dry 
 off too quickly to allow of care in the working, and the distemper 
 will be liable to trickle after it has been laid on a little freely. 
 Neither should it be damp and cold, as this slackens the drying, 
 allows the distemper to skin in drying, and in minute ways 
 interferes with the production of a good clear luminous surface. 
 A temperature of 56 is a good one, and free circulation of air is 
 desirable. 
 
 Washing off Old Distemper. In washing off old distemper, 
 use clear water; and when the walls are unclean add a little 
 carbolic acid to it. First soak in well, giving time for the 
 distemper to become saturated with water before scrubbing. 
 Labour may be minimised if this point is attended to. Work 
 in large patches, and see that they overlap each other sufficiently 
 to avoid any imperfect washing between the patches. For 
 mouldings and cornices, extra soaking is required to reach the 
 deeper parts, and it should be done before rubbing at all, other- 
 wise the portions removed from the projections will gather in 
 the recesses and make them more difficult to wash out than 
 they were before. Pieces of deal or any soft wood may be cut 
 to fit into the moulds, quirks, and enrichments ; the use of the 
 knife for this purpose is sure to result in damage to the plaster. 
 When a ceiling flat is thickly coated and difficult to remove, 
 a zinc scraper will be found more workable than a steel one, as 
 it does not stick into and damage the plaster. 
 
 Modelling tools are sometimes useful to clear out the inter- 
 stices of modelled work ; and for plastering up any cracks in 
 the enrichments those of steel are handy. 
 
 A ceiling or wall that presents uneven and great suction 
 all over (a matter which should be noticed when washing off), 
 must be either lined with paper or given a coat of paint ; 
 flatting. A coat of Duresco is also effective, and is by some 
 painters preferred to paint. It must, however, be borne in 
 mind that the suitability of a surface for treatment in distemper 
 is destroyed by painting, as all respiration, as it may be aptly 
 termed, is stopped, and an impervious surface, suitable only 
 for an impervious pigment will have been formed. The 
 painting is only recommended as a method of doctoring an
 
 140 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 otherwise incurable complaint, and must not be resorted to un 
 necessarily. 
 
 Bad old stains must be coated with patent knotting before 
 painting. If a stain is not dry, it may be dried, or dampness 
 driven off the surface, by a burning-off lamp and the place coated 
 with knotting while dry and hot. A coating of sulphate of 
 zinc in water will have the same effect as the knotting, and may 
 be substituted for it. 
 
 The cause of stains and dampness must always be ascertained 
 and removed. A frequent cause is the use of cavity walls 
 without sufficient free ventilation. These walls are valuable 
 aids to dryness if associated with a thoroughly efficient system 
 of air ventilators. If unventilated, the currents of damp air 
 find outlet at the warmest spot viz., into the rooms. Stains 
 caused by the percolation of smoke through inferior brickwork 
 are common, and may be cured by surface treatment of knotting 
 and paint. 
 
 Whenever danger of infection or vermin is present, carbolic 
 acid should be freely used, both in the washing water and in the 
 clairecolle ; cracks and crevices may be syringed with the acid 
 in half-full strength. For beetle holes and other vermin haunts 
 the stopping may be mixed with carbolic acid and water, and a 
 little powdered glass. 
 
 Stippling Distemper. In finishing high-class distemper 
 work, a pleasing texture may be got by stippling, but it is by 
 no means necessary ; in order to produce an even surface, more- 
 over, a stippled distemper surface is inconvenient to work upon 
 with the pencil or fitch. 
 
 American Distemper. In America, lime preparations under 
 the name of " kalsomine " are largely used for distempering, 
 as also are patent preparations of gypsum (plaster of Paris) and 
 other similar materials, under the names of " water fresco," 
 ' : anti-calcomine," " alabastine," &c. These are not regarded 
 as meeting all the climatic conditions of this country equally 
 with ordinary distemper, though they have individual advan- 
 tages which often prove useful to those who are conversant with 
 their use. The student is recommended to acquaint himsell 
 practically with all new materials of the kind and their cap- 
 abilities, but there Is no need for their fuller description here. 
 
 Painting Plaster Prior to Distempering. In enriched 
 cornices it is sometimes urged that the work becomes furred up 
 with continued application of distemper, and that this is not so 
 likely to occur if the work is painted prior to distempering. The 
 real cause of furring is to be attributed to careless and insufficient
 
 DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 141 
 
 washing off, and the failure to clear out the interstices of the 
 work and free them from the former distemper prior to re-coat- 
 ing. Painting for such a reason is not justifiable, and though it 
 has the general sanction of metropolitan practice, it is so contrary 
 to the true principles of tempera work that it can only be 
 regarded as vandalism. 
 
 Damp Walls. One of the many troubles that lie in wait for 
 distemper is damp walls. A number of compositions have been 
 patented and placed on the market with the object of curing this 
 evil, but in all cases they are the veriest makeshifts. It cannot 
 be too plainly set down that there is no cure for a damp wall. 
 The source of dampness must be entirely removed. If damp 
 comes through a wall exposed to the weather the wall 
 should be tiled, slated, or cemented, or coated with a water- 
 proof solution on the outside. A hot mixture of equal 
 parts of linseed oil, resin and tallow, or bees-wax, will form 
 a good one. Cemented walls, if very sandy, will sometimes 
 let water through. They may be cured by coating them with a 
 strong soap jelly made by dissolving 3 IDS. of yellow soap in 
 enough boiling water to make a jelly. It must be well rubbed 
 into the wall on a dry day, and when dry, a coating of strong 
 alum size (say 1 Ib. of alum, 2 Ibs. of glue, and 2 quarts of 
 water) must be laid on freely over the soap preparation. This 
 mixture has much the same effect as two coats of liquid petrify- 
 ing solution or Duresco, but we prefer the method given. 
 
 Duresco and Distemper. There are cases (as in cellars) 
 where, though not badly damp, the walls are in contact with the 
 earth outside. If possible, dry area spaces should be arranged, but 
 in such cases the best distemper to use is a washable one, such as 
 Duresco. This material is also by far the best for use upon new 
 plaster. It is a proprietary article, and consists of barytes, oil, 
 glue, and other ingredients. Tested by the writer it has been 
 found to withstand wet lime putty finish, plaster, the damp from 
 vapour baths and Turkish baths, heat and steam. In one 
 instance a fungus growth accumulated upon its surface for 
 months, the material remaining unimpaired upon its removal by 
 washing. Like most patent distempers, it is not sufficiently well 
 understood to allow of its being put into the hands of the work- 
 ing painter without full and definite instructions for use, and in 
 all cases of importance it is desirable that the advice of the 
 manufacturer as to thinning and applying should be carried out. 
 The liquid Duresco supplied for thinning may be used as a claire- 
 colle under ordinary circumstances where the body Duresco is 
 used in place of ordinary distemper; it is also a good stone pre-
 
 142 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 servative. A coat of Duresco on new walls over ordinary size, 
 or clairecolle produces a good finish for temporary work. 
 
 Both distemper and Duresco may be used for renovating internal 
 discoloured stone work on porous stone. They should be applied 
 in the following manner : A tint should be made to match the 
 colour of the stone, and then be diluted with weak size or with 
 water or liquid Duresco till it is semi-transparent. This must be 
 well brushed into the stone leaving nothing upon the surface; 
 when dry, the colour of the stone will appear as new, while the 
 texture will not be interfered with either in local colour or in 
 grain. Duresco should not be used as a foundation or substitute 
 for the under coats of paint. Its intervention between the paint 
 and its ground is disadvantageous except in certain special cir- 
 cumstances ; for instance, upon metallic or smoky surfaces, copper, 
 or zinc, as recommended in another chapter. 
 
 Colouring is sometimes necessary upon a brick wall. For this 
 purpose Duresco, tinted to match or improve the colour of the 
 bricks is far preferable to paint ; it renders the bricks imper- 
 vious to water, and resists the action of soot and weather in city 
 streets. Bricklayers usually use ochre and Venetian red in milk, 
 beer, or alum water, as a medium for the dry colours, and 
 brushed on freely to tint their brickwork. Copperas, both white 
 and green, with or without ochre, is also used for improving the 
 colour of yellow bricks. 
 
 Distemper may be used upon wood-work. The wood-work 
 should be first sized strongly, or, better still, painted with a coat 
 of flatting. Great attention must be given to the relative 
 strength of size, and porosity of the wood, otherwise there is 
 danger of the work flaking off. It is in no case desirable to use 
 distemper upon deal or other soft porous wood, which is likely 
 to shrink and detach the distemper, unless it be upon narrow 
 mouldings, frames, &c. The size used for distempering upon 
 wood should be highly gelatinous and not glutinous. 
 
 French gelatine makes a good size for specially fine and highly 
 finished work. When using distemper upon white lining paper, 
 rather less size can be used, and the distemper can be laid on 
 more barely than upon a plastered *vall. 
 
 Large decorative panels are often executed in distemper upon 
 canvas. This plan is followed in scene painting. For this pur- 
 pose a rather heavy canvas is selected as best. The canvas is 
 first sized, then coated with clairecolle, and finally distempered. 
 The size should be a glutinous or gummy one, as this makes a 
 less brittle distemper and is less liable to crack. A little treacle 
 or glycerine is added to further obviate cracking when the canvas
 
 DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OP DISTEMPER. 143 
 
 is rolled and unrolled. Large foliage panels ten yards by five 
 yards were executed by the writer for the Brussels exhibition 
 buildings in this manner, the work being painted upon the dis- 
 temper ground in colour thinned with stale ale. Almost the 
 whole of the decorations at the great Paris Exhibition of 1889 
 were executed by a similar process and upon similar material. 
 
 The following are sometimes added to distemper to produce 
 the special result appended to each : Turpentine, or paraffin oil, 
 to add to the binding power and arrest putrefaction; sugar, 
 glycerine, and treacle, to slow the drying, and to render it less 
 liable to chip, and easier to work in decorative details ; oil of 
 cloves and oil of spike lavender or eau-de-Cologne, to improve the 
 odour and disinfect the material ; carbolic acid, to disinfect and 
 deodorise ; chloride of lime for the same purposes for rough work; 
 spirits of wine, tc harden and congeal the size and render it less 
 easy to remove ; and alum or vinegar, to render the size more 
 liquid, and to kill alkaline action in the lime, walls, or whiting. 
 Several of these have a chemical action upon coloured pigments, 
 notably carbolic acid upon vegetable pigments or organic com- 
 pounds, and chloride of lime upon almost all colours. 
 
 Greasy surfaces for distemper may best be treated with a 
 solution of soda and lime, and afterwards with alum or vinegar. 
 The work should be coated over with the mixture of lime, &c., 
 and allowed to remain two hours, then be washed off with clean 
 water and sized with alum size. 
 
 The brushes for distemper have already been described, Half- 
 worn brushes and tools viz., stamps should be used for the 
 washing off, and the newer ones for sizing and distempering. A 
 new brush may be worn in by using it for washing down in clean 
 water twice or thrice. The best work can be done with the 
 brushes in which the bristles are confined in two or three knots, 
 or are bound in a solid knot by a copper band (see Fig. 15). 
 
 The limitations recommended for distemper have already been 
 touched on. It should not be used in places within reach of the 
 hands or clothes ; washable distempers can be used for the lower 
 levels. Hot water pipes, coils, boiler cases, and similar metal 
 surfaces may be coated with Duresco. Distemper must not be 
 used out of doors, but Duresco is a good material for outside 
 work, or for all damp places where distemper is not suitable. 
 
 Washable Distempers. Every year sees additions to the 
 list of washable distempers, or, more properly called, water paints, 
 for many of them are not really washable in the ordinarily 
 understood sense of the term. 
 
 Many of these new paints are notable, but, as far as experi-
 
 144 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 ments can be carried out by one person, the original Duresco has 
 never been surpassed. The practical painter will, however, find 
 in most of them one particular quality which fits it especially 
 for some particular class of work. The range of colours is 
 much improved, but the best and least chalky-looking range is, 
 perhaps, also that of Duresco. Many of the makers are content 
 to produce pale whitish-looking tints without depth or mellow- 
 ness. Olsina is a notable exception to this fault, and, as a good 
 ready-made distemper with some washable pretensions, it is one 
 of the most easily managed and one of the best to "cover." 
 Among others now well known are "Mayresco," "Wapicti," 
 " Alabastine," Muraline, Vernolene, Hall's distemper, and Sanitol. 
 The latter keeps especially well. 
 
 Sichel Glue. A substitute for animal glue is the now well- 
 known sichel glue, which does not corrode, ferment, or decompose, 
 and which is soluble in cold water. It does not gelatinise. 
 A limited test places it high in the list of recent advantageous 
 additions to the paint shop stock. It can be used as a paste.
 
 145 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 term plain painting, includes the 
 preparation and application of oil 
 paints in a simple and direct manner 
 to various kinds of surfaces, and the 
 prepai'ation of the surfaces themselves 
 to receive the paint. "Paint" is 
 understood to consist of pigments 
 diluted by various oils, and the term is used in the trade to 
 distinguish it from pigments mixed with water vehicles. The 
 oils used are known as " thinners." 
 
 Object. Paint is applied either as a protective or decorative 
 agent, and sometimes as a combination of both. Its use is 
 confined to no particular class of surface or material. Several 
 applications of paint, known technically as " coats," are necessary 
 to ensure a solid appearance. The earlier coats are to render the 
 work non-absorbent ; the intermediate ones to produce a level 
 surface ; and the final ones to give the colour and effect. These 
 objects are frequently associated. 
 
 Qualifications of Paint. The paint used for any specific 
 purpose must have sufficient fluidity for its particular purpose 
 
 10
 
 146 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 It must become hard upon the ground on which it is used, and 
 must be sufficiently viscid to adhere to that ground. 
 
 Painting on New Plaster. Surfaces to be painted must be 
 clean and dry, free from grit, grease, and moisture. Newly 
 plastered surfaces, indoor work, will require no special prepara- 
 tion prior to painting. They will require four or five coats. 
 Assuming that they are properly dry, they must first be well 
 rubbed down with glass paper, No. 2|. The paper should be 
 rolled round a cork block, and its position shifted from time to 
 time, so as to present new and unworn surfaces to the wall. 
 
 All cracks and holes of any size must be stopped with Parian, 
 or Keen's cement. Plaster of Paris will do if some days can be 
 allowed to elapse before it is painted, but the cements named 
 can be safely painted upon a few hours after being used. A 
 trowel putty knife (Fig. 52) is useful for plaster stopping, and 
 fine cracks are best filled by using the broad chisel knife (Fig. 
 52) and drawing the cement over them, thoroughly levelling up 
 all slight depressions. A better surface is required for painting 
 than for distempering, as the gloss of the paint will show up all 
 imperfections. 
 
 Fig. 52. Trowel stopping and broad chisel knives. 
 
 When the stopping is dry, it must be lightly rubbed down, 
 and the whole surface well dusted ; it will then be ready for 
 the first coat of paint. For painting, use a brush, and a large 
 and small sash tool for cutting round doors and windows and 
 other fittings. 
 
 For the composition of the various coats of paint, reference 
 must be made to the chapter on Colour mixing. 
 
 First Coat on New Plaster. The first coat should be rather 
 thin and penetrative, the object being to hold to, and harden 
 the surface, and provide a good key for the succeeding coat. 
 When the first coat is dry, the wall should not present an all-
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 147 
 
 over gloss ; if it does so, the colour has been used too thickly, 
 and has not properly penetrated the surface ; or it has dried too 
 quickly, and has not had sufficient time to soak into the wall. 
 On the other hand, it must not present an entirely dead surface 
 as if all the paint had soaked in, or there will be no sufficient 
 hold for the next coat of paint. A day should now elapse. 
 
 Second Coat. The second coat should be less thin and rather 
 more oily than the first. It should be tinted slightly towards 
 the finishing colour, but be kept much lighter than that will be. 
 Any indentations, dents, or imperfections which the gloss of 
 the colour will now have revealed must be carefully faced up 
 with the putty knife (Fig. 53), and either ordinary or white 
 lead stopping, made as previously described. The second coat 
 should be given forty-eight hours to harden before commencing 
 
 Fig. 53. Stopping or putty knife. 
 
 to putty up. Allow the stopping a day to harden ; if putty is 
 used it will require two or three days. Then the whole must 
 be again glass-papered down with No, 1| paper, and well dusted. 
 If five coats are to be put on, the third coat may be similar to 
 the second. 
 
 Third Coat. The third (or fourth) coat i.e., the last but 
 one will be dependent upon the class of finish. The most usual 
 finish for such walls is "flatting." 
 
 Flatting. Flatting is colour thdt dries with a lustreless sur- 
 face, the gloss being only about the same as that upon a new- 
 laid egg shell. Flatting (having little binding or adhesive 
 power, owing to the preponderance of turpentine over oil in 
 its composition) requires to be laid on a tacky or adhesive 
 under coat, or it will not wash. This is secured by the use 
 of much oil in the coat before flatting, and the flatting is put 
 on immediately the under coat is dry enough to work over. For 
 the ingredients of both oil colour and flatting see Colour mixing. 
 
 In flatting, if the walls are likely to have much wear and tear, 
 and are passably smooth, a tablespoonful of copal varnish may be 
 added to the flatting to harden it ; but if the walls are wavy and 
 unsightly, as is often the case with old walls, a deader flat will 
 be advantageous, in which case no oil at all is added to the paste 
 white lead, but turpentine only.
 
 148 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Between each coat, except the two last, it is desirable to gently 
 rub down with No. 1 glass paper, used without a block or rubber. 
 Very little pressure must be exercised, as the only object is to 
 remove nibs, dust, or any light particles that may have adhered 
 during the drying of the previous coat. 
 
 Fig. 54. Stipplers. 
 
 Flatting must always be done quickly and methodically and 
 without confusion, and always upon a glossy under coat as 
 described. It must be done before the under coat is too hard, 
 or this will have no key or hold for the flatting. The flatting
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 149 
 
 colour must be very thoroughly mixed and strained, and re- 
 strained, and it is preferable to allow it to stand for a few hours 
 after mixing, so that the commingling of the ingredients may be 
 the more complete. For flatting large surfaces, two, three, or 
 four men will be necessary, according to the height of the surface 
 to be flatted. To ensure the joints being invisible, great care 
 must be taken that the edges of the work do not commence to 
 set. Each flank of wall must be continued without interruption 
 from start to finish. The work should be commenced at the 
 right-hand top corner, each man taking just as deep a section as 
 he can well attend to. The top man should start first and keep 
 half-a-yard in advance of the next man below him, who will take 
 up and complete the work of the man above, immediately he 
 leaves it for the next half yard. This method of working avoids 
 collision and splashes or damage to the work below. In work- 
 ing, every part must be well and evenly covered by the paint 
 brush, and then regularly and evenly dabbed with the stippler. 
 The stippler must not be trusted to, to spread the paint. 
 The stippler has already been described in the chapter on 
 brushes, and is here illustrated in various shapes (Fig. 54). 
 Those provided with reversible handles are preferable. The 
 bridge-handled stippler is preferred by many for ceiling work. 
 The stippler must be used with only just sufficient force to get 
 to the colour and produce a regular and uniform granulation 
 of the surface, and must be used squarely so that the bristles 
 are always at right angles to the wall when the brush strikes it. 
 
 Painting on Stucco and Cement Walls. For stucco and 
 rough finished walls, such as are found in the interior of churches 
 and public buildings; and also for cement and sand finished 
 walls, the treatment will be the same as for plastered surfaces, 
 except that the first coats will require a larger proportion of oil, 
 and less turpentine. No rubbing down will, of course, be 
 required. Such walls should be repaired with Roman cement 
 or oil mastic, and not with Portland cement, unless they can 
 stand a few weeks prior to painting. 
 
 External plastered walls, as in pargetted or open timbered 
 work, should have a first coating of very thin colour, and boiled 
 oil should take the place of raw linseed, except in the case of 
 white paint, when it is better to use raw oil in the last two coats. 
 For the composition of colour for the several coats see Colour 
 mixing. In all other respects follow the treatment described for 
 interior plastered walls. 
 
 The treatment for out-door stucco walls will be the same as for 
 internal work, except that boiled oil should be used instead of
 
 150 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 raw, as in last paragraph, and the proportion of oil to turpentine 
 must be increased as in the recipes given under Colour mixing. 
 A first coat of boiled oil and red lead is recommended upon the 
 exposed sides of a compo or stucco house. The first coat on 
 outside walls should never be attempted within three days after 
 heavy rain. 
 
 A reliable authority gives the following as his method of 
 coating outside house fronts, compo : 
 
 1st coat, 3 Ibs. white lead, 1 pt. raw linseed oil, driers. 
 
 2nd 4 Ibs. \ pt. ,, \ pt. turpen- 
 
 tine, driers. 
 
 3rd coat, white lead, driers, two-thirds oil, one-third turps. 
 
 4th one-third ,, two-thirds 
 
 5th ,, three-fourths one-fourth ,, 
 
 It is arranged on the principle of alternating an elastic and a 
 hard coating, and not upon the principle that is generally 
 recommended by the writer j but much may be advanced in its 
 favour for a stucco wall. 
 
 Painting on Stone. Painting upon stone is not, or ought 
 not to be, necessary or desirable. It is not a preservative in 
 the true sense of the term. In cases where it is done, the same 
 treatment as for stucco will be satisfactory. If the stone is very 
 hard, the treatment for plastered walls should be followed. 
 
 Stone may be successfully imitated or matched by painting. 
 The work is finished in oil a few shades lighter than the colour 
 of the stone to be matched, and when partially dry, freely dusted 
 over with powdered stone dust of the same stone. The paint 
 must be oily and tacky, and the stone sand must be thrown 
 against it with some little force. The result is an extremely 
 good imitation, and also a durable surface. Compo is often 
 sanded after it has been painted a number of times, in order to 
 restore its rough texture. Sand thus used has a remarkably 
 good effect and stands the weather far better than a coat of 
 paint. The ground colour for sanding on should have a little 
 old varnish or fat oil in it and must be put on heavily. 
 
 He-Painting Painted Walls. Wall work that has been 
 previously painted will require two or three coats only when 
 re-painting. It should first be washed down and thoroughly 
 dried. This removes dust and dirt, smoke and grease, and 
 ensures a good surface for the paint to dry upon. A little com- 
 mon soda in the washing water gives a better key to the new 
 paint by slightly cutting the hard surface shell of the old paint, 
 but if used the greatest vigilance is necessary in well rinsing 
 with clear water every hole and corner of the work.
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 151 
 
 If the work has decoration or lettering upon it, this must 
 be obliterated by rubbing well down with block pumice stone. 
 Soda is sometimes used in the rubbing-down water, but this 
 merely acts on the whole surface equally, and does not facilitate 
 the levelling process. 
 
 All paint has a tendency to become more transparent with 
 age, and strong colours and lines will gradually become visible 
 through the new painting by reason of this quality. When such 
 cannot be obliterated, it is well to give a coat over the whole 
 ground of some positive colour which is more assertive than the 
 old decoration, and allow it a couple of days to harden. 
 
 Stopping for previously painted walls, unless the walls are 
 greatly damaged, may be done with putty. The cracks should 
 tirst have a coat of thin paint, or oil and driers, to make the putty 
 adhere. Large patches should be made good with Parian cement 
 and dry white sand. The smaller the proportion of sand used 
 the better will the patch dry out. These cement patches will 
 require an extra coat of priming or two, to bring them to the 
 same condition of surface as the surrounding wall. 
 
 The first coat for the whole wall will be thinned with half oil 
 and half turpentine ; the wall will then require glass papering 
 with No. 1 paper. The next coat will require five-sixths oil, and 
 one-sixth of turpentine if the wall is to be finished flatted, and 
 will be ready for the flatting on the next day. If it is to be 
 finished in gloss, the second coat may be two-thirds oil and one- 
 third turps, and the final coat five-sixths of boiled oil and one- 
 sixth turps. This last coat will be all the better for the substi- 
 tution of half oil varnish for the boiled oil. See also Colour 
 mixing. 
 
 The foregoing remarks refer to internal walls. Outside walls 
 that have been previously painted should be treated in the fol- 
 lowing manner : Washed and stopped, all repairs touched up 
 with priming twice. The whole painted one or two coats, as 
 necessary, of colour thinned with two-thirds boiled oil and one- 
 third turpentine, and finished as described for new walls and in 
 Colour mixing. Three coats in all will usually be necessary. It 
 is always economical to give one coat more than would be 
 absolutely necessary in order to " cover ; " otherwise the old 
 dirty coatings will soon commence to "grin" through the new 
 paint, and afford an instance of undesirable resurrection. It is 
 computed that if two coats can be made to " cover," a third adds 
 50 per cent, to the durability and life of the work. 
 
 It may here be remarked that beyond a certain point, succes- 
 sive coatings of oil paint are not of any advantage, but tend to
 
 152 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 lessen the protective value of painting. It is not easy to dog- 
 matise in this matter, and say at what point the change occurs ; 
 but as soon as the thickness of the new coats is sufficient to 
 resist the atmospheric influences upon the lower ones, and 
 prevent further hardening, no useful purpose is served by adding 
 to them, and if they be added to, the result is a mass of soft 
 leathery matter which is readily acted upon by changes of tem- 
 perature, always yields to pressure, and will have to be removed 
 entirely before the condition of the work can be improved. 
 
 In painting new walls it will sometimes be noticed after the 
 first coat is on that there are small bunion-like protubei-ances 
 visible. These are probably bits of quicklime or stone which 
 are still in active operation upon the surrounding plaster ; they 
 should be cut out and the holes filled with stopping or putty. 
 Let the hole be well painted first. In all stopping, care must be 
 taken to cut the holes as much dovetailed as possible, and to 
 wet for plaster or cement, and paint for putty stopping, so that 
 the stopping will keep in the hole or crack, and adhere to its 
 surroundings. 
 
 Painting on new plaster or damp walls should never be at- 
 tempted. New walls take six months to dry sufficiently for paint- 
 ing. This time may be shortened by keeping up good fires, or by 
 charcoal braziers stood about the house, and free ventilation. 
 Duresco or distemper should be used, if it is necessary to colour 
 the walls before they are dry ; but inasmuch as a house is not fit 
 for habitation till they are dry the necessity ought not to arise. 
 
 Painting New Wood-work. Painting upon new wood-work 
 will require at least four coats ; a creditable surface cannot be 
 produced with a less number, and the wood-work must be well 
 finished by the joiner in order to allow of a good surface with 
 four coats only. It is presumed that the work has left the 
 joiner's hands in a proper condition for painting. If so, all the 
 plane marks will have been obliterated, all nails well punched 
 below the surface level, bits of glue removed, running or loose 
 knots replaced by sound wood, and the work finally glass-papered. 
 If these points have not been attended to, they must be, before 
 the painter can set to work. 
 
 The work will first require a thorough dusting with the brush, 
 and the removal of any specks or nibs. If the plasterer has 
 been at work after the wood-work has been fixed there will 
 probably be a few splashes, which should be removed with the 
 chisel knife, taking care not to cut the surface of the wood-work. 
 
 The knots must next be treated so as to stop any exudations 
 from them, and close the pores round about them. Patent
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 153 
 
 knotting, a mixture of naphtha and shellac, is the modern com- 
 position for the purpose. A mixture of red lead and glue size 
 was formerly used ; one of red lead and liquid Duresco is also 
 operative. Two thin coats of the knotting, one upon the knots 
 and the second carried a little distance beyond, are better than 
 one thicker coat. To make assurance doubly sure, in the case 
 of very bad knots, a layer of silver or aluminium leaf may be 
 laid upon the second coat of knotting while it is still tacky, or 
 upon a coat of japanners' gold size laid on over the second coat 
 of knotting. A. coat of red lead and size allowed to dry, and a 
 second coat with silver leaf laid upon it while wet, is an effective 
 method of dealing with knots. Gold leaf is still better than 
 silver leaf, because though thinner it is less " pinholey." In 
 the case of bad knots requiring this treatment, the knotting and 
 metal raise the knot a little above its surroundings ; it is, there- 
 fore, a good plan to scrape the knot down with a sharp steel plane 
 iron or scraper before treating it. Knots also project by reason 
 of the shrinkage of the softer wood around them ; the scraper 
 will be useful to correct this tendency. 
 
 The quirks of mouldings should have special attention before 
 painting. They are sometimes rough, and, if so, will gather a 
 quantity of paint and become unsightly ; a folded piece of glass 
 paper (middle 2) should be run through them. 
 
 The work will then require redusting and is ready for first 
 coat or " priming." The constituents of the various coats will 
 be found in Colour mixing. In priming, the colour should be laid 
 on freely and allowed sufficient time to penetrate. No time is 
 saved by hasty priming, as it is of the utmost importance that 
 the wood should take up all the colour it requires, and still 
 leave enough upon the surface to present a good ground for the 
 second coat. The colour should not be so thin as to wholly sink 
 into the wood. A fruitful source of blistering is the lack of 
 combination between this coat and the next, owing to the 
 priming having been of thin spirit colour and wholly absorbed 
 by the wood, leaving no key for the second colour. 
 
 The practice of priming wood-work many days or weeks before 
 it is second coated is an extremely bad one, and conduces to 
 the same result. The object is to lay well hold of the wood, stop 
 further absorption, and give a tacky key for the next coat, and 
 unless this threefold object is attained the value of the workman- 
 ship is materially reduced. It is essential that the work be of 
 dry and well-seasoned wood if a good job is to be made of the 
 painting. The work must be weather dry when primed. Im- 
 mature or ill-seasoned wood will contract in the soft parts and
 
 154 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 leave the grain standing above the general surface a form of 
 relievo decoration to be strenuously avoided. Pithy or sappy 
 wood must be treated as knots ; if it occurs in a first-class job it 
 ought to be removed altogether. Particular care should be 
 taken when priming, that all holes and cracks have a full share 
 of paint so that the putty will adhere, and especially that the 
 nail heads are well painted or they will rust and push out the 
 putty. 
 
 Stopping. If the work is to be finished in four coats it is well 
 to stop all the larger holes at this stage with ordinary putty for 
 commoner class work, and with white lead putty for best rooms 
 (see Colour mixing}. The stopping or putty knife has already 
 been illustrated ; the shorter and stilfer glazing knife (Fig. 55) is 
 
 Fig. 55. Glazier's stiff putty knife. 
 
 useful for wood- work, for bevelling up or stopping over nail heads 
 where some pressure is required to get the putty home, and this 
 tool should find a place in the painter's kit. The chisel knife 
 (Fig. 56) is also a necessary aid in the preparatory work. 
 
 Fig. 56. Chisel knife. 
 
 In stopping, the great points to be observed are, that the 
 ground upon which the stopping is put is tacky enough to hold 
 ft, and that sufficient coats are put above it to conceal the stop- 
 ping effectually. This is especially important in cases of mere 
 shallow indentations. All stopping requires pressing solidly into 
 its place and there must be none left on the surrounding surface. 
 It is recommended that work be stopped two days after painting. 
 It should then stand a clear day before re-painting. 
 
 After stopping, slightly rub down, and then proceed to 
 " second coat." In rubbing down, caution is requisite in order 
 to avoid rubbing off the arrises or sharp edges. Carelessness in 
 this respect will make a new door look as unsightly as an old 
 one. If as much solicitude be shown to keep the moulds sharp 
 and clean as is usually shown to get the broad surfaces smooth, 
 the result will be an ample reward in improved appearance.
 
 PLATE 13.-A DESIGN THAT IS COMPLETE IN ITSELF AT ALL DISTANCES 
 
 FROM THE EYE. 
 To face p. 154.]
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 155 
 
 The glass paper should be folded and bent to fit the mouldings, 
 and little corks, cut for covering with glass paper, may be used 
 for the broader members. Every edge should possess its full 
 complement of coats in their integrity. 
 
 Any further slight stopping may now be done with hard putty 
 or hard stopper (see Colour mixing). 
 
 If a highly-finished surface is required, the filling up must be 
 done at this stage, in which event three coats afte*r tilling up will 
 be necessary. If not, then the third and fourth coats may be 
 proceeded with. All glass papering must be done prior to the 
 last coat but one, or the scratches will show through the finished 
 work. This does not infer that any nibs, &c., should be allowed to 
 remain upon the work, as such can be removed without a general 
 rubbing down, and without scratching the ground. These coats 
 will be dealt with later in detail. 
 
 rilling up. Filling up is done in order to level a surface 
 which is too generally uneven to allow of effective stopping. 
 The process is employed upon plaster, wood, and other grounds. 
 The cheapest method is that of distemper filling up, usually 
 limited to walls, but sometimes used upon wood-work. 
 
 For distemper filling, take equal parts of the finest flour 
 plaster of Paris used by modellers, and fine whiting ; mix well 
 together dry, add warm weak size, stirring well till it becomes 
 of a consistency that can just be applied with a brush. The 
 amount of size must be judged by testing, and by the class of 
 ground on which it is desired to work. Use at once before it 
 begins to cool or thicken. A porous ground will need more 
 size than a non-porous one, and vice versd. A quarter of a pound 
 of concentrated size to a gallon of water makes a size of average 
 strength for this purpose. Give repeated coats, as necessary. 
 After it is dry, rub down with No. 1|- glass paper stretched 
 over a wooden block, and prime with priming rather thin so as 
 to penetrate the whole thickness of the filling up, and saturate 
 it. Use the filling when warm, and before it thickens or sets. 
 Ordinary size and whiting is sometimes substituted for the above 
 filling. It should be made of the consistency of batter. 
 
 Patent wood filling is better for wood-work than distemper 
 filling. Harland's slate filling-up powder is a perfect one. 
 There are other good makes which the writer has not tested to 
 the same extent. Sold in powder they require mixing with 
 turpentine and thinning with Japan gold size. The proportion 
 of turpentine will be about half to half of Japanners', modified 
 to suit special cases. Lay on repeated coats smoothly with a 
 soft flat brush, allowing time for each coat to dry hard. Deep
 
 156 PA1WTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 depressions may be filled with some of the same, mixed stiff as 
 putty, and laid on with the broad knife. When hard, rub down 
 with block pumice stone and water till level, dry well, and 
 paint as before. 
 
 A handy filling is made from dry white lead or yellow ochre 
 and white lead, or from yellow ochre alone. They are all pre- 
 pared in the same way as the patent filling, and rubbed down 
 similarly. Wliite lead has the objection of being dangerously 
 poisonous. When rubbing down it is not possible to keep the 
 hands free from danger of contamination ; and if rubbed down 
 in a dry state with glass paper, the particles of lead find their 
 way into the eyes and nostrils. These objections do not apply 
 to white lead ground in oil and used as a paint. Yellow ochre 
 has too much water in its composition and too great an affinity 
 for water to make a reliable filler. 
 
 A quickly made, and for many purposes a handy filling (as 
 the materials are usually on the job, whatever class of job it may 
 be) can be made thus: Mix together paste white lead in oil, 
 one part; whiting in turps, one part; whiting in Japan ners' 
 gold size, one part. Apply as a stiff paste with the broad knife, 
 leaving as little upon the surface as possible. It hardens 
 quickly ; rub down as before. Small dents, &c., can be filled up 
 with ordinary distemper thickened to a putty with plaster, and 
 when set, rubbed down with block pumice stone lubricated with 
 boiled oil and turpentine. The pumice for rubbing down filling 
 should be of open grain, and sawn across the fibre so as to have 
 a sharp cut. The prepared pumice blocks sold by coachpainters' 
 colour manufacturers, and made in varying degrees of fineness, 
 are labour saving. Glass paper should be used over a block of 
 wood or cork, about 4| by 3 inches, and 1 inches thick. A 
 piece, of grit stone should be kept at hand for freeing the surface 
 of the pumice stone of accumulated paint. See JNote on p. 172. 
 
 Re-painting Old Wood- work. In painting wood-work that 
 has been previously painted, the condition of the work is the 
 first consideration. If it is a paint-finished surface, smooth, and 
 free from cracks and blisters, all that is necessary is to wash 
 well, dry, and proceed with the same last two or three coats as 
 specified for new wood-work. The stopping should be done 
 before any re-painting, in the case of two-coat work ; and after 
 the first coat, in the case of three-coat work. Stop with hard 
 stopping. If the work is sound, but rough, first rub down with 
 hard block, or prepared block pumice stone, then wash and pro- 
 ceed as before. If sound, but varnished, the varnish coat, or at 
 least the major part of it, should be removed by a good rubbing
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 157 
 
 with pumice stone and water; the procedure will then be as 
 before. If cracked, but hard, the pumicing must be carried on 
 till the cracks are obliterated, unless they extend to the wood, 
 which is not usual. In some cases, where the cracks are separ- 
 ated by sound patches of hard paint, they may safely be filled 
 up with filling. Many painters treat cracked wood-work in the 
 following way : A coat of oil colour is put on, and, while freshly 
 wet, the work is rubbed down with a gritty piece of pumice. A 
 certain portion of powder is ground off the pumice and forms a 
 filling, which is deposited by the rubbing into the cracks, form- 
 ing a solid filler. When sufficiently rubbed the work is lightly 
 laid off with the paint brush in the usual way, and allowed to 
 dry. If the work to be re-painted is soft and tacky, blistered, or 
 orerloaded with repeated painting, it will be necessary to remove 
 the old paint, and commence again as if treating new wood-work, 
 except that the priming must be sharper colour. 
 
 It is essential that all bare places, repairs, &c., shall be brought 
 forward to the same condition of surface as the rest of the work, 
 prior to commencing to re-coat the whole. This may often be 
 done by coating with quick-drying colour, or thin patent knotting, 
 if time is of importance ; but a better method is to coat in the 
 usual manner for new work. In touching up patches of this 
 description, soften off the edges by " badgering " in towards the 
 patch with a dusting brush or dry tool, so as to prevent the 
 edges showing up when the work is painted all over. 
 
 The finishing coats upon new or old wood-work will be the 
 same in character. For inside work it is usual to finish either 
 in flatting, bastard flatting (i.e., an egg-shell gloss), enamel, or 
 varnish. The two latter methods of finish are dealt with under 
 the head of Varnishing. For cellars, kitchens, and offices, an 
 oil finish is sometimes adopted, but it is not to be recommended, 
 as it catches dirt and is less easily cleaned than varnish or 
 enamel. 
 
 For flatting, the thinnings used must be almost all turps, a 
 little varnish being added to harden it. The amount of varnish 
 may be slightly increased for doors and window bottoms. French 
 oil or good copal varnish should be used. For bastard flatting 
 three-fourths to two-thirds turpentine, and the remainder boiled 
 oil and varnish will be found satisfactory. For work that is to 
 be finished in varnish or enamel, a bastard flatting makes the 
 best ground. Some prefer an absolute flat for the purpose. 
 
 Burning off Old Paint. The removal of old paint is achieved 
 either by burning off, or by dissolving with a paint solvent. 
 For outside work, where the smell of the burning paint is not
 
 158 PAINTING AND DECORATINO. 
 
 objected to, the lamp or charcoal brazier, or even a gas flame, 
 has every advantage. The lamps made especially for the pur- 
 pose are to be preferred, as more cleanly and economical, and 
 more easily controlled than fire or gas. Lamps are described 
 and illustrated in Chapter III. The lamp is held in the left 
 hand, and a broad chisel knife in the right ; the flame is allowed 
 to play on the portion of the work immediately in advance 
 of the knife, and as soon as the paint is sufficiently soft, it will 
 be found that the knife readily slides along the bare wood, 
 removing the paint in its course. Once started, the lamp may be 
 kept moving as fast as the knife inclines to travel after it. When 
 possible to do so, keep the knife below the Iftmp, AS the ascend- 
 ing heat gradually prepares the work above for the full blast of 
 the flame. A little practice enables the operator to establish 
 a sympathetic movement of both hands in unison, and the work 
 becomes quite mechanical. Always follow the grain of the 
 wood. Never attempt to burn more than you can remove with 
 the knife, but allow the knife to dictate the speed of the lamp, 
 as when once heated and cooled again the paint becomes harder 
 than before, like a stoved enamel. Do not allow the paint to 
 " fire," and do not scorch the exposed portions of bare wood 
 from which the paint has already been removed. Attack 
 the broad flat surfaces first, using a 4^-inch broad knife for the 
 stiles, so as to take them at one sweep. A narrow chisel knife 
 must be kept handy for flats, mouldings, edges, &c. Pieces of 
 thin, shaped, steel scrapers may be made to fit ogee or other 
 mouldings. A plumber's shave hook (Fig. 57), with inter- 
 changeable head, is useful for moulded and intricate work. The 
 tools must not be too sharp, or the wood may be damaged by 
 them. 
 
 Fig. 57. Shave hook. 
 
 When the paint has all been removed, the work will require 
 rubbing down to remove odd particles of burnt colour which 
 have stuck, and to smooth the rough surface left by the knife. 
 Pumice stone and water may be used for this, as, owing to the 
 previous priming being still in the wood, it will be impervious 
 to moisture to a great extent. This fact alone is a strong 
 argument in favour of burning off as against solvents. Some
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 159 
 
 painters use turps and a little oil instead of water; if the 
 work is done in damp, cold weather, it is a good plan. The 
 superfluous oil and turps is of course rubbed off with cotton 
 waste or rags. When water is used, the work must be allowed 
 to thoroughly dry before re-painting. 
 
 The remaining method of paint removing is by the use of a 
 strong alkaline or lime solvent. Ordinary soda and a little 
 lime is the commonest preparation. Caustic soda, potash, black 
 ashes, and many patent removers are used. Harmer's Egyptian 
 clay is a good remover if the instructions for use are carefully 
 followed. After the use of any of these solvents the work 
 must be thoroughly soused with clear water, and the quirks and 
 cracks well washed out before the work has a chance of ab- 
 sorbing the solvent. The work must next be allowed to 
 thoroughly dry. Before painting, it is desirable to adopt the 
 precaution of coating the work with a solution of acetic acid or 
 vinegar to neutralise the effect of any soda residue. The work 
 must again be allowed to become bone dry. It may then be 
 knotted and primed, as if it were new work. This plan is 
 considered cheaper than burning off, and if proper care be taken 
 to carry out the instructions here given, it is satisfactory. 
 It is certainly less cleanly, and there are many points in it 
 where a little carelessness would have serious results in the 
 after painting. Doors should not be unhinged and laid down 
 for the purpose of stripping, as the alkali is liable to work 
 under the moulds and into the grooves and interstices if this is 
 done. If unhinged, they should be stood upright against a 
 wall. 
 
 Solvents are preferable for indoor work in an occupied 
 domicile ; but where a house is given over to the painters, the 
 burning-off lamp is better. When working indoors, the floors 
 must be well protected, or the soda will blacken them. Water- 
 proof paper pasted down to the floor is the best protector. 
 The old pitch paper is the best for the purpose, as it withstands 
 the alkali as well as the water. 
 
 A reliable old-fashioned plan of treating " pickled " wood- 
 work was to give it a coat of strong alum size and red lead. 
 
 General Hints on Painting Wood-work. In finishing wood- 
 work when a very fine surface is required the badger softener 
 may be lightly used, or, if in white lead, the hog-hair softener. 
 The work must first be carefully laid off in the usual manner and 
 then crossed and re-crossed lightly with the softener. In flatting, 
 the work may be finished with a flat fitch-hair varnish brush, 
 and the mouldings with a swan quill camel hair. Stippling
 
 160 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 should not be resorted to for wood-work, as it leaves a granular 
 surface which is easily soiled. This remark does not apply to 
 transparent glazes, but to body colours. In painting mouldings, 
 care must be taken to first well rub the colour into the quirks. 
 
 A door, if to be painted in one colour, should be painted in the 
 following rotation : Rebate, edges, top right-hand panel mould- 
 ings, panel, top left-hand panel mouldings, panel, bottom panels 
 in same order, top muntin, bottom muntin, top, middle, and 
 bottom rails, right-hand stile, left-hand stile ; frame, commencing 
 with back edges, and then with the meeting bead, and working 
 right round, bringing all on together from bottom right-hand, up 
 and across lintel, and down the left-hand frame. This order is 
 not arbitrary, and must be modified when varnishing and 
 enamelling. Doors and windows should never be closed until 
 the paint is quite dry. 
 
 Before painting, all impedimenta, as locks, handles, hooks, 
 finger-plates, sash-fasteners, and blind brackets should be taken 
 off. Necessary fastenings may be replaced with temporary old 
 ones. Some locks will require to be left on for safety ; these 
 must be kept clean. The time spent in taking off fittings is 
 regained in the free course given to the painter. 
 
 In painting a room, commence with the windows, cupboards 
 (if any), doors, mantel, and skirting. It is always possible that 
 the two latter will soil the colour and brushes. The door being 
 the most important as to finish, the brushes will be well worked 
 in and yet perfectly clean if this routine be followed. 
 
 In painting a sash window take the runners first, then the 
 meeting bar and outer sash, then inner sash, next frame, and, 
 finally, sill. Do not paint the sash cords, and be very sparing of 
 the paint upon the runners, top and bottom rails, and meeting 
 bars. Never paint that portion of the runners that is hidden 
 when the window is closed, except one bare coat at the finish. 
 
 In painting walls, commence each flank at the top right-hand 
 corner. Commence a cornice over the door in the nearest angle 
 and work to the left right round the room. Commence a ceiling 
 near the window and work away from the window. 
 
 General Notes on Painting. The following general notes 
 must be acted upon in all classes of painting. 
 
 Spreading and Consistence of Paint. The amount of 
 paint put upon the work should be as little as can be properly 
 spread unless when priming new work. The brushes must be 
 kept free from excess of colour and the paint well worked out 
 before attempting to lay off. Two thin coats are better than one 
 thick one for all classes of work, and for really first-class work
 
 PT,ATK U.-OUTUNE PATTERNS FOR STAINING UPON WOOD. 
 
 To, face p. 160.]
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 161 
 
 the less paint that is put on at each operation, consistently with 
 a proper covering of the ground, the better will the ultimate 
 result be. " Less paint and more painting " is the observation 
 the writer is compelled to make to quite 90 per cent, of painter 
 students. An overloaded coat of paint picks up and retains 
 dust and dirt, is easily damaged by smearing when wet, does not 
 dry from the bottom, but skins over, and cannot be laid off free 
 from ropiness. Paint should never be used too thin or oily. 
 There must always be enough pigment to keep the oils in their 
 place. Thin oil colour will expand unduly, and thin flatting 
 will crawl and crack. Thick podgy paint is equally dangerous ; 
 it must be thin enough to spread without ropiness and yet to 
 stay where it is put, and it should not flow after being spread, 
 unless it be of the varnish or enamel class. It must not be so 
 thin as to run back in the brush when working overhead. 
 Colour of correct consistence will spread easily and comfortably, 
 and if the painter cannot lay his colour off fairly well it is 
 probable that there is some fault with the colour itself. 
 
 The painting brushes should not be stood or dipped over the 
 bristles in the colour ; but a little colour should be taken up on 
 the point of the brush and patted against the side of the can to 
 distribute it among the bristles. Some pigments are heavy, and 
 are liable, however freely they are ground, to sink to the bottom of 
 the can. In such cases do not use the brush, but keep a stirring 
 stick or spatula in the can for occasionally stirring the mixture. 
 
 Large surfaces require, first, a sufficient quantity of paint dis- 
 tributed at short intervals, covering a panel or patch of wall say 
 half-a-yard by a yard. This must then be spread evenly, crossed 
 and re-crossed and, finally, laid off lightly. All wall surfaces are 
 laid off perpendicularly ; borders less than a foot wide hori- 
 zontally. Wood-work should be laid off in the direction of its 
 grain and construction. Ceilings should be laid off across or 
 athwart the light. 
 
 Sequence of Coats in Painting. No absolute rule can be 
 laid down for the composition and sequence of coats of paint; 
 but as a general working regulation, subject to particular omis- 
 sions, the under coats should dry more quickly and be harder 
 than those above them, and the difference between two adjoining 
 coats should not be very great. The priming and flatting coats 
 are invariable exceptions, and depend upon the kind of surface 
 treated and the finish required. 
 
 In outside work that has to be varnished, the varnishes will 
 follow the same rule, and the last coat of paint under the varnish 
 must be less elastic than the varnish is. 
 
 11
 
 162 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Knotting on Work prior to Painting. No intercoating 
 medium should be used which will have the effect of separating 
 the paint from its groundwork. Some authorities recommend 
 the application of a coat of shellac varnish or knotting all over 
 wood- work prior to painting. This is clearly a pernicious 
 practice, as it transposes the paint into a mere detached shell, 
 instead of allowing it to form a surface to the wood itself by 
 absorption. The natural key, the porosity of the wood, is 
 destroyed, and a fruitful cause of blistering is set up. Knotting 
 coated with spirit colour and varnished has been given in 
 technical papers as a cure for paint blistering. It is not, how- 
 ever, painting at all, in the accepted sense of the term, and does 
 not fulfil the functions of oil paint. 
 
 Sizing on Painted Work. Sizing on painted work is a 
 very universal and an equally unscientific practice. No better 
 method could be devised for obstructing the natural preservative 
 function of paint than the interposition of a coat of size between 
 the paint and its ground. It is a most unsanitary practice, 
 binding all the dirt and grease into a mass which the paint does 
 not penetrate. Its action upon the appearance of the work is 
 not prejudicial, if the size is weak ; but it effectually prevents 
 proper cohesion of the paint to its ground, or to the under coats 
 of paint. It is a foreign matter, and has no business there at all, 
 and no good excuse for its presence. Its use for the purpose 
 of stopping the suction of plaster prior to painting is distinctly 
 damaging to the wall. The practice is a dishonest one in most 
 cases, and the writer does not remember it ever being openly 
 specified in a straightforward manner. In short, it is generally 
 made to do duty as a coat of paint. 
 
 Technical Terms Descriptive of Paint. The following are 
 technical terms used in speaking of paint : 
 
 Paint is usually termed " colour." 
 
 " Sharp " colour is paint in which turps predominates. 
 
 ' Oily " colour is the converse. 
 
 ' Round " colour is paint that is stiff. 
 
 'Stiff" colour is thicker than round. 
 
 ' Thin " colour is of liquid consistency. 
 
 'Fat" colour is greasy, oily, or stale colour. 
 
 ' Quick " colour is colour that dries quickly. 
 
 ' Slow " refers to slow-drying colours. 
 
 Washing Down Prior to Re-painting. Outside work 
 should always be washed down prior to painting. It is curious
 
 PLATE 15..-NATURAL TREATMENT FOR CONVENTIONAL FLAT COLOURING 
 
 jacep. 162.] | N 8T A|N8.
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 163 
 
 that while in London and in the south-coast seaside resorts, this 
 practice is pretty universal, in Manchester, Birmingham, and 
 Sheffield, where it is much more necessary, the practice is more 
 honoured in the breach than in the observance. 
 
 Knots. Be especially alert not to miss knotting any of the 
 small knots in light tinted work ; brown spots will come through 
 in a few weeks where the knots are missed. 
 
 Rubbing Down. In rubbing down, if three pieces of pumice 
 are used alternately, and indiscriminately rubbed face to face 
 occasionally, they will produce an absolutely level surface. 
 
 Tar Spots. Upon outside work it sometimes happens that 
 tar spots are found. Tar is very destructive of paint, and they 
 should be thoroughly washed off with turpentine. Brunswick or 
 Berlin black are also dangerous if painted over, their composition 
 being bituminous. 
 
 Painting Bound Edges. In painting the wood- work of an 
 ordinary room, paint well round the edges so as to paint under 
 the edges of the wall paper, and well stop the angles formed by 
 the wall and the architrave mouldings, and other wood-work. 
 This keeps out dust and causes the edges of the paper to adhere 
 thoroughly. 
 
 Dusting. The duster must be in constant use, as the con- 
 tinual moving and dusting creates fresh dust continually, and 
 all dust adds to the roughness of the work. 
 
 Fat Edges. Fat edges must be always guarded against. 
 This common fault is that of allowing the paint to accumulate 
 on the edge at right angles to that which is being painted. The 
 brush should always be drawn out toward the edges of the work, 
 and not in from the edge, and any accidental accumulations 
 must be lightly removed with the point of the brush. 
 
 Hints on Platting. If flatting does not turn out solid and 
 satisfactory, the work must be repainted in oil colour. It is 
 quite useless to attempt to reflat on a flatted surface, as the new 
 coat will dissolve the former one and cause it to work up, 
 making a worse finish than before. The rougher the wall the 
 stouter it is desirable to use the flatting colour ; and the rougher 
 the stipple, the less the wall will show up any imperfections. 
 Flatting will do a great deal to hide unevenness and bad places 
 in an old wall. 
 
 Faults in Painting ; Cracking. Cracking in paint is caused 
 by the under coats of paint being more elastic than the upper one ; 
 consequently, when they are expanded by the sun's heat or other 
 causes, the upper coat is not accommodating and splits. The 
 same result is brought about whether the elasticity of the under
 
 164 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 coats is due to their ingredients, proportions, or to their not 
 having properly dried before the upper coats were put over them. 
 It must be borne in mind that oil expands in the process of 
 oxidising viz., the oxygen is added to it, and nothing is given up 
 to make room for it. Turpentine, on the contrary, contracts 
 strongly, especially if barely spread. This can be well seen if a 
 small patch of the two oils are put upon a piece of glass : when 
 dry the linseed oil will show a wrinkled surface due to expansion, 
 and the oil of turpentine will have a concave surface, and appear 
 to be drawn in from the edges. If the superincumbent surfaces 
 are not nearly related to each other in drying power, or if the 
 varying power is not maintained in equal ratio, either cracking 
 or blistering is pretty sure to result. 
 
 Blistering. Blistering is a more general fault than any other, 
 and may well be termed the bete noir of the painter. 
 
 It is brought about by various circumstances and conditions, 
 but the actual and direct cause is always the same. Moisture is 
 imprisoned, expanded by heat or other causes, and finds its neces- 
 sarily enlarged accommodation in a blister, which will occur 
 wherever there is least resistance, and where there is imperfect 
 cohesion between the paint and its ground. The moisture may 
 be water, gas, spirit, or oil. It may be inherent moisture in the 
 wood ; acquired moisture between the coats of paint ; resinous 
 moisture from knots ; unoxidised oil in the paint ; water in the 
 pigment, in the oil or in both, or a number of less usual faults. 
 
 Sometimes the work may be damp or frosty at the time of 
 painting, and this dampness is shut in by the paint. Sometimes 
 the wood itself contains constitutional water. Frequently there 
 exists free resin oil in the knots. In any case the result is 
 mechanically the same, the heat playing upon the surface ex- 
 pands the moisture; steam or gaseous vapour is formed and the 
 paint rises. A close examination of the blister will clearly show 
 between which coats the imperfect adhesion allowed the blister 
 to form. 
 
 Knots are frequently the locale of blisters, because inherent or 
 acquired moisture in the wood itself naturally finds its exit 
 through the open ends of the sap channels surrounding the knot. 
 For a similar reason, cross-grained wood, because of the number 
 of open sap vessels it contains upon its surface, will blister more 
 than straight-grained wood. The resin in the knot often gives 
 rise to blisters immediately above the knot itself, because the 
 resin oil keeps the colour soft or softens it and allows it to be 
 expanded. Curiously, too, the very precautions taken to protect 
 the paint from the action of the knot results in a smooth, keyless
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 165 
 
 surface from which the paint is easily lifted by the vapour. 
 This hard shellac in spirits has no affinity for the paint, and 
 refuses to attach itself to it or to hold it. If a blister be pricked 
 when hot and rising, the pin-hole will allow the steam to escape, 
 and it will not get any larger ; indeed, it may be pressed back 
 into its place. All woods which show a large percentage of 
 water in their analysis will blister readily. 
 
 To prevent blistering, care must be taken that due cohesion 
 and relative expansion is obtained between the various coats of 
 paint used, and that the particulars referred to as important in 
 outside painting are attended to. All knots, especially resinous 
 ones, must be effectually treated, even to the extent of having 
 very bad ones cut out and the places filled in with sound wood. 
 If work is very much exposed to strong sun it is advisable to 
 abstain from the use of a large proportion of oil, and to substitute 
 an oil varnish for a portion of the usual oil. The use of poorly- 
 bound turpentine colour is not a cure, such colour having no 
 protective power. A blistering tendency may be much aggra- 
 vated by the use of " fat " colour. New oil colour should be used. 
 Stale fat colour will blister of its own defects. Blisters are fairly 
 sure to rise if the second coat is put on while the one before it 
 is not thoroughly dry. The use of an excessive quantity of 
 driers also leads to blistering. The desideratum required both 
 for preservative purposes and to prevent blistering is a perfectly 
 homogeneous steam-tight jacket of paint, firmly attached to its 
 ground in every part. If too elastic, it will blister on the 
 slightest provocation ; and if too inelastic, it will crack. 
 
 Paint will blister upon other paint, independently of the 
 material painted, if the necessary conditions for a blister viz., 
 imprisoned moisture and imperfect adhesion are present, but 
 this is, of course, much less frequently the case upon other than 
 wood surfaces. So-called blisters upon cement and stone are 
 frequently caused by the action of nibs of unslaked lime ; those 
 upon iron are caused by rusting in spots. 
 
 Cissing. Cissing is the term given to the contractile action 
 of water or paint upon a very oily surface of new paint. Varnish 
 frequently cisses upon oil paint. The tendency is overcome by 
 a brisk rubbing with a damp chamois leather, or a damp sponge 
 and a little fuller's earth ; about an ounce of the earth is dis- 
 solved in a half-bucket of water. Sometimes it may be cured by 
 rubbing with a dry rag and powdered whiting. 
 
 Striking or Plashing Striking or flashing is the name given 
 to oily or shiny patches occurring in flatted work, and is caused 
 by a too free use of the colour in irregular patches, or by the under
 
 166 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 coat of paint not being properly dry when the flatting was done. 
 In some parts of the country the same term is employed when oil 
 colour goes off in dead patches, which are not the result of absorp- 
 tion. This is, however, akin to blooming in varnishes, and is the 
 result of frost or fog damp, and not defect for which the paint or 
 painting is responsible. 
 
 Bopiness Ladders. " Ropiness" is the term used to express 
 a too apparent use of the brush, a corded surface, caused either by 
 the colour being podgy or the brush coarse, and used with too 
 much force in the laying-off ; the term is applied to paint when it is 
 thick and sticky, and will hold together like treacle. " Ladders" 
 are formed by carelessness in laying-off. The term expresses 
 the condition of things when, in laying-off for the last time, 
 there are missed places showing the transverse laying-off between 
 the final brush strokes. Both of these last defects are due to 
 the painters' carelessness or want of skill. 
 
 Grinning Through in Painting. "Grinning through" is 
 caused by the top coat being too thin and transparent, or too 
 sparely applied, or by its being either too light or too dark, or 
 too far removed in hue to cover its ground colour. It is only 
 applicable to colour intended to be solid and dense in finish. 
 When done intentionally the same effect is termed " scumbling" 
 or "glazing." All light tints should have the ground colour a 
 few shades deeper and richer than the flatting, and very deep 
 colours should have the ground colour a few shades lighter than 
 the flatting. The reason for this is that the flatting alters in 
 colour as it dries ; in painters' language " it goes down to its 
 ground," so that the differences noted are really correctives to 
 prevent grinning. 
 
 Drying of Paint. The drying of paint is an important factor 
 in its durability and in its successful application. Paint is not 
 dry immediately it appears to be so to the touch ; indeed, the 
 drying process in oil colours goes on g-s long as the life of the 
 work permits, getting less and less perceptible as the amount of 
 oxygen taken up by the oil is smaller and smaller, until at last 
 the paint becomes a brittle and useless shell of dead pigment. 
 It is important that a certain amount of this oxidisation should 
 take place in the under coats before they are covered and shut 
 in by the later coats, as during the first and rapid portion of this 
 "drying" as we term it, the process is accompanied with a con- 
 siderable amount of movement and shifting of the particles of 
 colour. If a piece of work be painted coat upon coat of oil 
 colour before each coat is sufficiently dry, this movement will 
 cause the top coat to break up and open out under a voluntary
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 16? 
 
 effort of the undercoats to obtain the necessary oxygen for their 
 proper hardening. Four days is not too much to allow for the 
 proper drying of oil colour which will nominally "dry" in 
 twenty-four hours. The period may be shortened by additional 
 driers, but a good rule is to allow all paint to stand four times 
 as long as it takes to arrive at superficial dryness. 
 
 Paints dry better in a free and equably well ventilated room 
 than in a close warm one. In the use of driers the surface must be 
 taken into account. Copper and oak are particularly anti-drying. 
 Pine and cast-iron are particularly good. Quick-drying paint 
 is usually stronger in odour than slow-drying. The obnoxious 
 smell of paint may be changed into a comparatively pleasant one 
 by the addition of a few drops of oil of spike lavender, which 
 will also act as a drier. In like manner eau-de-Cologne may be 
 added to spirit varnishes and lacquers to meet the wishes of 
 fastidious people. The smell of paint may also be modified by 
 placing large pans of water in the room in which the painting 
 is being done. 
 
 Time for Outside Painting. The time for outside painting 
 is largely a matter of opinion. The writer considers that the 
 summer time is undoubtedly the best time, because of the absence 
 of dampness in the atmosphere, and the equable temperature of 
 the nights. Spring and autumn come next. No outdoor work 
 should be attempted in frosty weather. Frost destroys the 
 qualities of the oil on which the stability of the work depends, 
 and drives moisture deep into the wood-work. 
 
 Effects of Undercoats in Finish. The undercoat of the 
 densest paint always has a decided influence on the colour of the 
 finished work. This is especially noticeable in flatted work. It 
 is often desirable to obtain richness by painting the last coat but 
 one in brighter colours than the required effect of the finished 
 coat. Thus a coat of vermilion-toned pink under a rosy pink finish 
 will give a depth and soft richness otherwise unobtainable. The 
 bloom of an apricot can be represented by painting a pink over 
 a full bright orange tone. The peculiar charm of the turquoise 
 can be got by using a pure blue over a green, and so on ad 
 infinitum. Richness in colour may often be obtained by tinting 
 the pigment with a transparent stainer. Thus raw sienna and 
 white makes a richer yellow than ochre and white. The com- 
 mixture of two transparent colours produce washy results, but 
 the use of two solidly opaque colours mixed together produces 
 chalky heaviness. 
 
 Retouching. Painting must never be retouched after it has 
 commenced to set. If it should get rubbed and damaged it had
 
 168 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 better be left to dry, as any touching up at this stage will only 
 make a bad matter worse, and such accidents frequently are less 
 observable when the paint has finished drying than when actually 
 occurring. If such places do mar the finished work, it is best to 
 repaint the whole piece at once. 
 
 Rubbing Down. Rubbing down must be accomplished by 
 even and regular pressure, with special care to avoid rubbing 
 the paint bare upon projections, mouldings, &c. In rubbing to 
 produce a level surface as in felting down or rubbing filling up 
 preparations, a rotatory motion is used. In rubbing slightly to 
 remove dust, nibs, &c., between coats it is better to follow the 
 direction of the grain of the wood. In work that is to be treated 
 transparently viz., glazed, stained, or varnished the scratches 
 are less liable to show if in the direction of the grain. 
 
 The use of felt and powder pumice is not recommended for oil 
 paint generally. All that is desirable between the coats of paint 
 may be accomplished with glass paper ; while for preparatory 
 rubbing upon old paint the natural or prepared block pumice is 
 a far quicker and more reliable method. When the glass paper 
 clogs in rubbing down oil paint, a little powdered whiting may 
 be used under the paper, or a sprinkle of dry pumice powder. 
 
 Priming. Care must be taken that wood-work is thoroughly 
 dry when painted, and especially when primed. 
 
 Knot the end grain parts of the wood, also sappy portions, 
 with a coat of diluted knotting. It will save an extra coat of 
 paint on these porous portions, and at the same time it does not 
 entirely destroy its absorptive power. 
 
 Painting Signs, &c. Painting for sign-boards for lettering 
 in gold, or work for elaborate decoration, require special qualities 
 and care. The work must be hard enough to stand working 
 upon and washing. For this reason, colour made up in turpen- 
 tine and varnish is the best for the purpose, and will give a good 
 hard, reliable and durable finish. Slow drying varnish should 
 be used for the purpose. If time is not pressing it is by far the 
 best plan to varnish the board and allow it time to properly 
 harden before putting on the writing. 
 
 Painting Metal Work. In painting metal work, iron 
 requires the greatest amount of attention. The paint for iron- 
 work should be harder than that for wood-work, as there is not 
 the same liability to shrinkage or swelling, and less absorption. 
 If varnish take the place of oil in the later coats, and the other 
 ingredients be used as recommended for wood- work, a good and 
 permanent job will certainly result, and the additional cost is 
 balanced by additional durability. Enough varnish or boiled
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 169 
 
 oil must always be used to prevent hardness and consequent 
 chipping. 
 
 Red lead is regarded as the best paint for iron, and may be 
 used for the two first coats with boiled oil and a little turpentine. 
 The great point to be observed is to be sure that the iron is well 
 dried before painting. Cast iron is spongy in texture and 
 absorbs dampness readily. If all iron castings were well coated 
 with red lead and boiled oil while still warm, there would be 
 little trouble with rust. As soon as the casting cools it com- 
 mences to absorb moisture, and one-half of the efficacy of paint- 
 ing is lost by the delay. 
 
 Many other pigments are useful for iron- work, and are recom- 
 mended especially for the purpose. The oil, however, is the real 
 protector, and if that is there and good, the pigment only plays a 
 secondary part, the oil being itself an actual preservative against 
 rust. 
 
 Re-Painting Old Iron- Work. Old iron- work should not be 
 washed with water prior to painting, but should be scraped and 
 well rubbed with card wire and coarse emery cloth. The rust may 
 be scrubbed off by the use of a lubricant, as paraffin. Special wire 
 scrub brushes are made for this purpose by Messrs. Hamilton & 
 Co. It should not be painted within a week of wet weather, so 
 that no water can be imprisoned under the new paint. After the 
 first and second coats any colour may be used, as for wood- work. 
 
 In re-painting old iron-work, a coat of red lead should be first 
 used, or half of red lead may be added to the colour used, if it 
 can be done without prejudice to the covering power of the finish- 
 ing colour. Black has a good preservative effect on iron-work, 
 especially animal blacks, which are greasy in nature ; any of the 
 carbonic blacks can be mixed with red lead to produce a good 
 and durable brown. 
 
 Rust, if allowed to accumulate under paint will go on spread- 
 ing and lift the paint off. One of the fruitful causes of rust in 
 iron-work is the unprotected condition of the portions which are 
 scnewed or bolted together before painting. All iron-work ought 
 to be painted in sections before being fitted together. 
 
 Painting Hot Pipes and Boilers, &e. Hot water pipes, 
 coils, and hot air grids and boiler cases must be painted with 
 japanners' colour. This is made from equal parts of japanners' 
 gold size and turpentine, and varnished with japanners' varnish. 
 Fire stoves and gas stoves can, by the use of this preparation, 
 be painted in any colours, or bronzed, gilded, &c., and yet stand 
 great heat. The practice of blackleading stoves is quite un- 
 necessary, except for the actual bars and parts in direct contact
 
 170 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 with the fire. All the other portions look far better enamelled, 
 the same colour as the other painted work in the room. 
 
 Copper and zinc require scratching or roughing to take the 
 paint well and hold it firmly. A coat of Duresco is a good method 
 of treatment, over which is added a coat of varnish or varnish 
 colour. Oil colour must never be used as a first coat, as it will 
 peel off. Copper must be well washed with turpentine rags 
 before painting, to remove any machine oil or grease. 
 
 In all metal painting, good sharp colour is to be used for the 
 first coat, if the metal has been turned, drilled, fitted, or worked 
 upon. For castings this is not so necessary. 
 
 Painting Rough Wood-work. In painting the rough ex- 
 terior boarding of sheds, barns, and outhouses, and for rough 
 fences, it is sometimes necessary to use a cheaper material than 
 ordinary oil paint. In such cases for new wood-work, Stockholm 
 tar and boiled oil in equal parts make a capital preparation, 
 giving the effect of stained pine at a moderate cost. It should 
 be mixed by heating together and well stirring. Ordinary 
 gas tar and turpentine, with some pitch added, is better than 
 plain gas tar, and dries a fairly hard and weather-resisting 
 black. Tar should always be applied hot for effective results, 
 and pitch added to increase its hardening. These tar mixtures 
 are all impervious to water, and good preservatives for rough 
 wood-work. 
 
 Quick Paints. It is often desirable to paint and finish small 
 articles quickly. Shellac varnish, or patent knotting with 
 powder colour added, dries very rapidly with a good gloss, bears 
 handling, and stands well. Another method is to use distemper, 
 or water colour, and then varnish with spirit varnish. Patent 
 knotting is an extremely useful agent in touching up or making 
 good little odds and ends at the finish of a job, and can be 
 utilised in many ways. It must be of the best quality, made 
 from naphtha and good shellac. As a rapidly drying varnish to 
 stand handling it may be considered perfectly satisfactory for 
 small surfaces. Some of the methylated knotting sold is not 
 equally to be recommended for these purposes. 
 
 Painting Canvas. In painting canvas, the absorption must 
 be stopped by sizing, or, as the oil paint oxidises, the canvas will 
 become brittle and useless, indeed, a slow combustion process 
 goes on which in time quite destroys the fibres. 
 
 Acid Resisting and Insulating Paints. Paints and enamels 
 are now manufactured to resist acids and electrical currents. 
 Harland's air-drying resist enamel is useful for these purposes, 
 and may be used for electric light fittings and surroundings.
 
 BORDERS FOR BRUSH-WORK PRACTICE.
 
 PLAIN PAINTING. 171 
 
 Fire-Proof Paints. Asbestos fire-proof paints are also 
 obtainable, but do not largely concern the house painter. They 
 are useful for a variety of purposes which will occur to the 
 reader, and are capable of a limited amount of artistic treatment. 
 Full instructions for their use is supplied by the various makers. 
 
 Luminous Paints. Luminous paint has also been placed 
 upon the market, to which pigment the same remarks apply. 
 
 Lubrose Paints. These paints are supplied quite ready for 
 use and require no thinning. The pigment is incorporated 
 during manufacture. 
 
 They can be applied directly upon wood or any metal, or upon 
 old paint. It is much used in Government Dockyards, &c., for 
 metal work. In no case should oil or turpentine be used with 
 it as the diluent is a form of wood naphtha. The manufacturer 
 supplies a suitable "thinnings." 
 
 Portland Cement. The old difficulty of painting upon 
 Portland cement may be overcome by giving two coats of 
 alabastine prior to oil painting. 
 
 Grounds for Enamelling. Enamels should always be laid 
 upon a hard ground without undue gloss. Three parts turpentine 
 and one part linseed oil, with a little French oil varnish, will 
 make a capital ground. 
 
 There should be no oily or elastic undercoat. Two coats of 
 the above paint on wood-work after priming, and one coat oil 
 paint and one of the above on walls, will be a good ground for 
 enamels. All enamels should be laid on liberally, and flat 
 enamel should be stippled. 
 
 Spray Painting. The distribution of paint, distemper, or 
 stain by means of a spray diffuser in which the paint is 
 forced into a fine spray by a jet of air has long been possible, 
 though it is only recently that it has met with any trade 
 recognition. Now, however, the use of an aerograph spray has 
 become quite common for special purposes, and in America and 
 on the Continent has been more generally used than in England. 
 
 The rapidity with which it is distributed with a fine and 
 even grain over any given surface, whether flat or modelled, 
 without the intervention of a skilled painter, indicates an 
 increasing demand for the process. It is already in common 
 use in Government departments, for the preparation of paint 
 samples by manufacturers, in works and mills where articles have 
 to be painted prior to sending out, and in many other places. 
 The Aerograph Company supply a machine that will spread 
 anything from flatting or enamel to limewash far more quickly 
 and evenly than any painter can possibly do so with a brush.
 
 172 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Stencilling can be beautifully executed by its aid, and the 
 colours can be blended together with the finest gradation. 
 
 The initial cost is heavy, as it involves the cost of an air 
 pump, a painter's outfit costing about 25. whilst a small outfit 
 suitable for decorating and lithography can be obtained for 
 about 10. 
 
 "White Enamel. A rapid method of white enamelling is as 
 follows : First coat on. new wood Alabastine, 2 measures ; 
 water, 1 measure. Brush out well and lay off across grain. 
 Second coat Add another measure of water to the above 
 proportions, finish with the grain. Let dry and rub down 
 with fine glass paper and cork. Third coat Raw linseed 
 oil, driers, a very little white lead or zinc white, and -J 
 turps. Fourth coat White enamel. Fifth, if desired Ditto. 
 The alabastine holds up the gloss of the enamel, and the 
 process is very rapid, as the whole can be done in two days. 
 
 Solvent Removers. A new class of solvents prepared from 
 benzine and similar spirits has recently been invented. Of this 
 class Pyrol, Verdalene, and Pintoff are the leading makes. 
 They have the immense advantage of leaving the work ready for 
 painting again without any washing down or wetting, are easy 
 of application and rapid in effect. 
 
 The greatest objection to them is their strong odour,which pene- 
 trates into every part of the house in which they are being used. 
 
 They are also very inflammable, and require careful handling. 
 
 Pyrol was the first of these solvents on the market, and the 
 patent, which is of great value, is nowbeing tested in the law courts. 
 
 Note to p. 156. A special filling composition has recently been gaining 
 wide favour, known as Harland's enamel filling. It is in the form of 
 a stiff paste, and a special thinning is supplied as a diluent. Under severe 
 weather tests it has been proved a most durable filling, not given to 
 cracking or peeling, and holding most tenaciously to the wood, iron, or 
 other ground on which it is put. It may be spread stiffly with a trowel 
 or broad knife, or it may be brushed on more thinly. It can also be 
 mixed with dry white lead to make a hard and impervious " stopping." 
 The base appears to be a finely ground hard slate or granite, and the 
 thinning a special varnish diluted in correct proportion with oil of tur- 
 pentine. Two coats may be applied at four hours interval, if necessary, 
 but a safer plan is to coat morning and night. 
 
 This filling cuts down specially well with natural pumice stone of a soft 
 character, leaving a good ground for priming. It can be used either prior 
 to or after painting. For front doors or shop fronts in exposed sunny 
 positions, if the work is first coated with the tilling two or three coats, 
 and then rubbed down and finished in the usual way, cracking or blis- 
 tering are said to be impossible. A panel exposed to the sun and heat 
 from May to December presented a perfect surface.
 
 173 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 increasing use of hard woods 
 and of closelygrainedsoft woods 
 of fine marking and texture, 
 such as cypress, sequoia, kauri, 
 Canadian redwood, jarrah, and 
 others, has rendered a know- 
 ledge of staining of considerably 
 increased utility to the painter. 
 Indeed, unless he is content to 
 pass a large proportion of his 
 legitimate work over to the cabinet-maker and French polisher, 
 it is absolutely necessary that he make himself acquainted with 
 the art and craft of colouring and finishing woods in their 
 natural grain. 
 
 These woods when naturally finished have a superior effect 
 to merely painted work. Formerly the only wood which was 
 left to the staining of the house-painter was pine or deal, and 
 the staining was invariably the mere imitation in colour of a 
 more expensive wood. All other staining was done by French 
 polishers. It is now quite customary to colour woods by stain- 
 ing to any and every hue
 
 174 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 The Artistic Limitation of Staining. Staining may be 
 defined as coating with a colouring matter which changes the 
 hue without obscuring the grain or texture. It is accomplished 
 either by the use of transparent colours or chemical action, 
 or both. When, as is generally the case, it is applied to wood- 
 wook, the colouring is, or should be, limited in range to such 
 colours as are common to woods, or are suggestive of wood. 
 Artistic instinct revolts against the fashion now in vogue among 
 some classes, of staining woods in crude greens and steely greys, 
 mauves, and peacock blues. These colours do not impart that 
 structural solidity or importance to wood-work that is natural 
 and proper. It is not at all necessary that the colour used 
 should be the actual colour of any particular wood, as long as 
 it is not so far removed from a woody colour as to be altogether 
 unlike wood. Thus a bright red or an olive green, are not 
 colours which we find reproduced in any actual wood, but they 
 are so nearly allied to wood colours that they do not do violence 
 to one's sense of propriety. 
 
 Classes of Staining. Staining may be roughly divided into 
 at least four classes Water staining, oil staining, spirit staining, 
 and varnish staining. In addition to these, staining is used decora- 
 tively to produce various ornamental effects. French polishers 
 have a few other names for certain processes which are worthy 
 of note viz., chemical staining, water coating, improving, in- 
 graining, mottle staining, overgraining, &c. These devices are, 
 however, seldom used by painters, but might be usefully em- 
 ployed with more frequency. 
 
 Water Staining is the application of aqueous coloured solutions 
 obtained from colouring substances soluble in water and having 
 no body in them, as walnut juice, logwood extract, gamboge, 
 turmeric, indigo, the juice of berries and bark of trees, and some 
 pigments having little or no body, as Prussian blue, burnt and 
 raw Sienna, Vandyke brown, and alkaline dyes. 
 
 Chemical Staining is the use of aqueous solutions not in 
 themselves having colour, but which change the colour of the 
 woods to which they are applied, as soda, lime, potash, ammonia, 
 various sulphates and salts. 
 
 Water Coating is the use of body colours ground in water, as 
 ochre, Umber, Venetian red, chrome, drop black, &c. It is in 
 reality a form of distempering, differing, however, in the fact 
 that it is not all left upon the wood to dry. Size is added to 
 bind the colour, as in distempering. This process, of course, 
 hides the natural grain of the wood somewhat, and disguises 
 its shortcomings and defects.
 
 STAINING. 175 
 
 Oil Staining is, as its name implies, the use of oil colours of a 
 more or less transparent nature, as the Siennas, Vandyke brown, 
 Prussian blue and brown, and the aniline and cochineal lakes. 
 
 Varnish Staining consists in the use of varnish with the oil 
 stains described in the last paragraph. The varnish is added to 
 stop absorption, and prepare the work for varnishing or surface 
 polishing. 
 
 Spirit Staining is akin to oil staining, but certain aniline and 
 other dyes are more tractable and more easily miscible in spirit 
 than in oil or water mediums, and are consequently used in this 
 form. 
 
 Improving is a term used to denote a mere brightening of the 
 actual colour of the wood, without changing its hue. It may be 
 accomplished by either or any of the staining processes used 
 singly or in combination. 
 
 Natural Graining is the adding to the wood more markings, in 
 order that plain pieces may be made fuller of interest and richer 
 in grain. It does not imply a change in the kind of wood. All 
 the processes used in ordinary graining, as mottling, pencilling, 
 and overgraining, are resorted to in this operation. 
 
 Wax Stains. Oak and other hard woods are often wax 
 stained and polished by hand. Wax stains are made from a 
 mixture of beeswax and turpentine, and oil colours, such as 
 Vandyke brown, burnt Sienna, &c. They are applied freely 
 when warm, and when well soaked in and hardened, say in 
 twelve hours, a fine dull eggshell polish is produced by briskly 
 rubbing with a hard shoe brush, or a roughish piece of jute canvas. 
 
 Comparative Utility of Stains. Spirit stains evaporate so 
 quickly, as to require great expertness in handling in order to 
 avoid patchiness and unequal depth. Varnish stains are only 
 useful where economy is of more importance than durability, 
 and when a high finish is not requisite. A comparison between 
 the different classes of stain shows that the most durable stain 
 is an oil stain. This has a protective as well as a decorative 
 value, and the oil, by reason of its slowness in drying, penetrates 
 very deeply into the pores of the wood. Water stains are 
 likely to raise the grain in the wood, and roughen its surface. 
 They enhance the appearance of the grain if it be good, as the 
 resinous parts resist the action of the water, and remain in 
 strong contrast with the softer and spongy portions. They dry 
 quickly and are inexpensive. 
 
 Polishing or varnishing can be done upon all the different 
 classes of stain. The processes are dealt with under the head of 
 Varnishing.
 
 176 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 The great desiderata in staining are clarity, evenness, and 
 depth. 
 
 Application of Stains. Large brushes should be used, and 
 the work saturated and brushed in, so that the wood takes as 
 deep a colour as the colour of stain used will make it. It is 
 always better to err on the light side in making up the stain, as 
 the work can always be gone over again to deepen it further. 
 It is difficult to evenly manipulate a very deep stain on white 
 wood in one coat. A flat duster or a softener may be used to 
 remove brush marks and keep the stain even. 
 
 It will sometimes be necessary to stain wood in such a way 
 as to subdue or partially hide the natural markings. This can 
 be well done by the use of oil stains, and stippling, or flogging it 
 while fully wet, and before it has entirely soaked in. 
 
 Water staining upon new wood-work should be done upon the 
 unprepared wood as it has left the plane, and without glass 
 papering. It will require sizing prior to varnishing, if the 
 varnishing is to be limited to one or two coats ; but the work 
 will be more durable if the sizing be omitted, and a further coat 
 of varnish given instead. Resinous woods, such as pitch pine, 
 should be oil stained, or varnish or spirit stained, and not sized 
 before varnishing. 
 
 In varnishing woods in their natural colour, sizing may be used 
 either before or after the first coat of varnish, to assist in stopping 
 the absorption, or a coat of thin knotting may be used first 
 instead of the size. Varnish only is, however, the best for 
 transparency and durability. This will necessitate at least three, 
 generally four, coats of varnish. Cheap and fairly good finish 
 may be secured by twice sizing and once varnishing. 
 
 Staining Floors. When staining floors they must first be 
 thoroughly cleansed. After washing in the ordinary way, dilute 
 oxalic acid may be used to remove stains of ink or iron rust, &c. 
 Floors should always be oil or beeswax stained, so that the stain 
 penetrates well into the wood . Oil stained floors can be varnished, 
 but beeswax stain must be polished with beeswax and turpentine 
 and a stiff, short shoe brush a somewhat laborious and costly 
 process for the housekeeper. It is necessary that whatever is 
 used, the wood should be thoroughly well saturated. Sizing and 
 knotting preparatory to staining is not to be recommended, as, 
 if this is used, the stain will chip off and tread up white and 
 shabby-looking in a short time. 
 
 It is possible to add to the prominence of the grain of wood 
 by staining. This can be done by using water stain hot, or by 
 oil stain made much deeper than the work is to appear when
 
 STAINING. 177 
 
 finished. In either case the stain should be laid on freely and 
 allowed to thoroughly soak in. In the case of oil stain it may 
 be allowed a quarter of an hour to penetrate, and the superfluous 
 stain may then be wiped off with rags. 
 
 Oiling Woods. Linseed oil is applied to wood before polish- 
 ing or varnishing or without any after operation, to bring out 
 the lustre, colour, and beauty of the grain. Boiled oil should be 
 used for this purpose, and it should be of good quality ; a little 
 terebine must be added to assist the drying. 
 
 Before staining wood-work, go over the end grain and 
 sappy portions with a coat of thin knotting so as to reduce the 
 absorbency of these parts. If this is not done they will come 
 out black against the other portions of the work. 
 
 It is necessary to bear in mind that all woods have a tendency 
 to deepen in colour when exposed to the atmosphere. This is 
 extremely noticeable in pine, which rapidly darkens. The 
 staining should therefore be lighter and brighter than you wish 
 the work to appear when permanently toned with age. Allow- 
 ance should also be made for subsequent varnishing and polish- 
 ing. It is also the nature of all oils and varnishes to deepen 
 and become discoloured with age in a greater degree than the 
 natural wood will do. 
 
 When oil or varnish stains are used upon wood, without the 
 intervention of size or shellac, this tendency will be mutually 
 assisted, and the darkening or ageing goes on at an increased 
 speed. Woods containing a large quantity of oil or resinous 
 matter deepen more quickly than dry light woods. 
 
 List of Stains. The following list of stains may be used 
 for the classes of staining indicated : 
 
 Water Staining. 
 
 Stephens' or Mander's prepared stains. 
 Vandyke brown in water. 
 Raw and burnt Sienna in water. 
 Raw and burnt Umber in water. 
 Indigo in water. 
 Blue black in water. 
 Mahogany lake in water. 
 
 Alkaline dyes (not to be used with aniline dyes). 
 Aniline dyes (not to be used with alkaline dyes). 
 Yellow lake in water. 
 Terra vert in water. 
 Gamboge in water. 
 And other transparent or partially transparent pigments. 
 
 Oil Staining. 
 
 All the pigments named above, and others that are trans- 
 
 12
 
 178 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 parent but ground in linseed oil and with a little liquid driers, 
 Japanners' black (best) thinned with turpentine; bitumen or 
 asphaltum thinned with turpentine. 
 
 Spirit Stains. 
 
 Boiled and macerated solutions of the various dyewoods and 
 dyestuffs as logwood, Sanders wood, Brazilian redwood, ani- 
 line powders, dragon's blood, turmeric, arsenate of copper, 
 saffron, indigo, and others ; also various berries, cochineal, &c. 
 
 Chemical Staining. 
 
 Alkaline manganates, permanganate of potash and Epsom 
 salts, liquid ammonia, carbonate of soda, bichromate of potash, 
 acetic acid, and other substances. 
 
 Water Coating. 
 
 Ochres, Umbers, Venetian red, lamp black, rose pink, all in 
 size. 
 
 The following stains and dyes, &c., are recommended for the 
 special purposes named : 
 
 To deepen the natural colour of oak, mahogany, and other woods. 
 
 1 oz. Bichromate of potash. 
 1 oz. Carbonate of soda. 
 1 quart boiling water. 
 
 Apply with a large sponge, as this mixture destroys brushes. 
 
 To deepen oak. Stand the article in a room, in which place 
 open saucers of liquid ammonia and seal up all the crevices, so 
 that the fumes do not escape. Or, coat the article with a 
 saturated solution of ammonia diluted with water. 
 
 Walnut stain. 1 oz. Epsom salts, 1 oz. permanganate of 
 potash dissolved separately in 1 pint each of boiling water, and 
 mixed together and applied hot with a fibre (not bristle) brush 
 or a sponge. 
 
 Mahogany stain. Spirits of wine, 4 oz., dragon's blood, 1 oz. 
 Dissolve and thin with methylated spirit to required depth. 
 
 Rosewood stain. A decoction of logwood and red Sanders 
 wood in naphtha, is boiled to extract the stain. 
 
 Green stains. Yellow arsenic and indigo, or indigo and 
 turmeric dissolved in water or spirit. 
 
 Yellows and yellow browns. Strong decoctions of tea, coffee, 
 saffron, turmeric, or aloes. These may be intermixed.
 
 STAINING. 179 
 
 Reds. Decoctions of cochineal, Brazil chips, logwood, or 
 archil. These may be mixed with the above yellows. 
 
 Grey and brown. Decoctions of vinegar in which a few scraps 
 of iron have been placed. 
 
 Black. Lamp black or gas soot ; the latter is a jet black 
 (collect it upon an iron plate). 
 
 Greens. Wood, indigo, verdigris, or vitriol added to the above 
 yellows or reds. 
 
 Blues. The above four are used in green stains- 
 Water coatings to produce all prepared in size 
 
 Mahogany. Venetian red and ochre and mahogany lake. 
 
 Rosewood. Mahogany lake, rose pink, and lamp black. 
 
 Oak. Burnt Umber and ochre. 
 
 Ebony. Irony black. 
 
 Satin wood or maple. Yellow ochre and chrome. 
 
 Walnut. Burnt Umber and Venetian red* 
 
 Apply these while the size is in solution, and wipe down with 
 a dusting brush, leaving streaky marks: size and varnish. 
 This process is useful for temporary office work or cheap 
 furniture. 
 
 Ornamental Staining. Many decorative effects are obtained 
 by the skilful use of staining, and the following processes may 
 be briefly recapitulated here : 
 
 Effects much resembling inlay or intarsia work may be 
 obtained in several ways, all differing in detail and appearance. 
 
 A pattern may be cut out of lining paper and gummed or 
 pasted to the panel, care being taken not to soil any other 
 portion than that covered by the paper. The paper should be 
 well sized before the pattern is cut out of it. When the paste 
 has dried, the panel may be oil stained, the paper protecting 
 those portions of the wood that it covers. When the oil stain 
 is dry, a little soaking with water will detach the paper, leaving 
 a clean wood pattern on a stained ground. The paste or gum 
 prevents the oil stain from running underneath the paper. 
 
 Patterns may be stencilled in knotting or spirit varnish upon 
 a panel ; the portion thus stencilled upon will resist water stain, 
 which may be applied to the remainder of the panel, resulting 
 in a pattern of clear wood upon a stained ground as before. 
 Colour may be mixed with the knotting or varnish and a poly- 
 chromatic effect produced in the same way. A stencil may be 
 put upon the bare wood in deep rich varnish stains blended by 
 stencilling, and the whole panel afterwards stained with a 
 sponge and water stain to the required depth. A stencil may 
 be put upon the bare wood in solid body colour, or in gold or
 
 180 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 silver, the panel being first clear sized, or not, as the worker 
 prefers. When this is dry the panel may be stained all over 
 with various stains in water, and the superfluous stains wiped 
 off with a leather, leaving the gold or other surface clear and 
 clean. A panel may be sized twice with clear size and decorated 
 in any desired manner upon the clear wood ground, the wood 
 being allowed to show through the painting. When the painting 
 is dry the panel may be washed, removing the size with warm 
 water, and then stained to any depth, the stain allowed to 
 penetrate, and then the superfluous stain wiped off clean, leaving 
 the painting clear and effective. 
 
 Another method of decorating in stain is to pounce the design 
 upon the bare wood, and outline the pattern with fine brown or 
 black lines, then stain between the lines with oil, spirit, or water 
 stains, and finally, varnish. The brown lines will keep the 
 stains from impinging on each other. If light lines are desired 
 the panel will require first sizing twice, then outlining in Bruns- 
 wick black, then washing to remove the size, next staining in 
 water stains, and, finally, the Brunswick black must be removed 
 by a free use of turpentine. 
 
 Several different depths of stain may be obtained upon one 
 panel by commencing with the bare wood and using water stains. 
 Stain with the lightest stain required first, all over the panel. 
 Then coat the portions which are intended to remain in that 
 depth with thick white hard varnish, and again stain the panel 
 over with the next deeper stain; when this is dry cover the 
 parts that are to remain this depth with the varnish and allow 
 it to dry ; then stain all over again with the next depth of stain, 
 and again varnish the parts that you desire to be finished in that 
 depth ; and so on, till the whole of the stains are in. Finally, 
 remove the varnish by applying methylated spirit and a sponge, 
 which will not affect the stain, and polish or varnish in the 
 ordinary way. 
 
 Another method of procedure that may be adopted is to size 
 and varnish the panel, and then coat any parts that you wish to 
 remain uncoloured, with Brunswick black. Then stain the 
 panel over with a water colour stain, which will not penetrate; 
 allow it to dry and remove the Brunswick with turpentine, leav- 
 ing the water colour uninjured. This is one of the best methods 
 of obtaining clear, sharp lines of light stain upon a deep ground. 
 
 Gilding may be done upon the bare wood and afterwards the 
 wood-work way be stained (of course it is assumed that the wood 
 is sized before gilding in the ordinary manner, first with glue 
 size, and afterwards with oil gold size). The glue size must be
 
 STAINING. 181 
 
 washed off with warm water after gilding is done, and then the 
 panel can be stained all over. 
 
 These ideas can be extended, elaborated, and used in con- 
 junction with advantage ; their scope being only limited by the 
 invention and resource of the decorator. 
 
 White wood and pine is an admirable ground for flower and 
 decorative painting. Aniline powder colours ground in egg 
 white to the consistency of tube colours, and used in the same 
 manner as tube colours, have the compound property of colouring 
 the work, staying where they are put without spreading, and 
 stopping the suction. They have a soft and velvety effect, and 
 the wood can be stained or varnished over after they are stopped 
 out with a coat of egg size, or spirit varnish, and wiped off 
 cleanly from the painting with a clean soft rag. 
 
 Decorative effects upon plaster can be produced by the use of 
 stain. The plaster ground must not be too hard or impervious 
 nor too highly trowelled. Oil and spirit stains are the best for 
 this class of work. 
 
 Decorative effects on stains should be somewhat conventional 
 in design, as the grain of the wood showing through the stain, 
 while adding beauty to the texture, and imparting luminosity 
 to the work, makes any attempt at naturalistic painting unsuit- 
 able to the material and to the method. 
 
 Flowers, fruit, figures, and ornament can be painted in body 
 oil colours upon stained wood grounds, obscuring the grain, with 
 perfect good taste and a good effect. 
 
 Patterns which have the effect of inlay are admissible, but 
 good judgment is not consistent with any attempts to imitate 
 inlay, rnarqueterie, or intarsia work, especially as when freed 
 from the trammels and limitations that surround the practice of 
 these arts, much greater scope is afforded the designer. Stained 
 ornament upon natural woods is so beautiful in itself that it is 
 quite superfluous to attempt to make it appear other than it is 
 by taking advantage of its superficial resemblance to inlay. The 
 aim of the decorator should rather be directed to taking full ad- 
 vantage of the freedom possessed by the brush as contrasted with 
 the saw, and of the ease and cheapness of the manipulation when 
 compared to that of inlaying. 
 
 The sketches distributed through this chapter are suggestive 
 of the class of design best suited to the method, and are indica- 
 tive of the direction that the work should take. 
 
 Matsine. A notable addition to the available staining sub- 
 stances is the range of transparent colours sold under the 
 proprietary name of " Matsine."
 
 182 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 This material is a preparation of very transparent pigments 
 gound in spirit with a certain amount of fixative. It gives an 
 extremely clear dye-like stain, adds to the life of the wood, 
 wipes clear off the hard grain, and sinks into the soft parts 
 deeply. 
 
 It is ready for immediate use when thinned with turpentine, 
 and leaves a satisfactory finish much akin to wax-polish without 
 further treatment, or may be varnished in the usual manner 
 without sizing. 
 
 Matsine stains are useful for tinting, or can be used for trans- 
 parency painting. They are the best medium for tapestry 
 painting. 
 
 Wood Fillers. A new material that is now much used is 
 wood filler a substance for stopping the pores and forming a 
 base for polish or varnish. Blume's liquid filler, with stains 
 specially made to follow it, is one of the most satisfactory. 
 
 Naphthaline Stains. These are coining into favour for cheap 
 work. They have great penetrative power, dry rapidly, and 
 combine well with pine woods. A rich brown when used full 
 strength, they can be modified by adding ordinary oil stainers. 
 
 Cracks in Stained Floors. After numerous trials, a new 
 " crack filler " has been devised by an American manufacturer. 
 Johnson's crack filler will not chip away or kick up, and takes 
 the stain, especially their own wax stains, admirably. No 
 other substance has quite the same properties, as it comes 
 between putty and alabastine in character.
 
 183 
 
 CHAPTER XH. 
 
 ARNISH is a material of transparent 
 or semi-transparent appearance, and is 
 used either as a protective or preserva- 
 tive agent, or as a means of obtaining a 
 high finish. Varnishes are sometimes 
 coloured by reason of their composition, 
 as in black varnish or Japan ; or by the 
 addition of dyestuflfs, as in lacquers. 
 Japans and enamels are admixtures of 
 varnish and colouring matter, sometimes 
 in a transparent and sometimes in an opaque form. 
 
 Classes of Varnish. There are water varnishes, as gum 
 Arabic or isinglass dissolved in water. Spirit varnishes, viz. : 
 Gums or resins dissolved in spirits, as patent knotting, or white 
 hard varnish, French polish, &c. Oil varnishes, viz.: Gums and 
 resins dissolved in oils, as mastic varnish, copal oak varnish, <fec. 
 There are also natural varnishes, as lacquers, india rubber 
 solution, &c. 
 
 Lacquer and spirit varnishes dry and harden by the evapora- 
 tion of the volatile spirit, leaving the gum as a thin shell over 
 the surface of the work. Oil varnish dries by the absorption of 
 the oxygen in the atmosphere solidifying the oil with the gum,
 
 184 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 and forming a skin of preservative character. A certain amount 
 of evaporation also takes place, as some proportion of spirit is 
 usually added to oil varnishes to make them freely workable. 
 
 The better class of varnishes contains a large percentage of oil, 
 and are slow in drying. 
 
 The varnishes principally used by the painter are as follow : 
 
 Oil Varnishes. Mastic varnish, chiefly used for pictures and 
 paintings of value. 
 
 "White oil varnishes, known variously as French oil, Coburg, 
 white marble varnish, &c., for the bes-t internal work. 
 
 Pale oil varnishes, as pale copal, pale carriage varnish, maple 
 varnish, <kc., both elastic for external work, and hard for inside 
 work. 
 
 Medium oil varnishes, known by many names, as pale oak, 
 carriage, &c., made in both outside and inside varieties. 
 
 Dark oil varnish, known as oak varnish, church oak, hard 
 oak, &c., both inside and outside. 
 
 Spirit Varnishes. Flatting varnish, a varnish that dries 
 without gloss. 
 
 Paper varnish, a pale varnish used on wall papers, and having 
 a large amount of turpentine in its composition. 
 
 Japanners' varnish also contains a large quantity of turps, but 
 is less white than paper varnish. 
 
 Patent knotting, a mixture of shellac and naphtha, or other 
 spirit. 
 
 White and brown hard spirit varnish, made from resins, gums, 
 and methylated spirits of wine. 
 
 French polish and finishes, consisting of shellac and spirits of 
 wine. 
 
 The only water varnishes that are much used are solutions of 
 gum or isinglass, for the protection of paper. We have also 
 Mander's water flatting varnish, which can be used upon paper 
 without previous sizing. 
 
 Elastic and Hard Varnishes. By far the most generally 
 used are the oil varnishes, which dry by oxidization of the oils 
 and the evaporation of the turpentine, from which they are 
 compounded, producing a leather-like, elastic, and transparent 
 skin. 
 
 Elastic varnishes, or outside varnishes, are those which dry 
 sufficiently hard to stand handling, but are, as the term implies, 
 yielding enough to contract and expand with the changes of 
 temperature to which they are subjected. These varnishes are 
 often useful for internal work where the same conditions are in 
 force, as upon indoor sashes and shutters.
 
 VARNISH AND VARNISHING. 185 
 
 It will be noticed often that these portions of the room have 
 cracked and perished, while the rest of the varnished work is in 
 good condition. 
 
 The difference between elastic and hard varnishes depends in 
 the better qualities upon the proportion of oil to turpentine in 
 the varnish, the former rendering the varnish elastic, and the 
 latter hard. The better qualities of elastic varnishes are made 
 entirely from elastic gums, while the hard varnishes have gums 
 which are more resinous in their nature. The commoner classes 
 of hard varnish are almost entirely produced from resins, and 
 will not stand hard wear. 
 
 The quality in working of a varnish depends greatly upon its 
 age, also on the manner and place of its storage. It is impos- 
 sible in making the varnish to entirely dissolve all the minute 
 particles of gum. These are gradually reduced by filtration, but 
 the fine particles are only removed by allowing the varnish to 
 stand in large tanks and thoroughly settle. If they are not 
 removed they will appear many times magnified when spread 
 upon the work. 
 
 Successive Coats of Varnish. In precisely the same way 
 that we graduate the coats of paint in painting so that we do not 
 get an expansive coat beneath a hard unyielding one, so we pro- 
 ceed in the matter of varnishes. There must be a relative and 
 near resemblance between the character of each coat and the one 
 next to it. The hardest of all varnishes are the spirit varnishes 
 and lacquers ; these must on no account be used either over or 
 under oil varnish. In the first case, they would inevitably crack 
 and crawl ; and in the latter case, would have such a hard sur- 
 face as to present no key for the coat of oil varnish, which would 
 be easily peeled off. Spirit varnishes will not stand hard wear, 
 they are subject to easy abrasion. 
 
 Applying Varnish. In the application of varnish, the most 
 important point to observe is absolute and scrupulous cleanliness. 
 To make a perfect job, it is necessary to have a perfectly clean 
 surface, free from dust, grease, or other impurity ; a perfectly 
 clean pot, a perfectly clean brush, and a perfectly clean atmos- 
 phere. How clean, only those who have experience understand. 
 
 The necessary good surface should be prepared before the work 
 arrives at the varnishing stage by rubbing down and filling up 
 all inequalities of surface. If the work is at all greasy and the 
 varnish does not flow evenly, it must be leathered down briskly 
 with the leather just damp. If very oily, a little fuller's earth 
 may be dissolved in the water that the leather is damped in. 
 
 The varnishes used should always be the best of their respec-
 
 186 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 tive kinds from well-known and tested makers. A great many 
 jobs are spoiled by the constant change of material from that of 
 one maker to another. In order to obtain good results under 
 the varying conditions of general work it is necessary to be 
 acquainted with the action and peculiarities of the varnish used, 
 under all conditions, and this cannot be done if the make of 
 varnish is frequently changed. Indeed, the same argument 
 applies to most painters' materials. In using a new material it 
 is always a question of paying in failures for experience, and 
 there is every reason why this should not be repeated oftener 
 than is really necessary. 
 
 In the experience of the writer there are excellent and in 
 some cases perfect varnishes by almost every maker; but certain 
 makers excel particularly with special kinds, and each class of 
 varnish requires special and unique conditions if it is to appear 
 at its best. It would not be within the scope of possibility to 
 enter into all the details of this question, and it would be in- 
 vidious to select special makers of varnish for praise, especially 
 as the writer's main experience has, in consistency with his 
 opinions, been limited to a few tried makers. Almost every 
 make of varnish has, however, been given a more or less limited 
 trial for the purpose of this work. 
 
 Without in any degree depreciating the value of other varnishes 
 it may be remarked that many years' experience has proved the 
 following special varnishes to be among the writer's favourites : 
 
 Principal Varnishes in Use. Mander's white Coburg var- 
 nish or white oil varnish for best interior white work, or Harland's 
 white marble ditto. 
 
 French oil varnishes (Turner's). 
 
 Carriage varnish (Harland's). 
 
 Flatting varnishes; Mander's encaustic. Black japan (Lloyds'). 
 Knotting (Tabor & Trego). Terebine (Power's). Japanners 
 (Noble & Hoare). Inside oak (Mander's, Harland's, Noble & 
 Hoare, Turner's). White enamel (Harland's). Dark oak 
 (Mander's). Body varnish (Blume's). Black Japan (Blume's). 
 The number of reliable varnish manufacturers are yearly in- 
 creasing, as a wider knowledge of scientific methods are dis- 
 placing the old system of proprietary and secret recipes. 
 
 On the whole, the greatest amount of satisfaction has been 
 given the writer by Mander's and Harland's makes, yet there 
 are some certain varnishes of these makers that may, in the 
 writer's opinion, be beaten by other makes. 
 
 Precautions. "Varnish tins must never be left open, and 
 must be stored in a warm dry place not above 80 Fahr.
 
 VARNISU AND VARNISHING. 187 
 
 No varnish left in the can from which it has been used must be 
 returned to the varnish bottle. No varnish must ever be 
 thinned without a knowledge of its components. 
 
 Care should be taken in selecting a perfectly clean vessel to 
 work from, and it should be dusted out and then wiped with 
 a clean, damp leather. The writer has a preference for glazed 
 pots or jars, regarding them as cleaner and more easily cleaned 
 than tins and kettles. 
 
 Bennett's Patent Can. A new can has recently been devised 
 and patented under the above name to ensure that clean varnish 
 shall remain free from brush scrapings during the progress of 
 the work. 
 
 The can or kettle is double, like a steam cooker or glue pot, but 
 the inner kettle, which is enamelled, is suspended by ears in the 
 centre of the outer one, so that, as the workman draws the brush 
 against the outer edge to clear it of stale varnish that has 
 worked up to the heel of the brush, the varnish expelled runs 
 down between the two kettles. It has also a device for keeping 
 the brushes clean when not in use. The inner can lifts out, so 
 that the inferior varnish can be used for inferior parts of the 
 work. 
 
 In pouring the varnish out of the cans into the vessel from 
 which it is to be used, see that it does not get shaken up or dis- 
 turbed, as there is always a minute settlement, and also beware 
 of allowing it to aerate; pour slowly down the side of the vessel. 
 The tin containing the varnish should not have been moved or 
 shaken for at least a week, and the last half pint in each tin 
 should be used up for less particular work. 
 
 The brushes for varnishing should be of best quality hog-hair, 
 and should be kept exclusively for the purpose ; when not in 
 use they may be stood, or rather suspended, well over the stock 
 in varnish or in boiled oil ; and a piece of paper or a lid should 
 be fitted over the oil vessel to keep out all dust and prevent 
 skimming over. Oval or flat brushes are the best shape for 
 varnishing, the latter being the most suitable for high-class work. 
 A varnish brush improves with age and wear until the bristles 
 get too short for use. 
 
 Straining Varnishes. Varnish ought not to require 
 straining, but if by reason of accidental agitation or other cause 
 it does require it, the straining is best accomplished by lightly 
 plugging a wide-nosed funnel with about an inch and a half of 
 cotton wool, and tying a bit of coarse muslin over the nozzle to 
 keep it in ; the varnish is then allowed to trickle through of its 
 own weight. A fine cambric or linen handkerchief makes a
 
 188 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 fairly good strainer, if the varnish be allowed to find its way 
 through without any stirring or forcing. 
 
 Selection of Varnishes. In selecting varnishes for various 
 portions of the work, care and experience are very necessary. 
 The varnish makers will always give all information as to the 
 varnish supplied and its qualities and capabilities, but only long 
 experience will form a really reliable guide. In work which it 
 is intended to felt down, a good quality hard oil varnish is 
 desirable; quick hard varnishes rub up chalky and scratch 
 readily. The paleness of a varnish is not always a criterion of its 
 value, and the palest varnishes are not desirable for general work ; 
 a medium pale copal oak fulfils most purposes of the house painter. 
 
 Hints on Varnishing. In applying the varnish to the work 
 the following points must be attended to. Flow on a good body 
 of varnish and do not rub it out in the least barely; in fact, put 
 on as much as you can without allowing it to run or streak. 
 This requires tact and skill, and it is better to have too little on 
 than to allow of runs. A skilful hand will put on much more, 
 and make it stay where it is put, than a novice can do. 
 
 Be careful to lay it equally over the whole of the surface, not 
 thinner in one part than in another. Do not allow it to accumu- 
 late in corners, and crevices, and quirks of mouldings, where it 
 will wrinkle and gather, even if it does not find its way out on 
 to the level surface and produce runs. Do not work it about 
 unnecessarily ; it must not be crossed and recrossed like paint, 
 but judgment must be used to place it where you require it, 
 straight away, without any unnecessary after-spreading. When 
 giving under coats of varnish which are to be rubbed down, it 
 is well to use less than for a finishing coat, as the varnish dries 
 from the outside, and if the coat be a thick heavy one, it will 
 take too long to harden before you can rub it down with safety 
 and certainty. The edges of the wet varnish must not be 
 allowed to set before attempting to join on with another patch, 
 but must be kept well alive. In order to accomplish this it is 
 sometimes desirable to disregard the usual order of working ; 
 thus in the stiles of a door it is well to commence with top rail, 
 and bring all the stiles and muntins along downwards together, 
 should anything appear wrong after the varnishing has been 
 done a few minutes, it had better be allowed to dry as it is, as 
 any retouching will be sure to show; or, the whole may be 
 cleaned off with turpentine. 
 
 A perfect job of varnishing cannot be produced with less than 
 four coats, of which the first one should be well felted down with 
 ground pumice stone.
 
 PLATE 17. -BORDERS FOR BRUSH-WORK PRACTICE. 
 To face p. 188.]
 
 VARNISH. 189 
 
 All varnishing should be done in as warm a temperature as is 
 possible, certainly not less than 70 JFahr. The failure to comply 
 with this injunction is answerable for much disappointment, and 
 it is not always possible to work under these necessary restric- 
 tions. The room in which you intend to work should be well 
 swept, and the dust, if any, laid by sprinkling the floor with water. 
 
 Do not mix varnishes of different makes, unless you know by 
 experience what the result will be ; not that there is danger in 
 mixing two varnishes of a similar class ; indeed, it is often desir- 
 able to body up a new varnish by the addition of older stock. 
 Flatting varnish may be mixed with copal varnish to obtain 
 medium or egg-shell gloss. Japan black may be mixed with 
 copal varnish to obtain a thin transparent stained varnish ; and 
 many other mixtures are both desirable and useful. 
 
 Spirit varnishes should never be mixed with oil varnishes or 
 lacquers ; free turps or raw oil should not be added to varnish. 
 
 Light is necessary to the proper hardening of varnish, as 
 well as air. 
 
 The sousing of newly varnished work (after it is dry) with clear, 
 cold water will harden it materially, as water contains a high 
 percentage of oxygen, which it freely gives out to the varnish. 
 
 In ordinary practice it is sometimes useful to double coat work 
 instead of felting down and re-varnishing. A very fine gloss can 
 be got by double coating. Proceed in the following manner : 
 Give the work a medium coat of varnish first, and when this is 
 dry but still very tacky, repeat the coat of same varnish, work- 
 ing very lightly and rapidly, taking care not to work up the under 
 coating. Great care and skill is required to avoid disturbing 
 the new under coat surface, and the less hard it is when top 
 coated the more perfect will the gloss and finish be. No pre- 
 paration must be used between the two coats. If the under 
 coat is too dry there will be danger of cissing. 
 
 Surfaces for Varnishing. All surfaces for varnishing should 
 be prepared in such a way as to admit of no absorption of any 
 portion of the varnish. Paperhangings and distemper work must 
 be sized with clear glue size or size made from gelatine, which is 
 better for this purpose than the former. When the colours upon 
 the paper or other surface are not well fixed the size should be 
 used cold in the form of a weak jelly, such as may be easily 
 spread by the brush. Two coats will be necessary, and great 
 care must be exercised in making sure that every portion of the 
 work has been properly coated with the size, or the varnish will 
 be absorbed and produce a discoloration.
 
 190 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 New wood must be sized if it is desired that the varnish shall 
 hold out in one or two coats, but if not, the preservation of the 
 work is best ensured by varnishing directly on the wood surface 
 a thin or weak coat of isinglass size can then be interposed 
 between the first and second coat of varnish. If economy is not 
 in question it is preferable to give three coats of varnish, or even 
 four, and dispense with the sizing altogether. 
 
 Gilding should not be varnished over unless for special reasons. 
 The gold retains its colour better without varnish, as the varnish 
 deepens and mars the lustre of gold. 
 
 In varnishing on painted work, the ground must be free from 
 oiliness. This can be ensured by washing the work down with 
 a little fuller's earth water, or by merely leathering or spong- 
 ing the work with a rather dry sponge dipped in a solution of 
 2 ounces of fuller's earth in a quart of water. Some pigments, 
 notably red lead, barytes, and some kinds of driers, exert a dele- 
 terious influence upon the finish of varnished work. The 
 ground for good varnishing should be free from these pigments. 
 Patent driers, red lead, and chalky or bituminous colours, as 
 whiting and Vandyke brown, can easily be avoided. The two 
 latter are especially to be guarded against in grained oak work. 
 The practice of using soap or rain water in graining colour is 
 also a bad one for the varnish. Soda and soap suds are some- 
 times used for killing grease on a surface which is afterwards 
 varnished unless it is very thoroughly rinsed in clean water, it 
 is a dangerous practice. 
 
 The delicate nature of the composition of varnishes, and the 
 ease with which good work may be ruined by the atmosphere, 
 dust, and by the many adverse conditions under which the work 
 may be done, lead us to add that even with the utmost care the 
 results of varnishing are often unsatisfactory and disappointing, 
 indeed, frequently puzzling to the worker, who has used, as he 
 thinks, every precaution to ensure success and still finds an im- 
 perfect finish. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the little specks which mar the 
 surface of the varnish are many times magnified in a good 
 lustrous varnish, and that the better and more glossy the surface, 
 the more these blemishes will assert themselves. Carriage work 
 frequently has as many as 12 coats of varnish and then looks 
 perfect, but when the work first leaves the shop it shows many 
 minute specks which are soon lost by the repeated washings 
 which the work receives. The production of any painted or 
 varnished surface equal to a piece of polished plate glass is a 
 dream and delusion, and can only be realised by hand polishing,
 
 VARNISH. 191 
 
 of which more anon. However perfect the condition of the var- 
 nish and the work, the " lintspecks 
 floating in the silent air " will assert 
 themselves. 
 
 Felting Down Varnish. In felt- 
 ing down varnishes for subsequent 
 coatings, a rubber of felt (Fig. 58) or 
 a block composed of cloth is used. 
 The grinding agent is pumice stone 
 powder of varying degrees of fineness ; pumice powder, 
 for the most highly finished work it 
 is well to levigate the pumice stone to avoid all extraneous grit 
 or foreign matter which may have found its way into the powder. 
 A long strip of list, wound round in a coil tightly and tied with 
 a tape makes a good rubber, but solid felt rubbers are made by 
 Hamilton & Co., of which we give an illustration (Fig. 58), and 
 these are so cheap that home-made substitutes are not necessary. 
 
 First damp the work with a sponge, using just enough good 
 yellow soap to prevent the water cissing ; then soak the felt in 
 water and sprinkle a little pumice on its face, and gently rub 
 with a light circular motion, taking large sweeps similar to the 
 method of working French polish, and going systematically and 
 regularly over the whole surface many times. The rubbing 
 should be continued until a uniform dulness of surface is 
 obtained, showing no light streaks or patches. 
 
 The work must be carefully watched lest the coat should be 
 cut right through and damage be done to the ground. 
 
 To levigate the pumice powder for finishing fine work, stir a 
 pound in a large basin of water, allow the coarser particles to 
 settle and then pour off the top water into a second basin ; the 
 finest of the powder will be in this water and will in due time 
 settle at the bottom, leaving the water clean. A special felt will 
 be kept for fine powder, so that no coarse particles can get into 
 the work and cause scratches. 
 
 Polishing Varnished Work. When it is desired to finish 
 work by hand polishing, the final fine rubbing with pumice is 
 succeeded by a yet finer one, in which rotten-stone powder is 
 used. This is sometimes used in linseed oil, and the rubber is a 
 wad of cotton wool covered with soft cambric or fine, well-worn 
 calico. The rubbing is done in the same way as before, very 
 lightly and in a circular direction. When the surface is as fair 
 and smooth as can be obtained, the final polishing is got by tak- 
 ing a loose ball of medicated cotton wool and very fine wheat 
 flour and polishing. It is important that the rotten stone and
 
 192 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 flour polishing should be done leisurely to avoid heating the 
 varnish. A rapid polish can be obtained by brisk rubbing, but 
 it is only fleeting and very irregular steady, persistent, and 
 light easy rubbing is what is requisite. Some painters profess 
 to obtain the final polish with the palm of the hand, or rather 
 the ball of the thumb, but this is an obsolete and fanciful idea 
 all that is desired may be obtained in the way described. 
 
 Faults in Varnishing. There are several notable faults in 
 varnishing on which a few words are desirable. They are here 
 taken seriatim. 
 
 First, blooming that is, the gathering upon the surface of a 
 sort of mist, which is permanent or intermittent according to 
 circumstances. The smooth, glossy surface offered to the air by 
 good varnish induces condensation upon it of the moisture in the 
 atmosphere. If this takes place before due hardening of the 
 varnish, bloom will result. The same cause produces the same 
 effect on gilded surfaces in oil gold size if the ground is well got 
 up. Extreme cold upon a newly- varnished surface, or frost upon 
 an old varnished surface have the same effect. It is sometimes 
 caused by water in the varnish i.e., moisture in the gum from 
 which it has been made, and which has not been properly elim- 
 inated. Resin varnishes and cheap varnishes give little trouble 
 in this respect ; it is the best class that are apt to bloom. 
 Blooming due to moisture or frost may be remedied and removed 
 by warmth, washing and brisk rubbing with warm water, or rub- 
 bing with a wad of wool and olive oil. When due to the varnish 
 itself it can seldom be eradicated entirely without re-varnishing. 
 
 Any unequal amount of varnish upon a given space will affect 
 the gloss. Where barely applied there will be less gloss than 
 where freely applied; these dead patches are referred to as being 
 " sleepy." Abnormal suction in the under ground in patches 
 will cause a similar defect. 
 
 Pinholing and Cissing are complaints of a similar class, caused 
 by a recession of the varnish from a given point, usually a grease 
 spot or a minute hole. It must be provided against by thorough 
 rubbing down and leathering before varnishing. 
 
 Pock Marks or Pitting are marks or indentations which do not 
 extend to the ground of the work, but are in the varnish 
 itself. They are caused by turps in the varnish brush, hot moist 
 air in the room when the varnish is applied, the presence of 
 smoke or steam, and the atmospheric conditions known by some 
 as a " blight " viz., a dull, leaden heat often experienced in 
 summer. These marks can only be removed by flatting down 
 and re-varnishing.
 
 VARNISH. 193 
 
 Grittiness is sometimes caused in the varnish by its being 
 stored in a cold damp atmosphere, by frost upon the cans during 
 transit, and by chill to the varnish. 
 
 Specks are formed in varnish by like conditions. No cure is 
 possible but re-doing the work. 
 
 Cracking is produced by using a hard varnish over an elastic 
 varnish, or by coating over paint which is only partly dry. 
 
 Wrinkles are caused by a too liberal use of varnish in the 
 under coat and are not often formed upon painters' work, where 
 the tendency is usually to put on too little. 
 
 Much apparently inexplicable trouble arises from the fact 
 that varnish is thoughtlessly exposed to different temperatures 
 immediately before use. Varnish will turn out ropy and 
 curdling when it has been standing out in a cold outhouse, 
 and has been brought straight into a warm room and used. 
 It will look thin and poor if brought out of a hot stuffy 
 office and used straight away on a shop front on a cold or damp 
 day. 
 
 A good finish of varnishing is quite impossible upon a bad and 
 uneven surface, even if it has been filled up, because the fact of 
 there being a sixteenth part of an inch of filling in one place, 
 and an eighth in another, makes it certain that the amount of 
 gloss will vary in the finishing coat upon such unequally 
 composed surfaces. 
 
 The Use of Enamels. The use of enamel paints is very 
 much akin to the use of varnishes; precisely the same rules 
 apply. It is especially to be noted that all enamelling must be 
 done upon a hard and firm surface, and not upon the ordinary 
 oil paint grounds, if a successful result is desired. Great care is 
 necessary in working the stiles and graining of wood- work, so as 
 to avoid gathering and clogging, as enamels are less limpid, and 
 possess less flow than varnish, owing to the pigment present in 
 their composition. It should be remembered that any good 
 varnish added to ordinary dry pigment ground stiff in turpentine, 
 will make an enamel paint of good body and lustre. 
 
 The best white enamels in the market are those which dry 
 slowly and retain a high gloss. Quick-drying enamels are 
 subject to abrasion and rapid disintegration. 
 
 Enamelling upon slate is done in japanners' colour viz., 
 dry colours ground in turps and Japan gold size and varnished 
 with a japanners' varnish, which will require stoving in a high 
 temperature in a specially constructed oven. 
 
 Patent knotting and dry powder colour make a reliable quick 
 enamel for odds and ends, where time is a consideration, but not 
 
 13
 
 194 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 for large surfaces. Powder bronze in patent knotting makes a 
 good bronze paint for gas fittings and iron work. Japans are 
 chiefly used for metal work, but black Japan of a good brand is 
 capable of a high finish upon carriage and wood- work. Use upon 
 a quick dead black ground in the same way as varnish. A white 
 Japan has recently been placed upon the market, but the white 
 enamels referred to meet all the requirements of the house 
 painter. 
 
 Lacquers. Lacquers, which are really a species of varnish, 
 are principally used by the house painter for the protection and 
 colouring of metallic surfaces, such as silver leaf, Dutch, and 
 other metals. Their use will be dealt with under Relievo 
 Decoration. Some of these lacquers are specially waterproof, 
 and withstand the action of acid and steam. 
 
 Brunswick black is an asphaltum varnish used for iron fittings, 
 locks, and furniture. It is such a bad neighbour to oil paint 
 that Japan is to be preferred. Berlin black is a similar article ; 
 but it dries with a dead surface. It is useful for hinges, locks 
 and fittings, stoves and pipes. 
 
 Testing Varnishes. Varnishes may be tested by spreading 
 them upon a piece of plate glass, and by using them upon a flat 
 white ground; the former method is the test for hardness, 
 drying, and tenacity, the latter for colour, fineness, body, and 
 flow. 
 
 One of the good qualities of varnish is that it should dry 
 throughout, and not skin over hard on the mere surface. This 
 may be tested by using a small portion of varnish as if it were 
 gold size, putting it on rather freely, and, as soon as tacky, 
 gilding it. If it is a varnish that dries superficially first, it will 
 cause the gold to wrinkle in a few hours, and the greater this 
 wrinkling the more faulty the varnish is in this respect. This 
 is, however, by no means the most important point in a good 
 varnish, as some of the best have this fault, especially finishing 
 varnishes. 
 
 White Polished Enamel. A very fine and desirable surface 
 may be obtained upon smooth show panels of light grounds by 
 enamel polishing. This is more akin to varnishing than painting, 
 and is accomplished in the following manner: The work having 
 been painted in fairly quick colour, and with a presentable 
 surface, is coated with about six coats of colour made in the 
 following way : Dry white lead is ground in turps, and tinted 
 with ordinary oil colours of very fine quality, such as are sold in 
 artists' tubes, to the desired tint ; this is thinned for use with 
 as much body carriage varnish as there is turpentine in the
 
 VARNISH. 195 
 
 colour, and a coat is applied every second day; it should be laid 
 on freely with a soft wide flat hog-hair brush in tin. It should 
 then stand for a week to harden, when it can be felted down, as 
 described for varnishing, and polished in the same manner, but 
 using putty powder or whiting for the final rubbing instead of 
 rotten stone (which is apt to soil the surface). This takes a fine 
 hard polish without the necessity of varnishing. 
 
 The air-drying enamels made by Messrs. Mander Brothers for 
 metal work, cycles, and similar purposes are especially to be 
 recommended for any but large surface work, for which we 
 prefer colour under varnish. 
 
 Enamels. Many excellent enamels have been invented since 
 the first edition of this book was written, and others have been 
 superseded. The use of them in place of a paint or varnish 
 finish has greatly increased, and the old idea that a better finish 
 could be obtained by varnishing has been exploded. Most of 
 them are made from zinc white and an oil varnish, but the 
 success of the better class of white enamels appears to be due to 
 the incorporation of the pigment at an early stage of manufac- 
 ture. Among the best known are : 
 
 Mander's Olsina enamel, Ripolin, and Harland's snow-white, 
 which are made in both glossy and matt or flat. Others are 
 Satinette, Sisco, white Japan, Patinol (which is recommended 
 by the makers for tropical climates), Sanalene, and China gloss. 
 
 As is the case with washable distempers and proprietary 
 paints generally, each of these enamels have their own individu- 
 ality, and only lengthened practice and observation will enable 
 the painter to always select the best for his particular purpose. 
 
 An excellent enamel for front doors is not so suitable for 
 bedrooms, and a good bedroom enamel would not suit bath 
 insides or kitchens. For general internal work the first three 
 named have been thoroughly tested by the writer, and all are 
 good, work easily, stand well, and have a perfect gloss. 
 
 A most useful product of the enamel class is the composition 
 for black boards, prepared in a dozen colours by Ripolin. It is 
 hard and stands rough usage, and may be useful for many more 
 purposes than the one named.
 
 196 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 HERE doctors differ who shall 
 decide ? The whole question of 
 the artistic legitimacy of purely 
 imitative graining and marbling 
 is now being discussed, as it has 
 been periodically discussed in 
 all ages. Twenty years ago the 
 authoritative answer was given 
 that it was inadmissible, a sham; 
 but again its utility has thrust 
 it to the front. 
 
 In order to arrive at a fairly correct judgment on the point, 
 let us first examine the question from the writer's pet stand- 
 point, that of rationalism or common sense, irrespective of the 
 personality of those who take sides on the matter. 
 
 What is Graining ? First, what is graining ? Is it an 
 attempt to deceive the observer? Second, what is the result? 
 Third, why is it done ? Fourth, do these reasons commend 
 themselves to our common sense ? 
 
 The replies to these questions appear to be these : Graining 
 is an attempt to represent the superficial appearance of some-
 
 IMITATIVE PAINTING. 197 
 
 thing other than the material painted. It cannot deceive the 
 observer who has a knowledge of woods any more than a painted 
 leaf can be mistaken for a real one. The utmost result in the 
 direction of imitative suggestion is that it conveys to the mind 
 the abstract idea of wood. It is used, artistically, because it 
 conveys this idea of material, in the same way that bronzing and 
 gilding convey the idea of metals, or that certain patterns con- 
 vey the idea suggested by their motifs, or that certain colours 
 convey the idea of strength. It is used commercially because, 
 owing to its broken colour surface, it is extremely serviceable 
 and little liable to show slight injury. Therefore, if the proper 
 limitations are observed, there appears to be no solid argument 
 against its use. 
 
 Limitations to Graining, &c. The limitations that should 
 be observed may be set down as follows : 
 
 Graining should only be used where it is usual to employ, and 
 desirable to suggest the employment of, wood constructionally ; 
 and marbling must be governed by similar laws. It should only 
 be used in cases where it is not expedient to employ the real 
 wood, but where the employment of the real wood would be 
 quite possible and rational. No more should be done than is 
 necessary to suggest the wood intended. It is evidently not 
 only vulgar, but also inartistic, to crowd into the work more 
 features than would be likely to occur in the natural wood. 
 The practice of filling the graining with markings is akin to that 
 of third-rate actors, who, because of the cheapness of sham gems, 
 crowd themselves with more jewellery than would be worn by 
 the characters represented, and thus loudly proclaim the falsity 
 of their representations. 
 
 In this connection the words of Pope may be cited as particu- 
 larly apt : 
 
 " First follow nature, and your judgment frame 
 From her just standard." 
 
 This view of the subject suggests many doubts as to the actual 
 importance of graining and marbling, and leads to the conclusion 
 that if these limitations are studied there are many other equally 
 good methods of obtaining the end aimed at. There is a great 
 deal more graining done than there is the slightest necessity 
 for, and much work is grained that would be better otherwise 
 treated. 
 
 The Condemnation of Graining. Before proceeding to 
 that part of the subject, however, it is well to see who are the 
 persons who have led the attack against imitative painting and 
 what thay have suggested in its place.
 
 198 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 First, there are certain art critics and designers ; men whose 
 opinions on all art subjects are worthy of serious consideration ; 
 but who, not being thoroughly conversant with the commercial 
 or technical advantages of graining for low grade work, hastily 
 assume graining to be merely a sham. From a purely aesthetic 
 view, if it be granted that graining is an attempt to deceive, they 
 are quite correct in their denunciations. But they apparently 
 start with wrong premises, and they are unaware of the merely 
 utilitarian value of an irregularly broken colour surface. 
 
 Then there are members of the trade who decry graining 
 because they prefer to rush over a job more cheaply and quickly, 
 and do not want it to last too long. These persons even ad- 
 vocate one colour over everything ; no relief, no emphasised 
 construction by judicious tinting. They run down any and 
 everything that takes a little time to do properly. They wel- 
 comed with open arms the advent of Oscar Wilde's white draw- 
 ing-room, and thus made it an easy matter for every village 
 upholsterer to be a "decorator." Flat it all white, is their cry ; 
 no need to get it up to a good surface then. In the old trade 
 days of white and gold, there was a little good smooth enamelling 
 and polishing, but now creamy white flatting gives the craftsman 
 no chance to show his metal. 
 
 The Intentions of the Grainer. In the next place, a few 
 personal remarks as to the real intent of the grainer and the 
 effect of graining upon those outside the trade will support the 
 statement that the practice is not an attempt to deceive ; that it 
 is intended as a conventional symbol rather than a portrayal. 
 
 When a man paints a flower, however well it is done, no one 
 takes it for a real flower, or looks upon the painter as a base 
 deceiver. The very same objections which are raised to grain- 
 ing, appear to be equally applicable to veneering, inlaying, 
 gilding, and enamelling, oxidising, galvanising, or plating, in 
 fact to any method of altering the appearance of a surface, if it 
 is assumed that it is done for the purpose of deception. 
 
 The aesthetic morality appears to depend entirely upon the 
 artistic intention. 
 
 There is a great deal of inconsistency among men who con- 
 demn graining as an imitation. One prominent denunciator of 
 the practice has designed tile papers for bath-rooms, which 
 appear equally open to condemnation ; others defend the use of 
 copper and silver articles gilt and lacquered, veneers, the fashion 
 of staining woods in any and every colour that is opposed to nature 
 and out of harmony with the material, as blue ash, metallic 
 green mahogany, and many other equally inconsistent practices.
 
 IMITATIVE PAINTING. 199 
 
 When the writer was a little boy he remembers to have 
 always stopped and watched grainers at work outside of shops 
 and houses, with a great deal of interest, and very frequently 
 eluded pursuit and made his way into a fascinating workshop 
 near where he lived. It belonged to a clever old decorator who 
 painted banners, wrote signs, and enamelled and grained 
 furniture. But until he was apprenticed to the trade and heard 
 this kind of thing called oak, walnut, verd antico, rouge roi, &c., 
 it never once occurred to him that the work he had watched 
 with so much interest, was intended to deceive the eye and 
 represent real woods and marbles. He had always mentally 
 summed it up as a pretty and effective method of painting a 
 conventional treatment (as we should call it), of which the 
 motif was wood. 
 
 This experience of his own, so well remembered, has led him 
 to question others, and to note the effect of graining on their 
 minds, and he has not yet made the acquaintance of the man 
 who is not fully aware of the existence of " graining," and who 
 knows it when he sees it; nor has he found the victim of 
 delusion who has paid for graining believing it to be real "oak." 
 
 What to Imitate in Graining. Following the logical result 
 of these conclusions there appears to be no reason why so slavish 
 an attempt should be made to imitate the actual markings of the 
 wood. If the suggestion of woodiness and the broken surface of 
 colour are retained, the actual markings leave scope for the 
 artistic faculties. It is the colour and texture, the light and 
 shade in the wood, that charm, and lacking these to a great 
 degree some substitute of equal interest might well be imported 
 into the work. There are some positions, of course, in which 
 such departure would involve too great a loss of dignity and 
 repose. 
 
 Positions Suitable for Graining. There are occasions 
 when, failing actual marble or wood, a very near attempt at 
 imitation is required to give the necessary architectural force 
 and character. 
 
 In doors, external doors particularly, a fairly near representa- 
 tion of oak is more suitable and refined in suggestion than any 
 attempt to imitate porcelain or majolica, or to hide up the con- 
 structional lines by an unbroken enamel surface more suggestive 
 of china or earthenware than solid wood. 
 
 Again, take the case of Corinthian columns in a large hall of 
 classic architecture. No treatment will give the requisite fitness, 
 stability, and dignity to those columns that could be obtained 
 by the suggestive use of marble. Of course the use of actual
 
 200 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 marble is preferable if it can be used solidly. It is, however, 
 very questionable if the use of slabs of marble placed edge to 
 edge round an iron column to form an apparently square and 
 solid pier is not more objectionable from a really artistic point 
 of view than suggestive marbling, and is a double sham. 
 
 Some of the proper places upon which to use graining and 
 marbling will at once occur to the reader ; situations in which a 
 suggestion, more or less conventional, of wood or stone is called 
 for by the architectural arrangement existing. They may be 
 safely left to the selection of the decorator, but it is well to point 
 out that not only should the article itself be suitable, but the 
 design and detail of it also. Take the case of an iron mantel. 
 It may be either designed to appear as carved and moulded 
 wood- work, as cast iron, or as stone or marble, according to the 
 character of the detail and ornament. In this connection a little 
 architectural knowledge and an acquaintance with builders' 
 work will assist the judgment. The mouldings are generally a 
 good guide in the matter. 
 
 Limits as to Imitation. Another point of importance as a 
 matter of taste is to know how far to give imitative quality to 
 the work. This must be governed by the circumstances of each 
 case, and the student is recommended to incline to conventional 
 rather than imitative work ; to give some definite amount of 
 originality and design to the details, and to lean towards sim- 
 plicity and regularity. If a close adhesion to nature appears desir- 
 able and is attempted, it must be justified by really good work. 
 It is better to execute a careful and simple stipple suggestive of 
 wood, good in colour, than to perpetrate a poor imitation of the 
 finest specimen of natural wood procurable. 
 
 The painting of a flower naturally, must be superlatively well 
 done to pass muster, which is much less than to give pleasure ; it 
 is the same with grained work or marbling. 
 
 The more frequently a flower is repeated, the less natural 
 should it be in design, and inasmuch as every grainer, by mere 
 force of character, repeats himself in his work, the same dictum 
 may be well applied to graining. 
 
 The treatment of graining as a sketch or suggestion of wood, 
 rather than as an attempt to represent actual wood, gives a wide 
 field for inventiveness and resource, and enables the less talented 
 to be contented to do well what is within their power and 
 capability. 
 
 Every one of the various processes, as combing, stippling, 
 flogging, mottling, overgraining, and veining, can be utilised 
 either separately or in combination, to obtain simple and inter-
 
 IMITATIVE PAINTING. 20 L 
 
 esting wood-like effects, without claiming to represent particular 
 wood. 
 
 As illustrations of the thoughtless manner in which graining 
 is often used, attention may be called to the fact that cast-iron 
 rain-water pipes are frequently grained ; skirtings and bases are 
 sometimes grained when occurring beneath a marbled wall, and 
 baths are often marbled inside and grained on the outside, or 
 marbled one colour inside and another colour outside. This is 
 painting about as remotely removed from art as is possible. 
 
 Varied Methods of Graining. The methods and processes 
 adopted by grainers for the production of the grain, curl, mottle, 
 and other effects that go to make up the appearance of a wood, 
 vary much in different parts of the country and in different 
 schools of graining. These differences are the result of various 
 men working out their own ideas by means of their own devis- 
 ing. Some of them are highly ingenious. It is not within the 
 scope of this work to explain minutely the modus operandi of 
 graining each particular wood or marble, but the following two 
 chapters will deal briefly with the various woods and stones 
 usually imitated, and the colours and tools which will be found 
 to represent them in the simplest manner.
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 RA.INING, or painting in imitation 
 of woods, must in all cases be done 
 upon a good foundation devoid of 
 absorbent properties, unless we 
 include in the term the processes 
 used in improving or adding to 
 the grain of wood. The improving 
 of wood is produced by the same 
 processes as here described for 
 graining. Improving is properly 
 included in the term staining. 
 
 The various coats of paint 
 
 necessary to produce the requisite grounds are fully described 
 in the chapter upon Plain painting. This ground must be 
 perfectly smooth, hard, and solid. 
 
 The woods most usually attempted by the decorator are : 
 
 Graining Oak. First and most universally, probably in larger 
 
 quantities than all the other woods added together English Oak. 
 
 It is most frequently done in the following manner: A ground 
 
 is prepared to match in tint the lightest part of the wood it is
 
 GRAINING. 
 
 203 
 
 intended to imitate. For medium oak a mixture of yellow ochre 
 and white lead, with a touch of raw English Umber, will produce 
 a suitable colour. It may be remarked en passant that the 
 prevalent fault of modern grainers is to use too bright and 
 glaring a ground colour for all woods. For dark oak grounds 
 more Umber and a little Venetian red may be added. For rich 
 mellow oak, burnt Umber and burnt Sienna with ochre and no 
 white can be used. For green heart timber or new oak, white, 
 raw Umber and a little black will make a good ground. The 
 ground must not err on the side of lightness or it will not keep 
 its place well in the finished work, but should be rather on the 
 deep and sombre side, and rather cool than hot in tone. 
 
 When the ground colour is dry and hard, a graining colour of 
 oil made from burnt Umber, to which a little raw Sienna or black 
 may be added, for light and deep woods respectively, is scumbled 
 
 Frg. 59. Flogger. 
 
 Fig. 60. Steel graining comb. 
 
 over the work and laid off regularly, and to a depth of colour 
 representing the average appearance of the wood that is being 
 matched, a little terebine or sugar of lead is added to the colour 
 as driers, and the proportion of thinners should be about two- 
 fifths turpentine to three-fifths boiled linseed oil, or rather more
 
 204 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 turpentine for internal work. The graining colour is now 
 brushed out in streaks, with a thin straight-haired brush known 
 as a " flogger " (Fig. 59), and combed with steel graining combs 
 (Fig. 60), varied sometimes by the use of combs made from 
 leather, gutta-percha, and other materials. The degree of 
 combing will be regulated by the appearance aimed at by the 
 grainer ; sometimes the flogger is used without the comb, and 
 vice versd. 
 
 The prominent little light markings known as " clashes " or 
 " champs " are then put in, either with a horn thumb piece or with 
 
 Fig. 61. Hog-hair overgrainer, in tin. 
 
 Fig. 62. Badger softener. 
 
 the thumb nail. The horn or nail is covered with a piece of soft 
 rag, to allow of it cleanly wiping out the marks without leaving 
 hard edges. The spaces between these marks are then mottled 
 to show the undulations of the grain, and the shadows that lie 
 side by side with the light markings, and any little touches or 
 softening necessary to complete the likeness to the wood are 
 put in. The whole is then allowed to dry and when dry it is
 
 ABCDE 
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 Q&55I 
 INtltt 
 
 PLATE 18.-QRI6INAL TREATMENT OF PLAIN ALPHABET. 
 To face p. 204.]
 
 GRAINING. 
 
 205 
 
 " overgrained." The overgraining is done with colour ground 
 in water. 
 
 A little blue black, with, or without burnt umber is recom- 
 mended. This overgraining is slightly tempered with stale beer 
 or milk to bind the colour, and thinned with water to a mere 
 wash. It is then laid on with one or other of the overgrainers 
 (Fig 61), and softened with a badger hair softener (Fig. 62), so 
 as to represent the general light and shade, in mass, of the 
 wood. Gum, glycerine, sugar, and fuller's earth are used as 
 suhstitutes for the beer. Fuller's earth is favoured by the 
 writer as the least likely to be detrimental to the appearance of 
 the varnish. 
 
 Fig. 63. Hog-hair mottler. 
 
 Sometimes the work is varnished prior to overgraining, and 
 again afterwards, and often two coats of overgraining are used 
 to enhance the depth and translucency of the work. In any 
 case, the work must be varnished after the final overgraining. 
 Deeper markings are sometimes added during the graining 
 process by the use of a writer's sable and a fitch. 
 
 Rain water, melted beeswax, whiting, yellow soap jelly (made 
 by dissolving soap in boiling water), lime and other materials are 
 added to the oil graining colour to give body, or to "jellify " the 
 colour without altering the shade. The object is to cause the 
 colour to stay in its place and not to run, spread, or too readily 
 smear. These practices are to be strongly condemned as they
 
 206 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 destroy the hardness and durability of the work and affect the 
 varnish prejudicially. A little slow-drying varnish will have 
 the same effect on the colour, but unfortunately also makes it 
 " sticky " in working. Megilp is good, but expensive, for the 
 same purpose. They may all be dispensed with if proper care is 
 exercised to make the colour dry to suit the rate of working, so 
 that it sets as soon as the graining is done. 
 
 Fig. 64. Oak combing roller. 
 
 There are a number of more or less mechanical appliances used 
 for the purpose of imitating the grain of oak. The effect of 
 combing is very well obtained by the use of the patent combing 
 rollers (Fig. 64). These rollers contain a number of notched 
 zinc discs which revolve irregularly and disperse a number of 
 
 Fig 65. Patent oak grain tinisher. 
 
 streaks upon the work, which are more like the actual open 
 grain of the wood than the marks produced by steel graining 
 combs. They are used with distemper colour supplied from an 
 overgrainer as illustrated in Fig. 64. 
 
 Fig. 66. Bellamy's graining roller. 
 
 The patent finisher (Fig. 65) is also used for putting on the 
 final fine touches, and is useful for the purpose. Bellamy's
 
 rstuvsvy, 
 
 123456789: 
 
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 PLATE 19. -ORIGINAL ALPHABET, LOWER-CASE LETTERS. 
 To face p. 206.]
 
 GRAINING. 
 
 207 
 
 graining rollers (Fig. 66) are open to the objection that they re- 
 peat the pattern regularly, the pattern itself being uninteresting. 
 
 Various transfer papers are also used for impressing the grain 
 upon the wet colour, with more or less success. 
 
 Oak graining used frequently to be done in water medium, but 
 it is not olten the case now, unless for japanners' work. The 
 work done in distemper has a very clean and sharp appearance. 
 Proceed as follows : Ground in the ordinary way. The graining 
 colour is made from burnt Umber ground in water and stale 
 beer, and a little spirits of wine, rum, or whisky added in the 
 proportion of a teaspoonful to half a pint of colour. Lay on 
 the colour with a full overgrainer or mottler, or a piece of 
 sponge, and flog level. Comb in the ordinary way or drag with 
 the flogger. Take out the light clashes with a wet leather drawn 
 over the finger or thumb nail tip, and put in deep veins with a 
 pencil and Umber. If the colour sets too quickly, add a few drops 
 of glycerine or a little sugar or treacle. Give a coat of thin var- 
 nish before proceeding to overgrain, or overgrain in oil colour. 
 
 Fig. 67- Thick hog-hair mottler. 
 
 Pollard Oak. Heart and sap of oak and pollard oak are 
 worked in a similar manner to ordinary oak, but usually in oil. 
 The student is strongly advised in all graining to copy nature as 
 closely as possible, and work directly therefrom until he is able 
 to fairly imitate the real wood, after which he may launch out 
 on his own lines with a chance of success. 
 
 Mahogany. Mahogany is the wood which is next in import- 
 ance as it is largely imitated for office and shop work. This is 
 not such a difficult wood to grain as oak. It is usually grained 
 in water colour. The ground is composed of Venetian red and 
 burnt Sienna with a little ochre. The graining colour is a mix- 
 ture of brown or mahogany lake, and Vandyke brown or 
 mahogany lake, and blue black. The tools used are a thick hog- 
 hair mottler (Fig. 67), a sponge, a short camel-hair mottler (Fig. 
 68), and a badger softener. 
 
 The colour is laid on with a distemper tool and manipulated 
 into form with a sponge and the mottlers, then softened and
 
 208 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 lightly flogged with the side of the badger softener to produce 
 the fine grain or texture of the wood. It is then allowed to dry 
 and afterwards overgrained with a thin fitch-hair overgrainer 
 
 Fig. 68. Camel-hair mottler. 
 
 and Vandyke brown in water. Mahogany is also grained in 
 oil upon a ground which has been previously stippled with a 
 wash of Vandyke brown in water. 
 
 Walnut. Walnut is another popular wood, and is grained 
 both in water colour and oil, and also in a combination of both. 
 For the ground, use yellow ochre and burnt Sienna, with Umber 
 if for American walnut. For graining, burnt Umber and Van- 
 dyke brown, or burnt Sienna and blue black. First, lay in the 
 
 Fig 69. Pencil overgrainer. 
 
 ground with the graining colour used sparely, and with a wet 
 leather wipe out the lights and mottle in a rough representation 
 of the disposition of the light and dark parts of the wood. 
 Allow to dry and then put in with a fitch and an overgrainer, the 
 main markings, knots, &c., and work them up with the badger 
 softener and a piece of soft rag ; put in finer veinings with the 
 sable pencil and blend together frequently. Allow to dry, and, 
 finally, overgrain with a pencil or separated overgrainer (Fig. 69) 
 and a camel-hair mottler. Oil colour may be used for the middle 
 process and water colour for the other two.
 
 GRAINING. 209 
 
 Walnut wood and other rare and valuable -woods lose in effect 
 if used in a wholesale and reckless manner which is inconsistent 
 with the probabilities of the use of the same woods in construction. 
 Pitch Pine. Pitch pine is one of the easiest of woods to 
 imitate. It is best grained in oil. The ground should be from 
 ochre, chrome, and a little Venetian red. The graining colour 
 of burnt Sienna, raw Sienna, and a little raw Umber. The large 
 heart markings are put in with a fitch or veining tool, and the 
 outer and smaller ones with a pencil overgrainer, and softened 
 with a badger softener. The flake of this wood can be exactly 
 imitated by the merest tyro, with the badger, if the pencilling is 
 correctly done. By keeping the pencilling open so that the 
 softener will not run the lines into each other too quickly they 
 may be driven into a remarkable similarity to the annular rings 
 of the wood. 
 
 Rosewood. Rosewood is a very richly-coloured and orna- 
 mental wood, and is not difficult to imitate. The ground is made 
 from Venetian red and a little ochre. The graining colour ia 
 Vandyke brown and crimson lake or madder brown, with over- 
 graining of ivory black and blue black. Rose pink is used by 
 some grainers ; but it is not permanent. The first process is to 
 lay in, with a sponge, a rough modelled effect of the general 
 disposition of the grain. This is then pencilled up by the use 
 of sables and overgrainers, a thin flat fitch-hair overgrainer, 
 separated by a pocket comb, is the best for the purpose, as it 
 gives irregular lines but little softening is required if the over- 
 graining is carefully done. The grain of the wood must be 
 seen to be understood, as it is very intricate, varied, and without 
 much apparent principle in its grouping and direction. 
 
 Maple. Maple comes next in the frequency with which it is 
 used by the grainer as a model. Bird's-eye grey maple is the 
 most beautiful and popular form of this wood. It is grained 
 upon a white ground, usually in water colour. The graining 
 colour is made from raw Sienna, burnt Sienna, and blue black. 
 A mixture of these, with the blue black predominating, is first 
 mottled over the ground, softened crosswise, and allowed to dry. 
 This mottling is well done by taking a wet chamois leather, and, 
 after the panel has been scumbled in with colour and a dis- 
 temper tool, taking the leather in both hands, twisting it 
 slightly, ropewise, and striking the panel with it, using it as 
 a skipping rope, holding by the extreme corners. This produces 
 irregular light markings having a common relation to each 
 other and following a curved disposition. These are then 
 softened from the centre outwards in a horizontal direction. A 
 few high lights are theji taken out with a pointed hog-hair tool,
 
 210 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 and a mixture of warmer colour used to put in the eyes or dots. 
 The position of these in relation to the mottle will be seen in 
 the natural wood. When all is dry, the fine markings of grain 
 are added with a pencil or crayon, using a rather redder tint for 
 them, and working from the centre or heart and round the eyes 
 
 Fig. 70. Improved round hog-hair maple eye tools. 
 
 Fig. 71. Camel-hair maple dotters. 
 
 Finally, the work is varnished and glazed with a 
 pure wash of blue black overgraining, which is mottled to give 
 the silky light and shade which gives the peculiar character to this 
 wood. The student should notice that the shadows are curvi- 
 linear, not angular, as in some other woods. Use a pale varnish. 
 
 Satin Wood. Satin wood and birch may be imitated by a 
 similar process to that given for mahogany, using the real wood 
 as a guide for form and colour. Ground for both, a yellowish 
 white; graining colour, raw Sienna, burnt Sienna, and raw 
 Umber, overgrained with blue black or ivory black. 
 
 Ash. Ash is grained upon a yellowish drab ground. The pro- 
 cess used is similar to that for pitch pine, but the work is finer 
 and more curly in character. Colours as satin wood for graining. 
 Overgrain in water with Vandyke brown and blue black. Hun- 
 garian ash is the same in colour, but much more free, curling, and 
 short in the grain. American ash is straight and simple in grain. 
 
 Pollard oak, burl ash or pollard ash, root of walnut, and root 
 of birch are all similar in character and colour to their respective 
 woods, but richer and deeper, and full of intricate workings, knots, 
 and whorls. They should be worked from real wood patterns. 
 
 Fancy Woods. Olive, tulip, and other fancy woods can all be 
 represented truly by the use of the tools and processes already 
 referred to, the chief point being to carefully copy the colour. 
 
 The commoner woods, as pine, spruce, cypress, &c., are not much 
 imitated, the grain being very poor and uninteresting. They 
 can be produced by the same methods as the more beautifully 
 grained woods. The close and even-grained woods, as cherry, 
 pear tree, box, and a host of others, are little used. They are
 
 GRAINING. 211 
 
 often, however, very closely imitated in plain colour by the 
 decorator, and there is no reason why they should not be made 
 more use off, as a mere flogging and finishing with the badger 
 would give a fair representation with very little labour. Cherry 
 is a particularly effective wood. Some of our garden trees, as 
 the acacia, laburnum, chestnut, and yew, also give fine colour and 
 grain, which is not taken due advantage of by modern grainers. 
 
 General Hints. As a general principle, it will be observed 
 that the ground of a wood must be rather rich and warm ; the 
 graining less so ; and the overgraining still less, usually par- 
 taking of a considerable amount of grey tones. The observance 
 of this rule gives relative depth and position. 
 
 Though special tools are provided by the tool makers for 
 almost every process, the grainer constantly finds that he can 
 advantageously devise many rough and ready ones of his own 
 that will do what he requires in a peculiarly apt and com- 
 mendable manner. 
 
 For inlaying and ornamenting, the student is referred to the 
 chapter on Staining. The processes there given may be used 
 for graining with equal success. 
 
 Transfer Graining. The practice of graining by transfer 
 papers, at one time only very imperfectly attempted has, by the 
 aid of photographic engraving, been made of considerable assist- 
 ance to small employers who have neither the skill to grain or 
 marble nor the scope for the employment of a competent grainer. 
 
 Panels of good figuring are first photographed, and printing 
 blocks are engraved from them. These are next printed in oils 
 upon absorbent or " blotting " paper and allowed to dry. The 
 paper is sold in sheets or rolls to the painter, who cuts them 
 into the sizes required for the different parts of the work. To 
 use them he proceeds as follows : 
 
 The work having been grounded and the graining colour 
 rubbed in in the usual way, the panel may be combed or not at 
 discretion ; the graining paper is then laid upon the panel and 
 lightly rolled or pressed evenly into place with a brush. It at 
 once absorbs the colour, or blots it off, in all parts where the non- 
 absorbent printing has not interfered with the absorbent quality 
 of the paper. 
 
 The transfer is then removed and the panel is complete except 
 for a light softening with a badger softener, and, at discretion, a 
 little overgraining. 
 
 The method is applicable to either oil or water-colour graining 
 and the papers may be used again and again as long as any 
 absorbency remains and the colour has not clogged them.
 
 212 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MftRBEING 
 
 HE imitation of marbles differs materi- 
 ally from that of woods inasmuch as, 
 in the case of woods, it is usual to do 
 the greater part of the work in glazes 
 applied in water colour; whereas 
 the nature of marbles demands a more 
 solid and opaque treatment. Con- 
 sequently, marbling is almost entirely 
 executed in paint and in body colours. 
 Glazes are used to add depth and 
 translucency where required, and water colour is sometimes 
 used for the sake of its rapid drying. 
 
 White Marble. The simplest marble to execute, and at the 
 same time one of the most difficult to imitate faithfully, is white 
 or Sicilian marble. The ground required for this marble is a 
 dead white. When the ground is dry and hard, a thin coat of 
 zinc white in oil is rubbed over it, and the veins are put in with 
 a crayon ; a warm grey crayon is used for the inner veinings, and 
 a soft black lead pencil or black conte crayon for the more pro- 
 minent ones. The spaces between the veins are then tinted 
 slightly with grey and green, and a few touches of yellowish 
 grey, all very sparingly used, and the whole softened with the 
 hog- hair softener.
 
 MARBLING. 213 
 
 Sienna Marble. Sienna marble is next in importance, and 
 is much used for columns, pilasters, and staircase walls. The 
 same ground is used as for the white marble, and while this is 
 still wet it is irregularly painted with two or three tints of 
 yellowish cast, made from white and raw Sienna. The veins 
 are then put in either with a black crayon or charcoal, or a soft 
 lead pencil, and softened into the ground. When this is dry, 
 additional shadows, &c., are glazed in in raw Sienna and burnt 
 Sienna, and the veins are emphasised with a little blue or lake. 
 Over all a few white veins or spots are run, and a few lights put 
 on in the interstices between the dark veins. 
 
 Italian Pink Marble. Italian pink marble is used in place 
 of Sienna, and is about the same depth of tone, but pink, as its 
 name implies. The ground required is the same as above. The 
 ground is scumbled over with pink, made from ochre and 
 Venetian red, and ochre and vermilion, and shaded in with 
 greyer tones. The veins are put in with purplish red, and the 
 whole blended and softened with the hog-hair softener. After 
 all, a few white veins crossing the deep ones, and a few blotches 
 of white, with here and there rose pink glazings, are added. 
 
 Black and Gold Marble. Black and gold is a popular 
 marble for skirtings, and string courses, chimney pieces, &c. 
 The ground is black. The larger veins are a gold colour made 
 from ochre and red, and may be varied, in colour indefinitely ; 
 they are put upon a dry ground with a pencil and oil colour. 
 Very fine distinct white and yellow veins run from the main 
 ones, splitting up the black ground into fragments. The black 
 spaces are then shaded and lightened by the use of grey tints. 
 A few particles of gold leaf or metal put into or upon the gold 
 colour veins improve the effect. Another method is to work in 
 Sienna upon a white ground, and badger and blend various golden 
 red and yellow hues together, to allow this to dry and then 
 to paint in the intervening spaces with black and grey. The 
 peculiarity of this marble is the intricate ramifications of the 
 veining. 
 
 Grey Marbles. Grey marble, dove, or slate are all worked 
 from a white ground. A feather is used to put in the veins; 
 by this method the colour is thoroughly and irregularly spread 
 over the whole ground. All the veins must run in one general 
 direction, and specks and dots must be added in brighter tints, 
 with shells and fossils in lighter greys and white. 
 
 Bed Marbles. Red Derbyshire, porphry, and Irish red are 
 all marbled off a bright red ground. Venetian red and vermilion 
 with a little chrome are used in varying degrees of depth. The
 
 214 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 marbling is done by first glazing over the ground a coat of 
 crimson lake, and then breaking it up by the use of a feather 
 and turpentine with a little black. White or grey dots and 
 veins are added in very thin white. 
 
 Green Marbles. Egyptian green and verd antique are green 
 marbles which are worked upon a black ground. Chrome and 
 Prussian blue, and white make the marbling colours, varying 
 degrees of colour being used. Fossil spots and rings are added 
 in white, cream, &c., while the innermost ground shows spaces 
 of black. 
 
 Lapis Lazuli. Lapis lazuli is used for special little 
 medallions, &c. It is obtained from a pale blue ground ; ultra- 
 marine and gold leaf are used for the marbling and veining 
 respectively. The veins are very fine and broken. 
 
 Graniting. Red and grey granite may be imitated by 
 spotting a ground of either colour with white, red, grey, and 
 black The dotting may be done with a graniting brush. 
 
 Fig. 72. Veining fitch. 
 
 Fig. 73. Hog-hair softener. 
 
 Devonshire Marble. Devonshire marble is a conglomerate 
 mass of ochres, reds, and browns, with white markings. It is 
 represented upon a terra cotta ground by the use of feathers, 
 sponge, and rags ; the veins being put in with a veining fitch 
 (Fig. 72) or pencil. 
 
 Alabaster. Alabaster is a favourite marble for church deco- 
 ration. It may be wrought upon a creamy white ground in 
 light red, and white and lake. It is a soft stone with undulating 
 veins, and is readily imitated. 
 
 St. Anne's Marble. St. Anne's and other black and white
 
 MARBLING. 215 
 
 marbles are worked upon black grounds with white markings. 
 Grey is also used for the middle tints. 
 
 In the imitation of all marbles great attention must be paid 
 to the shape of the masses, and the direction of the veins. The 
 character and distinctiveness of all marbles rest principally on 
 the form that these take, and not on their scale or size. 
 
 Colour is also important, although every class of marble will 
 present samples widely different in colour, as well as in scale. 
 
 Many of the most mysterious and beautiful effects seen in 
 marbles may be imitated by the use of turpentine, which, when 
 sprinkled on the wet colour, opens it out in fantastically shaped 
 forms of great beauty, and renders that translucent appearance 
 common to the richer marbles. 
 
 Amber and other very translucent substances may be imitated 
 successfully by the methods common to marbling. Repeated 
 varnishing and re-glazing is the means adopted to produce great 
 depth and translucency. 
 
 Many exquisite suggestions in, and revelations of colour 
 may be obtained by the examination of fragments of rough 
 marble and rnineralogical specimens under the microscope. 
 
 The component colouring matters in marbles are seldom seen 
 by the ordinary observer, who only receives a general impression 
 of the apparent colour. This superficial colour may be much 
 more truly reproduced after studying the composition of the 
 marbles under the microscope, when the particles of coloured 
 matter, which go to produce the effect seen, may be utilised in 
 obtaining the required superficial effect.
 
 216 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 LDING 
 
 ILDING may be broadly under- 
 stood to mean the application of 
 metals in thin leaf form to de- 
 corative purposes, by the use of 
 mordants and vehicles. Origin- 
 ally limited in scope to the 
 application of gold leaf, it has 
 now become a general practice 
 to substitute many kinds of 
 metal, both in imitation of gold, 
 and in order to produce other 
 metallic colour effects. This is 
 not altogether to be regretted, 
 as the use of the more precious 
 metal in such a form that it is 
 ultimately totally lost to the community is a deplorable waste, 
 which is not entirely defensible ; especially as it draws a large 
 quantity of the metal away from its more legitimate use in the 
 arts of the goldsmith and metal worker. The small proportion 
 used for really high-class decorative work, as in illuminating and 
 permanent decorative schemes and pictures, is in proportion less 
 than one per cent, of the enormous amount used for commercial 
 advertising, and the vulgar overlaying of plaster and composition 
 picture frames.
 
 GILDING. 217 
 
 The various metals in common use for gilding in the leaf 
 form are : 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 Gold, in many degrees of fineness and tint. 
 Alloys of gold and copper. 
 ,, ,, silver. 
 Alloys of copper and silver. 
 
 tin. 
 Silver. 
 Aluminium. 
 
 The alloys are known as "metal d'or," Dutch metal, ducat 
 gold, gold metal, &c. The commonest and cheapest forms are 
 thick and brittle in quality, while the better degrees of gold leaf 
 are beaten to extreme thinness, the malleability and ductility of 
 the metal allowing as many as 2,500 leaves, 3 inches by 3| inches, 
 to be obtained from 1 ounce of fine gold, or to put it in another 
 way, the total thickness of 300,000 leaves is less than 1 
 inch. Gold leaf is usually put up in books of 25 leaves, each 
 leaf being 3J inches square. It is sold by the 1,000 leaves viz., 
 40 books. Silver leaf is usually 4 inches by 4 inches, and metals 
 are made in both sizes, and larger. 
 
 Gold leaf is termed white, pale, medium, deep, extra deep, 
 citron, red, &c., according to its colour. Gold is readily damaged 
 in the book by handling, damp, and shaking ; for this reason 
 good English gold leaf of recent make should be selected. The 
 best work cannot be produced by any other. It should be kept 
 in a dry place, and may, with advantage, be placed upon a hot 
 plate, or in the cool oven prior to using. The red powder on 
 gold books is put on to prevent the gold sticking to the leaves 
 of the book ; it is "bole," a red earth from Armenia, of peculiarly 
 flaky, smooth, and soft texture. A red French clay is some- 
 times used for the same purpose. 
 
 Methods of Gilding. The various methods of applying gold 
 leaf used by painters and decorators are termed : 
 
 Oil gilding, 
 Japan gilding, and 
 Water gilding. 
 
 These methods vary in detail upon different kinds of grounds. 
 Oil or Japan gilding is used upon painted surfaces, or grounds 
 that have been strongly sized or varnished. 
 
 Oil Gold Size. Oil gold size is a preparation of " fat linseed- 
 oil " viz., oil which has, by exposure to the atmosphere, lost its 
 power of absorbing oxygen, and become viscid and less hard 
 drying ; it may be prepared by exposing linseed oil to the air
 
 218 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 and light in a wide, open-mouthed vessel for about six months. 
 To make it usable and give it a little body and colour, ochre is 
 ground up in about one-third of the whole quantity and added 
 to the whole bulk ; a little driers, usually litharge, is also re- 
 quired, and, if too thick for use, it must be thinned to proper 
 consistency with boiled oil. Colour makers sell ready-prepared 
 oil gold size, that of Messrs. Mander being the best we have 
 used. A small quantity of good varnish, one-part to twenty, 
 added to gold size, gives it hardness and additional lustre. Good 
 oil size will be ready to receive the gold at any time between 
 twenty-four hours and a week from the moment of using it; and 
 the longer it holds its tackiness the better is the result, provided 
 that the size ultimately dries firm and hard, like a piece of gold- 
 beater's skin. 
 
 Japanners' Gold Size is a kind of quick varnish drying in 
 about half-an-hour to two hours, and is ready for gilding as soon 
 as sufficiently dry. It must be gilded upon at once when this is 
 the case, as the '' tack " soon changes into a hard varnish surface. 
 
 Gilding can be done with varnish, but the excessive gloss 
 gives a blackish look to the gold, and as the varnish hardens it 
 loses its hold of the metal, which will then wash off with soap 
 and water. Notwithstanding this fact, it is often used in large 
 proportions added to gold size by certain decorators, who admire 
 the additional gloss, but do not trouble about durability. 
 
 Fig. 74. Agate burnisher. 
 
 Many special sizes of a varnish nature are made for sign 
 writers. Messrs. Harland's make special size for carriage and 
 sign work to dry at various rates, in from four to twenty-four 
 hours, all of which are better for use under varnish, or stoved 
 enamel, than oil gold size ; but for work that is to be left unpro- 
 tected, the ordinary fat oil gold size is more desirable, and gives 
 a rich mellowness to the gold without undue sheen. 
 
 Water Gold Sizes vary in their nature for different purposes. 
 For gilding on prepared wood, papier mache, plaster, or com- 
 position, as for picture frames, two kinds are used, burnish 
 and matt gold size. 
 
 Burnish Gold Size is made from pipeclay and black lead, with 
 a small quantity of mutton suet added in the grinding. It can 
 be purchased ready made, and is used with ordinary parchment
 
 GILDING. 219 
 
 or gelatine size as a binding medium. Gilding on this size will 
 take a good polish, or burnish with an agate burnisher (Fig. 74). 
 
 Matt Gold Size. Matt size is for gold which is required to 
 have a matt or dead surface, and is made from pipeclay, 
 Armenian bole, and other materials. It can be purchased ready 
 for mixing with the clear parchment or jelly size. 
 
 Isinglass Gold Size. Gilding upon glass is done with isin- 
 glass size. Take a pinch of best Russian isinglass, put it into a 
 pint of water, and stand the whole in a covered jar in the oven 
 for a few hours ; when dissolved or cooked add a pint of spirits 
 of wine (not methylated), and strain or filter through white filter 
 paper. The spirits of wine removes the solid or waste portion 
 of the isinglass, and also serves to counteract grease on the glass, 
 or in the hairs of the brushes used ; its action is similar to that 
 of wine in milk. 
 
 Fig. 75. Gilder's cushion. 
 
 Clear Size for Gold. Gold is often clear sized to improve its 
 colour and prevent blooming. This size, as well as that used for 
 matt and burnish work, is best prepared from finest gelatine, or 
 from boiled parchment cuttings. 
 
 Tools for Laying Gold. The operation of gilding is the 
 same, whatever process is used, in as far as laying the gold is 
 concerned. The best and general method is by means of a 
 cushion and tip. The cushion is a small board (Fig. 75) about 
 8 by 5 inches, covered with flannel, and over this a tightly 
 stretched chamois leather. A draught screen of parchment is 
 fitted round one half of it ; this is to prevent the wind removing
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 the gold from the cushion. It has a thumb strap beneath, and 
 loops for the knife, &c., and is held like a palette on the left hand. 
 The other tools required for the laying are a gilder's knife (Fig. 
 76), and a tip (Fig. 77). 
 
 Fig. 77. Gilder's tip. 
 
 The knife is a long flexible blade of equal breadth throughout 
 its length. The tip is a flat brush made by setting a row of 
 haii-s, either camel or badger's, between two pieces of card. The 
 fingers of the left hand hold the tip and knife alternately when 
 either is not being used by the right hand. Dabbers and camel- 
 hair brushes, and mops, are required to press the gold down in its 
 place, and remove superfluous scraps. 
 
 Laying G-old Leaf. The size being ready to receive the 
 gold, about a dozen leaves are put in a heap in the back part of 
 the cushion ; then the cushion is taken in the left hand and the 
 knife in the right.
 
 ABCDCF 
 
 (DnOPQ 
 RSTOV, 
 WKVZ* 
 
 PLATE 20.-ORIGINAL ALPHABET, MODERN. 
 To face p. 220.]
 
 GILDING. 221 
 
 The wold is taken from the book by merely opening each leaf 
 and gently blowing the gold out on the cushion. With the knife 
 a leaf of gold is taken to the front of the cushion, laid squarely, 
 and deftly blown out flat, cut to any size required by a sharp 
 jerking, saw-like movement of the knife not like ordinary cutting; 
 the knife is then transferred to the left hand, and the tip to the 
 right ; the gold is then taken up by the tip and laid upon the 
 work. The whole process is extremely simple after practice. 
 Breathing must be carried on gently through the nostrils, so as 
 not to disarrange the gold. When blowing a leaf flat, aim a 
 smart jet of air right into the centre of the leaf, sudden and 
 short. When cutting, lay the edge of the knife, which must 
 not be keen, on the gold leaf firmly, give a little jerk, lift it 
 up, and you will find the gold separated. Take care not to cut 
 the leather of the cushion. The knife must not be sharp enotigh 
 to do so. If the gold does not at once adhere to the tip, pass 
 the same lightly over the hair or beard to slightly grease it; 
 this also sets up a magnetic action which assists to hold the gold. 
 It must not adhere too firmly to the tip, or the gold will tear in 
 transferring itself to the gold size. Always allow each leaf to 
 lap -| inch in laying, to secure a good join. Use whole leaves 
 wherever possible, and fault up every hole and crevice before 
 dabbing down. Well press down all joins, or there will be a 
 slight gap apparent at the junction. 
 
 In gilding a plain surface, hammer well down with a firm touch 
 and a good cotton wool pad before skewing off, and then skew 
 with a soft new stencil tool, using a circular motion, and polish 
 with a soft piece of cotton wool. Laying gold upon ordinary 
 oil or Japan gold size is sometimes done by a process of 
 transferring. This process is economical and useful for outside 
 work, or for etched and partial gilt work. To accomplish the 
 process, the gold must be what is known as transfer gold viz., 
 gold leaf which has been put upon tissue paper. Sheets of thin 
 tissue paper are cut into convenient sizes and slightly waxed 
 with a tablet of white wax. When pressed against the gold leaf 
 in the book, the leaf adheres to these waxed sheets and is from 
 them in turn transferred to the work. The waxed sheets being 
 slightly adhesive, only those portions of the leaf that are in con- 
 tact with the gold size leave the tissue sheet, and so there is no 
 waste. The tissue being somewhat transparent the operator can 
 see exactly what gold is still left upon the tissue, and utilise 
 every portion of it for the work in hand ; he can also see when 
 the gold size has not been covered with the gold. Gold can be 
 transferred to the tissue leaves without the necessity of waxing
 
 222 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 them, by merely interleaving the gold book with tissue and 
 putting the book into a copying-press and well pressing ; a heavy 
 mangle or a joiner's bench vice will also do if the gold is put 
 carefully between boards so that it cannot get shifted. 
 
 The exceptions to these two methods of laying the gold are 
 fanciful and individual, the most general being what is termed 
 " laying from the book." When gilding a large flat surface, the 
 gold leaf can be laid direct from the book and much time saved 
 thereby, by the use of a long-haired tip which can take up a leaf 
 at a time without the necessity of cutting. The odd spaces and 
 small bits are afterwards filled from the cushion in the usual 
 manner. Another method is to dispense with the tip, and by 
 taking the book in the left hand, and opening it with the right 
 to turn the leaves straight on to the work. This is a great sav- 
 ing of time for large letters out of doors or for large flat surfaces 
 of oil size gilding, but it requires some dexterity to be sure and 
 economical. 
 
 All gilding for interior decoration, and all out-door gilding 
 that can be conveniently left long enough before gilding, should 
 be done in oil gold size. The exceptions are, when time is an 
 object of importance, or where the work is tine and intricate, as 
 in small lettering, &c. 
 
 To Prevent Gold Sticking to Ground. The ground for 
 gold sizing must be free from any tackiness, hard, dry, and 
 impervious. If it is not so it must be coated with some prepara- 
 tion to prevent the gold sticking where it is not required. The 
 white of an egg beaten up with a little water, termed " glaire," is 
 the best preparation upon varnished or enamelled work. (The 
 white of one egg to 4 ounces of water is sufficiently strong.) 
 Upon ordinary painted work, a good rubbing with a pounce bag 
 that is, a small calico bag filled with fine sifted whiting will 
 suffice. A little size and water is also effective, and if a little 
 whiting is added to it, it is still more so. White of egg must 
 not be used too strong, never more than two-thirds water to one- 
 third egg. This is the least detrimental to the lustre of the gold. 
 Ordinary painted work that has to be partly gilt and then 
 varnished, may be prepared by rubbing with a piece of very fine 
 glass paper and some dry whiting. Whiting preparations have 
 a tendency to cause the gold size to run. 
 
 The gold size must be laid evenly and sparely. If laid too 
 heavily it will crinkle up after the gilding has been done. It is 
 sometimes necessary to add colour to the gold size in decorative 
 work, so as to see better where the size is put on level, &c. Tube 
 colours may be used for this purpose, and they should always
 
 GILDING. 223 
 
 approximate to the colour of gold as nearly as possible, as the 
 gold leaf is full of innumerable small holes, and the colour used 
 in the size has an effect upon the appearance of the gold when 
 laid. Chrome, burnt Sienna, vermilion, or ochre are suitable 
 colours. 
 
 Gold size should never be gilded unless quite ready. The 
 size should be just tacky enough to hold the gold leaf, but 
 never wet enough to smear or move if rubbed with the finger 
 tip. Gold laid upon too wet size will turn black and lustreless. 
 The precise condition is ascertained by the application of the 
 clean finger tip, and practice will enable the operator to judge 
 very accurately. 
 
 Turpentine should not be used as a thinner in gold size, 
 because it leaves behind it, after evaporation, a resinous oil, 
 which never properly hardens. A little boiled oil is the best 
 thinner. Japanners' gold size may be thinned with a little 
 turpentine if both are heated to boiling point together. 
 
 Oil gilding should always be well washed down with clean 
 water and a soft sponge, and then sized with clean gelatine size ; 
 this washing hardens the oil, and the size protects and preserves 
 the gold and gives it a more uniform lustre, in place of the 
 broken metallic brilliance it has as the result of its beating. 
 Before washing, it should be carefully pressed down with cotton 
 wool, all faults made good, and the whole dusted off with cotton 
 wool or a camel-hair dabber. 
 
 In gilding enriched and moulded surfaces, the gold will some- 
 times require double laying, in order to reach the interstices of 
 the work. 
 
 All waste gold, known to the gilder as "skew," should be 
 saved and used for dusting into the carved portions, and when 
 these are dusted out, the " skew " should be carefully collected 
 in a tin canister for future use, or for disposal to the dealer 
 in old gold and silver, the " skew " being worth about 3 an 
 ounce if from good gold. 
 
 Burnish and Matt Gilding. Burnish and matt gilding are 
 much alike in method of procedure. They are principally used 
 for Rococo or Florentine enriched ornament, cornices, and picture 
 frames. The work is brought up to a good surface in size and 
 whiting, and then coated with five or six coats of the matt size or 
 burnish size, as the case requires, each coat being rubbed down 
 with very fine glass paper, and the size laid on with a camel-hair 
 brush and allowed to dry thoroughly between each coat. When 
 the ground has a sufficient number of coats to be perfectly solid, 
 the gold is laid with water only viz., the size is well wetted
 
 224- PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 with water in a camel-hair brush, and the gold laid on the 
 water, which, as it dries, carries the gold on to the size coat 
 and fixes it there. The leaf must he laid immediately following 
 the water while it is yet "live;" to accomplish this quickly, 
 the expert gilder uses the water brush with his right hand by 
 clenching it with the two little fingers in his fist at the same 
 time as he has the gold upon the tip held between the forefinger 
 and thumb of the same hand. The flowing water catches the 
 gold from the tip, and spreads it out smoothly on the surface 
 of the water in the moment or two between the application and 
 the absorption of the water by the distemper ground. This 
 completes the gilding as far as the matt portion is concerned, 
 except for a final clear sizing and sometimes colouring or 
 coating with ormolu. 
 
 The burnished portion, however, requires polishing or burnish- 
 ing. This is done at the moment the gilding is dry, and before 
 it becomes so hard as to be brittle. An agate or flint stone, set 
 in a handle, is the burnisher. These are of different shapes. 
 They are rubbed lightly against the gold, which takes a re- 
 markably high polish, and retains it. Burnished gold must not 
 be sized. 
 
 Burnish and matt gilding are confined to the flat or curved 
 plain portions of the work, and are done first. The enriched 
 and fancy parts are afterwards oil-sized and gilded in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 Ormolu for matt gold is prepared from best garnet shellac 
 and white sticklac dissolved in spirits of wine, and tinted to the 
 required depth with dragon's blood ; a few drops are added to 
 the usual gelatine or parchment size to produce an even, lustre- 
 less and rich surface of any desired depth. 
 
 Glass Gilding. Gilding upon glass is done in the same 
 manner as described for water gilding, isinglass size being used 
 in the place of water. The glass is well cleaned, freed from 
 grease, and set before the operator at a slight angle ; sometimes 
 the glass is upright, as in a window, and has to be done in that 
 position. The isinglass size, before described, is used in pre- 
 cisely the same way as the water in water gilding, and the gold 
 laid on the flowing size so as to stretch itself out as the size 
 recedes. The size must be used freely and allowed to run off 
 quickly. It must not be strong ; indeed, the weaker it is the 
 brighter will the finish of the gold be. The less size there is 
 remaining between the glass and the gold and between the two 
 coats of gold, the better polish can be obtained. 
 
 In all other methods of gilding the gold is attached from the
 
 GILDING. 225 
 
 back of the leaf, and the finished work shows the unalloyed 
 brightness of the metal ; but in the case of glass gilding, the size 
 comes between the gold and the eye, and the glass interposes a 
 further medium, so that it is at once apparent that the cleaner the 
 glass, and the clearer and thinner the film of size, the less is the 
 brilliance of the gilding interfered with. The purity and cleanli- 
 ness of the size and glass will be assured if the size can be laid 
 upon the glass without cissing or gathering. If it runs off like 
 water on a duck's back, the glass is greasy or the size is not 
 clean, or perhaps the water used is too hard; boiled rain water 
 makes the best size, but it must be quite clean and clear. 
 
 Gilding on glass requires a second coat in order to make a 
 solid job. The first coat of gold when dry is lightly polished 
 with finest cotton wool, and fixed and burnished by scalding 
 with very hot water as near boiling as can be used without 
 splitting the glass. It may be poured over from the spout of a 
 kettle, so as to run over the whole of the gilding, and then down 
 on to the ground, or laid over with a broad 4-inch camel-hair 
 flat. This removes the scum of the size from between the gild- 
 ing and the glass and adds to its clarity and brHliance. The 
 work may then be carefully polished with a piece of finest cotton 
 wool. It is then allowed to dry and the whole of the gilding 
 and clearing with hot water repeated ; after this the gold is 
 backed up by a coat of hard Japan or varnish which will dry in 
 about eight hours and have a perfect gloss. In cold weather the 
 whole of the glass must be treated with the hot water whether 
 gilded or not, or breakage will result from the inequality of 
 expansion produced, and if the day be frosty, the job must be 
 done very cautiously in a hot shop, or deferred. The water 
 must never be quite boiling. 
 
 The gold used for glass gilding is specially prepared, being 
 more even in thickness than the ordinary gold, and put up in 
 books of special paper that does not reqiiire dusting with French 
 chalk or Armenian bole to prevent the gold adhering to the book. 
 The gold thus supplied is much cleaner than that used for 
 general purposes. Turps colour must not be used to back up 
 gilding on glass. It is important that glass gilding be made 
 to dry off quickly and that no time be allowed to elapse between 
 the operations, or it will accumulate dust and get discoloured. 
 
 Although gilding on glass is looked upon as a difficult matter 
 to successfully carry through, all the difficulties are overcome 
 by the exercise of cleanliness. The cleanliness of the glass may 
 be tested by breathing on it, and if the moisture evaporates 
 quickly, leaving the glass clear, it will do. Glass may be made 
 
 15
 
 226 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 chemically clean by the use of dilute nitric acid, and well rinsing 
 with water. 
 
 Cap or tissue paper is a good glass polisher. Filtered rain- 
 water makes the best isinglass size, or distilled water, as it is 
 free from metallic taint. 
 
 Gilding upon paper, parchment, and vellum can be best done 
 by using a size made from yolk of eggs and glycerine. This is 
 ground together with a little ochre and thinned with water. If 
 used in a very liquid state as a mere water wash size, and the 
 gold is laid directly thereon, as in glass gilding, it may be tooled 
 or burnished. All gold work should be sized before writing or 
 painting upon it. 
 
 Platinum and Silver Laying and Metalling. Platinum 
 leaf is used in the same manner as gold leaf, and is applicable to 
 all the same purposes. 
 
 Silver leaf and gold leaf of very pale tint, that is, which con- 
 tains a large proportion of silver, should never be laid on the oil 
 gold size, neither should metals which are subject to oxidisation, 
 as the oil has a strong affinity for oxygen, and the oxidisation of 
 the metals is set up and goes on more rapidly. If used upon a 
 spirit size or water size, and well protected with lacquer or spirit 
 varnish, these metals will be perfectly lasting. Their durability 
 depends entirely on their perfect enclosure and envelopment in 
 an air-tight case of lacquer or varnish, both under and above 
 them. 
 
 Japanners' gold size, with, or without, the addition of a little 
 Venice turpentine makes as good a size as can be had for 
 metals. There are many special sizes for the purpose prepared 
 ready for use, but nothing is better than a good full bodied 
 japanners' size exposed to the air for a few days to fatten a 
 little. 
 
 Aluminium leaf may be used best on a mixture of ochre 
 ground in oil and japanners'. It is reported to be unchangeable, 
 and is so as far as it has been tested in actual decorating. It 
 cannot be lacquered into a good gold, but silver leaf can. Silver 
 is more lustrous than aluminium, which has a rather leaden 
 look when used alone. It makes a pretty combination with 
 gold, being greyer than silver. The cheaper metals can be laid 
 by hand, as they are so thick as to stand handling freely, and 
 can be cut into pieces with a pair of scissors. 
 
 The principal qualification for success in gilding is a deft 
 and delicate handling of the metals, especially gold leaf, and 
 there must also be a ready recognition of the possibilities and 
 peculiarities of each kind. Always remember that whatever
 
 GILDING. 227 
 
 the condition of the under size or ground, it is hermetically 
 sealed up when the leaf is put on, which thus prevents any 
 change or further drying in the ordinary way; so that if gold 
 is laid on soft coats of paint, they will not all harden off together, 
 but will go on working under the gold, expanding and contract- 
 ing, and will ultimately ruin the gold leaf. 
 
 Bronzes. Bronzes have the same qualities as the baser leaf 
 metals, and the same precautions must be observed in using 
 them. They must not be mixed with oil varnishes, or oil 
 mediums, but can be put upon japanners' gold size, or upon 
 any spirit varnishes in powder form. They can be mixed and 
 applied as liquids in any spirit varnish, or in size or gum, 
 though the tendency of gum to become acid sometimes turns 
 the bronze black. In bronzing with the powder, the size 
 (usually japanners' gold size), is applied, and when tacky, the 
 bronze is dusted on with a hare's foot, a wad of close cloth, 
 or a chamois leather pad. The bronze is protected by a thin 
 coat of lacquer, and then varnished in the ordinary way. 
 
 Bronzing should never be varnished over with oil copal 
 varnishes, as it will rapidly lose colour and oxidise if so 
 varnished ; some of the commoner house-painters' oak varnishes 
 have so little oil in them that this effect does not follow- 
 rapidly. If metals, silver, or gold be sized with a clear jelly of 
 gelatine size, or thinly lacquered, they may be varnished with 
 any kind of varnish, as the interleaf of size will stop the direct 
 action of the varnish upon the metal. 
 
 Bronzing is sometimes used over paint to give the effect of 
 metal. Thus a piece of iron casting may be painted green or 
 copper colour, and then the highest portions of the relief touched 
 with bronze. This is done by coating the article with japanners' 
 varnish or gold size, and when tacky dusting over a little powder 
 bronze, which can be applied by a piece of cloth or velvet rubbed 
 in the powder. The bronze should not be applied to the bare 
 oil paint. The colour of the bronze must bear a correct relation 
 to the colour of the paint used. 
 
 Lacquer for Metals. Various lacquers are used to give gold 
 or metal a different colour. Any lacquer can be made from an 
 ounce of good shellac dissolved in half a pint of spirits of wine, 
 and tinted with saffron, turmeric, Sanders, or other dye-woods, 
 dragon's blood, or any of the aniline powders. The most useful 
 colourings are turmeric and dragon's blood ; a colourless lacquer 
 may be used, and the tinting done by the use of transparent oil 
 colours in varnish. 
 
 The house painter often has to re-lacquer small brass fittings.
 
 228 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 These are better gilded (as they can be gilt at very small cost) 
 and then coated with French polish or a good lacquer. This 
 does not apply to handles, &c., but to curtain hooks, curtain pole 
 ends and brackets, bell pulls, &c. ; clean, and give them a coat of 
 patent knotting before gold sizing ; gold size with japanners', 
 and gild in the usual way. 
 
 Preparing Open Grain Wood, and Stone for Gilding. To 
 prepare rough cut deal, ash, open grain oak, or stone, &c., for gild- 
 ing, give a couple of coats of French polish and spirit varnish in 
 equal parts, or two coats of patent knotting ; then gold size in the 
 usual manner. Japan gold size sometimes works cloggy in tine 
 lettering. The writer has found that when working indoors at 
 fine gold lettering on a black ground, if the Japan size be stood 
 in a jar of hot water it keeps fluid and works extremely well, 
 setting quickly when once on the work. It must not be too 
 hot. A jam pot may be filled with hot water and the size in a 
 smaller pot stood in it. 
 
 Coe's Gilding Wheels. Coe's patent ribbon gilding wheels 
 are of recent introduction, but their utility has already been 
 recognised by imitators. They are particularly useful for gilding 
 lines or patterns upon a flat surface. 
 
 ' Difficulties of wet, wind, dust, and cost are much minimised 
 by the use of the machine where it can be profitably used, and 
 quite 70 per cent, of time is saved, as against tip and cushion 
 gilding. All operations up to actual laying of the leaf are the 
 same. The instrument consists of two wheels, one of which con- 
 tains the gold leaf upon thin paper in an endless ribbon, and the 
 other is covered with soft felt. A handle is attached. The 
 wheel is simply rolled along the course of the gold size, and the 
 ribbon unrolls, the gold leaves it, and the paper is wound upon 
 the other wheel. The felt presses the gold as firmly in place as 
 required, the pressure being regulated by the operator at will 
 according to the condition of the gold size or mordant. 
 
 A modification of the principle is used for gilding concave or 
 convex surfaces, enrichments, &c., in which a camel-hair brush 
 takes the place of the felt wheel. This is also patented, and the 
 system will doubtless ultimately supersede the older methods. 
 
 Ribbon Gold Leaf. This is supplied by most gold beaters. 
 We can recommend the Holmes-Braunlein of Hamiltons as one 
 of the most reliable.
 
 229 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 LETTERING AND SIGN- WRITING. 
 
 E practice of sign-writing, or, as it 
 maybe more comprehensively termed, 
 "letter painting," embraces the de- 
 sign, display, and colouring of letters 
 upon surfaces of wood, metal, glass, 
 &c. The old English term " Letter- 
 ing " fitly describes it. The best 
 decorative talent has always been be- 
 stowed upon the art, and it has been 
 justly looked upon as calling forth 
 the highest skill of the painter, em- 
 bracing, as it does, all the manipula- 
 tive methods used in the trade. 
 Good sign-writing must embrace vigorous drawing, grace and 
 harmony of design, well developed colour, and delicate finish of 
 detail. 
 
 It may be divided broadly into two great sections. Sign- 
 writing for advertising purposes, and sign-writing for informa- 
 tive purposes. The first section may be bluntly described as 
 putting up that which you want the public to read, but which
 
 230 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 they will not search for and do not want to read. The second 
 as putting up information which is required and will be 
 searched for by the public. Of course this division implies 
 two opposite courses of action in determining how to do 
 the work. When closely examined it will be found that many 
 of the same rules will apply to both classes of sign-writing ; 
 indeed, the set of rules governing " Notice writing " as it may 
 be termed, will nearly all be operative in " Advertising" writing, 
 but with sundry additions. 
 
 Notice writing will consist of directions, door-plates, street 
 names, lists of charges and tolls, contents labels, public notices, 
 &c. The qualities required in this class of writing are distinct- 
 ness, legibility, simplicity, and harmony with surroundings. 
 
 Sign or advertising writing, though requiring to be readable, 
 must before all things be assertive, attractive, uncommon (if 
 possible), and bright even to showiness. A readable type is 
 especially important upon signs placed in busy thoroughfares, on 
 tram routes and railways to be read by him who runs, but 
 it is often obvious that too much importance has been given to 
 readableness. We have heard objections raised to old English 
 or black letter type as unreadable, and yet every one is familiar 
 with it and can read it upon the headings of most of our news- 
 papers. If an advertisement is sufficiently striking to attract 
 attention, experience shows that it will be read and understood, 
 even if written in Greek characters ; in fact, attention is some- 
 times called to an advertisement merely because it is a sort of 
 conundrum and requires a little puzzling out. 
 
 Prominence in Lettering. The endeavour to make adver- 
 tisement lettering prominent has* led to the exercise of a number 
 of expedients which are more or less open to question as a 
 matter of taste, but to the writer none of these are more inde- 
 fensible than the attempt to represent lettering as raised, or 
 shaded, or as in perspective. The usual excuses for this class of 
 work are, that it makes the lettering moi-e prominent, and that 
 we have precedent in the works of Thornhill, and a number of 
 other great artists, for the perspective representation of objects 
 in flat decoration. To the latter argument the reply may be 
 made, that these works are more or less pictorial, and that 
 though they are the work of consummate artists, they reflect the 
 taste of their own times, and do not represent the highest and 
 best periods of art. 
 
 Shaded Lettering. If the lettering of the best types of all 
 ages are examined, we find a total absence of any attempt at 
 sham relief. In so far as legibility or prominence are concerned
 
 SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 231 
 
 the necessity for shading certainly does not exist. Judicious 
 contrast, edging, or outlining, will bring any lettering into the 
 utmost prominence possible to painted lettering on a flat surface. 
 The illustrations give some lead in this direction, especially the 
 headlines and initial letters. The student should always bear 
 in mind the fact that any attempts at sham or deception are 
 open to serious question, and require a far more reasonable 
 justification than can be supplied in this instance. 
 
 A serious argument against the representation of painted per- 
 spective lettering, may be found in the fact that the centre of 
 vision of the spectator has to be arbitrarily selected, a fact 
 which makes the representation absurd and incorrect from every 
 different station point or point of view. 
 
 Illegible Type in Lettering. Another expedient which has 
 frequently been resorted to in the search after novelty, and in 
 order to attract attention, is the use of the curious, rather than 
 the beautiful and legible in lettering, and especially in the 
 ornamentation of letters. Letters formed from the human figure 
 in grotesque attitudes, from twisted branches of trees, or from 
 contorted ribbons. In this manner really fine typical alphabets 
 have been neglected, and set aside in favour of misshapen freaks 
 fit only for a museum of paleographical curiosities. The only 
 redeeming feature one can see in such courses is that consider- 
 able technical skill has been necessary to carry out the ideas, 
 and thus the executant power and expertness of the sign writer 
 have been maintained. But this gain has been outweighed 
 by a distinct loss of refinement and artistic selection. 
 
 Books on Lettering. In glancing through the many books 
 that have been written upon sign writing, the attention is 
 arrested by the false note which is struck by many of these 
 guides. An alphabet is illustrated, and the student is referred 
 to it as if the particular and identical forms there given were 
 arbitrary. This cramped and narrow view is drilled into the 
 reader at every turn, and he concludes that the whole art of 
 lettering consists in the committing to memory of certain sets of 
 symbols associated together under the name of block, Roman, 
 Italic, Egyptian, Gothic, &c. He is directed to use these forms 
 as if they were facts, instead of the mere visible and manual 
 expression of facts. The most important words that can be said 
 to students of lettering are that letters owe their precise form to 
 convention and not to law. There is no set proportion or rule 
 for their construction, and if the letter conveys its meaning in 
 an unmistakable manner, it has fully accomplished its purpose. 
 It is quite permissible, for instance, to use half a-dozen different
 
 232 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 forms of the same letter in one inscription if there is any proper 
 reason or excuse for so doing, providing they harmonise in style 
 and design. 
 
 Forms of Letters Changed by Environment The con- 
 tinual change of environment to which the letters in words are 
 subject, call for corresponding and accommodating changes in 
 form: Thus T following L and before A as in DELTA, may 
 have more breadth at top than T coming before W as in TWO. 
 In this way written or painted inscriptions have much advan- 
 tage over printed or stencilled lettering (see plates and headlines). 
 
 Letters, too, may be made more or less unmistakable in form in 
 accordance with their importance or connection. Thus in the 
 word TOO the two OO's may be looped together for artistic 
 effect even at the loss of legibility, because the remaining letters 
 make the word quite unmistakable. Words such as " and " or 
 " the," which are in most instances understood by implication 
 as much as by expression, may be made more or less ornamental, 
 and less easily readable. On the contrary, proper names or 
 words in which the alteration of a single letter imparts a different 
 meaning, must be kept plain and intelligible. The form of the 
 letters may also be altered for the sake of balance and design. 
 If a number of letters with perpendicular lines come together, it 
 is often desirable to introduce a few curves and vice versd. 
 Take the two words 
 
 GENU.6M6N 
 ROCHES 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 In the former the round-backed 6 may be introduced for the 
 sake of contrast ; while in the latter every available and admis- 
 sible bit of straight line will be an advantage (Fig. 78). 
 
 Rules for Construction of Letters. Rules for the con- 
 struction of alphabets and letters are useful only as suggestions, 
 and the less they are relied upon by the student the more 
 characteristic and versatile will his style of lettering become. 
 While this freedom of choice and design is admissible, it must
 
 SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 233 
 
 not be imagined that letters of various type and style may be 
 intermixed indiscriminately. There are governing ideas and 
 leading peculiarities in every age and style, which cannot be 
 set aside without resultant discord. Certain characteristics 
 require to be consistently upheld in all the letters of an inscrip- 
 tion or sign. 
 
 Take the plain letter known as " block." Here the governing 
 idea is a letter of uniform breadth, no thick and thin lines, no 
 serifs or little projections at the ends. Working within these 
 limits, the artist is at liberty to design his letters to suit the 
 space or position or material in which he is working. Some 
 alphabets, on the other hand, consist of thick and thin lines 
 representing up and down strokes. Some have serifs, or ends, of 
 particular shape which must be consistently adhered to through- 
 out the inscription. 
 
 Some are rigidly confined to a given height ; others take any 
 height within given lines; others again have projecting heads 
 and tails both above and below the lines. These features, when 
 of sufficient importance to give class or character to lettering, 
 become fixed laws for that particular type, but still leave a vast 
 amount of freedom to the taste and ingenuity of the designer. 
 Another question that comes up for solution in this connection 
 is that of style in its chronological or architectural sense. A 
 knowledge of the laws of harmony is necessary to the student 
 before he can successfully combine lettering of different historic 
 periods without a sense of incongruity, but that it is quite 
 possible to do so is scarcely open to question. 
 
 In the three original alphabets illustrated, the writer has 
 endeavoured to introduce the double curve or ogee line ; this 
 gives quite a fresh character to the type. In the small alphabet, 
 the letters are arranged to mix well in irregular order. The 
 Gothic letters are derived from a combination of consistent 
 fifteenth century lettering, but made suitable for brush as 
 opposed to pen work ; note the brush curves in each letter. 
 
 Lettering and Methods of Work. Lettering has not really 
 changed; it has merely undergone a process of evolution, 
 brought about chiefly through the change in the materials used 
 for the expression of thought in writing. Thus, we have lettering 
 which is the outcome of the stylus, the reed pen, the brush, the 
 needle, chisel, punch, and knife; and we have alphabets that 
 have been devised on paper, wood, linen, stone, metal, wax, and 
 a host of other materials. All these possess interest and are full 
 of suggestion, but in order that they may be mixed together 
 with a sense of fitness, they must be passed through the medium
 
 234 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 of the brain of the worker, and so changed as to admit of their 
 being suitably worked in the medium, material, and manner that 
 he is using at the time. Students should particularly avoid the 
 use of letters for painted signs which are obviously " pen" letters, 
 or embroidery letters, unless they are so skilful as to adapt the 
 whole form of them to the exigencies of brush-work. This is 
 often done with much pleasureable and artistic result, but 
 unless the change in form that it brings about is real and 
 genuine, such lettering is as much open to objection as other 
 shams. A study of some of the earlier printed books in which 
 the capital and versal letters were left out in the type and added 
 with the brush and pen by the illuminator, will very clearly 
 show the marked difference between the spirit of pen, type, and 
 brush-work. Quite recently Mr. Walter Crane has designed an 
 alphabet, in which the flexible quill pen is used with masterly 
 skill to give a new character to the lettering, by bulging out the 
 centre of the perpendicular lines. The whole charm of this 
 lettering has been lost and the idea made to appear absurd, by 
 its slavish imitation in brush-work by sundry poster printers, 
 &c., and it has even crept into type books. 
 
 The study of the various books on lettering will help the 
 student in his selection of good types. He should also collect 
 any scraps of printed matter, as advertisements, title pages, 
 headlines, and bookplates that appear worthy of study, forming 
 the best of them into a scrap book for reference. 
 
 Putting these ideas into a condensed form for application in 
 practical work, we have, first, the necessity for the selection of 
 good, effective, and readable type, adequate to the demands of 
 the brush and a flat surface treatment; next, the need for adapta- 
 tion of the forms of the letters to their position and environment, 
 with freedom to alter their more usual shapes, consistently with 
 general harmony and in accordance with style. 
 
 Colouring of Lettering. Our next consideration is the 
 matter of colour. The colouring of lettering is, of course, 
 governed by the same rules as that of ornament. It may be 
 regarded as an axiom, that lettering should always be coloured 
 in contrast to its ground. The only divergence from, this rule 
 is when the lettering forms a pattern, rather than an inscription, 
 as in the use of mottoes, heraldic or otherwise, repeated to form 
 part of diapered or pattern-covered surfaces. Prominence of 
 colour should be given to important letters or words. The 
 amount of contrast is determined by the position and purpose of 
 the sign. Whilst deprecating the use of absurd and meaningless 
 shadows, and prefering letters which appear in their proper
 
 SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 235 
 
 plane, rather than in an impossible projection, there are several 
 methods by which the prominence of lettering may be increased, 
 and we are not transgressing the laws of good taste if we borrow 
 suggestions from raised or sunk letters, while making no attempt 
 to imitate them or deceive the observer. 
 
 Enrichment and Prominence of Letters. The raised 
 letter owes its prominence to the fact of its separation from its 
 ground. If we wish to give added prominence to, say, a gold 
 letter on a medium blue ground, we may do so by outlining the 
 gold with a pale yellow or cream colour on the gold, thus 
 emphasizing the edge ; or by the contrary way of deepening the 
 ground where it comes into contact with the gold by the use of 
 a very deep blue outline. The same principle may be applied 
 to all colours. A white letter on a green ground may be empha- 
 sized by a gold outline, or by a black outline. If we borrow the 
 suggestion found in a sunk letter we can obtain the same visual 
 prominence by a central line of deeper hue, and a light outline. 
 Thus, a vermilion letter on an olive ground may be given all the 
 attraction that a sunk letter has by edging it with a salmon tint 
 and giving it a central line of crimson. These instances can be 
 multiplied ad libitum. Outlines may be multiplied and added 
 to and strengthened by elaboration. Grounds may be enriched, 
 diapered, and ornamented in a variety of ways, which give great 
 scope to the artistic and inventive worker. These methods 
 need not be expensive, indeed are less so than the elaborate 
 systems of blocking and shading, now out of date. Take this 
 suggestion as an instance : On a rich Tuscan or Indian red 
 ground, a gold, plain type letter ; on this a little way in from 
 the edge leaving a gold outer line, put a fine line of brightest 
 sky-blue full in tone ; to further enrich it put a primrose line on 
 the ground | inch broad and inch from the gold. Or, again, 
 take a bright orange as a ground, on which stencil a close pattern 
 all over in burnt Sienna ; on this place an open letter in gold 
 inch wide, for, say, 8-inch letters ; fill in the centre of the letters 
 a bright torquoise blue, not too deep, and outline the gold with 
 creamy white outside, ^ inch wide, and very dark blue inside, ^ 
 inch wide. Many valuable hints on colour may be noted from 
 illuminated manuscripts. Colour effect experiments should be 
 made on single letter sketches. Select a decided colour for 
 the body of letters and a less pronounced colour for the 
 ground. 
 
 Setting out Sign-Writing. The practical aspect of sign- 
 writing is the next matter for attention. 
 
 Painting and varnishing have already been dealt with, and
 
 236 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 gilding, in as far as the processes are concerned, has been fully 
 described. For specific directions on these subjects, the reader 
 is referred to the chapters devoted to them. 
 
 The setting out of lettering is the first operation. In the case 
 of elaborate work, or a large quantity, the setting out is usually 
 first drawn on a paper. For facia, large and displayed work 
 that is, work where special parts are given special prominence, 
 fee. A small sketch to scale is the better way to commence, this 
 being afterwards enlarged directly on to the work. The setting 
 out on the actual sign will be done in chalk or pipe-clay, or in 
 the case of light ground or on distemper, charcoal is sometimes 
 used. Take the case of a facia 16 feet long, with a single line of 
 lettering, say, John Thomson and Sons. First, count the letters, 
 reckoning every space between words as a letter also. This 
 gives 21 letters. Now deduct a little space to be left clear at 
 each end of the facia, say 1 foot, this leaves 14 feet to be occupied 
 by the name, or |- of a foot = f foot = 8 inches for each letter, 
 and each space between words. Of course, the letters will not 
 actually fill the whole 8 inches, as there will be a slight space 
 between the letters themselves, neither will all the letters 
 occupy identically the same space. This is a matter for adjust- 
 ment as the setting out is proceeded with. A space of 8 inches 
 is now ticked off on the sign and the writer sketches in an 
 average letter, usually the E or H, by which he arrives at a suit- 
 able height for his letters. Lines are next struck by the use of 
 a chalked string, held at each end firmly at the proper spot and 
 pulled a little way off the board in the centre and allowed to 
 snap back against it, leaving a clear and straight line. Some 
 letters require double lines top and bottom and a central line, 
 but the two lines suffice for most purposes. 
 
 Ifc"" 
 
 HvSbN AN 
 
 16 Feer 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 The setting out is then undertaken. The best method is to 
 consider each 4 or 5 letters in groups and allocate to each its 
 proper portion of space. Thus the first four may be taken, 32 
 inches being their limit. J will not require quite the average 
 amount of space, a little above the average, H and N being 
 two straight letters want a little extra allowance of space 
 between them, while the shape of J suggests that it may be 
 carried a little beyond its limit into the preliminary space.
 
 PLATE 21.-ALPHABET, ORIGINAL, DEDUCED FROM GOTHIC, 
 To face p. 236.]
 
 SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 237 
 
 The illustration shows the application of the principle; the 
 dotted lines indicating the 8-inch spaces. The letters should be 
 sketched in lightly, as any excess of chalk clogs the pencil when 
 colouring or gold sizing. 
 
 Next, the set square should be used to test the accuracy of the 
 perpendiculars. Nothing is so exasperating to the eye as to see 
 lettering which is not upright ; curiously, almost every man has 
 a tendency to allow his lettering to lean slightly, unless he uses 
 the square to check it. The edges of the lettering should not 
 be ruled, but an upright line put up the centre, so as to leave 
 some freedom to the painter-in. In like manner, the use of the 
 compasses is recommended as a check or guide, but not to be 
 followed literally. Any superfluous chalk is then removed, and 
 the work is ready for colouring. 
 
 A slightly different method is adopted for closely written 
 notices or continuous writing; suppose, as an instance, the 
 writing is to be the decalogue, or Lord's prayer, in church text 
 on a board 5 feet high ; the size of the letters is first determined, 
 lines are then marked for one line of writing, and a portion of 
 the wording sketched in, a fairly proportioned letter being used 
 across one whole line. Next the number of letters which have 
 been got into this line must be ascertained. Supposing this to 
 be 40 letters, the whole matter must be divided into sections 
 containing, as nearly as the spelling will permit, 40 letters to each 
 section. This gives the number of lines necessary for the whole. 
 Presuming the letters set out to be 1 inch high, this gives 40 
 inches for the lettering, and 20 inches for the spacing between 
 the lines of letters. It is then necessary to deduct from the 20 
 inches sufficient top and bottom space, say 2 inches for each, 
 leaving 16 inches for between the lines, or about f of an inch 
 between each line. In writing a large number of letters of this 
 kind, it is well to work on a good hard ground, and to do the 
 setting out with a very soft black lead pencil, or coloured chalk 
 pencil. This can be carefully washed off after the work is com- 
 pleted. The writer has found a soft pencil to work well on light 
 flatted grounds, if the flatting has just a little varnish in it to 
 harden it. When washing off the marks after lettering, use a 
 soft sponge and a leather for drying, and allow the work to be well 
 soaked with clean water before rubbing at all. Use a little 
 ordinary hard yellow soap, if necessary. 
 
 If the setting out has been done upon the work, it is ready for 
 the painting, but if it has been done upon paper, it will now 
 require converting into a pounce, by pricking little holes all 
 along the outlines of the letters ; a needle set in a wood handle,
 
 238 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 or pricker holder, is used. The fineness of the holes depends 
 upon the class of work, but the finer they are, the better the 
 pouncing can be worked over. The pricking is done upon a 
 piece of board covered with baize or cloth, and the pricker must 
 be held perpendicularly to avoid slanting holes. After pricking, 
 the "burr" must be rubbed off the back of the paper with a 
 piece of new No. 1J glass paper lightly used. 
 
 Pounces. The pounce is applied in the following manner : 
 Having placed it in position, the operator holds it firmly, or pins 
 it down, and dusts through the holes by means of a pounce bag, a 
 pounce roll, or a dry sash tool, some powdered whiting, charcoal, 
 or rouge. To make the pounce bag, take a square piece of linen, 
 put on it a handful of powdered whiting, charcoal, or red chalk, 
 gather the edges together and tie round tightly in the form of a 
 bag with a piece of string. A pounce roll is better for finer 
 work. Take a piece of close-grained cloth, 9 by 6 inches ; strew 
 it with powdered chalk on one half divided lengthwise, and with 
 powdered black lead on the other ; roll tightly up, and bind round 
 the centre portion with string. This is used with a circular 
 rubbing motion over the pounce, the white end on dark grounds, 
 and the black on light grounds. Care must be observed in 
 pouncing that only sufficient powder is passed through the holes 
 to give a good clear impression sufficient to work by. 
 
 Painting Letters. The next point to be considered is the 
 actual painting of the letters. For this the tools necessary are, 
 a palette, a mahl stick, and sable or ox-hair pencils. Sable 
 pencils are decidedly preferable for all classes of sign-writing, 
 and are regarded as the cheaper in the long run. A dipper to 
 hold turpentine, or sometimes the colour itself, must be clipped 
 on to the palette. The palette is used upon the thumb of the 
 left hand, the mahl stick being held in the palm of the same 
 hand. The skilful use of the pencils must be acquired by con- 
 tinued practice, and all that can be done here to ensure success 
 is to give a few hints. 
 
 Hints on Using Sable Pencils. Large long-handled 
 pencils, with sticks not too thin, are the best. They must be 
 held freely and loosely, giving free play to the hairs for the 
 sweeps and curves, between the thumb and forefingers; usually 
 the forefinger supplies the pressure necessary, while the thumb 
 and second finger govern the direction. The eye must not be 
 fixed upon the point of the brush, but must look a little ahead 
 of it, on the same principle as that when walking we do not look 
 at our feet. Of course, there are times when this rule needs 
 relaxing, as in finishing up fine points, or in working over
 
 SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 239 
 
 obstacles. The pencils are kept in good order by well washing 
 in turpentine, drying on a piece of fine rag, and greasing 
 with soft tallow. When washing, greasing, or wiping, always 
 do so in the direction of heel to point. Never disturb the posi- 
 tion of the hairs by pulling them asunder, but always draw them 
 to a point. In taking up colour from the palette observe the 
 same rule. The colour or gold size must work freely without 
 any tendency either to slide or to set too quickiy. 
 
 If the colour is just right, it will flow evenly and freely from 
 the brush, and yet have a slight tendency to hold the brush to 
 the work. Different pigments require varying proportions of 
 thinners, some will work better if extra thin, while others 
 require to be thicker in consistency ; experience only will 
 give the precise fluidity. It may be taken, as a rule, that 
 if the work does not proceed easily and with comfort, some- 
 thing is wrong with the colour. A little varnish added to the 
 colour often corrects its tendency to slip and run. If the colour 
 stands a few days, it will work better than newly thinned colour. 
 
 For light tints, a stiflish sable is necessary, a red sable or even 
 an ox hair, as the colour is heavy ; but for black, gold size or 
 dark colours, a good springy, but soft pencil will get over more 
 work. Keep the pencil well filled with colour or the body of 
 the writing will be uneven. Do not attempt to do both edges of 
 a letter with one stroke of the brush ; no time is saved by so 
 doing, and letters so worked are less graceful in form than where 
 the outline is obtained by two strokes, as the two sides of a well- 
 formed letter are never geometrically parallel. Form the outline 
 of the letter first, then fill in with a larger brush, if necessary, 
 but do not let outlines partially set before doing so. Lay off 
 the colour evenly and avoid any fat edges to the letters. These 
 are frequently caused by a twisting motion being given to the 
 pencil in using it. Avoid runs, practice constantly on a var- 
 nished board with colour in which there is no drier, so that it 
 may again and again be wiped off. When practising, do not set 
 out, but sketch the letters in by outlining them. This will 
 teach the two operations at one lesson and save time. 
 
 To acquire facility, practice the brush strokes illustrated here, 
 until they become easy. 
 
 Consider how the letters are to be finished before starting, 
 as it is sometimes advisable to do the outline first, especially if 
 it be a gilded outline to a coloured letter. When gold lettering 
 or gilding of any sort is about to be done, see that the ground is 
 not sticky, or the gold will adhere to it as well as to the parts 
 gold sized. Pounce the ground over with the white pounce bag,
 
 240 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 if very tacky, or size over with egg white and water, as already 
 described for gilding. Use oil gold size whenever you are able 
 to, as the gilding will be far superior in burnish and will last 
 longer. 
 
 Writing on Silk. Writing upon silk for banners is accom- 
 plished by using a pounce, and by first either sizing in the parts 
 to be worked upon with clear glue size, allowing it to cover the 
 extreme outline of the painting, or by using a first coat of flatting 
 colour made with varnish and turps. Banners which are sized 
 will less readily crack, as the oil does not have so destructive 
 an effect upon the textile material. 
 
 Glass Embossing. Glass writing may well be preceded by 
 a few hints on glass embossing. Glass embossing consists in 
 producing sunk letters or ornament upon glass by means of 
 fluoric acid. It is sometimes used upon flashed or coated glass, 
 as in sheet ruby, to remove the coloured glass film and leave a 
 white letter, or vice-versd ; at other times to produce a clear 
 letter upon a ground glass surface, or a slightly obscure letter 
 upon a clear surface. There are four distinct contrasting whites 
 obtainable on glass by means of acid. First, the polished sur- 
 face of the glass itself ; next, a slightly dulled surface produced 
 by sunk embossing with ordinary acid ; third, a matt or dead 
 white produced by the use of "white" acid; fourth, ground 
 glass produced by rubbing the portions of the glass which are 
 left raised after the use of the acid, with a fat slab of copper and 
 fine emery powder and water. The first two surfaces are mainly 
 used for gilding and colouring upon. Combinations of the whole 
 are used for glass which is required to remain uncoloured, as in 
 doors and windows, where it is desired to retain the light. 
 
 The method of glass embossing is a simple one. The glass is 
 cleaned thoroughly and placed face downwards upon a reverse 
 tracing of the setting out, in which, of course, the letters all 
 appear backwards. This reverse is obtained by placing a piece 
 of carbonised or blackened paper under the paper on which the 
 letters are set out and tracing over the outlines with a hard 
 pencil. The parts of the glass which are not to be subjected to 
 the action of the fluoric acid are then painted over with an acid- 
 resisting paint. Brunswick black, of an ordinary quality, is a 
 good resist ; some add red lead to it and others a little beeswax. 
 The addition of beeswax certainly strengthens and toughens the 
 resisting quality of the black, but necessitates a very warm place 
 in which to do the painting, otherwise fine work is difficult, as 
 the colour clogs. When the resist is quite dry, the plate is sub- 
 jected to the action of the acid. The usual method is to erect a
 
 SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 241 
 
 putty edge round the glass, termed " walling," the putty for the 
 purpose being made from beeswax and Russian tallow, with 
 sometimes a little Burgundy pitch added to harden it. The 
 ingredients are melted together and allowed to cool. The glass is 
 then laid upon a flat bench, in a well ventilated room so as to allow 
 the fumes of the acid to escape ; carefully levelled, by placing a 
 few ashes or sawdust under it to make a good level bed ; and the 
 acid carefully poured on to the glass to an even depth of f of an 
 inch. It is necessary to dilute the acid by the addition of from 
 one-half to two-thirds water ; add a little vitriol or nitric acid, two 
 ounces of either to a pint of acid, and mix the whole in a box 
 or tray of sheet lead having a lip from which to pour the acid on 
 to the glass. There should be a lid of lead to the tray. The 
 same acid may be used again and again, until it has been reduced 
 by waste and evaporation, when new acid can be added. The 
 acid should be strained or filtered occasionally through linen or 
 filter paper, to take away particles of stopping wax, &c., and 
 sediment of glass. Fluoric acid must be kept in gutta-percha or 
 lead bottles, or diluted acid may be kept in the tray if the lid is 
 stopped round with the Russian tallow to prevent leakage and 
 escape of fumes. 
 
 The time necessary for the exposure of glass will vary accord- 
 ing to the strength of the acid and the make of the glass. It 
 should be tested on a strip of waste glass of similar kind to that 
 about to be used. When the aciding is deep enough, the acid is 
 poured back into the tray through an aperture made in the wax 
 " walling," by gently tilting the glass. The face of the glass 
 near this point must be smeared with tallow to prevent the acid 
 running under, which would damage the front of the glass. When 
 the acid has been poured off, the glass is soused with water to 
 remove the rest of the acid, the walling is removed and stored 
 in a pot for future use, and the resist paint cleaned off by the 
 use of paraffin, turps, benzine, or potash. The glass is then 
 thoroughly washed with soap and water, followed by vinegar 
 and water, and polished ready for gilding or whatever other 
 method of finishing is intended. The six letters on Plate 22 are 
 suitable for embossed and gilded lettering for facias. 
 
 Glass Writing. To gild the glass, it is again laid upon the 
 reverse setting out, and the portions to be gilt are laid with 
 gold in the method already described under Gilding. The 
 gold must be laid well over the letters and beyond their 
 edge, but of course only a rough shape of the letters will be 
 obtained by this method of gilding. When the gilding is com- 
 pleted, the drawing, or setting, is pricked and the pounce 
 
 16
 
 242 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 obtained is pounced, reversed, on to the gold at the back of the 
 glass. The portions that are to remain gold are then backed 
 with best coach black Japan, or hard carriage varnish in which a 
 little ochre has been ground. This gives the required shape 
 and form to the letters and the superfluous rough edges of gold 
 are left unprotected. When the Japan is quite hard, a little 
 warm water and sponge will remove the odd bits of gold, leaving 
 the letters sharp and clear. 
 
 Any etching upon the gold surface, as the shading-up of 
 heraldic devices, &c., is done with a wooden stylus, or a needle, 
 before the gold is backed by the Japan or varnish, in which case 
 also, the colour of the Japan must be determined by the colour 
 required to show up on the etched lines. 
 
 When the glass has again been thoroughly cleaned, the colours 
 can be added. It is well to restrict the quantity of colour upon 
 the glass to the least possible quantity; consequently, it is 
 undesirable to recoat the backing of the gold letters when 
 putting on the coloured portions, and also to carefully consider 
 the colouring of outlining, &c., so as to obtain the finished result 
 with as little colour and labour as possible. The colours used 
 may be the ordinary oil tube colours with varnish added, and in 
 some cases a little terebine or drier, especially in the case of 
 lakes. The more glossy and full the colour used, the more rich 
 and mellow will it appear on the face side of the glass. In the 
 use of shading, whether for mere gradation of tone, or for light 
 and shade work, the blending will be much simplified if the 
 following routine is followed : Leave the shading till the last. 
 Use short stiffish red sables for doing it. Work so that the light 
 passes through the glass to the eye, and frequently examine the 
 face side, because a perfectly even gradation may be obtained on 
 the surface of the colour, while the part that is seen from the 
 front may not be properly blended. Put in the deepest colour 
 first, then the next lighter, working this into the last, following 
 with the next, and, finally, with the lightest, always working 
 light into dark and not vice versd. 
 
 For some classes of shading, transparent lakes or blues with 
 varnish added, are used, and afterwards backed up with white or 
 metal leaf. A good even shade can be obtained by using water 
 colour, and afterwards backing it with varnish. 
 
 White aciding is a ready method of obscuring glass, and haa 
 much the appearance of ground glass ; it does not leave the glass 
 comparatively clear, as the ordinary fluoric acid does. 
 
 Etcliing Glass. Etching on glass may be done by fluoric 
 acid, and is useful for fine work. The glass is covered with a
 
 SIGN-WRITING AXD LETTERING. 243 
 
 wax coating, and the lines etched out with a stylus or etching 
 tool. The wax is made less brittle in cold weather by the 
 mixing of a little tallow or palm oil with it. 
 
 General Notes on Sign-writing. The following notes may 
 be found useful in special circumstances : 
 
 American cloth, or Crockett's leather cloth, makes a good 
 covering for rough signs or for temporary purposes. It may be 
 either strained or tacked on the board, arid the edges covered by 
 a moulding, or stuck down all over the board with a mixture of 
 white lead and japanners' gold size. The writing may be done 
 either before or after fixing the cloth to the board. Canvases 
 of various kinds may be used for the same purpose, but should 
 be sized before being painted. 
 
 To represent frosted, ground, and embossed letters on polished 
 plate glass, stipple the glass with a mixture of driers, a little 
 ivory black, and turps. When dry, scratch out letters with a 
 sharpened stick, a chisel, or pointed pieces of wood, guided either 
 by the aid of a stencil plate, or by ordinary setting out in pencil, 
 and the use of straight-edges. The frosting may also be coloured 
 to taste, by adding colour instead of black to the driers stippling 
 mixture. Letters may be written on ground glass, with pale 
 white varnish, the ground glass being previously sized to prevent 
 running, if the grinding is rough. These letters may be edged 
 with colour or gold, and are very effective. 
 
 Blue-grounded sign-boards, produced by strewing powdered 
 smalts over a freshly-varnished surface, used to be common, 
 lasted long, and were brilliant. The letters should be written 
 first on an ordinary blue ground, and allowed to become hard; 
 and the ground afterwards varnished and smalted. 
 
 Lettering may be produced on white glazed tiles by the same 
 process as that used for embossing glass. The embossed portions 
 are then filled in with colour ground in varnish. 
 
 Prints and trade marks may be transferred to glass signs 
 by the following method without re-painting. Well size the 
 back of the print, and after getting the position for the print, 
 varnish the space it is to occupy with French oil or other good 
 varnish. When this is partially dry, but still tacky, sponge the 
 face of the print with water, and well blot the surface dry ; then 
 lay it, surface down, on the varnish, and press well all over until 
 it firmly adheres to the varnish ; allow it to harden for a couple 
 of days, and then sponge off the paper of the print by careful 
 soaking and gentle abrasion with the finger tips. When all 
 the paper that will come off without injury to the surface has 
 been removed, varnish the back with another coat of varnish, 
 taking care that the work is quite free from dampness.
 
 244 PAINTING AND DECORATING*. 
 
 Lettering with embossed centres and bright outline on 
 polished plate, backed with ground glass, is a very durable and 
 effective method of treatment for doors and windows. 
 
 Wire gauze window blinds should be lettered, by first using a 
 filling-up composition of dry white lead, varnish, and turps, and 
 giving two or three coats until a level surface is obtained. This 
 is applied to the best advantage with a camel-hair pencil. Care 
 must be taken to keep the edges clean and straight, and not to 
 fill up beyond the area of the letters, as the interstices of the 
 gauze ground must be kept open to contrast with the solid 
 letters. 
 
 Writing on glass to read effectively by day or gas-light and 
 to appear decoratively from the outside of the shop, may be done 
 as follows: Outline in white or gold, so that the outline appears 
 opaque on the front of the glass ; then stipple the letter on the 
 back in transparent colouring, and, finally, add a similar outline 
 on the back of the glass. 
 
 Coffin plates are usually lettered upon bright tin in dead 
 black, or upon dead black in japanners' gold size and gilt, bronzed, 
 or silvered. 
 
 A quick and inexpensive glass sign is made by putting the let- 
 tering on in Brunswick black, and water-gilding the ground, or 
 by blacking the ground and leaving the lettering to be gilded. 
 
 Aphorisms for Sign-Writers. This chapter may be fitly 
 concluded by a few aphorisms which may be valuable to the 
 sign-writer. 
 
 Do not mix slanting and perpendicular letters on the same 
 sign. 
 
 Do not sacrifice legibility to elaboration. 
 When in doubt as to type, choose the simpler. 
 Beware of mixing periods and styles without judgment. 
 Consider associations and sentiment ; " Good old Irish " in 
 " church text " may offend some persons' susceptibilities. 
 
 Avoid using too many mechanical aids in the formation of 
 letters. The square and compasses are better as servants than 
 masters. 
 
 Regulate the contrast between the colour of letter and ground 
 by the object of the sign. 
 
 Excellence must be obtained by hard work and constant 
 practice. When a certain point of excellence is reached, then 
 facility and speed come readily ; all the best writers are speedy 
 ones. 
 
 The finer the colour is ground, the better it works in the pen- 
 cil. Use artists' tube colours ; they pay their cost in time saved.
 
 SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 24^ 
 
 Use the best sables procurable, and by preference a long and 
 flexible one ; the practice and mastery of it thus acquired will 
 show the value of this advice in the rapidity with which sweep- 
 ing curves can be effected. 
 
 The greatest error a beginner can make is to use too small a 
 brush ; use the largest with which it is possible to do the work 
 in hand. 
 
 A stiffer brush is required for heavy colours, as white, than 
 for deep, as black. 
 
 Use the pencil full of colour, and refill every time it is taken 
 off the work, drawing it to a point upon the palette. 
 
 Colour for writing works better if it has been made up for a 
 day or two. 
 
 A very little varnish added to tube colours is useful, as it 
 causes the colour to hang slightly and prevents slipping. 
 
 Do not be misled by fashion into the use of lettering which is 
 ugly and misshapen. 
 
 Glass gilding and writing must be done in such a way that as 
 little colour as possible is put upon the glass ; the less paint 
 used the less likelihood there is of its cracking or scaling off. 
 
 Varnish and Japans are better for use on glass than quick 
 colours or flatting. 
 
 When stencilling on glass for embossing, beeswax melted and 
 added to the Brunswick black makes a better resist than plain 
 Brunswick black.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 ^- r -^ W ^^ 
 
 DECORATION 
 
 ^General Principles 
 
 [ECORA.TION, in the sense in which 
 the terra is here used, may be under- 
 stood to embrace all those methods and 
 processes used in the adornment and 
 beautifying of houses, churches, and 
 public buildings, as opposed to that 
 part of the painters' work which is 
 merely sanitary and preservative. 
 
 It is divisible into two great sec- 
 tions dealing respectively with colour 
 and ornament. 
 
 Importance of Colour in Decoration. Colour may fairly 
 claim our largest share of attention. The balance and harmony 
 of colour in a decorative scheme being satisfactory, very little 
 attention will be bestowed by the observer upon the detail of 
 ornament, unless it be of a particularly interesting character, or 
 arrests attention by its prominence. 
 
 TJpon the consideration of colour, however, pattern has an 
 important bearing, as the term colour must not be understood 
 to refer to local hue only, but to the general effect of the portion 
 of work referred to. The colour of a surface may be consider- 
 ably changed by the addition of pattern, and though upon the 
 same ground colour two different patterns may be put, in pre-
 
 DECORATION. 247 
 
 cisely the same colour, they are very likely to produce two dis- 
 similar colour results (see Plated). 
 
 The use of both colour and ornament in a decorative sense is 
 the same ; by their aid form and proportion are emphasized, 
 structural facts expressed or repressed, and richness, variety, and 
 quality added to the work. The use of colour necessitates little 
 or no additional labour, and the cheapest and most utilitarian 
 work may be raised and refined in feeling and standard by its 
 artistic employment, or lowered and vulgarised by its ignorant 
 use, without affecting its cost. The iise of ornament, on the 
 contrary, involves additional labour and expense, and the 
 possession of the creative faculty in the designer. The ability 
 to design cannot be altogether acquired by study or inculcated 
 by tuition, and it rarely falls to the lot of the working painter 
 to be required to design original patterns. 
 
 Knowledge of style and power of selection are within the 
 reach of all who study the forms used by the workers of the 
 past, and cultivate the ability to classify and arrange them ; as is 
 also the power of combining and adapting them to altered con- 
 ditions and the materials of to-day. 
 
 Considerations Governing the Use of Colour in Decora- 
 tion. It is not within the scope of the present work to deal 
 minutely with the rules and laws of the harmony of colour, but 
 merely to lay down a few broad principles which have been found 
 serviceable by the writer. A separate chapter will be devoted 
 to their application to practical work. 
 
 In the use of colour, it is well to bring to bear upon the 
 selection, those ordinary faculties which one uses in considering 
 the more mundane things of life, and which are so often ignored 
 in relation to art matters. Nothing should be clone without a 
 common-sense reason. The theory that colouring is a kind of 
 inspiration may be true of one or two per million of the inhabi- 
 tants of this planet, but the remaining population need to 
 exhibit the same shrewdness and calculation on this subject, that 
 they would do upon a commercial transaction. This rule is so 
 often lost sight of that it is here given prominence. 
 
 No colouring should be entered on without a definite plan or 
 scheme. Every tint and colour should have a reason for its 
 place; nothing should be left to chance. The eye must be the 
 final arbiter, but it must arrive at its decisions by the operation 
 of the reason. 
 
 In the colouring of objects, the material of which they are 
 made should be taken into consideration, and their purpose, 
 architectural and useful, may have some weight in the decision
 
 248 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 of their colouring. Illustrations and instances are more con- 
 vincing than theory. Some have already been noted in other 
 connections and to these the following may be added : 
 
 Supporting features, such as pillai-s, pilasters, corbels, brackets, 
 and beams should be more strongly coloured than their surround- 
 ings that is, they should by contrast appear stronger in colour. 
 Strength in this connection is not intended to mean positiveness, 
 but comparative force and insistence. 
 
 Thus against a green background, red, or white, or any allied 
 colours would be strong colours under ordinary conditions, but 
 if the green were a strong and positive green, and the red a 
 brownish quiet-toned red, the green would be the stronger and 
 more insistent colour in the sense here intended. 
 
 Architectural features, whether pleasing or the reverse, must 
 not be ignored if they are in any degree prominent features. 
 They may be modified and softened by decorative treatment, but 
 no adventitious attempt must be made to hide them. The 
 utility of objects should justify their presence ; and ventilators, 
 heating apparatus, and the like necessary fittings, should not 
 be imperfectly disguised by being painted to match surroundings. 
 Stone mantels, &c., must be treated as such, and not painted in 
 wood colours; and wood structures and fittings should be 
 coloured in hues suggestive of wood. Plaster mouldings upon 
 ceilings should be painted as plaster, unless their form and 
 pattern is one that will equally well suggest wood. Receding 
 members of a moulding should be treated in receding colours, 
 and prominent members in prominent tints. These instances 
 might be multiplied, but the line of procedure being indicated 
 it becomes an easy matter to follow it in detail. 
 
 Another important feature in colouring is the element of 
 weight. There is a law of gravitation in colour as well as in 
 substance. In building up a colour scheme it must be adhered 
 to, or a topsy-turvy effect is produced. Low-toned tertiary 
 colours are mostly what are known as heavy colours, and pure 
 tints as light ones. In additions to these distinctions the element 
 of suggestion, or implication, has some force in determining the 
 weight of a colour. Thus, stone colour is a heavy colour by 
 implication and suggestion, as also is slate, bronze, copper, and 
 white ; while fawn, sky greys and blues, silver and gold, are by 
 implication, light colours. The two latter never associate them- 
 selves in the mind as the colour of metals, so much as the colour 
 of the heavenly bodies, and of the edges of the clouds, probably 
 because we see them in greater masses in the latter connection, 
 trreens range themselves into two families, light and heavy, the
 
 DECORATION 249 
 
 mineral and earthy greens being reckoned as heavy colours, and 
 the foliage greens as light colours. The term " light " as here 
 used is not intended to refer to paleness or whiteness, but to 
 weight. The reality of these distinctions is none the less, 
 because it is not easy to specify rules by which the student may 
 be guided. 
 
 The colouring should always conform to the temperament of 
 the occupants and the uses and purpose of the apartment, in 
 as far as these can be ascertained. The influence of the sur- 
 roundings may be further intensified by the influence of colour. 
 
 It should be remembered that colour that is produced by visual 
 intermixture, is more pleasing than a uniform tint ; thus a tree, 
 with its many varied leaf tints, presents a more pleasing green 
 to the eye when viewed at a distance, than would be the case if 
 the tree were clothed with leaves of a uniform green. The 
 subtle gradations caused by light and shade and contour, all add 
 mystery, depth, and richness. In decoration the same result 
 holds good, and is obtained by the use of broken and uneven 
 surfaces, and patterns distributed over surfaces. 
 
 Everything deceptive and unreal should be avoided in colour- 
 ing. However pleasing its eifect may be on first acquaintance, 
 as soon as the deception is discovered it fails to satisfy the 
 seeker for beauty : 
 
 "Beauty is Truth; truth, Beauty.'' 
 
 The highest ideal in human colouring will always fall far short 
 of the colour which is to be found in Nature. We have no 
 means of portraying the elusive and living colour that we see in 
 the clouds, the flowers, and the water ; but we have in Nature a 
 reference book of inexhaustible value, a constantly changing 
 kaleidoscope of harmonious combinations, which offers sugges- 
 tions without end. Nature's colouring sets all the rules of the 
 scientist and the pedant at defiance, but never violates her own. 
 The study of flowers will alone furnish the student with sugges- 
 tions in colouring enough to last a lifetime. In this connection, 
 however, it is well to remember that the horticulturist and 
 nature are not synonymous terms. Many of the combinations 
 that emanate from the hot-house are properly speaking unnatural 
 abortions, though nature, eyen under the most adverse circum- 
 stances, endeavours to right matters. 
 
 Ornament. Ornament is the second form which decoration 
 takes. The same principles of purpose and fitness must be allowed 
 to govern its application, as in the case of colour. It must be 
 appropriate to its object, to its method of treatment, and to its
 
 250 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 application. It must always decorate the object to which it is 
 applied, that is, it must make it more beautiful. The only 
 reliable test of good ornament is that it is necessary to the per- 
 fection of the object decorated. If it can be removed or done 
 away with, without any sense of loss, then it is clearly faulty 
 and unnecessary. On the other hand, if this be so, it does not 
 imply that no ornament is required, or that ornament is unnec- 
 cessary, because a more fitting ornament may be a considerable 
 improvement. The term " overdone " is often used in respect 
 to ornament, and it is sometimes true, but very seldom. The 
 fault is usually in the type or treatment of the ornament. 
 
 Historic ornament is divided into periods or styles, and these 
 styles are the outcome of the surroundings, practices, and prin- 
 ciples of the peoples of each period ; the expression of their aims 
 and ideals. They are influenced by the religion and culture of 
 their times. The ornament of each style being governed by set 
 principles has a general similarity by which it can at once be 
 detected and described. The principal styles in ornament are 
 the Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Moresque, Gothic, 
 Renaissance, Cinque Cento, and Louis XIV. Then there are 
 also the Chinese, Japanese, Persian, Indian, Arabian and 
 Turkish. Each of these have various subdivisions the most 
 important being the Renaissance, divided into Italian, French, 
 Dutch, and English ; the Gothic divided into three periods, early, 
 decorated, and perpendicular ; and the Cinque Cento divided 
 into Queen Anne, Flemish, and Italian. The student is recom- 
 mended to make himself acquainted with these styles, especially 
 with the Greek, Roman, Gothic, Moresque, and Renaissance. 
 
 In designing original ornament it is not essential that prece- 
 dent of form be followed ; it is more meritorious to originate in 
 harmony with the principles upon which the style in question is 
 based. It may be taken as a truism, that what looks well is 
 well. If, then, the ornament harmoniously combines with its 
 surroundings, it is suitable and admissible, so that, even those 
 who are not thoroughly conversant with the peculiarities and 
 features of the different styles, are capable of designing good and 
 appropriate ornament if they possess the necessary taste and 
 discrimination. The reason why a mixture of style in ornamen- 
 tation is offensive to the trained eye is due to the fact that it is 
 a mixture of principles, and not to the fact that it is a mixture 
 of forms, merely. This may be instanced in the following way : 
 A circular-headed arch and a pointed arch do not appear to be 
 in harmony with each-other if used in the same fa9ade, but the 
 circular form will be quite harmonious if used in any other
 
 DECORATION. 251 
 
 detail of the fa9ade, as, in a spandrel formed by the pointed arch. 
 A realisation of this view of style will considerably lessen the 
 difficulties of the painter in regard to the selection of pattern for 
 his ornamentation. 
 
 The knowledge of historic styles of ornament may be compared 
 to the knowledge of the parts of speech in grammar. They are 
 necessary to the student as a groundwork to correct expression 
 in ornament. By their acquaintance he becomes enabled, in a 
 measure, to place himself in the position of the artists who 
 designed them, and this is the truest and highest posture a 
 designer can assume when attempting ornament of his own con- 
 ception. The mode of procedure will become habitual; he will 
 gradually favour a particular style, or attitude, and all his work 
 will be tinctured by his favourite principles, so that he will 
 develop a style of his own, his work will assume an individuality, 
 and will be as characteristic of himself as his handwriting. 
 
 Conventionality in Ornament and in Colour. Orna- 
 ment varies in character in accordance with the foregoing 
 theory. It also varies in regard to the amount of abstraction, 
 or conventionality given to its forms ; ranging from abstract 
 lines to concrete imitations of natural forms. It varies in a third 
 manner also viz., in the amount of roundness or relief given to 
 it. The latter quality may be dismissed with the remark that 
 the amount of relief must be determined by the material used, 
 its strength and cohesion. When it is observed that a certain 
 amount of relief in ornament worked in a given material is easily 
 damaged and broken by ordinary wear, it becomes abundantly 
 clear that the relief is too high. 
 
 Conventionality requires more deliberate attention, but this 
 too may be regulated by a very few and easy laws. First, con- 
 ventionality must be regulated by repetition. The oftener a 
 pattern or flower is repeated mechanically, the less pleasing is 
 naturalism. The great secret of natural beauty is its infinite 
 variety. Take the flowers on a plant; no two are precisely 
 alike, nor do they present the same view to the eye from the 
 different points. To reduce this law to practice, take the case of 
 the lily. If we paint a natural representation of the lily, we feel 
 bound to vary the plant in every panel that we paint ; otherwise 
 we are sensible of a mechanical shadowing of the original painting; 
 the repetition is not natural. If we design a stencil of the lily 
 for a door-panel decoration we conventionalise it slightly, till it 
 appeals to us as ornamentation which has the lily as its suggestive 
 basis, and in this form we feel that it is right not only to repeat 
 it in both panels, but even to repeat the two halves of the same
 
 252 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 panel equally balanced. If we put the lily as a spot pattern 
 over a wall, this form would, in its turn, become too natural, 
 and would weary us by its repetition ; and we prefer it conven- 
 tionalised into a fleur de Us form, which has very little of floral 
 suggestion left, but is ornament pure and simple (see Plate 23). 
 
 Conventionalism also extends to shading. Painting in light 
 and shade is subject to the same kind of rule. The less of 
 mechanical repetition we have, the more of light and shade may 
 be introduced ; but we must always avoid painting ornament 
 to represent relief in order to attempt to deceive. In the 
 painted ornament of the Italian Renaissance, variegated colour 
 is used with great judgment to correct excessive naturalism in 
 the shading. A single representation of a natural object may 
 be represented in full light and shade ; the more conventional 
 ornament should be treated in a flat and broad manner. 
 
 Conventionalism likewise extends to colour. Take the case of 
 the vine. In a natural spray unrepeated, colour may be natural, 
 and form also ; in a conventional border of grape vine, colour 
 must be equally conventional; and in a purely ornamental form, 
 based upon the grape, the colour must be ornamental i.e., it is 
 better not to represent, even by allusion, the natural colour, to a 
 greater degree than the associated natural form. 
 
 In the use of ornament in decoration the great necessity is to 
 secure contrast without discord, richness without confusion, and 
 correct scale. 
 
 In taking the quality of contrast first, its importance is recog- 
 nised as primary. 
 
 There should be, first, contrast of pattern ; that is, the 
 same description of pattern should not be used for, say, the 
 dado and fittings, or the wall and ceiling of a room, or for 
 both frieze and dado band. All-over patterns may be divided 
 into vertical, horizontal, flowing or scroll, square, and diamond 
 patterns ; and each of these may be either geometrical, conven- 
 tional, or natural. Border patterns are stationary, running, 
 wavy, zig-zag, scroll, and spot, &c. The peculiar charm of each 
 class of pattern is enhanced by its contrast with another form. 
 Thus a scroll border would be better upon a geometrical paper 
 than a stationary one. A conventional border will be suitable 
 for a floral filling. A set pattern dado will harmonise best with a 
 free flowing filling. If the ceiling is papered with a pattern 
 arranged in circles, then a vertical paper for filling, and a 
 geometrical diamond or square pattern for dado, will all combine 
 to enhance the effect of each other. 
 
 Then we come to contrast of line in each particular pattern.
 
 PLATE 22.-LETTER8 FOR GLASS EMBOSSING. 
 To face p. 252.]
 
 DECORATION. 253 
 
 There should be the element of combination in each. A pattern 
 combining curves, straight lines, both vertical and horizontal, 
 and diagonal lines, will be more perfect than a combination 
 containing less of contrast. 
 
 Then there should be contrast of interest. Some parts of 
 the ornamentation should be more attractive than others, to 
 arrest the eye, and to provide against dulness and uniformity, 
 just as in Nature the flower is of more attraction than the 
 foliage. 
 
 Last, but by no means least, there must be reserved, plain 
 surfaces to contrast with ornamented ones. Immediately the 
 larger part of the work is enriched by ornament, the maxi- 
 mum effect of richness is reached, and any reduction of the 
 remaining plain surfaces by further ornamentation will reduce 
 the value and effect of the ornament already applied. 
 
 The next point, richness without confusion, may be very 
 shortly dealt with. The secret of this quality lies in judicious 
 repetition and uniformity. 
 
 Scale in Ornament. Scale is another important factor to 
 be studied, and a difficult one to deal with within the scope of 
 an elementary chapter. The selection of one pattern of given 
 scale must be taken as determining the scale for the whole 
 work in hand. Thus, if a frieze of natural sized poppies were 
 decided upon, it would be necessary to observe a natural scale 
 throughout the room. It would be out of scale to have a paper 
 representing, say, oak leaves of half their natural size below it. 
 Or, if a frieze were selected showing miniature trees and moun- 
 tains, it would be out of place to have the wall covered with 
 large roses or chrysanthemums. Variation in scale might be 
 introduced if separated from the general scheme of decoration 
 by framing or borders. Thus a life-sized figure might be placed 
 in a panel surrounded with a border of architectural character, 
 upon which there might appear smaller ornamental figures. 
 Or, panels might contain ornament of a different scale to the 
 wall-paper. 
 
 Scale must be considered in the application of abstract pattern 
 ornament, as well as in the use of natural forms. The scale of 
 ornament should be larger and bolder the further it is removed 
 from the eye. Thus, detail upon the cornice may be less fine 
 than upon the door panels ; ornament upon the fa$ade of a 
 building should be more detailed upon the ground floor than 
 upon the top storey. When, however, the decorator is dealing 
 with spaces within the compass of one glance of the eye, as in 
 the case of dado and filling, the lower pattern should not be less
 
 254 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 in scale than the one immediately above it, unless it be much 
 more simple and severe in character. 
 
 Distribution of Ornament. All ornament should possess 
 the quality of looking finished, complete and clear at any distance 
 (see Plate 13). When seen from a long distance, its masses and 
 general distribution should be seen, complete in themselves. On 
 coming closer, the subsidiary lines and divisions should appear. 
 On a close inspection, the minuter detail should enrich the whole. 
 This quality is well illustrated in Nature. A simple flower, 
 such as the daisy, is, at a long distance, a mere white dot. 
 On coming nearer, the yellow centre is observed within a ring 
 of white ; nearer still, the petals appear separately ; and yet 
 nearer, we see the yellow centre is composed of many parts, the 
 petals have fine veins, and, even if we use the microscope, we 
 find new and yet finer details. 
 
 All ornament should possess distinctness, especially that 
 which is seen at a distance. The ground colour will impinge 
 upon the ornament when the work is at a distance from the 
 eye, and render it less distinct than it would appear if seen 
 closely. 
 
 Breadth of effect and generalisation require to be studied 
 in the arrangement of ornament and colour. Borders and 
 cornices should not be weakened by being crowded with detail ; 
 the line of a border or band should not be broken by large 
 patches of ornament dotted at intervals. Wall surfaces should 
 not be made spotty by too distinct powderings or by marked 
 pattern diaperings. 
 
 The greatest consideration must be bestowed on the sub- 
 divisions and massing of the ornament, and when these points 
 are correctly decided on, they must be preserved intact and not 
 sacrificed to mere detail. 
 
 ^ In designing the decoration for a panel, the general distribu- 
 tion of the masses of ornament and the direction of the construc- 
 tional main lines must be considered first ; the exact shapes and 
 details are of quite secondary importance. 
 
 When the decorator is in any doubt as to whether a certain 
 ornament is necessary or unnecessary it is usually safest to omit 
 it, as redundancy is a more frequent fault than restraint. 
 
 The Consideration of a Decorative Scheme. In approach- 
 ing the consideration of the decoration of a room, a wall, a door, 
 or other object, the power of considering colour and ornamenta- 
 tion in combination should be cultivated, and a system of pro- 
 cedure by graduated stages, somewhat after the following manner, 
 will be found useful. The example is a dining-room. The first
 
 DECORATION. 255 
 
 stage of consideration will take the form of a general decision 
 that the room is to have a prevailing hue of, say, blue, relieved 
 by gold colour. The next stage deals with the definite parts in 
 the order of their importance in effect, as follows : Walls, deep 
 neutral blue with foliage pattern of greener blue, lighter than 
 ground; wood-work, a woody brown of a golden hue, with pattern 
 in relief suggestive of a carved wood effect, but not imitative ; 
 ceiling, moulded, with lighter wood-coloured moulds running 
 into cornice of same colour ; panels filled with paler blue, and a 
 pattern on same with a swirling cloud-like suggestion of lines ; 
 frieze, gold colour, with yellow and olive set pattern. The next 
 consideration will involve a selection of a ceiling and wall paper 
 to fulfil these requirements, and the adjustment of the other 
 details to them ; the determination of how to obtain the required 
 effect upon the door, say, either by filling the panels with lincrusta 
 or by using gesso painting; the selection of a paper, or the 
 designing of a stencil for the frieze : and the selection of the 
 finish for wood-work, whether flat or glossy. In some such way 
 as this, all the various details will be gradually led up to, always 
 keeping in mind and working to the first general propositions, 
 and rather sacrificing matters of detail than infringing the 
 general ideas started with. 
 
 Unity in the various details of a decorative scheme should 
 be preserved. There should be some common relationship or as- 
 sociation between its items. Thus, if the objects of the chase 
 form part of a scheme of decoration, it would be inappropriate to 
 introduce tame animals ; wild flowers should not be mixed up 
 with hothouse flowers; and the amount of variety necessary 
 to produce interest and contrast must be drawn from the same 
 sources. 
 
 All the parts of a scheme of decoration must be in due sub- 
 jection to the whole effect, and there should always be a centre 
 of interest which is led up to by the accessories, but which is 
 still subordinate to the whole composition. Bright colours and 
 specially interesting items of detail should act the part of gems 
 in a piece of jewellery and not absorb the attention to the 
 neglect of the jewel itself. 
 
 Symmetry in ornament, and especially in the disposition ot 
 ornament, should be studied. Like repetition, symmetrical ar- 
 rangement has the power of giving interest and beauty to most 
 uninteresting lines, and of adding beauty to the lines of beauty. 
 If the panel of a door be filled with an unsymmetrical design, 
 the reversing of it in the opposite panel will give symmetry 
 to the decoration as a whole. If the student will scrawl upoi
 
 256 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 a piece of paper any irregular lines in ink, and then double 
 the paper in such a manner as to blot a reverse impression 
 opposite them, the value of symmetry will be seen and 
 appreciated. 
 
 Fashion v. Beauty. In the practice of decoration the 
 student will be met by many discouragements, none of which 
 are more powerful than fashion. Fashion in colour and in 
 style continually changes, and standards of beauty, false in 
 themselves, and based on ignorance and misconception, are 
 set up. But in all the varied moods of fashion, fitness and 
 truth, sincerity of purpose, and the exercise of the reason 
 will count for much. Men are insensibly influenced in their 
 opinions by moral considerations ; and the mental processes 
 involved in the forming of the judgment on matters aesthetic, 
 are so obscure that it is difficult to trace effect to cause. For 
 instance, we observe a fine arch, admire its curvature, but if we 
 analyse the process of reasoning by which we conclude that it is 
 beautiful, we shall discover that it is the utilitarian fitness of the 
 arch to bridge the stream or space that captivates our suffrages, 
 rather than any abstract quality. It must be remembered that 
 beauty is not an abstraction, but a definite quality, demonstrable, 
 not to be confounded with taste, which is a personal preference, 
 and may be accurate or inaccurate, good, bad, or indifferent. 
 The first quality of beauty is fitness, as has been already said. 
 If a piece of work is good in form, useful in purpose, and good in 
 quality of craftsmanship, it is beautiful in the true and only 
 proper sense of that term, though from various reasons some 
 persons may not admire it ; the usual one is that they lack the 
 necessary training to the perception of true beauty. There is, 
 however, a quality in decoration which often confuses the judg- 
 ment, and the lack of which will change beauty into ugliness. 
 The quality we refer to is harmony of combination. The 
 binary parts of the scheme may be beautiful in themselves, and 
 the abstracted portions may be beautiful in themselves, but these 
 do not make a beautiful whole. This is where scope for indivi- 
 dual preference is the widest; but even the matter of combination 
 is largely one of law and fitness, and if the same rules of contrast 
 with unity be applied in the same way as they are made to apply 
 to individual portions of detail, the difficulties of determination 
 will be largely overcome. 
 
 Laws in Decoration and Ornament. There are some 
 points in decoration which require a solution, varying with 
 varied circumstances. The student will in his wider reading 
 find a large number of rules laid down as general pi-inciples,
 
 DECORATION. 257 
 
 which have evidently been freely broken by the great masters of 
 design. Many of these are codified in the Grammar of Ornament, 
 by Owen Jones, and, in the majority of instances, they may be 
 accepted as offering correct guidance, but this is not always so. 
 
 The rules for outlines to ornament are particularly dogmatic 
 in this masterly work, but cannot be taken as applicable to 
 ordinary decorative work. In relation to this question, the 
 effect must justify the amount of labour expended. An un- 
 flinching application of the rules would often produce an ex- 
 cessive hardness and mechanical precision, which is not to be 
 tolerated in the artistic home. 
 
 Constructive decoration is another subject on which un- 
 alterable rules are quite inadmissible. As a general principle, 
 decoration should not be constructed, but, as a practical rule, 
 just so much construction must be suggested by the ornament 
 as is lacking in the place ornamented. It is not easy to define 
 what is and what is not constructive decoration. In a definite 
 sense, the mere use of confining lines, such as a panel line or a 
 dado border, is constructive. If the decorator will avoid any- 
 thing approaching artificiality, and his constructive decoration 
 is not deceptive, but frank and sincere, he will not go far astray 
 in this direction. In Plate 25 the value of this constructive 
 decoration is shown when used in a long low room with 
 squarish windows. See upper part of Plate and contrast with 
 lower. 
 
 Decoration of detail, as the addition of patterns to mouldings, 
 the colouring of the background of relief decoration, and the 
 emphasis of relief by lightening the projections and deepening 
 the shadows of enrichments, have all in their turn been hastily 
 condemned in toto ; but there are often circumstances in which 
 they are quite desirable, because ornament is intended to 
 enrich and beautify. Here again the true touchstone is sincerity 
 and absence of pretence. In the decoration of mouldings, the 
 patterns used should serve to bring out and show up the shape 
 of the moulding, and not to disguise it. The addition of colour 
 to mouldings, in like manner, should be honest ; the projecting 
 members should not be coloured so as to appear as receding ones 
 or vice versa. 
 
 The use of gold and metals in decoration calls for a word of 
 warning. Vulgarity and parade are readily suggested, not by 
 the too free use, but by the misuse of gilding. A room may be 
 wholly gilt without appearing to be overdone, if the details are 
 of a character to warrant the treatment. It should always be 
 remembered that you are using metal, and not paint, and that
 
 DECORATION. 259 
 
 rather for a suggestive colouring laid on flatly and assisted 
 by outlines. The rose panel in brownish crimson flowers, 
 rich olive leaves, brown stems, and gold ground glazed low tone 
 with bitumen, would make a charming decorative panel. The 
 lilies would come out well in white of a creamy tone, golden 
 leaves and centres to flowers, and pale brown outlines on an 
 amber ground.
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 HE utility of distemper as a ground 
 for decoration has been already 
 alluded to, The qualities peculiar 
 to it are an absence of gloss and a 
 clearness and luminosity of tint. A 
 further advantage is that it dries 
 rapidly and can be worked quickly 
 and broadly. The desirability or 
 otherwise of using distemper as a 
 ground for elaborate work must be 
 determined by the position and 
 situation of the work. Work of a temporary character may 
 always be done in distemper; and work of a more or less per- 
 manent character is safe, if the situation is a dry one, removed 
 from reach, and the surrounding atmosphere clean. Most of the 
 processes used in decorating in distemper are also applicable to 
 oil paint. It will be convenient to describe them fully in the 
 present chapter and merely refer to them later. 
 
 Sketch Designs. The mode of operation usually followed 
 is to first prepare a small sketch of the ceiling, wall, or other 
 subject, drawn to a small scale of from inch to 1J inches to the 
 foot. The f-inch scale and l|-inch scale are the most convenient 
 for working out from, as in these scales -^ and \ of an inch 
 respectively represent 1 inch, and the details may readily be 
 scaled off with the ordinary 2-foot rule. This small sketch 13
 
 DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 261 
 
 coloured and the ornament designed upon it and also coloured. 
 All the details are merely indicated so as to obtain a general 
 effect of the whole when complete. The grounds are next pre- 
 pared, the colours being copied from the sketch design, and per- 
 haps modified to suit their individual positions. All the main 
 subdivisions of the ornamental setting out are then put in, the 
 lines are struck with a chalk or charcoal line ; charcoal shows up 
 most clearly, and dusts off cleanly and easily; indeed more 
 easily than does chalk upon a distemper ground. 
 
 Setting out Ornament. A knowledge of elementary geom- 
 etry is necessary for the plainest of setting out. Ignorance of 
 geometrical principles is often responsible for a great waste of 
 time and trouble. For the setting out, the operator will require 
 a 2-foot rule, a pair of 2-foot wooden compasses, a chalk line, a 
 loose ball of twine, and a few tacks and needle points, some soft 
 vine charcoal and chalk, two or three straight edges of light pine 
 or deal, and a set square or two, also of light weight, a spirit level 
 and a plumb line. The 2-foot rule should be a four-fold one ; the 
 compasses should have a thumb-screw head to tighten it up as a 
 gauge. A good chalk line may be made from a disused small tape 
 measure. The cord is wound round the drum of the measure, 
 and the outside space filled in with powdered charcoal, a small 
 hole is left for the cord to work in, and a small picture ring 
 sharpened to a point, so that it may be pushed into the wall or 
 wood-work, is fixed to the end of the cord. Two of these, one 
 for chalk and the other for charcoal, are very handy. The 
 straight-edges should be bevelled on one side to a thin edge. 
 One of the set squares should show an angle of 60, and the 
 other of 45, and the latter may be marked out as a protractor 
 to facilitate the subdivision of circles. The plumb bob should be 
 conical in form with a flat base so that it may not be dropping 
 about, but can be set down on the plank or on ledges. The 
 chalk sold for school blackboard use is good for setting out, and 
 the charcoal should be of a soft black kind that will not scratch. 
 
 The full size spaces for the ornament must now be measured 
 and set down on paper. Wide 60-inch cartoon or web paper is 
 generally used for the purpose, but many artists have their own 
 special methods. A very good plan is to use a black or white 
 board for setting out large pieces of ornament, and to trace them 
 from the board on to thin " detail " paper, making the necessary 
 corrections and alterations in the process of tracing off. All 
 ornament will be either stencilled or painted by hand. If the 
 former is the case, the fact must be taken into consideration 
 when designing the pattern, so that it may be of suitable character
 
 262 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 for repeating in this mechanical manner, and care must be taken 
 that the necessary provisions are made for ties to keep the stencil 
 firm and whole. If a number of these ties have to be made good 
 after the stencilling has been done, the cost of the work will be 
 enhanced, and no good result obtained by the increased cost. Our 
 illustrations show how the ties may be formed of natural breaks 
 in the continuous lines of the pattern, and how the pattern may 
 be held together by allowing the lines to cross each other at 
 sufficient intervals. 
 
 Drawings that are made in charcoal sometimes require pre- 
 serving, as they very readily smear. The steam from the spout 
 of a kettle will suffice to hold them slightly, but a spray diffuser 
 with a little thin methylated finish is a better and more reliable 
 method. For high-class drawings a special spray is sold by 
 artists' colourmen. 
 
 Preparing Stencil Plates. The stencil pattern may be 
 drawn directly upon the paper that the pattern is to be cut out 
 of. It may be drawn upon cartoon paper or a board, and then 
 traced or transferred to the stencil paper, or it may be drawn 
 on thin paper, and transferred through by the aid of carbonised 
 copying paper. 
 
 Stencils are cut from many kinds of paper. The Willesden 
 paper is much used for the purpose, but ordinary stout drawing 
 paper is preferable for general use. This may be well oiled with 
 boiled linseed oil until it becomes transparent ; it can then be 
 used as tracing paper and the design traced directly upon it ; 
 or it may be coated with knotting after the drawing has been 
 transferred to it, then cut, and finally again knotted with the 
 patent shellac knotting. For stencils to be used upon small 
 mouldings tin foil makes a good material. For ceiling stencils 
 and large work, a good cardboard oiled or knotted is the best. 
 If the pattern is a repeat of one unit (see Plate 26), the unit 
 may be drawn and carefully cut, and the repeats stencilled from 
 it. By this means greater exactness results, than from tracing 
 each pattern down separately. In cutting an equally balanced 
 reverse pattern, the individual pieces can be laid down and 
 cut or marked round so that the two sides are perfectly balanced. 
 In making a stencil set of two or more plates for different 
 colours, a full stencil should first be cut as a guide, and the 
 others stencilled from it. This guide may be cut in thin paper 
 coated with knotting. 
 
 When setting out one side of a pattern that has to be reversed 
 it may be drawn in charcoal ; a rubbing can then be taken of the 
 reverse by simply doubling the paper down the centre, and the
 
 DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 
 
 263 
 
 completed pattern will be seen and its effect judged, and any 
 alteration made before putting the whole in in colour. 
 
 Stencils are usually cut upon a piece of glass ; plate glass, on 
 account of its level surface, is better than sheet glass. A knife 
 or graver is used for the cutting. The writer prefers an ordinary 
 pocket knife with the small blade sharpened to an angle point 
 upon the edge (see sketch, Fig. 80). If the decorator once finds 
 a knife handle that thoroughly suits his 
 grip, he can have new blades fitted to it 
 at a very slight cost as the old ones wear 
 down. Punches are used for dots by 
 most workmen, and in some cases shaped 
 punches and gouges for particular shapes. 
 The writer prefers all cutting to be 
 done freehand with the knife, as a less 
 mechanical result is obtained, and the 
 character of the edge of the pattern is 
 the same all through when the knife is 
 used. The punch always leaves a certain 
 amount of burr and this somewhat raises 
 the stencil from its ground. The knife 
 must be frequently sharpened and kept 
 keen, and if the blade is slightly greasy 
 it will travel more smoothly round 
 curves, <kc. The worker should accustom 
 himself to cut all straight and curved 
 lines freehand, without any adventitious 
 aids such as straight-edges or compasses, 
 
 but the work must all be carefully set out by geometrical 
 methods first. 
 
 The following is the routine of stencil preparation as followed 
 bv the writer. The pattern is set out upon any cheap lining 
 or other paper in charcoal or pencil. Oiled cartridge paper is 
 then laid over it. This should be oiled with raw oil and kept 
 in stock, either in rolls or sheets. Well saturate it with oil 
 overnight, and wipe off the superfluous oil next morning ; tl 
 put aside for future use. If required within a week, use boiled 
 oil instead of raw. The pattern is then traced upon the oiled 
 cartridge, through which it should be clearly seen, with a nan 
 black pencil. The pattern is then cut out, using plate glat 
 to cut upon, and a pocket knife or pen knife for cutting with. 
 Next a coat of patent knotting is applied, and the patt 
 then ready for use. , , 
 
 Preparing Pounces. If the work is to be done by hand, the 
 
 Fig. 80. Pen-knife ground 
 for stencil cutting.
 
 264 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 design or sketch must be transferred to the wall or ceiling. The 
 best method is to rub the back of the drawing with red ochre or 
 red chalk, and trace it down by laying the drawing in its correct 
 position and going firmly over the lines with a hard stylus or 
 pencil. Another method, and a preferable one when it is desired 
 to repeat the same design more than once, is to prick the draw- 
 ing all along its outlines with pin holes, to form what is termed 
 a pounce, through the holes in which powdered black or red is 
 dusted, leaving upon the work a clear dotted outline. 
 
 The pounce is pricked by laying the drawing upon a table 
 covered with a piece of baize or cloth, and puncturing the holes 
 closely together along the lines with a needle point set in a 
 handle. The fineness of the work must regulate the size of the 
 needle and the closeness of the holes, but the smaller and closer 
 they are the easier it will be to work over the lines. A re- 
 peated reverse drawing may be pricked through both halves 
 at once by doubling the paper, or a pattern in which the quarter 
 is repeated four times may be folded so as to allow all four 
 thicknesses to be pricked at once. After the pounce has been 
 pricked, the burr left by the puncturing upon the back of the 
 pounce should be removed by glass paper lightly rubbed over 
 the lines. Any heavy pressure will fill up the holes. Some- 
 times the burr may be removed by holding the drawing over 
 a flame. The pounce is used by placing it in position, and 
 dusting through the holes red, black, or on a dark ground, 
 white powder. The powder is tied up in a cambric or linen bag, 
 about 2 inches across; whiting, charcoal dust, and Venetian 
 red, or admixtures of these are used for pouncing. A good 
 pouncer for small work is made as follows : A piece of baize 
 is covered with whiting or black lead, well rubbed in ; it is 
 then rolled up tightly and tied round the middle with string, 
 and the ends used by brushing over the pattern with a circular 
 motion. This article may be charged at one end with white, 
 and at the other with black. As the powder becomes exhausted, 
 a clean slice may be cut off the end of the roll and fresh fully 
 charged surface exposed for use. For a large coarse pounce it 
 will be found sufficient to rub a dry sash tool in dry colour, and 
 dust it over the lines. In some cases it will be possible to 
 sketch in the detail directly upon the work itself. Charcoal 
 or chalk are used for the purpose. Charcoal is liable to work 
 into the colours used in painting, and mar their purity. 
 
 The Use of Stencils. In using the stencil upon distemper, 
 the stencil tools must be kept well charged with colour, and 
 care be taken to avoid the colour running under the pattern.
 
 DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 265 
 
 The cleanest result is obtained by dabbing the stencil tool ; any 
 attempt at a rubbing motion is likely to produce imperfect work. 
 Stencilling can be done in an effective manner upon distemper 
 by the use of a very fine sponge instead of a brush. The broken 
 effects of colour obtained by this method are artistic and accord 
 well with the style of ornament now much in vo^ue, in which 
 natural forms are prominent features. 
 
 Stencil pins (Fig. 81) will be required to keep the stencil 
 plates and pounces in correct position while being used. These 
 may be home made or can be obtained at little cost from the 
 brush manufacturers. 
 
 Fig. 81. Stencil pin. 
 
 A needle set in a cotton reel and wedged in with wooden pegs 
 is a fairly good substitute, and quickly made. 
 
 In stencilling upon a distemper ground, the best colour to use 
 is made as follows : Dry colour, ground stout in turpentine, 
 thin with equal parts of turps and hard quick drying varnish or 
 japanners' gold size. 
 
 Lining and Picking Out. For lining upon distemper, a 
 thin colour made from dry colour, water, a little gum, 
 and a little glycerine, will be found to work well. Colours 
 ground in milk, in beer, and in sugar and water all work 
 fairly well in distemper. For painting in light and shade, 
 preference may be given to size colour as best possessing 
 the qualities desirable for the purpose. The work should be 
 done with long hog-hair fitches, and the colour laid on without 
 any rubbing or mixing, which would soften and work up the 
 ground. Any tendency to ciss or work frothy may be corrected 
 by the use of a very little yellow soap in the distemper. This 
 
 Fig. 82. Quilled or tine tools. 
 
 will further allow of painting over without working up. The 
 use of soap, is, however, distinctly prejudicial to delicate colours, 
 and should only be resorted to when found absolutely necessary. 
 The tools known as veining tools (used in marbling) are very 
 useful for distemper painting when lining or outlining in long 
 broad lines, as they hold a large quantity of colour. Quilled tools
 
 266 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 (Fig. 82) are also particularly useful for similar work. So much 
 depends upon the fitness of a brush for a particular kind of 
 work, that students are recommended to experiment and dis- 
 cover for themselves the brushes which appear to best suit 
 particular work. The investment in a red sable swan quill 
 (Fig. 83), costing half a guinea, once saved a decorator quite a 
 
 Fig. 83. Sable writers. 
 
 week of labour, in a case where at first glance such expenditure 
 appeared to be quite uncalled for. It is only by an intimate 
 knowledge of all classes of tools that they can thus be used at 
 the right time and to the best advantage. An ingenious man 
 with this knowledge can often rig up tools and brushes of his 
 own fashioning, which make his progress in the work rapid and 
 easy compared with what it would be with the use of the 
 orthodox tools. 
 
 A great deal of the decorative work in distemper will consist of 
 the colouring in, or "picking out," of mouldings and enrichments. 
 In this work it is desirable to carefully think out the best 
 method of time and labour-saving. A general rule is to lay in 
 the receding portions of the work with the deeper tints first. 
 Any spotting or smearing of the prominent members can then 
 be sponged off easily. For the background of ornament, stiff 
 hog-hair brushes will be found the best if the ornament is open 
 and undercut. In the case of a low relief enrichment it will 
 generally be found more expeditious to put in the whole of the 
 work in the light relief colour, and then lay in the deeper back- 
 ground with a soft camel-hair brush. Camel-hair swan quills
 
 DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 267 
 
 (Fig. 84) will be found the best for laying in beads and fillets, as 
 they deposit a fuller coat of colour, and leave a better body than 
 the harsher hog-hair, which generally leaves such members bare 
 and unevenly covered. Quirks between beads or fillets are best 
 run in with thin beer or sugar colour, or with spirit colour and 
 a lining fitch. A special make of lining fitch for fine decoration 
 
 Fig. 84. Camel-hair swan pencils. 
 
 is made of the best Lyons hair by Messrs. Robertson, of Long 
 Acre. They are in form precisely like a rather thin hog-hair 
 fitch of good quality, but bevelled to a convenient angle for 
 lining. For quirks, a fine square-topped flat fitch is as good as 
 any tool that can be used for the purpose ; it must be held at 
 right angles with the work. 
 
 Lines should always be run and not stencilled. A little 
 practice makes lining easy, and it is quite impossible to obtain 
 a true line by stencilling. 
 
 The following method will be found applicable to distemper 
 lining on a ceiling : The lines must be struck on one edge only, 
 if less than | of an inch in breadth ; or on both, if more than that 
 breadth, by a fine chalk line of twine or finest whip cord. 
 Crochet cotton makes a good line, but soon wears out. The 
 superfluous chalk should be blown or lightly dusted off" with a 
 badger. The colour should be fluid but not watery. Heavy 
 colours as vermilion should be avoided when possible, but, if 
 used, must be constantly stirred. Spirit, gum, or glycerine 
 colour are preferable for dark colours. Size colour may be used 
 for light ones with a little alum in it to break the gelatine; or 
 sugar colour may be substituted. The quantity of sugar, 
 glycerine, &c., must not be such as too greatly to arrest drying, 
 or to interfere with the requisite absence of gloss. A good soft 
 long-haired lining fitch, an ordinary flat fitch, a veining or 
 quilled tool, or a French distemper tool, may be used, the par- 
 ticular colour and work determining which of these will best
 
 268 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 fulfil the office. A light pine straight-edge of 30 inches in length 
 to 42 inches, according to a man's height and consequent reach ; 
 1 inches wide, and f\ of an inch thick, bevelled f of an inch 
 back and through half its thickness, will be found the best. It 
 
 Fig. 85. Short sable pencils. 
 
 Fig. 86. Sable liners or tracers. 
 
 should have a coat of knotting so that it can be readily sponged 
 off. Three half corks viz., sound bottle corks cut in half, length- 
 wise should be glued on the bevelled side, the flat side of the 
 half cork toward the straight-edge : one near each end and one
 
 PLATE 24.-INFLUENCE OF PATTERN UPON COLOUR EFFECT, 
 To face p. 268.]
 
 DECORATION IK DISTEMPER. 269 
 
 in the middle, so that the straight-edge will be bridged upon the 
 corks and not rest upon the work. For broad lines these corks 
 may be larger than ordinary, so as to keep the straight-edge an 
 inch away from the ceiling ; in ordinary cases ^ inch is sufficient. 
 The lining fitch must now be well filled with colour, the straight- 
 edge adjusted about an eighth or less over the edge of the pro- 
 posed line, and the brush, being held by the point of the stick 
 at right angles to the straight-edge and at an angle of 70 to the 
 work, drawn surely and firmly, but very lightly, from left to 
 right. In distemper lining it is necessary, in consequence of the 
 absorbent ground, to run the lines more slowly than in paint. 
 For convenience, the colour should be slung to the waist-band, 
 or hooked on to the breast button-hole of the blouse. A measure 
 similar to those used for measuring out small quantities of milk, 
 may be used to contain the lining colour, or a tin canister, with 
 a hook soldered to its side, will answer the purpose. 
 
 For painted ornament, as scene painting, a tray palette having 
 holes for several colours, and a water dipper, and partition for 
 brushes, is useful. It should be slung round the neck by a strap 
 with adjustment to keep it level, so that both hands are free, as 
 it will be frequently desirable to use the straight-edge or mahl 
 stick in the left hand, and a full distemper palette is too heavy 
 to hold on the thumb. 
 
 For monochrome or any painting requiring three or four 
 colours only, a little shallow paint-can may be subdivided by tin 
 partitions into three or four compartments, and held in the left 
 hand, or suspended round the waist. 
 
 Outlining may be accomplished upon a wall or on canvases 
 very rapidly and effectively in distemper, by the use of designers' 
 short sable pencils and no mahl stick, allowing the wrist to rest 
 lightly upon the work as in water colour painting, &c.; or upon 
 the ceiling, by the use of a light bridge-rest. 
 
 Transparent colours may be used in distemper to obtain 
 luminous effects, by mixing the colours with size only. Thus 
 wood beams, in a piece of scenic painting, are better imitated by 
 using Sienna and Vandyke brown in size, than by the use of body 
 colours. In ordinary distemper decoration the use of these 
 colours is little appreciated, and a field in that direction is open 
 to the decorative artist. Of. course, absolute deadness of 
 surface is not possible to, or consistent with, the use of trans- 
 parent colouring. Formerly, transparent size colouring was 
 much used upon linen and cambric or muslin blinds and cur- 
 tains, as a substitute for obscured glass. 
 
 Stencil plates when used in distemper are apt to buckle, swell,
 
 270 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 or stretch, and become useless. This should be prevented by well 
 knotting them, and at evening when left for the night a coat of 
 paint may be given to them. In cleaning them, do not allow them 
 to soak unnecessarily, but dry quickly with common blottingpaper 
 or a chamois leather, so that the water has no time to soak in. 
 
 All stencils and pounces should be so cut and marked at the 
 edges as to be readily placed in position without a lot of measur- 
 ing, or marking upon the work. Centre lines should be shown in 
 all directions on the face of the stencil, and the stencil where 
 possible, even if it only occupies a comparatively small area, 
 should be cut the size of the panel, or at least so that it fits 
 exactly into one or two angles. For borders, the stencil plate 
 should either be cut the exact width of the border or, if this be 
 too close to the openings of the pattern, it should be notched to 
 the exact width of the border at both ends. Attention to these 
 points will save trouble, annoyance, confusion, and loss of time 
 on the work itself. 
 
 In working upon distemper grounds great care must be taken 
 that the work is not rubbed, or the surface will be disturbed and 
 a slight gloss imparted to it. 
 
 Stencil plates after use should always be packed or put away 
 with sheets of plain paper between them to prevent the points of 
 one pattern becoming entangled in another. 
 
 Gold, or gold paint, may be used upon a distemper ground. 
 For mouldings and lines, a mixture of the best bronze powder 
 in knotting thinned with naphtha or methylated spirit will work 
 well and keep its colour. Ardenbrite may also be used for this 
 purpose. For stencilling, the bronze may be mixed with milk 
 and a little gum, or with white wax and turpentine with a little 
 oak varnish added. Flatting varnish is used for the purpose by 
 some artists, but gives a dulness to the metal. White wax and 
 turpentine will, when set, take a polish, and a little additional 
 bronze may be dusted on to its surface and rubbed in. The 
 bronze must be of the best quality. 
 
 For gilding on distemper, japanners' gold size thickened with 
 a little resin is the best medium. 
 
 If there is enough size in the distemper ground this should not 
 run. If it does, the spaces to be gilded must be first sized over 
 with a little clear size. Apply the gold leaf in the ordinary manner. 
 
 In mixing the various tints for decoration in distemper, it is 
 well to work from a base of cream colour or other pale tint 
 approximating to the colour of the ground of the ceiling rather 
 than from crude white. For all particulars as to colours the 
 reader is referred to Colour mixing.
 
 271 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 |OST of the decorative processes used in 
 distemper are equally applicable to 
 paint. These will be merely referred 
 to in the present chapter as the reader 
 will find the details in the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 The differences that are most im- 
 portant in the two forms of work, at 
 least to the worker, are that the ground 
 for painted work is non-porous ; that the colours will keep open 
 and free longer, and allow of more finished manipulation ; that, 
 when once dry, they can be re-painted or re-touched, or glazed 
 over without difficulty ; and that various degrees of gloss or dul- 
 ness may be produced upon the surface at will. It must also be 
 remembered that painted decoration is washable and durable in 
 our moist and not over-clean atmosphere, and that the colours 
 can be used in various degrees of body or solidity, and are less 
 heavy and solid than distemper. Other slighter differences will 
 be manifest as the use of paint in decoration is described. 
 
 Stencilling in Paint. Stencilling is largely used as a means 
 of executing painted decoration. The proper functions of the
 
 272 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 process have already been dealt with, and the preparation of 
 stencil plates has also received some attention. In the use of 
 stencilling upon painted work the decorator will find it much 
 more cleanly and less laborious to stencil dark colours upon a 
 light ground than vice versd. For this reason, it is often econo- 
 mical to stencil-in the background of a pattern and leave the 
 pattern in the lighter colour of the ground. By the use of this 
 process it is possible to have a solid light colour pattern on a 
 dark ground, in a case where, if the pattern were stencilled in 
 light colour upon a dark ground, it would not cover and look 
 solid, and even if it did so at the time, the deep colour would 
 soon find its way through the one coat of white or light colour 
 that had been stencilled over it. A more finely finished job is 
 also obtained by the use of the deeper colour as the stencil, 
 because there is little body and much covering power in the 
 deeper pigments, and they may be used thinner and applied more 
 barely than could be done when using a light colour for the 
 stencilling. 
 
 Additional care must be bestowed on a stencil intended for 
 paint in the arrangement of the ties ; because it is almost impos- 
 sible to touch up ties in a painted stencil with a pencil or fitch 
 in such a manner that they will not show. 
 
 Glaze colours and partially transparent colours can be used 
 with good effect and great ease in painted work. They should 
 be mixed with a little varnish, oil, and turpentine, equal parts 
 of each, to work and look well. Stencils to be used in glaze 
 colours must be designed so that there are no ties to make good 
 afterwards ; they cannot be touched up without looking patchy. 
 It is by far the best plan to so arrange the design that in all 
 cases where the stencilled pattern is to be left as a finish, the 
 ties are incorporated in the design. 
 
 Stencil plates used in paint, especially when used in light 
 colours, need frequent cleaning or they become furred up and 
 sticky. To clean them, lay them upon a board covered with old 
 paper, and with a sash tool or old stencil tool dipped in turps 
 wash the paint off the paper will absorb a part of the dirty 
 turpentine. Then, with a soft rag, sop up the turpentine, and 
 finish by carefully wiping with a clean rag. A coat of knotting 
 should be given overnight and at meal times if the stencil is to 
 have much use. 
 
 The capability of the stencil as a factor in painted decoration 
 is far greater than many writers are disposed to admit. Indeed, 
 the possibilities of the method are far from exhausted and are 
 only limited by the patience and resource of the decorator.
 
 PAINTED DECORATION. 273 
 
 The mere repetition of an item of ornament as in a border or 
 corner is only an infantile stage of the stencil development, 
 though a useful one. Carefully executed elaborated stencilling 
 in several colours and in two or three coats, are far more artistic 
 than slap-dash hand-painted ornament, and possess a separate 
 and individual character. Many quaint and pleasing effects of 
 colour and manipulation may be obtained, which are not merely 
 equal in appearance to hand-painted work, but which cannot be 
 accomplished by hand. 
 
 In the actual stencilling on a painted ground, the brushes used 
 must be dry and firm, the motion used, a stippling one ; and the 
 colour used sparingly. A palette should be used on which the 
 brush can be beaten out so as to equally distribute the colour 
 taken up. The colour should be spread out upon the palette ; the 
 brush should never be dipped into the can of colour, but a fitch 
 should be used to take out a little at a time on to the palette. 
 Take a moderate amount of colour in the brush at a time and 
 gently disperse it over the stencil equally. Then go over it 
 again and spread and distribute the colour already laid on. The 
 colour must not be too thin or it will work under the stencil. 
 
 The following suggestions for the treatment of stencilling will 
 serve to illustrate its capability : 
 
 Glaze colours may be used on a light ground, on a medium 
 ground, or on a deep ground, and great richness maybe obtained 
 by their use. Two-coat stencilling may be used in the following 
 ways : A glaze stencil over a colour, or a glaze stencil over 
 shaded stencilling; a glaze of different colours intermixed over 
 a plain tint first stencil; a shaded and blended glaze over a 
 shaded first coat; shaded blendings over gold, bronze, silver, 
 aluminium, <fcc. ; partial glazes and semi-transparent colours over 
 the same. The two coats may be put on over the same register, 
 or an edge of the first coat may be left visible. Portions of a 
 stencil may be toned, glazed, or enriched by washes of coloiir 
 applied with a brush after the stencilling is dry. Very effective 
 work can be done by stencilling the work, once partly in gold or 
 metal, and partly in bright colour; and then stencilling a second 
 coat in colour only of a transparent nature. 
 
 Hand-painted Ornament. Hand-painted ornament varies 
 greatly in its character and class, from simple flat ornament in 
 one colour upon a ground of another colour, to the most elabor- 
 ate work in light and shade. For all alike a pounce must be 
 made, or the ornament drawn directly in position upon the 
 work. These methods have been already described. The 
 superfluous chalk or charcoal should be dusted off or the colour 
 
 18
 
 274 PAINTING AND DECORATINO. 
 
 is apt to run. Sable pencils, writers, are the best for use for the 
 finer work, while bolder work may be put in with hog-hair 
 brushes or camel-hair swan quill pencils. The panel illustrated 
 in Plate 1 is a suitable design for putting in one flat tint on a 
 ground of a different tone or colour. The panel illustrated in 
 Plate 5 is designed for flat treatment in conventional colours 
 suggested by natural colouring, and would be carried out as 
 follows : The ground would be prepared and flatted. The 
 pattern pounced upon it. The tints are laid in with a swan 
 quill, each leaf all one flat colour ; stems the same but just 
 shaded with the leaf at its base ; fruit all one flat tone ; 
 flowers the same. When these were dry, the whole would be 
 outlined in colour or, perhaps, in gold. 
 
 A more advanced form of decoration is shown in Plate 11. 
 Here the colouring might be in monochrome, but the ornament 
 is intended to be worked on light and shade. Suppose that the 
 ground is gold and the ornament is to be in tones of turquoise 
 blue, the ground having been clear sized, as all gold should be 
 before being worked upon, the pattern will be pounced upon it. 
 Three or more shades of the blue are now prepared on the 
 palette, the lighter one being the brightest and the deeper the 
 quietest in tone. The deep colour is used first and the shadows 
 laid in, using the colour very sparingly indeed. Then the next 
 lightest colour is used, and next the third; and, finally, the 
 highest lights are put in with a fully loaded brush, using more 
 colour each tint, and each time blending the colour in use into 
 that last put in. Short sable brushes should be used, similar to 
 those used for water colour sketches, if for small work. For 
 larger work the ordinary hog-hair fitches are admirable. 
 
 The sketches represented in Plates 3, 4, and 9 are for a still more 
 advanced class of painted ornament, and will be managed in the 
 same way as the last, but the colours instead of being mixed will 
 be set on the palette directly from the tubes, and each colour made 
 up with the palette knife as required the same routine of shadows 
 first, middle tones to follow, and high lights last, will be ob- 
 served ; as in this case it is intended to paint in the background 
 as well as the ornament, our first attention will be given to that 
 part of the work. In this class of painting when the work is not 
 close to the eye, considerable roughness may be indulged in with 
 good effect; and colours may be put upon the work only partially 
 intermingled, producing a richness and luminosity not obtainable 
 by highly finished and blended work. Do not thin the colours. 
 
 Whenever possible, painted decoration should be executed in 
 position ; but it is often desirable to work upon canvas in the
 
 PAINTED DECORATION. '275 
 
 shop, and afterwards fix up the canvas. When this is the case 
 the work will require to be very carefully considered, or the 
 effect in position will be disappointing. It should be tacked up 
 to a wall or easel for working, so that the proper effect can be 
 obtained as the work progresses. 
 
 When gold forms any part of a decorative panel it should be 
 used first, and the colours added afterwards. This prevents any 
 danger of the gold sticking to the other parts of the work, and 
 results in a clean sharp job. 
 
 Painted ornament is sometimes clone in light and shade by 
 glazes. This method is rapid, and consequently cheap and very 
 effective. The work is laid in in a flat tint and allowed to dry. 
 The shadows are then glazed in, and the work finally outlined 
 with a sharp strong outline. Sepia, Vandyke brown, or Umber 
 may be used for the shadows. Sometimes the design is first 
 outlined, and the colours, whether flat or in light and shade, are 
 glazed in. 
 
 Painted decorations upon flatting may be done to show the 
 same surface as its ground, by the use of turpentine and white 
 wax as a medium, or by the use of Roberson's medium. 
 
 Fresco work may be executed in a very durable manner upon 
 plastered surfaces, by the use of a medium composed of turpen- 
 tine, white wax, and a little white resin. 
 
 The practice of flower painting is recommended as good train- 
 ing for the decorative painter, both in the production of purity, 
 and brilliant harmony of colour and manipulative dexterity. A 
 close study of flower and plant forms is also the best equipment 
 for the decorative designer. 
 
 Decoration upon silk in oil paint is best done on a preparatory 
 sizing of the surface actually to be painted upon only. 
 
 Painting upon velvet or plush can be done by iising tube 
 colours very stout, thick, and free from oil, and stiff short 
 brushes, those known as " brights," hog-hair brushes being the 
 best kind for this work. 
 
 The running of lines in paint is done in the same manner as 
 described for distemper, but an ordinary hog-hair fitch or a lining 
 fitch is the best tool for the purpose. The colour must be finely 
 ground and thin, and the pressure on the brush very light. 
 Sable liners are used for fine lines, especially in carriage painting 
 and upon panels. They require thin colour and a considerable 
 amount of experience. Lines run in this way are, when well 
 done, superior in appearance, more regular and solid than lines 
 run with hog-hair brushes, and for wood-work they are preferable. 
 
 The remarks on the use of pencils, and much that has been
 
 276 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 written in the chapter on sign-writing, apply to decorative 
 painting. 
 
 In the use of the stencil it will frequently be found necessary 
 to fix it to the work. This is best done in the case of painted 
 work by fine needle points or stencil pins, not drawing pins, 
 which make too large a hole in the work. 
 
 To prevent brittle needle points snapping off, they may be 
 heated in an old iron shovel and allowed to cool slowly. 
 
 It is often desirable to save for next day's use small bits of 
 colour that, if left in the pot or on the palette, would dry up and 
 be wasted, often necessitating the re-matching of them. They 
 can be kept ready for use by putting in a saucer or on a piece of 
 glass, and standing under water. 
 
 Contrasts of Gloss and Platting. The facility that the 
 worker in paint has of contrasting glossy and flat or dead colours, 
 as in the case of a glossy pattern upon a dead ground, or a glossy 
 outline to dead patterns, should be borne in mind and turned to 
 effective account. In panel or wall decoration good effects are 
 often obtained by varying the flat and even colour of the ground 
 of the work, either regularly gradating it, or combing, dabbing, 
 mottling, or stippling it. 
 
 A still more beautiful result can be obtained by roughing the 
 ground with a paste of plaster and size, or other medium, and 
 combing, stippling, &c., thus producing a texture ground upon 
 which to decorate. The ground thus prepared can be scumbled 
 and rubbed to add to the effectiveness. Alabastine is a good 
 material to use for the purpose of producing the relief. 
 
 For stencilling that has to be gilded, oil gold size is the best 
 to use. A good decorative ground can be produced by sanding 
 the stencil after it has been put in, allowing it to dry, and then 
 painting and gilding the whole so as to show a rough sanded 
 gold pattern on a plain smooth gold ground. 
 
 Sawdust has been effectually used for the same purpose, but 
 the paint must be heavily put on and the sawdust allowed to 
 harden on it before attempting to work upon it. 
 
 A useful form of decoration is illustrated in Plate 30, showing 
 a stencil used to cover the joints of plain or ingrain paper. This 
 is a most effective treatment when carried out in a large room. 
 The breadths must be centred to each flank of wall.
 
 277 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 ELIEF decoration maybe described as pattern 
 projecting from its ground. Decorative 
 materials in relief are now so important a 
 feature in modern work that the subject of 
 their treatment in colour must necessarily 
 occupy a little attention. The use of texture 
 grounds, as heavy stippling and combing, 
 has already been mentioned. It remains 
 to be shown that this use of gesso is elemen- 
 tary, and that far more elaborate treatment 
 is possible, and within the capacity of any 
 painter who has a slight knowledge of draw- 
 ing. Patterns of simple form can be readily worked in the 
 material, directly upon the wall, having a depth of from inch 
 to J inch. By the use of wooden combs various patterns can be 
 incised. These may be varied by using graining combs with 
 some of the teeth removed. Modelling tools and sticks may also 
 be found of service. Suction action gives some good results, and 
 various materials will give varying grades of stipple. A piece 
 of Brussels carpet fixed on a block of wood will prove a very 
 serviceable stippler. A coarser one may be formed of rough 
 deal board, while a tin canister lid will give a class of surface 
 unlike anything else and very pleasing in effect, resulting in a 
 stalactite-like appearance.
 
 278 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 Gesso and its Treatment. Many interesting effects can be 
 obtained by the utilisation of stencil plates of metal or stout 
 millboard, the gesso being heavily modelled over the stencil 
 plate, which is then removed, leaving a sharp edge to the relief. 
 An amount of after finishing or modelling can be added. The 
 immense advantage of a material of this kind in the hands of a 
 capable decorator, over the mechanically repeated patterns that 
 are made by the piece is at once apparent. Individuality of 
 treatment, both for the position and the character of the work, 
 can be secured with ease. For staircases, friezes, and positions 
 where there is diversity of space the use of hand modelled work 
 is particularly desirable. The best material that the writer has 
 used for this high relief gesso work is a mixture of plaster and 
 weak size, or plaster and starch, or the material known to the 
 trade as alabastine. The plaster xised for the purpose must be 
 the finest flour modelling plaster, and the size should be glutinous 
 rather than gelatinous. For the general purposes of wall 
 and panel decoration this material will be found of sufficient 
 durability. It is of high importance that the size be not too 
 strong or the work is liable to crack. It is of equal importance 
 that the ground be an unyielding one of solid plaster ; on back- 
 grounds of wood it is liable to chip off. 
 
 Harder ingredients than plaster are sometimes used either as 
 a substitute for, or an addition to, plaster. 
 
 The following description of the method adopted in working 
 out the accompanying friezes (Plate 29) may be of assistance to 
 the experimental decorator in gesso : First, the necessary 
 quantity of plaster was mixed with thin glue size to the con- 
 sistency of cream, and the frieze was rapidly coated with the 
 mixture, and the wave line background was combed in while the 
 gesso was hot and wet and worked freely. The comb used was 
 a coarsest graining comb with every third tooth broken out leav- 
 ing two teeth and a space. The flowers were next added in the 
 following manner : A rather short spreading sash tool was laden 
 heavily with the gesso, which for this stage was thickened to a 
 paste ; the tool was then thrust against the wall making a large, 
 accidentally shaped splodge of paste gesso. When the tool was 
 extended to its full limits by pressing hard against the wall, it 
 was suddenly withdrawn like a sucker, producing inimitable 
 undulations of an accidental form. These by further manipula- 
 tion on the outer edges were formed into petals, and the centre 
 was filled with little dots or balls of gesso put on with a fitch. 
 The foliage was next put in, with gesso of a little thinner con- 
 sistency, and manipulated chiefly with the fingers and a model-
 
 RELIEVO DECORATION. 279 
 
 ling tool of boxwood, and finally the whole was outlined and in 
 places etched up with chisel-pointed sticks of hard wood. The 
 lower border was executed with a wooden chisel-pointed comb, 
 the teeth being | inch wide and f inch apart. The solidity of 
 the work may be improved by driving a few copper tacks into 
 the wall to hold the highest relief firmly and prevent chipping 
 by contraction. The weight and tenacity may be respectively 
 lightened and strengthened by using cotton wool fibre satur- 
 ated in the gesso. So numerous are the methods by which 
 effects in gesso work may be varied and good results obtained 
 that it is not necessary to particularise them, the student will 
 have an open mind on the subject, and press into service all 
 kinds of tools and other instruments. 
 
 Gesso in low relief is best done upon a non-porous ground, 
 with soft camel-hair brushes. The ornament is carefully coated 
 three or four times in succession with a mixture of finest sifted 
 plaster of Paris and clear glue size not too strong. A little pipe- 
 clay may be added to increase the smoothness and density. 
 Only very conventional ornament is suited to the process, orna- 
 ment akin to that used in slip painting upon pottery. The 
 ornament is usually gilded to bring the relief into prominence. 
 
 The decoration of the finished gesso work is, of course, very 
 similar to the treatment of other raised pattern material. The 
 best and most successful treatments are those suggestive of 
 wood, metal, faience or majolica and enamel effects. For the 
 latter all that is necessary is to give the work one coat of varnish 
 glaze, as the varnish will hold out on the gesso without 
 preparation. 
 
 Decoration of Relievo Materials Generally. In decorating 
 the Tynecastle tapestry or vellum, Anaglypta, Cordelova, &c., the 
 first step is to obtain a hard and impervious surface. Upon such 
 materials a coat of ordinary strength size should be first applied, 
 next a coat of good strong varnish colour, and finally a glaze to 
 assist the force of the pattern. For oak effects the ground should 
 be deeper and quieter in tone than is used for graining upon. 
 The glaze should be in water colour, and should be stippled and 
 allowed to dry, and then the higher parts of the relief should be 
 wiped off with a damp chamois leather rolled into a hard wad. 
 Another method is to use a glaze of oil colour thinned with 
 turps, and to wipe off the high lights with a rag. Yet a third 
 method is to use the distemper glaze first, and a weak thin 
 varnish glaze afterwards. 
 
 Old ivory carving possesses a particularly pleasing colour effect 
 which may be accurately suggested by enamelling the work in a
 
 280 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 full tone of ivory white ; white tinted with raw sienna ; and 
 glazing in distemper with raw sienna, burnt sienna, and Van- 
 dyke brown in water, but not too deep. Allow it to dry and 
 then wipe off rather cleanly with a damp cloth. 
 
 Another good effect, and one particularly decorative without 
 the suggestion of imitativeness that wood colourings have, is to 
 pick out the different parts of the pattern in rather decided 
 contrasts of colour, and then scumble over the whole with a 
 distemper wash of burnt Umber and wipe off. The scumble 
 gives unity and harmony of tone to the colouring, and that 
 subdued effect that is the charm of old work. 
 
 Bronzes may be used in the decoration of relief ornament with 
 good effect a good quality bronze is essential. It should never 
 be used immediately over oil paint, but a coat of varnish or 
 lacquer should intervene, as the oil attracting oxygen tends to 
 discolour the metal quickly. Varnish or Japan gold size should 
 be used for the purpose of attaching the bronze, which may be 
 dusted all over or merely touched upon the projections. The 
 face of the bronze must be protected by a coat of lacquer. To 
 bronze the whole surface a mixture of japanners' gold size and 
 copal varnish is coated on, and allowed to become tacky. The 
 powder is then dusted on with a soft badger or hare's foot, and 
 a coat of thin lacquer finally applied. The work can then be 
 scumbled over to any desired tint, and very good metallic effects 
 can be obtained by using bluish-green water colour scumble and 
 wiping it off, except in the crevices. 
 
 For the more brilliant metallic effects metal leaf is better than 
 powder bronzes. Silver leaf gives the most brilliant result, and 
 will lacquer to any desired colour. Yellow metals are also good. 
 The better qualities stand well when lacquered, if not used upon 
 oil. The work is sized with a combination of varnish and boiled 
 oil with japanners' gold size, and the metal is applied either 
 with the fingers or with gold-beaters' clippers or tweezers, thin 
 laths of bamboo formed into a kind of sugar tongs. If the 
 fingers are used they should be dry and clean ; and if the hands 
 are naturally inclined to be damp, a little French chalk may be 
 rubbed upon the finger tips to prevent sticking. When gilding 
 on the wall it is convenient to have a little tray suspended in 
 front of the operator, on which the gold is laid ; it can then be 
 taken up with one hand and pressed to the work with the other. 
 If both hands are not at liberty some little difficulty is experi- 
 enced in getting the metal in place. After the metalling has 
 been done the work must be dusted clean, and rubbed up to a 
 polish by gentle use of a little ball of wool ; cotton wool is too
 
 RELIEVO DECORATION. 281 
 
 soft for this purpose on metal. It should then at once be coated 
 with lacquer. 
 
 The best lacquers are made from shellac and spirits of wine ; 
 cheaper forms from shellac and methylated spirit ; in both cases 
 they are coloured by the addition of various dyes. Messrs. 
 Mander's ready-made lacquers are strongly recommended for this 
 purpose. They can be had in almost every colour. The room 
 in which the lacquering is done must be warm, or a chilled, 
 milky appearance results from the coagulation of the lacquer. 
 Two coats are requisite. They should be applied with a large 
 brush of camel-hair. 
 
 If the lacquers are prepared at home, care should be taken 
 that the dyestuffs are permanent ; saffron, gamboge, annatto, 
 turmeric, dragon's blood, fustic, and red wood ; indigo and 
 Brazil wood are all sufficiently fast, and by intermixture will 
 give most tints. 
 
 In the process of imitating pottery or enamelled effects, almost 
 any class of work may be successfully imitated or, we would 
 rather say, suggested. The principal point is to obtain correct 
 colour, first by the use of a ground analogous to the real ground 
 of the material it is intended to imitate, both in colour and 
 porosity ; and, next, in a correct match of the glazes required. 
 Where a glazed treatment is desired it is best to use ordinary oil 
 colours thinned with varnish, as for majolica. To give the 
 appearance of age the work must be water scumbled with raw 
 ximber and then wiped off partially. To imitate a crackled 
 effect use a spirit varnish, as white or brown hard, over a coat of 
 copal oil varnish, allowing a week to elapse between the two 
 coats, and afterwards rub the work with a dirty leather to 
 darken the crackle marks. These slavish imitations are not to 
 be recommended, and are not the best form of artistic finish to 
 apply to relievo work. 
 
 Purely aesthetic colour effects can be obtained by the use of 
 glazes over metallic surfaces and over grounds of colour, and a 
 very good method of producing contrasting colour effects is to 
 stencil in the ground of the pattern alter the ornament has been 
 treated by glazing, &c. To do this, the stencil can be cut out of 
 a repeat of the actual material. It will then be sure to fit with 
 accuracy. 
 
 In the production of wood effects, where there are large plain 
 surfaces the graining comb and overgrainer may often be used in 
 moderation with good effect. It is quite legitimate also to pro- 
 duce effects for the sake of colour, that are not really possible or 
 likely in the wood itself. Thus there is no reason why the
 
 282 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 ornament should not be in metal or in colours upon a woody- 
 coloured ground. Many of the colour effects used upon old 
 Cordovan leathers are quite unique and represent no suggestion 
 other than that of enamelled leathers, and these are quite desir- 
 able examples for imitation. 
 
 All the operations required for the decoration of these materials 
 can be best carried out before hanging, except the final scumble, 
 which, if done in situ, will suffice to produce an equal and perfectly 
 homogeneous whole, covering any defects in matching, and allow- 
 ing scope for the display of a little judgment in lightening up 
 dark corners and deepening prominent portions where desirable. 
 Much time may be saved by a careful consideration, before 
 commencing, of the cheapest and most expeditious method of 
 producing the effects aimed at. 
 
 Sgraffito. Sgraffito work is a form of relief decoration which 
 may be more correctly relegated to the plasterer's domain. It is 
 the use of a coating of coloured plaster about ^ inch thick above 
 a ground of another colour plaster which may in its turn be 
 above a third colour. The different coats are applied on succes- 
 sive days and the pattern pounced upon the final one; the 
 parts not required are then cut away with a knife and chipped 
 out, leaving the under ground exposed to view. For external 
 work cement is used instead of plaster, and the materials are 
 coloured by the addition of ochres, Venetian and Indian red, 
 black manganese or Umbers, or any colours that are unaffected 
 by the kind of cement used.
 
 283 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 IFFICULTIES in treatment have 
 been experienced in earlier chap- 
 ters of the present work by the 
 writer, but in no case has the 
 difficulty been felt so keenly as 
 when trying to compress into a 
 few pages the present subject a 
 subject that might well extend to 
 volumes. 
 
 Colour in Historic Decora- 
 tion. The historical side of the 
 question must be left severely 
 alone, except for the mere recapitu- 
 lation of a few facts. 
 
 Colour was used most tastefully in the Pompeian and Greek 
 styles ; most gorgeously in the Moresque and Byzantine ; and 
 perhaps with least principle in the Italian Renaissance and 
 Mediaeval. A great wealth of colour characterises all Eastern 
 styles of work, notably Persian, but is counter-balanced by large 
 masses of uncoloured stone, wood, and plaster, and is confined 
 principally to articles of dress and furniture. 
 
 Theory of Colour. The scientific side of colour must also be 
 dismissed in few words. Colour is one of the effects produced
 
 284 PAINTING ANb DECORATING. 
 
 by light falling upon objects. It owes its diversity to the diverse 
 substances on which it falls, their molecular and structural com- 
 position, and the amount and quality of the light absorbed or 
 reflected by them. A beam of light is composed of parts or rays, 
 divided for convenience into seven classes, called red, orange, 
 yellow, green, blue, violet, and purple rays. In reality it is com- 
 posed of an indefinite number of colours only limited in number 
 by the power of the visual organs to appreciate their distinctive- 
 ness. If the student imagines a circle divided into seven parts 
 and coloured as above, and each colour carefully, completely 
 and gradually blended into its neighbour, so that the gradation 
 is perfect, he will have a better understanding of the composite 
 quality of a beam of light. When light falls upon an object, 
 some of the colours composing it are absorbed by the object, and 
 some are reflected back to the eye. The sum of the colour rays 
 reflected back to the eye produce the colour of the object, and the 
 sum of the rays absorbed produce another colour which we call its 
 complementary, because the two sums added together make the 
 full complement necessary to complete the beam of light. If the 
 object does not absorb any of the rays, the colour will be white 
 that is, the full complement of light. If it absorbs the whole 
 of the rays its colour we call black that is, absence of light. 
 
 The colour circle (Fig. 87) is intended to bring readily to the 
 mind the theory of colour harmony. It is divided into sixteen 
 parts and named for the purpose of reference. If any colour in 
 the circle is taken, its complementary colour will be found 
 immediately opposite it, and if the two be added together they 
 will be found to produce the complete ray of light ; that is, they 
 have in their combined composition all the seven colours named 
 above. The interval or space between the seven colours are not 
 all equal, indeed the actual space occupied by a definite colour may 
 be said to be non-existent, as the modulation and gradation of 
 colour into colour is complete. The division into sixteen is a 
 convenient geometrical and arithmetical arrangement that assists 
 calculation, while, at the same time, it approximately represents 
 sixteen equidistant points of the spectrum. 
 
 Colour being so largely a matter of personal impression, and 
 being dependent on the personal vision, can with difficulty be 
 reduced to formulae, and no purely correct or scientific treat- 
 ment will wholly guide the worker. The colorific circle here 
 given is merely put forward as a definite basis from which to 
 refer to certain phases of the subject, and is not constructed 
 scientifically. The aspect of colour, and its intermixture, is all that 
 concerns the painter, as he uses pigments, or coloured matter only.
 
 PLATE 25.-CONSTRUCTIVE DECORATION IN APPLICATION. 
 
 To face p. 284.]
 
 COLOUR. 285 
 
 Colour being an impression due to the physical structure of 
 a substance, the effect of intermixture of one substance with 
 another depends upon the method and completeness of the ad- 
 mixture. Change of colour occurs in a substance if the form of 
 the substance is altered, as in the drying of a distemper colour. 
 The colour result of two pigments mixed intimately upon the 
 palette, and of the same two pigments placed so as to be seen 
 together i.e., visually intermixed will not necessarily be the 
 same. Chemical action between two substances often interferes 
 
 COLOUR. c " 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 with the colorific result of an admixture; consequently, it by no 
 means follows that two apparently similarly coloured pigments 
 will, if each be mixed with a third pigment, produce equal colour 
 results. 
 
 In the practical use of colour we find that change is produced 
 in the appearance of colours by tlieir near proximity to other
 
 286 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 colours, and by their distance from the eye. The former changes 
 occur in three ways : 1st, in depth, i.e., a colour placed 
 against another deeper colour appears paler by reason of the 
 proximity, and the deep colour also receives a change, appearing 
 deeper ; 2nd, in hue, i.e., a red placed near a green looks redder 
 and makes the green look greener, each colour partaking of its 
 own opposite or complementary; 3rd, in quality of hue, i.e., a 
 cool green placed near a blue would look warmer, and a hot red 
 placed near a yellow would look more purplish ; here again the 
 colour takes on the complementary of its neighbour. 
 
 The change that takes place in colour by reason of its distance 
 from the eye is one of neutralisation. If we set a board divided 
 into sixteen squares, each of which is painted a different colour, 
 at a great distance from the spectator, the colours gradually merge 
 into one another, and, as the distance is increased, they resolve 
 themselves into a grey. 
 
 For a full and scientific study of colour the student must con- 
 sult the works of Hay, Chevreul, Field, and, above all, Professor 
 Church, and (more important still) must experiment constantly 
 with colours in a good light. 
 
 The chromatic circle (Fig. 87) will form a good basis for prac- 
 tical study. For convenience of reference it is divided into 
 either eight or sixteen parts and named arbitrarily. The position 
 of two primaries are shown, but normal red will come between 
 the scarlet and crimson main divisions. The colours opposite 
 each other are the true complementary hues of each other. 
 
 This circle should be set out and coloured with pigments as 
 nearly to the described colour as possible. The pigments should 
 all be opaque ones, as these change least by intermixture with 
 each other. The imperfections of pigments are so great that it 
 is impossible to obtain a correct representation of the colours of 
 the spectrum, but in practice the following will be found to be 
 sufficiently near for all ordinary purposes : 
 
 For scarlet = vermilion and a little carmine, 
 blue = cobalt and a little ultramarine, 
 yellow = pale and middle cadmium, 
 greens = the yellow and blue mixed, 
 purple = the blue and carmine, 
 crimson = carmine. 
 
 The intermediate colours are obtained by intermixture of the 
 principal ones. The writer has found that by restriction to the 
 pigments named here, the alteration of hue is reduced to a mini- 
 mum, when the colours are intermixed for experimental purposes.
 
 COLOUR. 287 
 
 Having compounded small portions of the sixteen colours, the 
 student may then try any number of suggestive experiments 
 based on the following principles : Any two colours mixed 
 together will result in a colour which will be complementary to 
 a mixture of their two complementaries. Thus, 16 and 12 will 
 be complementary to 8 and 4, and will be fairly correct in what- 
 ever proportions they are mixed, if the complementaries are 
 mixed in the same proportions. For example: One part of 16 
 and 3 parts of 12 must be complemented by one part of 8 and 3 
 parts of 4. The spaces may be numbered consecutively, it 
 being immaterial which space is numbered one. Every addition 
 or intermixture of course lowers the tone of a colour, and con- 
 tinued intermingling brings them down to a neutral grey. The 
 result of the intermixture of any two colours also harmonises 
 with the colour opposite but between the two, which is equal to, 
 or stands for the same as, the two actual complementaries. Thus 
 yellow and scarlet in equal proportions will harmonise with and 
 form the complementary to blue equally as well as orange which 
 is its equivalent, so that in this set of combinations we may have 
 
 Orange complementary to blue, 
 
 Or ,, to blue green and purple, 
 
 Or yellow and scarlet ,, 
 
 Or ,, to blue. 
 
 Black or white may be added to colours in the circle, and, if 
 added in the same proportion to their complementaries, their 
 harmonious combination will not be interfered with. 
 
 In all experiments with pigments, the student will be sur- 
 
 Erised at some apparent discrepancies. These are due to the 
 mlty nature of our pigments, which do not always produce 
 the same effect upon each other as we are led to suppose they 
 will. For instance, scarlet lightened with white loses f-ome 
 of its natural yellow, and takes on an additional shade of 
 blue. To correct this we find it necessary to add a little 
 yellow. In fact the eye must always be on the watch for 
 little points of this kind that necessitate corrective measures. 
 Again, green and orange, which should, theoretically, produce 
 yellow, and bluish green and purple, which should produce pure 
 blue, do not do so on account of the fact that the admixture of 
 the two colours lowers the scale of purity. If these colours are 
 substituted for yellow or blue in a scheme, they will require 
 brightening up. The actual colour produced by mixing green 
 with orange is equivalent to yellow lowered in scale, and the 
 product of bluish green with purple to blue lowered in scale.
 
 288 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 In combining such in a colour scheme, the lowering of scale may 
 be corrected either by the addition of the primary represented, 
 or by the covering of additional area with the lowered hue. 
 Thus, if areas represented by yellow be 3 and purple 8, and it 
 is desired to substitute a mixture of green and orange for the 
 yellow, then the lowered hue produced by mixing green and 
 orange will have to be used in the proportion of 6, to 5 of purple, 
 to produce the same balance and harmony, because 
 
 3 Green + 3 orange = 3 yellow + ( j } J Jjj e j = 3 purple) 
 and 8 purple - ( { }| JJ|j e j = 3 purple) = 5 purple. 
 
 In other words, 3 parts of the original 8 of purple are contained 
 in the lowered tone of yellow. 
 
 A due sense of the importance of colour is a vital necessity 
 to the painter and decorator. This importance must not be 
 construed to mean that strong colouring is necessary or desirable 
 in all decoration. In domestic work particularly, the colour of 
 the decorations must always be attendant on, and subservient 
 to, that of the furniture, fittings, and ornaments. It should 
 repeat them in a minor key or lead up to them. 
 
 Direct contrasts, to be at all successful, must be lowered in 
 tone towards neutrality. When the colours are pale, they may 
 be pure in tone, but when depth and strength are desirable, 
 there must be a counterbalancing reduction in brightness of 
 colour. 
 
 Large masses of colour may be more neutral in hue than 
 smaller areas. Positive colours should only be used in small 
 patches. 
 
 Classes of Colour Combination. Colour combinations may 
 be divided into three classes, mono-chromatic, analogous, and 
 contrasting. 
 
 Mono-chromatic colouring is that in which the various parts 
 of the decorative scheme are all of the same hue, but varied in 
 depth, as when one hue of pink is employed in varying depths. 
 
 Analogous colouring is where there is, in addition to the fore- 
 going, a contrast of tone ; as in cases where various hues of red 
 are employed, ranging from orange to purple red. 
 
 Contrasting colouring is that in which the additional contrast 
 of colour is added to the other two, as when green and red, or 
 red, yellow, and blue are used together.
 
 COLOUR. 289 
 
 To further identify these methods of colouring, four illustrar 
 tions are given : 
 
 Plate III. Shows mono-chromatic colouring. 
 
 Plate IV. Analogous colouring. 
 
 Plate II. Contrasting colouring with complimentaries. 
 
 Frontispiece. Contrasting poly-chromatic colouring. 
 
 Colour Values and Qualities. In the application of colour 
 to surfaces an appreciation of "colour values" is necessary. 
 Colours are warm and cold, advancing and receding, light and 
 dark, and bright and dull. Colours in which blue predominates, 
 we term cold; those in which red is conspicuous, we term warm; 
 those in which yellow is apparent, advance : and those in which 
 grey tones are prominent, retire. Colours having a tendency to 
 whiteness, are light, and those having a tendency to blackness, 
 we term dark. Colours having purity of hue are known as bright, 
 while those neutrally inclined are dull. 
 
 These peculiarities must be borne in mind and used archi- 
 tecturally, in a sense, to express facts of contour and formation, 
 and to repress what it is desirable to repress. If the student 
 carefully examines ,the colours used to produce effects of light 
 and shade by the pictorial artist, it will assist him in dealing 
 with colour values when applying colour to architectural detail. 
 
 Requirements for the Study of Colour. Many who com- 
 mence the study of colour as applied to decoration, are dis- 
 heartened by the confusion into which the subject has fallen by 
 the theoretic treatment of it by scientific writers, and hastily 
 assume that they are visually at fault in not seeing as others 
 appear to have seen. The great requirements for the colourist 
 are persistent study and experiment, a wide reading of works 
 on colour, and a broad and open mind ; the faculties for the 
 appreciation of colour harmony can be trained to high perfection, 
 even where natural ability and intuitive knowledge are deficient, 
 if sincerity and observation are possessed by the student. 
 
 Methods of Selecting a Colour Scheme. The methods 
 adopted by decorators in the selection of a colour scheme for 
 work in hand, vary considerably. Every man has his own way 
 of going to work. Plate No. III. is suggested by the leaf and 
 flower of a plant, the poppy. The brighter tones are used for the 
 principal parts of the work, and lowered for the larger surfaces. 
 Plate IV. is suggested by the red, yellow and blue of our "Royal 
 Standard," each lowered and composed and inter-combined, until 
 they are sufficiently reduced in hue for the purpose of room 
 decoration. 
 
 This lowering may be accomplished in four ways.
 
 290 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 If the combination is of two primary colours, each may be 
 lowered by the addition of the third primary ; thus red and 
 yellow would become 
 
 Red + blue and yellow + blue, 
 (purplish red) (greenish yellow) 
 
 If the combination is of a primary and a secondary, as red and 
 green, the two remaining primaries may be added, one to each, 
 as 
 
 Red + yellow and green + blue, 
 (orange red) (bluish green) 
 
 Or, Red + blue and green + yellow, 
 (purplish red) (greenish yellow) 
 
 If the contrasting colours are primaries, secondaries, or other 
 pure hues, they may be reduced by the addition of black, white, 
 or grey. 
 
 The colours may also be lowered by the addition of a little of 
 each to each, as in red and green, thus : 
 
 Green + a little red = warm green. 
 Red -f a little green = a russety red. 
 
 Useful Rules for the Colourist. There are many elemen- 
 tary facts and rules which it may be useful to record here for the 
 guidance of the painter, which space forbids discussing. 
 
 Light and heavy tones of colour have not always the same 
 relative effect. This depends greatly on hue. For instance, a 
 deep grey opposed to salmon would be lighter in effect than the 
 salmon, because the salmon would be the more insistent colour. 
 
 The cornice of a room belongs to the wall and not to the ceiling ; 
 and the skirting to the wall and not to the wood-work. The 
 architraves may also be taken as part of the wall with justifica- 
 tion. The mouldings belong to stiles, not panels. 
 
 Colour has a strong tendency to attach to itself qualities ac- 
 quired by association. Thus we have some greys, which (though 
 theoretically soft retiring colours) by reason of their being 
 known as the colour of certain slates, stones, or marbles, appeal 
 to us as solid and heavy. 
 
 One colour, either a primary or secondary, should always pre- 
 dominate in a scheme of decorative colouring to ensure success, 
 and all the primaries should be present in some form. 
 
 Contrast in colour suggests life and all that is opposite to 
 repose. Monochrome colouring, especially when pure in tone, 
 suggests quiet, repose, and rest.
 
 COLOUR. 291 
 
 Black and -white when used with colours require modifying to 
 avoid harshness and crudity. 
 
 To white used in combination with blue, add a touch of orange ; 
 when with red, add yellow ; when with yellow, add purple or 
 grey- 
 To black, when contrasted with blue, add brown ; when with 
 red, add green ; when with greys, add orange, 
 
 On light colours, Umber and Indian red, olive green, and 
 Quaker green will all take the place of true black. 
 
 True black or white are seldom required in decoration except 
 as gems in jewellery. 
 
 Gold takes the place of yellow in a decorative scheme, and is 
 improved by reds and greens in juxtaposition. 
 
 All colours must be decided upon in situ, the incidence and 
 quantity of lighting will otherwise invariably interfere with 
 their intended effect. 
 
 In a rich, deep, colour scheme pale tints and white used 
 sparingly and in minute lines or dots will add to the richness. 
 In a similar manner, rich, bright colours and black will affect a 
 lightly tinted scheme ; used unsparingly they will vulgarise and 
 destroy the harmony. 
 
 The effect of artificial light on colours may be tested in day 
 time by putting a piece of the colour in a box lighted by a 
 candle and peeping through a hole bored in the side of the box. 
 
 Greens should not be used where they will spoil the effect of 
 green lawns, trees, and gardens, but the use of them should be 
 encouraged in town houses and for city external painting. 
 
 In the country, where a large amount of yellow and yellow 
 browns and greens prevail, and where sunshine and sunset are 
 not unknown, pure white may be used with unstinted hand, 
 but in towns and cities and manufacturing districts it has a cold 
 and cheerless effect, and cream should be substituted ; pale cream 
 with yellows, deep cream with blues, warm cream with greens, 
 and neutral cream with reds. 
 
 TJse cool tints for a room having a south aspect, and warm 
 tints for a room having a north aspect. 
 
 In outside painting it is well to remember that greater scope 
 awaits the decorator than indoors. It is a duty that we owe to 
 our fellows that we make the exterior of our dwellings pleasing 
 in appearance, and colour is the readiest means of complying 
 with the duty. There is no excuse for dull, heavy, leaden 
 colouring on the outside of houses, especially city houses because 
 they are not continually before our eyes at all times as is the 
 case with internal painting.
 
 292 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 In conclusion, it should be borne in mind that though there 
 are set rules which govern the use of colour, the eye must 
 always be the final arbiter, subject to the broad principles here 
 laid down. Associations and personal preferences are uncon- 
 sciously brought into play when discussing the merits of a piece 
 of colouring, and it may usually be assumed that what appears 
 right, is so ; but, however assertive opinions based on personal 
 preference may be, no colouring will appeal pleasingly to an 
 educated eye, if it be not based upon known laws. 
 
 Colour Combinations. The following combinations of colour 
 may assist the student by suggestion. They are all more or 
 less correct in basis, and have been found to work out well. 
 The nomenclature adopted is as popularly descriptive as can be 
 obtained. Considerable existing confusion in the naming of 
 colours adds much to the difficulties of the subject. 
 
 Contrasting Couplets. 
 
 Normal red and blue green. 
 Scarlet ,, turquoise blue. 
 
 Violet , reddish orange. 
 
 Reddish violet 
 Purple 
 Red purple 
 Crimson 
 
 yellowish orange, 
 golden yellow, 
 greenish yellow, 
 mid green. 
 
 Pattern on Ground. 
 
 Pink on red. 
 
 Light green , deep green. 
 
 White 
 
 Blue 
 
 Gold 
 
 Grey 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Deep green 
 
 red. 
 
 full deep yellow, 
 white. 
 
 brown ochre, 
 red brown, 
 deep green, 
 red brown, 
 gold. 
 
 Coffee brown , , gold. 
 
 Quiet Toned Couplets. 
 
 Maroon and bluish sage green. 
 
 Red , , neutral grey. 
 
 Blue green ,, grey brown neutral. 
 
 Blue sage , red brown. 
 
 PJum 9 spring green. 
 
 Slate , citrine. 
 
 Olive , lavender. 
 
 Cream greens and purples. 
 
 White , pink.
 
 COLOUR. 293 
 
 Grey blue and full yellow. 
 
 Black foxy brown. 
 
 Violet ,, pale green. 
 
 Black ,, warm green. 
 
 Claret buff. 
 
 Colour Schemes used by Writer. The following colour 
 schemes are from the writer's experience, and are set down 
 irrespective of purpose or order : 
 
 Ceiling Decoration, Church. Grey-green blue with bands of 
 grey-green and cream clouds, starred over the blue with red and 
 white stars ; outlines to bands, red and black. 
 
 Bedroom. Ceiling, cream ; cornice, pale green ; walls, jade 
 green; wood-work, white; curtains, green and gold; furniture, 
 white and gold. 
 
 Dining-room. Walls, a neutral green, mid tone ; frieze, dull 
 buff and black, with maroon and gold ornamentation upon it ; 
 Ceiling of dark oak wood-work ; door, golden-brown panels, deep 
 olive stile, panels decorated in gold, with black outline and 
 detail 
 
 it all and Staircase. Ceiling, in pale buff; frieze, warm buff; 
 walls, drab stone colour with red lines upon it ; dado band, deep 
 warm buff; dado, panelled out in maroon and neutral blue. 
 
 Drawing-room. Light cream ceiling ; pale warm grey walls ; 
 Irieze, fawn colour; wood- work, a deeper grey and a deeper 
 fawn, with neutral green and gold ; and golden-brown decorated 
 panels. 
 
 Grand Drawing-room. Frieze, gold, strong yellow and white; 
 ceiling, lemon yellow ; walls, a strong orange red ; wood-work, 
 light red mahogany and gilt ormolu; plenty of gilding to 
 cornices, &c. 
 
 A Decorated Panel. Dull blue ground, with vellum and 
 golden yellow scroll, with black letters on it; leaves and stems 
 in brown and olive greens. 
 
 Dining-room. Ceiling, pale bluish green ; cornice, terra-cotta 
 and gold ; walls, a red and gold Jap leather ; dado, Brunswick 
 green glazed with Prussian blue ; wood-work, a deep brown oak. 
 
 A Staircase. Ceiling panels, greyish olive tint ; walls, olive 
 green tint ; dado, red ; frames, greenish grey stone ; doors, rich 
 Chippendale red. 
 
 Outside of House. Brick red with cream white facings ; wood- 
 work green, from black and ochre, deep. 
 
 Another. Stone colour, drab. Grey blue and olive green. 
 
 Half-timbered House. Wood- work, red, and plaster, grey ; or 
 wood-work, bottle green, and plaster, brownish white.
 
 294 PAINTING AND DECORATING 
 
 Drawing-room. Soft pink panels to ceiling, ornamented in 
 greys of a green cast and gold outlines ; cornice ; citrine, cream 
 and gold ; walls, green, citrine, pink and gold ; wood-work ; stiles 
 and framing, greenish citrine, cream and gold; mouldings, gold; 
 panels, rich pink and gold, and white ornament thereon. 
 
 Drawing-room Panelled by Pilasters. Panels, rose colour; 
 pilasters, dove colour ; caps and moulds, gold ; dado, white and 
 slatey grey ; ceiling, pale blue ; cornice, white. 
 
 Decorative Panels. Gold ground, transparent colours added to 
 whiting in oil; gives a translucent effect, especially blues and reds. 
 
 Panel Decoration. Ground, dull orange ; red and white 
 flowers, shaded up with grey tones; leaves, greyish and sap 
 greens ; outlines in coffee brown. 
 
 Another. Turquoise blue ground ; flowers, orange and wall- 
 flower brown ; leaves, bluish to brownish olive tints ; other 
 flowers or ribbons in crimson and brown ; outline in cool brown. 
 
 Panel for Drawing Room. Ground, primrose yellow ; pattern 
 stencilled in white, and double stencilled in glazes of raw and 
 burnt Sienna, with some gilding. 
 
 Decorative Panel. Ground, orange to brown, shaded stems, 
 greyish brown; fruit, crimson to citron; blossoms, white and 
 pink ; leaves in olive greens and greys. 
 
 Ball Walls. Frieze, fawn colour; filling, golden green with 
 buff and a greyer green upon it ; dado band, black and gold ; 
 dado, subdued crimson. 
 
 Triune Combinations. Suggestions for frieze, filling, and 
 dado in order named : 
 
 Old gold. Terra-cotta. Neutral blue. 
 
 Brownish gold. Peacock blue. Claret colour. 
 
 Green. Dull orange brown. Warm grey blue. 
 
 Sage green. Rich orange gold. Purplish red. 
 
 Cream. Amber-toned yellow. Quiet blue 
 
 Gold. Pale neutral blue. Deep red. 
 
 Olive tint. Salmon. Blue slate. 
 
 Sap green tint. Rose grey. Pomegranate red. 
 
 Green. Yellow bronze. Maroon. 
 
 Terra-cotta. Sage green. Claret colour. 
 
 Apricot. Golden brown. Brownish plum colour. 
 
 Flesh tint. p a l e olive. Venetian red. 
 
 Dado Decoration. Chancel of Church. Green on gold with 
 maroon and black lines. 
 
 Dado and Chancel Decoration. Olive green ground, deeper 
 olive and gold pattern, with rich claret and deep rich blue and 
 gold borders, lines of gold with vermilion dots on same. 
 
 Decorative Panel. Vellum ground with decorative orange
 
 PLATE 26.-BORDER8 SUITABLE FOR ONE-COLOUR STENCILLING. 
 To face p. 294.]
 
 295 
 
 plant; gold oranges shaded with burnt Sienna and cadmium; 
 leaves, grey greens shaded with sepia and neutral tint ; stems, 
 Sienna and Umber. 
 
 A Simple Treatment for a Bedroom. Take a deep sap green 
 for framing of wood-work and skirting, and a yellowish cream 
 for ceiling ; make all other intermediate tints by mixing the 
 two in varying proportions ; add a little yellow to the tints for 
 projecting members of cornice, and blue for receding ones. 
 
 Study Door. Stiles, deep oak ; panel, black ground with green 
 gold, brown gold and greyish olive foliage upon it. 
 
 Drawing Room Door. Buff-toned yellow stiles in enamel; 
 turquoise blue grounded, flattened panels, ornament gilded and 
 then glazed over in Umber, terra vert, and burnt Sienna, so that 
 all the gold is covered. 
 
 An Illustration of Analogous Harmony. A combination of 
 primrose yellow, primrose green, gold, yellowish brown, and 
 yellow orange. 
 
 In conclusion, the student is warned that the use of bright 
 colouring and strong contrasts must not be attempted unless 
 considerable skill in the management of colours has been attained, 
 and that the combining together of neutral tones with rich, but 
 not bright, complementaries will be found to be safest and most 
 generally popular course. 
 
 Before leaving the subject, a few words may be added on the 
 effect of illuminants upon colour in decoration. 
 
 Calculation of the Effect of Artificial Light on Colour. 
 The effect of artificial, incandescent electric, gas, or candle 
 light on colours may be roughly computed by adding to each 
 colour about 15 per cent, of yellow. In the case of colours con- 
 taining yellow, and of a yellow dominant hue, this addition is 
 unnoticeable, because the result of the addition of yellow to the 
 non-yellowish colours causes the yellow ones to appear less yellow 
 by contrast. It follows, then, that in order to provide against 
 this apparent loss the artist must add to all his yellowish colours, 
 not only this 15 per cent., but something over and above it in 
 order to maintain his relative scale of colour. The following 
 represents to the writer the appearance of each colour singly 
 when seen by gaslight. 
 
 Yellow appears, when pure and free from either green or 
 orange tinge, to represent almost white a colour akin ' to 
 luminosity. Pure blue appears as almost black, or represents 
 neutrality darkness. Pure scarlet appears normal, but in- 
 tensified in brilliance. Pure bright bluish green appears normal, 
 but slightly loses in brilliance.
 
 296 
 
 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 The following chart shows the appearance of the intermediate 
 colours, the arrows representing the direction in which the 
 change takes place ; thus orange looks redder, purple also 
 redder, green blue appears greener blue, and yellow green bluer 
 green. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 Bluish green. 
 
 Scarlet red. 
 
 These effects are dependent upon the pigments or materials 
 examined, but some curious discrepancies occur which it is 
 needless to detail here. 
 
 The broad principle appears to be that the addition of yellow 
 rays and the loss of blue rays cause the luminous colours to lose 
 and the non-luminous colours to gain in brilliance. 
 
 Professor Church gives a list of effects which, though not 
 apparently governed by rule, produce quite similar conclusions.
 
 PLATE 27.-NATURAL TIES IN STENCIL WORK. 
 
 To face p. 296.]
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 ESTIMATING 
 
 NY work on this subject would be 
 considered incomplete, were a short 
 chapter not devoted to this most 
 necessary, but, to the writer, com- 
 paratively uninteresting subject. 
 "Science is measurement," someone 
 has said, and we might parody it 
 and say, success is measurement; at 
 least in the painting trade. Accurate 
 measurement and close observation 
 are the bases of all good estimating. 
 
 Methods of Measuring Work. 
 Two methods of measuring are in 
 vogue in the painting and decorating trade. The one has for 
 its object the setting down to scale of a part of a room or 
 building in order to design the decoration for it, and is not 
 concerned with superficies so much as with lineal dimensions. 
 The other is for pricing, and is principally concerned with 
 quantities, not sizes. 
 
 In measuring a room or building for the former purpose,
 
 298 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 a plan of the room and an elevation are necessary. These should 
 be made to show all measurements in figures. The plan and 
 elevation must be roughly sketched, and then the measurements 
 taken and the figures set down upon it. 
 
 In measuring for pricing, the details of the measuring need 
 not be kept separate, but the totals only need to be set down. 
 For instance, in measuring the cornice of a room, the separate 
 lengths are mentally added together, making a grand total, 
 which is put down in the notebook ; the items being ignored. 
 
 Estimating. When estimating, the work should be gone 
 through in the order in which it would be carried out; i.e., 
 preparation first, decoration last. By adopting this method, 
 any omissions are more effectually guarded against. 
 
 The following rules are usually adhered to in computing the 
 value of work : 
 
 All stopping, washing, and rubbing down are charged by 
 . time, or the time they will require is guessed at and put down 
 at an assessed sum. This refers to every description of pre- 
 paratory work, as taking off old paint, <fec. 
 
 Painting is calculated and priced at per yard superficial, or 
 square, excepting in the case of running pipes or skirtings, 
 cornices, &c., which are less than 1 foot in width. 
 
 Distempering is also measured by the yard superficial. 
 
 Items, such as grids, ventilators, windows, chimney pieces, 
 sashframes, doors, fec., are often enumerated at a set sum each. 
 
 In pricing painted work, the number of intended coats is 
 specified and the price per yard assessed accordingly. Thus, 
 2-coat paint work would not be taken as double the quantity, 
 or twice the price of one coat work, but an additional amount 
 per yard chai-ged for the extra coat. 
 
 Paper-hanging is charged at a price per piece for hanging. 
 
 Graining and marbling are charged at per yard superficial for 
 plain work. 
 
 Lettering is charged at per letter, the prices varying according 
 to size of letters. 
 
 Gilding is charged at so much per book of gold. 
 
 All these methods are subject to variation under different 
 circumstances. 
 
 In decorative work the most correct way to assess the value 
 is to compute the time it will take a man to do each of the 
 various parts of the work, and add the time together. 
 
 In ordinary plain painting it is useful to check the figures that 
 are arrived at by the method of estimating described above, by a 
 second calculation, based on the time taken to do the work. Of
 
 MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 299 
 
 course, the cost of material must in both instances be added to 
 the time calculation. 
 
 Comparative Prices for Painting. The following com- 
 parative prices may be found useful, if taken in conjunction 
 relatively with the prices for plain painting which are current 
 at the time and place under consideration : 
 
 If plain painting 1 coat per square yard be worth 5d. 
 
 Painting 2 coats will be worth 8d. per yard super. 
 
 3 9d. 
 
 4 ,, ,, lid. 
 
 ,, 3 coats and 1 flatting coat, Is. per yard super. 
 
 Distempering in tints, 3d. per yard super. 
 white, 2d. 
 
 All preparation is an extra charge. 
 
 1 coat of varnish, good, 5d. per yard super. 
 1 ,, best, 7d. 
 
 Hanging paper, 9d. to Is. 3d. per piece, according to quality of paper. 
 Graining oak, Is. to 2s. 6d. per yard, according to quality and quantity. 
 Gilding on large surfaces, 4s. 6d. per book of gold, and time. 
 Lettering, id. per inch in height per letter, for plain 1 colour. 
 
 Gold lettering, Id. per inch in height per letter, up to 3 inches high ; 2d. 
 per inch up to 9 inches high ; over 9 inches high, 6s. per book of gold used.
 
 300 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 F the differences between coach- 
 painting and house-painting the 
 most important are that provi- 
 sion must be made for more 
 hard wear, washing, and rubbing 
 in the former work than in or- 
 dinary house work; that the 
 work is exposed to extremes of 
 temperature and atmosphere, and 
 that the carriage is chiefly com- 
 posed of hard, closely -grained 
 woods and metal, with a conse- 
 quent absence of porosity or key 
 for the paint, rendering the work far more liable to scale and 
 chip. The result of these differences is, broadly speaking, that 
 a harder and less elastic treatment is called for ; one, in which 
 the various coats shall be thoroughly homogeneous with the 
 ground and with each other. The earlier coats must be hard and 
 tenacious, partaking of the character of the ground and yet not 
 so hard as to chip from it. It may also be advanced that the 
 finish in all coach work is of a higher character than that of 
 house-painting ; the space covered is less, and the labour forms
 
 PLATE 28.-STENCIL FRIEZES FOR BLENDED COLOURING. 
 To face p. 300.]
 
 OOACH-PAINTING. 301 
 
 a greater proportion of the expense than in house-painting, with 
 the natural consequence that for such small quantities of 
 material as are required, a higher price is usually given. The 
 fact that house work is not equally well finished is due to false 
 economy, carelessness, and slovenliness in perhaps equal propor- 
 tions. There is no technical or rational reason why the better 
 parts of the work in a house should not be as well done as 
 carriages are. In many old mansions, work in every respect 
 perfect in finish is to be found, and enquiry usually proves it to 
 have been done for twenty to thirty years, and to have been 
 cheaper in the end than the more familiar shoddy work. 
 
 In coach-painting and varnishing much that has already been 
 said has equal force. The brushes, tools, pigments, modes of 
 applying the colour, thinnings, and varnishes are practically the 
 same, and there is nothing in former chapters that may not be 
 advantageously known to the carriage painter. There are, per- 
 haps, a few very few items which do not usually find their 
 way into the painter's shop, and these will be particularised. 
 
 Preparation for Coach-Painting. The surfaces for treat- 
 ment in a carriage will be woods, metal, canvas, and leather. Of 
 knots, there will be few or none ; but all grease must be washed 
 off the iron-work and wood-work by the use of turpentine. Thin 
 knotting is often used all over the panels to kill sap and uneven- 
 ness. Scrape all red lead off the joints. This is used by the 
 carriage builder in place of glue in much of the framing. Prime 
 with ordinary priming of white lead, 3 parts of turps to one part 
 of oil. Tone the priming a grey that will incline to the finishing 
 colour with a little vegetable black ; extra driers will be requisite 
 for teak, oak, elm, or ash. Allow the work to stand a couple of 
 days before re-coating, and then second coat with the same prim- 
 ing. Use hard stopping (white lead and japanners' varnish) for 
 the holes and cracks. Allow the stopping to harden for a couple 
 of days, and then glass-paper down. Take care that the stopping 
 is pressed well home, and observe all the precautions set down 
 in the chapter on Plain Painting, especially that the heads of 
 brads, &c., are painted, and that there is no dust in the holes to 
 prevent the stopping holding firmly. 
 
 Filling up. The next process will be the filling up, a process 
 which, in the house-painting trade, is more often honoured in 
 the breach than in the observance. Coach-makers' colour manu- 
 facturers prepare many kinds of filling powder. Harland's or 
 Berger's supply the best. Dry white lead and whiting may be 
 substituted, or powdered pumice may be added to the last two. 
 The u^aal powders sold are preparations of shale or slate finely
 
 302 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 pulverised. Whatever the pigment used, it is ground finely 
 in turpentine, and thinned with japauners' gold size to a working 
 consistency. If the work is very rough the first coat can be 
 applied with a spatula or palette knife, or a thin steel broad 
 chisel or scraping knife, as described for painter's work. If so, 
 it is used stiffly of a paste consistency. The other coats, of 
 which three to six will be requisite, are laid with a soft brush ; 
 a flat varnish brush or a camel-hair in tin, of about three inches 
 in breadth, is suitable for the purpose. There must be enough 
 japanners' gold size to prevent the successive coats working up 
 the undercoatings. 
 
 The rubbing down maybe done with glass paper, dry ; or with 
 pumice stone and water. The specially manufactured prepared 
 blocks of pumice are, however, the best thing for this work, and 
 may be obtained in several varying degrees of grain, from very 
 fine to very coarse. Steel wire wool has lately been introduced 
 for the purpose, and also a combination of steel filings. 
 
 The iron-work may be primed in the same way and at the 
 same time as the wood-work, but will not require filling up to the 
 same extent, probably not at all. 
 
 The canvassed surfaces can also be treated in a similar manner, 
 but with a rather greater proportion of oil in the colour. 
 
 The leather covered parts will not require priming, but must 
 be painted in varnish colour of a similar hue and shade to the 
 proposed finish. 
 
 In all carriage work plenty of time between all the coats is 
 a sine quA non to success, and care must be taken that the 
 original wood-work, leather, and canvas are dry, and also that 
 all the water used in rubbing down has dried out of the crevices 
 before proceeding with another coat. 
 
 When the leather and iron-work have had about three 
 coats, and the wood surfaces are fairly smooth and good, the 
 finishing painting is proceeded with. Sometimes for extra good 
 work a further series of filling up coats are added and rubbed 
 down. 
 
 It is a good plan to give a coat of quick drying Japan colour, 
 of some bright contrasting hue, over the filling up before rubbing 
 down, to act as a check or signal. When rubbing down, it will 
 be easily seen when a perfectly level surface has been obtained, 
 as so long as any of the check colour is visible, there must be a 
 depression at that point. 
 
 In rubbing down, all the precautions referred to in house 
 painting must be observed. 
 
 The coat following the filling should have a fair amount of
 
 PLATE 29.-FRIEZE8 DESIGNED FOR POLYCHROMATIC COLOURING. 
 
 To face p. 302.]
 
 COACH-PAINTING. 303 
 
 varnish in it, as it will penetrate slightly into the filling up 
 which will be porous. 
 
 The list of desirable colours is the same as for house-painting. 
 Many rich and beautiful colours are obtained only by the use 
 of glazes, as has been already noticed in the chapter on Colour. 
 
 Finishing. The number of finishing coats will be determined 
 by the necessities and covering power of the colour chosen, as a 
 solid well-covered ground must be obtained before varnishing. 
 The finishing colour must be very finely ground in turpentine, 
 if not purchased in that condition, and thinned with best carriage- 
 body varnish. Nowadays, however, it is far cheaper to buy the 
 colour ready ground in collapsible tubes, such as are supplied by 
 Messrs. Mander Bros., or in air-tight tins with self-emptying 
 apparatus, such as are sent out specially by Messrs. Berger & Co. 
 In cheap work, oil colours (such as are used by painters) are thinned 
 with turpentine and a drying varnish ; but good work cannot be 
 got by this method. Japan gold size may be added to the varnish 
 colour to expedite the drying, but plenty of time should be 
 allowed whenever possible. Between each finishing coat a very 
 slight rubbing with flour glass paper, or with fine ground pumice, 
 is necessary, but it must be lightly and evenly done, and well 
 cleaned and dusted afterwards. For particulars as to the appli- 
 cation of the paint, reference may be made to Plain Painting. 
 A damp leather may be used to dust the work after the ordinary 
 dusting brush. 
 
 Varnishing. The stage of varnishing is next reached. Every 
 care must be taken to protect the surface from dust and dirt, 
 and to keep it at a warm temperature during varnishing ; the 
 warnings given to house painters need emphasising two-fold. 
 Striping, lettering, or heraldic or other decoration, may be done 
 before, or after, the first varnishing. The writer prefers to get 
 a few coats of varnish on prior to decorating. 
 
 Hard copal varnish, hard body varnish or flatting varnish 
 (not to be confounded with the dead or encaustic flatting 
 varnish used in house painting, which dries without gloss) 
 is used for the preliminary coats. Two or three coats laid on 
 evenly and not too roundly, and allowed to harden, are neces- 
 
 The "flatting" or rubbing down with ground pumice powder 
 in water is then proceeded with. Ground pumice of varying 
 degrees of fineness are used with water, and a rubber of felt or 
 box cloth or close tweed. The rubbing should be even and 
 without pressure, and should be continued till the whole surface 
 has been thoroughly dulled. Finish with the finest levigated
 
 304 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 pumice powder. Three days should elapse between flatting 
 down and revarnishing. The number of coats of varnish will 
 be an open question, and must be left to experience. The 
 colour and finish are factors in determining the number. There 
 should be no rubbing down after the first, except a mere sus- 
 picion with the felt only to slightly dull the polish, and between 
 the last two coats no rubbing at all is desirable. For black 
 work, black Japan of the best quality is used in place of varnish, 
 but a better absolute black cau be obtained by using it over 
 deep Prussian blue. 
 
 Lining and Decorating. Decoration and lining must in all 
 cases be done before the last two coats of varnish, or the work 
 will project above the general surface. When felting, be careful 
 not to cut into heraldic or monogram work. 
 
 For lining, long sable liners are the best, and the colour 
 should be of turpentine and varnish. Gilding should be in 
 Japan size, lowered with body varnish or Harland's writing size. 
 Ordinary oil tube colours are used for heraldic painting. 
 
 The method of lining or striping is different from that 
 practised by the house decorator, in consequence of the number 
 of curves the carriage painter has to follow, and may be de- 
 scribed. Holding the pencil between the thumb and forefinger, 
 and using the colour rather thin, the second finger, and some- 
 times the others, are allowed to rest upon, and be guided by, 
 the edge of the panel, shaft, or spoke, and act as a gauge. A 
 little practice gives great expertness and accuracy, and lines of 
 widths varying from % of an inch to f of an inch are readily 
 and correctly run at one operation by the use of different sized 
 liners, of which illustrations have already been given. The 
 instructions for lettering may be taken from the chapter on that 
 subject. For traps and carts finished in the natural wood, a 
 filler to stop up the grain of the wood in the manner adopted by 
 French polishers is necessary. Take plaster of Paris and 
 whiting, and mix with water; and rub well into the surface 
 with a handful of shavings or a sponge, leaving none on the 
 surface. Allow to dry, and then dust off, and give a coat of 
 Japan gold size, and \ turpentine ; allow it to saturate, but 
 leave none upon the surface of the work. Or, use one of the 
 patent wood fillers specially manufactured for the purpose. 
 Proceed as for varnishing painted work. 
 
 In re-painting old work, all the previous paint and varnish 
 should be removed in the same way as for painters' work gener- 
 
 For business carts and vans, the following method of proceed-
 
 PLATE 30.-PATTERN FOR STENCILLING OVER THE JOINTS OF INGRAIN PAPER. 
 To face p. 304.]
 
 COACH-PAINTING. 305 
 
 ing is cheap and expeditious : Two coats of priming, two of 
 colour, and two of varnish. Two coats of filling up may be 
 interposed after the priming, if considered necessary. 
 
 Motor Cars and Cycles. The same general rules apply to 
 both motor cars and cycles, except that most of the metal parts 
 are coated with a stoving enamel, which is dried in about four 
 hours at a temperature of 120 to 160 in a close stove or heated 
 chamber. Motor cars require a hard finish to withstand the 
 dust. The action of the particles is nearly akin to a sand- 
 blast and the harder the varnish the less likely they are to 
 dull it, a hard surface causing them to fly off at a tangent. 
 Stoving enamels and special varnishes and colours for this work 
 are sold by the leading firms. Manders devote a special cata- 
 logue to a fine range of coach colours, including some good clear 
 yellows. Blume's automobile varnish is specially prepared to 
 stand abrasion, as well as extremes of temperature, and Olsina 
 stoving enamels made in thirty-six shades are certainly equal 
 to anything we have tested for the purpose of cycle work. 
 
 Ship-Painting. The practice of ship-painting differs only 
 slightly from the two foregoing. Indeed, a combination of the 
 two methods of proceeding is usually adopted. For the princi- 
 pal work, first-class carriage-painting is used ; and for the rougher 
 work, first-class house-painting. All the methods and materials 
 used are similar, and the same men are frequently employed 
 upon both house- and ship-painting. Special treatment of a 
 rough class is used for the iron-work and for the hull externally, 
 usually a salt water resisting enamel containing asphaltum in 
 some form. For boats, special varnishes are made to stand 
 water, both salt and fresh. That of Messrs. Harland is a 
 specialty among Thames boatbuilders. There are no points of 
 technique of sufficient distinctiveness in ship decoration to form 
 the subject of a special chapter. 
 
 20
 
 306 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 THE equipment and conduct of a class for painters 
 and decorators are matters of considerable difficulty 
 and expense, and have in some instances been so 
 sadly mismanaged that a few words on the subject 
 may be of value to all connected with such a class, 
 either as organisers, teachers, or visitors. 
 
 It is necessary in the conduct of a painter's class to at 
 once realise that much that is in the common routine of 
 daily work can only be taught theoretically, and that lads 
 of such years as attend the classes cannot reasonably be 
 expected to produce first-class plain painting, the facility to 
 produce which is the result of long continued practice upon 
 actual work. 
 
 A class affords no scope for such practice, and the limited 
 screens or panels that can be conveniently painted in the 
 class give no opportunity for the practical teaching of plain 
 painting. 
 
 The mission of the class must therefore be directed to the 
 teaching of the scientific principles that underlie the use and 
 application of paint, and the theoretic manner of carrying these 
 principles into practice.
 
 PAINTERS' TECHNICAL CLASSES. 307 
 
 The same arguments apply to paper-hanging, distempering, 
 and many other kindred operations covered by the term painting 
 and decorating. 
 
 The acceptance of this principle at once does away with the 
 very considerable initial difficulty of providing or attempting 
 to provide large surfaces, doors, and other material for experi- 
 mental operations, as was actually attempted in the early stages 
 of technical classes for painters. It also removes the apparent 
 necessity for insisting on thoroughly proficient plain painting 
 prior to admitting a student to the decorative section of the 
 work. 
 
 The experience of several years has conclusively proved to 
 me that any time of the student which is taken up by merely 
 repeating the actual work upon which he is daily engaged is 
 wasteful and disappointing both to the student and the class. 
 On the other hand, time spent in lucidly explaining the why 
 and wherefore of the operations in the student's daily work 
 secures his interest and places in his hands a power which is 
 put into practice out of class hours, and then his ordinary 
 working hours are made to supplement his class teaching. 
 
 Before proceeding to detail the course of study to be recom- 
 mended, we will discuss the fitting and equipment of the class- 
 room, and the materials that it will be requisite to stock, toge- 
 ther with the best form they can take. The perishable nature 
 of painters' stock, and its liability to deterioration, make it 
 undesirable to stock in the same manner as for an ordinary 
 business. If the class is a winter session one, and the evenings 
 only are devoted to it, the question of preserving and cleansing 
 brushes will require arrangement, and whenever possible it is 
 desirable that students should bring their own brushes for the 
 work in hand. Large brushes are costly and require consider- 
 able care and attention. 
 
 Assuming that the class is an evening one, the first question 
 will be that of light. The inverted arc light is far and away 
 the best for the purpose. By its steady diffused white light 
 continuous colour work is possible. I do not, however, know 
 of a single class-room used by painter-students in which this 
 light is fixed, although in many cases it is in use in other 
 departments of schools. 
 
 The walls of the room and the ceiling should be of untoned 
 white, so as to form a true neutral relation to colours. 
 
 There should be several benches of a height to work at stand- 
 ing i.e., about table height with paint slabs and mullers, 
 knives, &c., and a drawer below the slab for rag for cleaning
 
 308 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 
 
 down. A large keg or cask for waste paint, of which there 
 will accumulate a fairly large quantity, as each student should 
 prepare his own colour and will have some little left over ; also 
 paint cans and pots. 
 
 In regard to pots, it is a good plan to induce students to 
 bring their own and take them away when done with. This 
 does away with a lot of unnecessary cleaning and waste of class 
 time, and serves to keep the class-room more tidy than if all 
 pots and cans were the property of the school. 
 
 A large well-shelved cupboard should be reserved for paint in 
 use i.e., for storage between the class meetings. 
 
 Easels will be required for pencil work, and desks for drawing 
 and lectures. 
 
 Drawing-boards and tee-squares should also be provided by 
 the school. 
 
 Screens which can be covered with cloth, calico, paper, or 
 canvas for working upon should be fixed at intervals round 
 the room. On these screens decorative work of all kinds, sign- 
 writing, &c., can be done, and afterwai'ds unpinned and removed 
 for inspection or exhibition. Space will be saved if these screens 
 are placed at right angles to the wall. 
 
 The precise arrangement and equipment of the room or rooms 
 must be governed by the proportion and space of the accommoda- 
 tion ; but if it can be so arranged, the room for the lectures and 
 for the teaching of drawing should be a separate one altogether 
 from that used for painting in. 
 
 Colours, varnishes, and oils should be exclusively of the best, 
 and material likely to be tendered by firms advertising special 
 goods should only be received by way of samples for contrast 
 with the goods generally used in the class. 
 
 Genuine white lead and zinc white, both in oil and dry 
 powder; oils, boiled and raw linseed, and turpentine; whiting, 
 size in powder form, and filling-up composition are all the 
 goods of which large quantities will be required. 
 
 Other colours ground in oil and put up in the large tubes used 
 by decorators will be found cleanly and convenient. A very 
 full set of these should be obtained of a good firm. Another 
 complete set in dry powder form, stored in small drawers, will 
 be required for distemper and for varnish or quick-drying colour 
 mixing. 
 
 The mixing of all paint upon the slab, and, if necessary, the 
 grinding of pigments by hand, should be encouraged, as this 
 teaches the students the effects of the various oils upon pig- 
 ments, and the peculiar properties of pigments, and the manner
 
 PAINTERS' TECHNICAL CLASSES. 309 
 
 in which they affect the colour of each other when combined, 
 much more thoroughly than when colours are mixed in a can, 
 pot, or other vessel. 
 
 The usual odds and ends required in a painter's shop should 
 be kept, and a rigid observance of " a place for everything " will 
 be most necessary, even extending to rags for wiping down 
 benches and knives. 
 
 A few varnishes of tried and known excellence must be kept 
 in such a place and manner as to be always clean and in prime 
 condition. 
 
 The syllabus of teaching will be usually based on that of the 
 City and Guilds of London Institute, which provides three 
 grades or classes. These classes may be so disposed that each 
 is in turn engaged in drawing, at practical work, or at a lecture 
 or demonstration ; while the other two are otherwise occupied, 
 no two classes doing the same work as any other on the same 
 evening. If three evenings a week are taken, this will get the 
 three subjects into each student's work in one form or other in 
 each week. 
 
 The lectures should be accompanied by sketches on the black- 
 board, and ocular demonstration of the processes and methods 
 explained. The writer has sometimes found it advisable to 
 have a demonstrating assistant taken from the advanced class 
 of students. 
 
 Students should be encouraged to take full notes of the points 
 in the lectures. 
 
 Drawing should be made as far as possible to bear directly on 
 the trade work, thus a small scale sketch may be worked out 
 to full size, a stencil cut, and made ready for use as a drawing 
 
 Drawing from memory and from description of simple objects 
 will be found valuable. 
 
 Test questions should be frequently set, and replies written 
 to them at home and handed in by the students for criticism. 
 
 In the study of colour it is a good plan to accustom students 
 to make up tints or shades of colour from a verbal description 
 of them.
 
 ABSORBENT? graining, 211. 
 Acid resisting paints, 170. 
 Adulteration of pigments, 81. 
 Esthetic effects in relief decoration, 
 
 281. 
 
 Alabaster, 214. 
 Alizarin, 78. 
 Alum in distemper, 117. 
 Anaglypta, 99, 100. 
 
 Paste for, 112. 
 Analysis of light, 284. 
 Aniline reds, 78. 
 Antwerp blue, 78. 
 Appliances, Plant and, 31. 
 Application of stains, 176. 
 Applying varnishes, 185. 
 Area, Quantity of paint to cover 
 
 given, 131. 
 Art, Identity of work and, 6. 
 
 Relation of Science to, 6. 
 Artificial light on colours, 291, 295. 
 Artistic limitations of staining, 174. 
 Artists' browns, Decorative, 76. 
 
 yellows, 77. 
 Ash, Graining, 210. 
 Aspect of colours, Scientific, 283. 
 
 of rooms, 291. 
 Association and colour, 290. 
 
 B 
 
 BASTARD flatting on woodwork, 157. 
 Beauty v. fashion, 256. 
 
 Relation of, to cleanliness, 5. 
 
 Beauty and truth, 6. 
 Bedrooms, Treatment of, 9. 
 Bench, Colours to be kept on, 16. 
 ,, in painting room, 22. 
 ,, Paint, covered with zinc, 18. 
 ,, trestles, 41. 
 Benches for painting room, 21. 
 Bennett's brushes, 61. 
 ,, strainers, 47. 
 ,, varnish can, 187. 
 Berger's paint, 83. 
 Binders and media for water colours, 
 
 87. 
 
 Bins for plaster and whiting, 19. 
 Bischof's white lead, 71. 
 Black and gold marble, 213. 
 and white, their modification, 
 
 291. 
 in colour schemes, 
 
 291. 
 
 Blue, 80. 
 Drop, 80. 
 Ivory, 80. 
 Lamp, 80. 
 paint, 80. 
 Vegetable, 80. 
 Bli tering, 164. 
 Bli ters and knots, 164. 
 how caused, 164. 
 on stone, cement, and iron, 
 
 165. 
 
 ,, Prevention of, 165. 
 Block v. machine printed papers, 94. 
 Blocks, Pulley, 40. 
 Blooming in varnishes, 192. 
 Blue, Antwerp, 78. 
 black, 80.
 
 312 
 
 Blue, Bremen, 79. 
 Chinese, 78. 
 Lime, 78. 
 New, 78. 
 Prussian, 78. 
 Blume's varnishes, 186. 
 Boards, Mixing, 44. 
 
 Paste, 40. 
 Boiled oil, 86. 
 
 ,, v, raw, Action of, 124. 
 Book, day-, Rough, for paint shop, 
 
 19, 47. 
 
 for plant, 47. 
 Books on lettering, 231. 
 Borders and panelling in paperhang- 
 
 ing, 111. 
 
 Breadth of effect in decoration, 254. 
 Breakfast room, Treatment of, 9. 
 Bremen blue, 79. 
 Brick walls, Colouring, 142. 
 Bridling a brush, 59. 
 Brimsdown white lead, 71. 
 Bristles and hairs, 49. 
 
 ,, Quantity of, in a brush, 51. 
 Broken colour, 251. 
 Bronze and Quaker greens, 79. 
 Bronzes, 227. 
 Bronzing and gilding, 216. 
 
 upon distemper ground, 270. 
 ,, relief materials, 280. 
 Brown lakes, 76. 
 
 Vandyke, 76. 
 Browns, Decorative artists', 76. 
 Brunswick greens, 79. 
 Brushes, adhering to one make, 68. 
 American distemper, 54. 
 Bennett's Joyce loop, 67. 
 Bridling, 59. 
 Caustic, 55. 
 Crippling in, 64. 
 Distemper, 52, 143. 
 Flat, 53. 
 varnish, 
 
 62. 
 
 Knot, 53. 
 ,, Sizes of, 53. 
 The best, 54. 
 Economy in buying, 69. 
 Fibre scrub, 56. 
 Flat wall painting, 55. 
 Foreign, 50. 
 found by employer, 69. 
 French, 50. 
 Ground or paint, 58. 
 
 Brushes, importance of knowledge of 
 all kinds, 266. 
 
 ,, Lime white, 56. 
 
 ,, Methods of fixing the hair 
 in, 50. 
 
 ,, Paint or ground, 58. 
 
 Paperhanging, 103. 
 
 ,, v. rollers, 102. 
 
 Purchase of, 68. 
 
 ,, Quantity of bristles in, 51. 
 
 Selection of paint, 51. 
 
 Storage of, 69. 
 
 Test of good, 51. 
 
 ,, for fibre in, 51. 
 
 and tools, 49. 
 
 Trays for keeping soft, 17. 
 
 Varnish, 61. 
 
 Washer or smutch pan, 17. 
 Buckets, 44. 
 Burners, Charcoal, 46. 
 Burning off old paint, 157. 
 
 ,, ,, lamps, 45. 
 Burnish gold size, 218. 
 
 ,, and matt gilding, 223. 
 Burnt Sienna, 76. 
 
 , umber, 76. 
 
 AMEL-HAIB flats, 68. 
 
 ,, mops, 67. 
 
 ,, writers, 66. 
 
 Dans or kettles, 44. 
 Canvas, Decoration in distemper on, 
 
 142. 
 
 Painting, 170. 
 Car painting, 305. 
 
 Carriages, Decorating and lining, 304. 
 Filling-up on, 301. 
 Finishing colour for, 303. 
 Painting, 300. 
 ,, Varnishing, 303. 
 Cartage, 42. 
 Cartoon paper, 261. 
 
 ,, Transferring, to work, 264. 
 Cartoons, Wall for large, 21. 
 Caustic brushes, 56. 
 Ceiling, A bad wall or, 137. 
 Painting, 161. 
 ,, Papering, 110. 
 papers, 98. 
 
 ,, stains in, Treatment of, 137. 
 Whitening, 136.
 
 313 
 
 Cellar walls, Treatment of, 141. 
 Cement, Blisters on, 165. 
 ,, Keene's, 87. 
 Mastic, 87. 
 
 Portland, 171. 
 Character in ornament, 250. 
 Charcoal burners, 48. 
 
 ,, drawings, fixing same, 
 
 264. 
 
 Charlton white, 75. 
 Chemical staining, 174. 
 
 stains, 177. 
 Children's room, Importance of white 
 
 in, 10. 
 
 Chinese blue, 78. 
 Chromatic circles, Experimental use 
 
 of, 286. 
 
 Chrome greens, 79. 
 Chromes, 77. 
 Circle, Colour, 284. 
 
 Practical use of 286. 
 
 ,, ,, Theories based on, 
 
 286. 
 
 ,, To construct a, 286. 
 
 Cissing and pinholing, 192. 
 Clairecolle, Laying on, 137. 
 
 Mixing, 116. 
 
 Clairecolleing and preparing ceilings, 
 
 137. 
 
 Classes for painters' students, 306. 
 ,, of staining, 174. 
 of varnish, 183. 
 Cleaning stencil plates, 272. 
 Cleanliness in relation to beauty, 5. 
 
 ,, in working, 11. 
 Clear size, 219. 
 Client's requirements, 12. 
 Coach-painting, 300. 
 
 ,, v. house-painting, 300. 
 
 ,, Preparation for, 301. 
 
 Coat, First, on new plaster, 146. 
 
 ,, Second, on new plaster, 147. 
 Coating over old distemper, 139. 
 Coats, Finishing, on wood - work, 
 
 157. 
 
 ,, Number of, on new wood- 
 work, 152. 
 
 ,, Result of too many, 151. 
 Sequence of, in painting, 161. 
 ,, Successive, of varnish, 185. 
 Cobalt blue, 79. 
 ,, green, 79. 
 Coe's gilding wheels, 228. 
 Colour circle, 284. 
 
 Colour circle, How to construct, 286. 
 ,, Practical use of, 286. 
 
 ,, Theories based on, 
 
 286. 
 Colour, Action of light in producing, 
 
 283. 
 
 and artificial light, 291. 
 and association, 290. 
 ,, and conventionality, 252. 
 and temperament, 249. 
 ,, and the law of gravitation, 
 
 248. 
 ,, Black and white in schemes 
 
 of, 291. 
 
 Broken, 251. 
 ,, Classes of, combinations, 
 
 288. 
 
 ,, combinations, 292. 
 Considerations governing use 
 
 of, 247. 
 
 Constructive use of, 248. 
 ,, contrasting couplets, 292. 
 Decorative use of, compared 
 
 to that of ornament, 249. 
 Definition of, 283. 
 Effect of distance on, 286. 
 ,, ,, of intermixture, 287. 
 ,, ,, on health of children, 
 
 10. 
 
 ,, Fat, and smudge, 25. 
 for lettering, 234. 
 ,, for painting ornament, 269. 
 ,, for stencilling in distemper, 
 
 264. 
 
 ,, Importance of, in decora- 
 tion, 246. 
 
 in decoration, 283. 
 ,, in external painting, 291. 
 in nature, 249. 
 ,, Influence of pattern upon, 
 
 246. 
 ,, Intervals between, on the 
 
 spectrum, 284. 
 
 Limit in distempering, 135. 
 lining for use in distemper, 
 
 265. 
 
 Lowering of hues in, 290. 
 Methods of selecting a, 
 
 scheme, 289. 
 ,, Mixing, 115. 
 Movement and respose in, 
 
 291. 
 Natural, deepening in wood, 
 
 176.
 
 314 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Colour of pattern on grounds, 292. 
 ,, Popular nomenclature of, 
 
 and guide to, 128. 
 quiet-toned couplets, 292. 
 ,, relation to substance, 248. 
 ,, Requirements for study of, 
 
 286. 
 ,, schemes used by the writer, 
 
 293. 
 
 Scientific aspect of, 283. 
 Transparent, on distemper, 
 
 269. 
 
 Triune combination, 294. 
 values and qualities, 289. 
 Colouring, Analogous, 288. 
 brick walls, 142. 
 Contrasting, 288. 
 Deceptive, 249. 
 Dominant factor in, 290. 
 Monochromatic, 288. 
 
 of halls, 7. 
 
 ,, of paint shop, 15. 
 ,, Ornamental, in high relief 
 
 work, 279. 
 
 Personal prejudice in, 292. 
 ,, Suggestion of weight in, 
 
 248. 
 
 Colourist, Useful rules for, 290. 
 
 Colours, Artificial light on, 295. 
 
 ,, Coach -painters', 82. 
 
 ,, Complementary, 284. 
 
 Consistency of, ground in 
 
 oil, 80. 
 
 ,, Drawers for powder, 18. 
 Effect of juxtaposition on, 
 
 , , Floating of, in distemper, 138. 
 
 How to keep turpentine- 
 ground, 27. 
 
 How to keep water-ground, 
 27. 
 
 Importance of situation on, 
 291. 
 
 Important rules for match- 
 ing, 127. 
 
 in oil required for stock, 
 28. 
 
 Light and heavy, 290. 
 
 List of, for water-coating 
 woods, 178. 
 
 j, Matching, in paint, 126. 
 
 Recipes for popular, 129. 
 
 recommended for tinting 
 and staining, 125. 
 
 Colours required on paint bench, 
 
 16. 
 Sinking of, in distemper, 
 
 138. 
 
 ,, Twelve, for colour box, 82. 
 Combination, Classes of colour, 288. 
 
 Harmony of, 253. 
 
 Combinations, Colour, 292. 
 
 Triune colour, 294. 
 
 Combine, Pigments that will, 128. 
 Combustion, Spontaneous, 15. 
 Commixture of pigments, 81. 
 Comparative prices of material, 89. 
 ,, ,, painting, 299. 
 
 ,, utility of stains, 175. 
 Comparison between wallpaper and 
 
 painting, 97. 
 
 Complementary colours, 287. 
 Complete list of distemper stainers, 
 
 133. 
 Compo, Sanding, 150. 
 
 Treatment of external, 149. 
 Composite papers, 97. 
 
 tints, and how produced, 
 
 128. 
 
 Composition of light, 284. 
 Condition of new wood- work, 152. 
 Confusion without richness, 253. 
 Considerations governing the use of 
 
 colour, 247. 
 ,, Special, in house 
 
 painting, 6. 
 
 Consistency of oil colours, 80. 
 Constructing a colour circle, 286. 
 Construction of lettering, 232. 
 Constructive decoration, 256. 
 
 use of colour, 247. 
 
 Continuous paper, Introducion of, 
 
 94. 
 
 Contrast of gloss and flat, 276. 
 ,, interest 253. 
 line, 252. 
 pattern, 252. 
 ,, ,, surfaces, 253. 
 Value of, in selecting papers, 
 
 9. 
 
 Contrasting colour couplets, 292. 
 Conventionalism in ornament, 251. 
 Conventionality and colour, 252. 
 
 ,, ,, repetition, 252. 
 
 Copper, Painting, of, 170. 
 Cordelova, 99, 100. 
 Cords, Ladder fall, 39. 
 Scaffold, 39.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 315 
 
 Cornices, Painting, 160. 
 
 related to wall, 290. 
 Cotton waste v. shreds, 15. 
 Couplets of colour, Quiet-toned, 292. 
 Covering power test, 71. 
 Cracked, Lining ceilings that are, 
 
 111. 
 Cracking and wrinkles in varnish, 
 
 192. 
 Cracks in floors, 182. 
 
 ,, in paint, 163. 
 Cradles, 40. 
 
 Creative faculty in design, 246. 
 Crimson lake, 80. 
 Crippling in brushes, 64. 
 Cupboard in paint shop, 20. 
 Cutting stencils, 233. 
 Cycles, Painting, 305. 
 
 DAMP walls, 104, 141. 
 Dampness and stains, 140. 
 Day-book for rough entries, 47. 
 Deceptive colouring, 249. 
 
 ,, Is graining, 196. 
 Decorating carriages, 301. 
 Decoration, aesthetic effects in relief 
 
 work, 282. 
 
 ,, Breadth of effect in, 254. 
 Bronzing relief, 280. 
 Colour in, 283. 
 ,, Constructive, 257. 
 ,, General principles of, 
 
 246. 
 
 historic, Colour in, 283. 
 Importance of colour in, 
 
 246. 
 
 Lacquering relief, 281. 
 Laws in ornamental, 256. 
 Metalling relief, 280. 
 Obliteration of old, 150. 
 of details and mouldings, 
 
 257. 
 
 of gesso, 279. 
 of relievo materials, 277. 
 Old ivory, effect in relief, 
 
 279. 
 
 Painted, 271. 
 ,, Pottery effects on relief, 
 
 ,, Qualities in distemper, 
 
 Decoration, Qualities necessary in, 
 
 252. 
 
 ,, Relievo, 277. 
 ,, Unity in, 255. 
 
 Use of gold leaf in, 257. 
 Wood and leather effects 
 
 in, 281. 
 ,, ,, effects in relief, 
 
 279. 
 Decorative artists' browns, 76. 
 
 ,, Consideration of a, 
 
 scheme, 254. 
 
 ,, effects on staining, 179. 
 ,, media for painting on 
 
 distemper, 133. 
 
 relief material before fix- 
 ing, 282. 
 Definition of colour, 283. 
 
 ,, plain painting, 145. 
 
 Derby red, 78. 
 Derivation of pigments, 81. 
 Desiderata in staining, 174. 
 Design, Choice of, for staining, 181. 
 ,, Creative faculty in, 246. 
 , , Measuring for a, 297. 
 Designing stencils, 261. 
 Designs, Sketch, 260. 
 Destructive, Pigments, to one another, 
 
 128. 
 
 Devonshire marble, 214. 
 Dining-room, Treatment of, 7. 
 Distance, Effect of, on colour, 285. 
 
 , , Ornament and, 254. 
 Distemper, Advantages of, 134. 
 ,, Alum in, 117. 
 
 ,, American, 140. 
 
 brushes, 54. 
 
 Bronzing upon, 270. 
 
 ,, brushes, 52. 
 
 ,, Brushes for, 143. 
 
 Cleaning, 136. 
 ,, Coating upon, 139. 
 
 ,, Colours floating in, 138. 
 
 ,, ,, sinking in, 138. 
 
 ,, Comparison of, with 
 
 painting, 271. 
 complete list of stainers, 
 
 133. 
 
 Decoration in, 260. 
 
 ,, on canvas, 142. 
 
 Description of, 134. 
 
 Difference between paint 
 
 and, 138. 
 Durability of, 136.
 
 316 
 
 Distemper filling for paint work, 
 155. 
 
 ,, flat brushes, 53. 
 
 Gilding upon, 270. 
 
 ,, knot brushes, 53. 
 
 ,, Laying on, 138. 
 
 Limitations of, 135, 143. 
 
 ,, Lining colours for, 265. 
 
 fitches for, 264. 
 
 Materials added to, 143. 
 
 Mixing, 116, 135. 
 
 Objections to, 135. 
 
 ,, on white lining paper, 
 
 142. 
 
 , , on wood-work, 142. 
 
 Outlining on, 269. 
 
 Painting colour for orna- 
 
 ment on, 265. 
 
 , , Painting plaster prior to, 
 
 140. 
 
 Palette for painting, 269. 
 
 Picking out enrichments 
 
 in, 266. 
 
 Pigments not to be used 
 
 in, 128. 
 
 Possibilities of, 136. 
 
 Preparation of surfaces 
 
 for, 135. 
 
 Qualities of, for decora- 
 
 tion, 260. 
 
 Running lines on, 267. 
 
 , , Sizes of, brushes, 55. 
 
 ,, Stencilling colour for use 
 
 on, 266. 
 
 on, 264. 
 
 Stippling, 140. 
 Stopping prior to, 136. 
 Straight edge for use on, 
 
 Surfaces for, 135. 
 Temperature while lay- 
 
 ing on, 139. 
 ,, The best brushes for, 
 
 54. 
 Transparent colours on. 
 
 269. 
 
 Uneven suction for, 139, 
 
 Uses of, 134. 
 
 Washable, 87, 143, 144. 
 Washing off old, 139. 
 , , Work suitable for execu 
 
 tion in, 260. 
 Distempering, 134. 
 Distinctness in ornament, 263. 
 
 )ominant factor in colouring, 290. 
 )oor, Rotation of parts in painting a, 
 
 160. 
 )rawers for powder colours, 18. 
 
 , ,, stencil plates, 21. 
 
 ., in paint bench, 16. 
 drawing-room, Treatment of, 8. 
 drawings, Full size, for ornament, 
 
 261. 
 Driers, 84. 
 
 , French powder, 85. 
 
 , Liquid and terebine, 84. 
 
 , Seccoline, 85. 
 Drop black, 80. 
 
 Drums, kegs, &c., for stock, 44. 
 Dry colours for stock, 28. 
 Drying action of paints, 123. 
 
 , agents for paints, 84. 
 Duresco, 87, 139, 141. 
 Dust sheets, 41. 
 Dusters, Painters', 56. 
 Dusting, 163. 
 Dutch pink, 77. 
 
 E 
 
 EASEL, Sign writers', 22. 
 Economy in working, 10. 
 
 ,, of proper storage, 13. 
 Edges, Painting round, 163. 
 Edging papers, 106. 
 Effects in relief decoration, 281. 
 Elaborated stencilling, 273. 
 Elastic and hard varnishes, 184. 
 Embossing glass, 240. 
 Emerald green, 79. 
 Empties, Return of, 24. 
 Enamels, 195. 
 
 ,, and Japans, 184. 
 
 ,, Grounds for, 171. 
 
 Polished white, 194. 
 
 Use of, 193. 
 
 Enrichment of lettering, 234. 
 Entrance doors, Treatment of, 7. 
 Estimating and measuring, 297. 
 Etching on glass, 242. 
 Experimental use of colour circle, 
 
 287. 
 
 External, Course of, treatment for 
 compo, 149. 
 
 Rough lime white for, 131. 
 
 ,, use of colour, 291.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 317 
 
 FABRIKONA, 100. 
 Factitious ultramarine, 78. 
 Fashion v. beauty, 256. 
 Fat colour and smudge, 25. 
 
 ,, Salvage of, 26. 
 
 Fat edges, 163. 
 Faults in varnishing, 192. 
 Felt for rubbing down, 191. 
 Felting down varnish, 191. 
 Fibre scrub brushes, 56. 
 
 ,, Test for, in brushes, 51. 
 Fibrous plaster, 100. 
 Fillers, \Vood, 182. 
 Filling, Distemper, for painted work, 
 
 155. 
 
 powders, 87, 155. 
 Filling up, 155. 
 
 ,, quick, 155. 
 
 ,, ,, on coach bodies, 301. 
 
 , , White lead and ochre for, 
 
 156. 
 
 Finishing coats on wood-work, 157. 
 ,, colour for carriage paint- 
 ing, 303. 
 
 Fire-proof paints, 171. 
 Fitches, 64. 
 
 ,, French, 65. 
 ,, Lining, 65. 
 Fitting up stores, 23. 
 Fittings and furniture for paint shop, 
 
 ,, Removal of, when papering, 
 
 Flat varnish brushes, 62. 
 
 ,, wall painting brushes, 55. 
 Flatting and gloss contrasted, 276. 
 
 ,, Bastard, for wood -work, 
 157. 
 
 Hints on, 163. 
 
 new plaster walls, 147. 
 
 ,, on wood- work, 157. 
 
 ,, walls, 147. 
 Flats, Camel-hair, 68. 
 Flax and jute canvas, 100. 
 Flock papers, 95. 
 Floors, Staining, 176, 182. 
 
 , , stone, To protect, from paint, 
 
 42. 
 
 Flour barrel, 20. 
 
 Flower painting in decoration, 275. 
 Formulae, Dangers of set, 115. 
 Furniture of the paint shop, 15. 
 
 GAS in painting room, 22. 
 Gilding, 216. 
 
 and bronzing, 216. 
 Burnish and matt, 223. 
 Definition of, 216. 
 glass, 224. 
 Methods of, 217. 
 on distemper, 270. 
 Preparing oak for open 
 
 grain, 228. 
 Tools for, 219. 
 wheels, Coe's, 228. 
 Gesso, 278. 
 
 ,, Advantages of, 278. 
 ,, Decoration of, 279. 
 High relief, 278. 
 ,, Ingredients for, 278. 
 ,, Low relief, 279. 
 , , method of work, 279. 
 Glass embossing, 240. 
 Etching on, 242. 
 ,, paper, 88. 
 
 ,, writing and gilding, 224, 241. 
 Glaze stencilling, 273. 
 Gloss and flatting contrasted, 276. 
 Glue, 86. 
 
 paste, 111, 112. 
 ,, Sichel, 144. 
 Gold and black marble, 214. 
 ,, burnish size, 218. 
 ,, leaf described, 217. 
 ,, ,, ribbons, 228. 
 ,, size, Isinglass, 219. 
 ,, ,, Japanners', 218. 
 Matt, 219. 
 
 , Oil, 217. 
 Water, 218. 
 ,, Substitution of baser metals 
 
 for, 217. 
 To prevent adhesion of, to 
 
 ground, 222. 
 
 Use of, in decoration, 257. 
 ,, v. yellow, 291. 
 Graining, 202. 
 
 absorbia, 211. 
 ash, 210. 
 brushes, 65. 
 Hints on, 211. 
 in stain, 175. 
 Is it deceptive, 196. 
 limitations, 196. 
 mahogany, 207.
 
 318 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Graining maple, 209. 
 oak, 202. 
 
 pitch pine, 209. 
 pollard oak, 207. 
 positions where desirable, 
 
 199. 
 
 ,, rosewood, 209. 
 satinwood, 210. 
 ,, The condemnation of, 197. 
 The intention of the grainer 
 
 in, 198. 
 ,, The limifc to imitative 
 
 quality of, 200. 
 Tools used for oak, 202. 
 transfer, 211. 
 ,, Various methods of work 
 
 in, 201. 
 
 walnut, 208. 
 ,, What is it, 196. 
 What to imitate in, 199. 
 Graniting, 214. 
 Gravitation laws and use of colour, 
 
 248. 
 
 Greasy walls, 143. 
 Green Lakes, 80. 
 
 Marbles, 214. 
 Suffield, 80. 
 Greens, Bronze and Quaker, 79. 
 Brunswick, 79. 
 Chrome, 79. 
 Cobalt, 79. 
 Emerald, 79. 
 Mineral, 79. 
 Mixed, 79. 
 The use of, 291. 
 Grey marbles, 213. 
 Grittiness in varnishing, 192. 
 Ground, Colour of pattern upon, 292. 
 
 ,, or paint brushes, 58. 
 Grounds for enamelling, 171. 
 raised pattern, 278. 
 Roughened ground for gild- 
 ing on, 276. 
 Texture, 279. 
 Guide to popular colour names, 128. 
 
 H 
 
 HAIKS and bristles, 50. 
 Hall, Colouring of the, 7. 
 Hand-painted ornament, 273. 
 Hanging paperhangings, 101. 
 ,, relief decorations, 1 12. 
 
 Hangings, Early wall, 93. 
 
 Leather wall, 93. 
 Origin of wall, 93. 
 Paper and wall, 93. 
 Relievo wall, 99. 
 Hannay white lead, 72. 
 Hard v. Elastic Varnish, 184. 
 Hardening of stock colours, 27. 
 Harmony of combination, 257. 
 Health and the trade, 11. 
 
 bad, among painters, causes 
 
 of, 11. 
 ,, of children, Effects of colour 
 
 on, 10. 
 
 Heavy and light colours, 290. 
 High relief gesso, 278. 
 Historic ornament, 250. 
 
 Colour in, 283. 
 
 ,, True use of, 251. 
 
 Hog hair, 49. 
 
 Hot pipes and stove painting, 169. 
 House-painting v. coach-painting, 
 
 300. 
 
 Special considera- 
 
 tions in, 6. 
 Hues, Lowering of, in pigments, 288. 
 
 ILLEGIBLE types of lettering, 230. 
 Imitative painting, 196. 
 
 ,, quality and its limits, 197. 
 Imitation v. suggestion, 197. 
 Importance of stencilling, 273. 
 Impressions conveyed by the eye, 9. 
 Improving woods, 176. 
 Indian red, 77. 
 Indigo, 79. 
 Infection, 140. 
 Insulating paints, 170. 
 Intention of the grainer, 198. 
 Interest, Contrast of, 253. 
 Intermixture, Effect of, on colours, 
 
 285. 
 Interval between colours in spectrum, 
 
 284. 
 Iron, Blisters on, 165. 
 
 Painting, 168. 
 
 ,, Re-painting old, 169. 
 Isinglass gold size, 219. 
 Italian pink marble, 213. 
 Ivory black, 80. 
 
 ,, Old, effect on relief decora- 
 tions, 2/9.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 319 
 
 JAPANESE leather papers, 99. 
 Japanners' gold size, 218. 
 Japans and enamels, 184. 
 Jeffrey's wall papers, 97. 
 Job, Despatch of materials for, 25. 
 
 ,, Quantity of plant for, 48. 
 Jute and flax canvas, 100. 
 Juxtaposition of colours, Effect of, 
 
 285. 
 
 K 
 
 KEEN'S cement, 87. 
 
 Kegs for stockkeeping, 44. 
 
 Kettles and cans, 44. 
 
 Klingcona, 113. 
 
 Knives for paint stone, 16, 22. 
 
 ,, Trimming, 114. 
 Knots, 163, 165. 
 Knotting, 152. 
 
 , , work prior to painting, 163. 
 Knowledge of brushes of all kinds 
 necessary, 266. 
 
 LACQUERING relief decorations, 281. 
 Lacquers, 194. 
 
 ,, for metals, 217. 
 
 ,, Permanence in, 281. 
 Ladder falls, 33. 
 
 cords, 39. 
 Ladders, 31. 
 
 ,, and plank supports, 32. 
 
 ,, London, 33. 
 
 Painting, 33. 
 
 ,, Raising long, 33. 
 
 Selection of, 32. 
 
 ,, Splicing, 32. 
 
 ,, Warnings in theusingof, 33. 
 Lakes, Brown, 78. 
 ,, Crimson, 78. 
 ,, Green, 80. 
 Lamp black, 79. 
 Lamps, Burning-off, 45. 
 Lapis lazuli, 214. 
 Laying on clairecolle, 137. 
 
 ,, ,, distemper, 138. 
 
 gold leaf, 220. 
 Lazuli, Lapis, 214. 
 Leaf, Description of gold, 217. 
 
 Leaf, Laying gold, 220. 
 
 metals in decorating, 217. 
 Leather and wood effects on relief 
 
 decoration, 281. 
 papers, 96. 
 
 ,, Japanese, 99. 
 wall hangings, 96. 
 Lettering and sign writing, 229. 
 Books on, 231. 
 Colour of, 234. 
 Enrichment of, 235. 
 Legible type in, 231. 
 Methods of work in, 233. 
 plant, 33. 
 
 Prominence in, 230. 
 Shaded, 230. 
 Letters, Forms of, changed by en- 
 vironment, 232. 
 ,, Painting, 238. 
 ,, Rules for construction of, 
 
 233. 
 
 Library, Treatment of, 9. _ 
 Light, Action of, in producing colour, 
 
 283. 
 
 ,, Analysis of, 284. 
 ,, and heavy colours, 290. 
 ,, and shade painting, 275. 
 ,, Artificial, on colour, 295. 
 ,, Composition of, 283. 
 Lighting, Artificial, in paint shop, 14. 
 Natural, 14. 
 
 Lights, Objection to sky, 14. 
 Lime blue, 75. 
 
 ,, nibs in walls, 152. 
 , , white brushes, 56. 
 Limitations, Artistic, of staining, 174. 
 ,, of distemper, 135, 144. 
 
 , , of graining, 200. 
 
 Lincrusta, 99. 
 Line, Contrast of, 266. 
 Liners, 66. 
 
 Lines on distemper, 267. 
 Lining and decorating carriages, 304. 
 ,, colour for use on distemper, 
 
 265. 
 
 ,, cracked ceilings, 111. 
 ,, fitches, 65. 
 ,, and colour, 266. 
 
 ,, on paint, 275. 
 ,, papers, 110. 
 
 Distempering on, 138, 
 
 139. 
 straight edge for distemper,
 
 320 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Linseed oil, 84. 
 
 Liquid driers and terebine, 84. 
 
 Litharge, 84. 
 
 Lowering hues in colour, 290. 
 
 Low relief gesso painting, 279. 
 
 Lubrose paints, 171. 
 
 Luminous paints, 171. 
 
 MACHINE v. block printed papers, 94. 
 Madders, 78. 
 Mahogany graining, 207. 
 Mander-Hannay white lead, 72. 
 Mander's matsine, 181. 
 Maple graining, 209. 
 Marble, Black and gold, 213. 
 Devonshire, 214. 
 Green, 214. 
 Grey, 213. 
 ,, Italian pink, 213. 
 Red, 213. 
 ,, Sienna, 213. 
 St. Anne's, 214. 
 
 White, 212. 
 Marbling, 212. 
 Marking plant, 42. 
 Mass of pattern, 254. 
 Mastic cement, 87. 
 Matching colours in paint, 126. 
 ,, edges in papering, 109. 
 , , Important rules for colour, 
 
 127. 
 
 stone, 142. 
 
 Material, Comparative prices of, 89. 
 Decorative low relief, 282. 
 Despatch of, for a job, 25. 
 Materials, 70. 
 
 Decoration of relievo, 279. 
 Matsine, 181. 
 Matt and burnish gilding, 223. 
 
 ,, gold size, 219. 
 Measuring and estimating, 297. 
 for a design, 297. 
 ,, for paper, 105. 
 Media for decorative painting in dis 
 
 temper, 133. 
 Mediums and binders for water 
 
 colour, 87. 
 
 Metal and silver leaf laying, 226. 
 painting, 167, 169. 
 papers, 95. 
 
 substituted for gold leaf, 217. 
 Metals, Lacquer for, 227. 
 
 Petals, Leaf used in decorating, 217. 
 detailing relief decoration, 280. 
 Method and order, 10. 
 Mill, Paint, 20. 
 Vlineral greens, 79. 
 Mixed 79. 
 pigments, 81. 
 tints and colours, 127. 
 dixing boards, 44. 
 
 clairecolle, 116. 
 colour, 115. 
 distemper, 116, 135. 
 General hints on paint, 125. 
 paint, 118. 
 
 ,, proportion table, 120. 
 Monochromatic colouring, 288. 
 Mops, Camel-hair, 67. 
 tfotor car painting, 305. 
 Movement and repose in colour, 291. 
 Mouldings, Decoration of details of, 
 
 257. 
 Mullers, Paint, 22. 
 
 NAPHTHALINE stains, 182. 
 
 Nature, Colour in, 249. 
 
 New blue, 78. 
 
 Nomenclature of colours, Popular, 
 
 129. 
 
 Number of coats for wood- work, 153. 
 Nurseries, Treatment of, 10. 
 
 OAK graining, 202. 
 
 _ tools, 202. 
 Preparing, for gilding, 228. 
 Gates' trimmer, 107. 
 Objects of plain painting, 145. 
 
 of priming, 153. 
 Ochre and white lead filling up, 156. 
 
 Red, 76. 
 Yellow, 75. 
 Odour of paint, To kill, 167. 
 Oil, Boiled, 86. 
 
 colours, Consistency of, 80. 
 
 Effects of, in mixing paint, 119. 
 
 gold size, 217. 
 
 Linseed, 85. 
 
 List of stains, 177. 
 
 staining, 175.
 
 321 
 
 Oil tanks, 19. 
 ,, varnishes, 184. 
 Oiling woods, 177. 
 Old iron-work, Re-painting, 169. 
 Olsina, 195. 
 Opaque and transparent pigments, 
 
 126. 
 
 Order and method, 10. 
 Ornament, 249. 
 
 ,, and distance, 254. 
 
 ,, Character in, 251. 
 
 ,, Conventionalism in, 251. 
 
 ,, Decorative uses of, 247. 
 
 ,, Distinctness in, 254. 
 
 ,, Forms suitable for 
 
 painted, 274. 
 ,, Full sized drawings for, 
 
 261. 
 
 Historic, 250. 
 
 ,, Laws in decorative, 256. 
 
 ,, Mixing styles of, 250. 
 
 ,, Objects of, 250. 
 
 ,, Qualities necessary in, 
 
 251. 
 , , painted on a flat ground, 
 
 276. 
 
 ,, painting colour for use on 
 distemper, 265. 
 ,, ,, in light and 
 
 shade, 275. 
 Scale in, 253. 
 Setting out, 261. 
 ,, Symmetry in, 255. 
 
 Tools for setting out, 261. 
 
 ,, True use of historic, 250. 
 
 Use of knowledge of style 
 
 in, 251. 
 
 Variety in, 252. 
 Ornamental colouring in relief work, 
 
 279, 281. 
 
 ,, staining, 179. 
 
 Orr's zinc white, 75. 
 Outlining on distemper, 269. 
 Outside painting, Time for, 167. 
 
 ,, treatment of house, 7. 
 Ox-hair writers, 66. 
 Oxide of zinc, 74. 
 
 PAINT, Acid resisting, 170. 
 
 ,, and distemper compared, 260. 
 ,, bench, Colours required on, 
 16. 
 
 Paint bench, Drawers in, 16. 
 
 ,, Zinc for covering, 18. 
 Black, 80. 
 
 Burning off old, 157. 
 Cissing of, 165. 
 Consistence of, 160. 
 Cracking of, 163. 
 Drying of, 166. 
 Flashing, 165. 
 Grinning through, 166. 
 knives, 16. 
 
 Qualifications of, 145. 
 Quantity of, to cover given 
 
 area, 131. 
 Lining in, 275. 
 mixing, 118. 
 
 Effect of oil and 
 
 turps in, 119. 
 General hints on, 
 
 125. 
 
 mills, 20. 
 ,, proportion table, 120. 
 matching of colours, 127. 
 mullers, 17. 
 odour of, To kill, 167. 
 or ground brushes, 58. 
 Protective agency in, 124. 
 removing solvents, 159. 
 Ropiness in, 166. 
 shop, 14. 
 
 artificial lighting, 14. 
 ,, benches, 15. 
 ,, Colouring of, 15. 
 ,, cupboards, 20. 
 Fittings and furniture 
 
 of, 15. 
 
 ,, natural lighting, 14. 
 ,, Position of, 14. 
 ,, Rough day-book on, 19. 
 ,, shelves, 23. 
 Waste in, 25. 
 Water in, 14. 
 Stencilling in, 269. 
 stones and muller and knives, 
 
 15, 22. 
 
 Striking, 165. 
 Suggestions when stencilling 
 
 in, 273. 
 ,, work, Filling for, 155. 
 Painted ground, Stencilling on, 272. 
 ,, ornament, Hand-, 273. 
 ,, ,, on flatting, 2~5. 
 
 ,, ,, shaded in glazes, 275. 
 
 walls, Re-painting old, 150. 
 21
 
 Painted walls, Rubbing down, 148. 
 
 ,, ,, Stopping old, 151. 
 
 ,, work, Size on, 162. 
 Painters' dusters, 57. 
 
 stock, List of required, 28. 
 
 ,, technical classes, 306. 
 Painting and wall papers compared, 
 97. 
 
 brushes, 58. 
 
 ,, flat wall, 55. 
 
 ,, canvas, 170. 
 
 ,, carriages, 300. 
 
 ceilings, 161. 
 Coach-, 300. 
 
 ,, ,, Preparation for, 301. 
 
 ,, Considerations for, 6. 
 
 ., copper, 170. 
 
 cornices, 160. 
 
 ,, door, Rotation of, 160. 
 
 edges, 163. 
 
 ,, External colour of, 291. 
 
 ,, Flowers in decoration, 275. 
 
 ,, Forms of ornament for, 274. 
 
 ,, fresco, 277. 
 
 General hints on, 160. 
 
 Imitative, 196. 
 
 iron, 169. 
 
 Knotting work prior to, 
 
 162. 
 ladders, 33. 
 
 letters, 238. 
 
 metal, 168. 
 
 pipes (hot), 169. 
 
 Plain, 145. 
 
 Definition of, 145. 
 
 ,, Objects of, 145. 
 
 plant, 42. 
 
 plaster, new, 146, 152. 
 
 ,, prior to distemper- 
 
 ing, 140. 
 
 prices, comparative, 299. 
 
 room, 21. 
 
 Gas in, 22. 
 
 n ,, Portable benches in, 
 
 22. 
 
 Reference books for, 
 
 22. 
 
 ,, sash windows, 160. 
 
 ,, Sequence of coats in, 161. 
 Ship-, 305. 
 
 signs, 168. 
 silk, 275. 
 
 ,, stone, 150. 
 
 ,, stucco, external, 149. 
 
 Painting stucco, internal, 149. 
 
 Technical terms used in, 162. 
 Time for outside, 167. 
 velvet, 275. 
 wood- work, new, 152. 
 
 ,, General hints, 
 
 159. 
 
 zinc, 158. 
 Paints, Drying action in, 123. 
 , , agents for, 84. 
 Fireproof, 171. 
 for various purposes, 171. 
 Insulating, 170. 
 Luminous, 171. 
 Quick drying, 170. 
 Pans or pots, 44. 
 Paper and wall hangings, 93. 
 Cartoon, 261. 
 Distempering on, 138. 
 Glass, 88. 
 
 Measuring for, 105. 
 Stencil, 262. 
 Paperhanger, Pasting paper for, 108. 
 ,, Requisite qualities for, 
 
 101. 
 Paperhangers' brushes, 65. 
 
 rollers and brushes. 
 
 101. 
 
 ,, routine, 107. 
 
 ,, trestles, 41. 
 
 Paperhanging, 101. 
 
 ,, ceilings, 109. 
 
 Matching edges in, 
 
 109. 
 
 panelling and border- 
 
 ing, 111. 
 ,, Preparing walls for, 
 
 103. 
 ,, Removal of fittings 
 
 when, 111. 
 ,, Tools required for, 
 
 101. 
 , , Trimming machines 
 
 used in, 106. 
 Paperhangings, Hanging, 101. 
 
 ,, Introduction of con- 
 
 tinuous, 94. 
 ,, Methods used in 
 
 making, 94. 
 Papers, Advantage of hand printed, 
 
 94. 
 ,, block v. machine, 94. 
 
 Ceiling, 98. 
 Choice of, 98.
 
 323 
 
 Papers, Classes of, 94. 
 
 Dimensions of, 96. 
 Distinction between hand 
 
 and machine, 94. 
 Edging, 106. 
 First use of, 93. 
 Flock, 95. 
 
 Japanese leather, 99. 
 Leather, 96. 
 Lining, 110. 
 Metal, 95. 
 Qualities of, 94. 
 Sanitaries', 95. 
 Selection of, 97. 
 Trimming, 106. 
 Value of contrast in, 98. 
 Varieties of, 94. 
 Varnished, 96. 
 Paste, 105. 
 
 for anaglypta, 112. 
 glue, 112. 
 
 To prevent souring in, 106. 
 Pasteboards, 40. 
 Pattern and mass, 255. 
 
 Colour of, on ground, 292. 
 Contrast of, 252. 
 Influence of, on colour, 246. 
 Pattinson's white, 75. 
 Pencils, Sizes of, 66. 
 Use of, 238. 
 Permanence in lacquers, 280. 
 Personal prejudices in colouring, 
 
 292. 
 
 Philosophy of house painting, 5. 
 Picking out enrichments in dis- 
 temper, 266. 
 Pickle cask, 19. 
 Pigments, Adulteration of, 81. 
 ,, Commixture of, 81. 
 Derivation of, 81. 
 , , destructive to one another, 
 
 128. 
 
 ,, Importance of good, 88. 
 not to be used in dis- 
 temper, 128. 
 Opaque, 126. 
 Ready-mixed, 83. 
 Test for staining power of, 
 
 82. 
 
 that combine well, 128. 
 ,, to be used in water only, 
 
 128. 
 
 ,, Transparent, 126. 
 Pinholes and cissing, 192. 
 
 Pink, Italian, marble, 213. 
 Pinks, Dutch, 77- 
 Pitch pine, Graining, 209. 
 Planks, 34. 
 
 ,, Clamping, 35. 
 ,, Description of good, 35. 
 ,, Selection of, 34. 
 ,, supports for ladders, 34. 
 Plant and appliances, 31. 
 ,, book, 47. 
 ,, Lettering, 42. 
 Marking, 42. 
 
 ,, Quantity of, to send to a job, 48. 
 Plaster and stoppings, 87. 
 ,, and whiting bins, 19. 
 ,, Fibrous, 100. 
 new, Painting on, 146, 152. 
 ,, ,, First and second coat 
 
 on, 146, 147. 
 ,, ,, Third and fourth coat 
 
 on, 147. 
 
 Staining with oil stains, 181. 
 ,, Stains in, 140. 
 walls, Flatting, 147. 
 Stopping, 146. 
 Plastine, 87. 
 Plate, stencil, Preparation of, 262, 
 
 271. 
 
 Plates, Care of atencil, 268. 
 Platinum and silver leaf laying, 226. 
 Poles, Scaffold, 34. 
 
 Selection of, 34. 
 Polishing varnish work, 191. 
 Pollard oak, Graining, 207. 
 Popular colours, Guide to, 128. 
 
 ,, Recipes for, 128. 
 
 Portland cement, 171. 
 Positions where graining is desirable, 
 
 199. 
 Pots or pans, 44. 
 
 Small, 44. 
 Pottery effects in relievo decoration, 
 
 281. 
 Pounce bag and pouncers, 238, 264. 
 
 To make a, 263. 
 Pounces, To secure correct register 
 
 in, 270. 
 
 Powder colour, Drawer for, 18. 
 Practical use of colour circle, 286. 
 Premises, Efficient, a necessity, 13. 
 Preparation of oil and other putties, 
 
 132. 
 
 of surfaces for distemper, 
 135.
 
 324 
 
 Preparation of large surfaces for dis- 
 temper, 137. 
 Preparing ceiling and clairecolleing, 
 
 136. 
 Preservation of size, 86. 
 
 sable pencils, 66. 
 
 Prevention of blistering, 165. 
 Prices of material, Comparative, 89. 
 
 painting, ,, 299. 
 
 Priming, 168. 
 
 ,, new wood- work, 152. 
 
 ,, Rubbing down, after, 154. 
 Principal varnishes in use, 186. 
 Principles of decoration, General, 
 
 246 
 
 Production of composite tints, 128. 
 Prussian blue, 78. 
 Pulley blocks, 40. 
 Pumice stone, 88. 
 
 ,, ,, compo, 88. 
 
 ,, ,, powder, 88. 
 Putties, Preparation of, 132. 
 
 ,, Eecipes for, 132. 
 Putty, 87. 
 
 QUAKER greens, 79. 
 Qualifications of paint, 145. 
 Qualities existing in colour, 287. 
 ,, necessary to decorative 
 
 ornament, 253. 
 Quantity of paint for a given area, 
 
 131. 
 
 Quick drying paints, 170. 
 filling up, 156. 
 
 RAISED pattern grounds, 277. 
 Raw v. boiled oil, 124. 
 
 ,, sienna, 76. 
 
 ,, umber, 76. 
 Ready mixed paints, 83. 
 Reasons, Principal, for painting, 5. 
 Recipes for popular colours, 128. 
 , , for stopping and putties, 1 32. 
 ,, for whitewash, 132. 
 Red, Aniline, 78. 
 
 Derby, 78. 
 
 Red Indian, 77. 
 lead, 78. 
 marble, 213. 
 ,, ochre, 76. 
 Venetian, 77. 
 
 Reference books in painting room, 22. 
 Relief decoration, Esthetic effects in, 
 
 281. 
 ,, ,, bronzing, 280. 
 
 fixing material, 
 
 278. 
 hanging material, 
 
 112. 
 ,, Ivory effects in, 
 
 279. 
 
 ,, ,, lacquering, 281. 
 
 metalling, 280. 
 
 ornamental colour- 
 ing, 279, 281. 
 Pottery effects in, 
 
 281. 
 Wood and leather 
 
 effects in, 281. 
 ,, Gesso, 278, 279. 
 ,, surfaces, Accidental effect in, 
 
 278. 
 Relievo decoration, 278. 
 
 Decorating, 279. 
 stencil work, 278. 
 Removal of fittings when paperhang- 
 
 ing, 111. 
 
 ,, of paint and solvents, 159. 
 Removers, Paint, 159. 
 Re-painting iron-work, 169. 
 
 walls, 150. 
 ,, Washing down prior to, 
 
 162. 
 
 ,, wood- work, 156. 
 
 Repetition and conventionality, 252. 
 Repose and movement in colour, 
 
 291. 
 Requirements for study of colour, 
 
 289. 
 
 Returned residuum of paint, 25. 
 Returns of empty packages, 24. 
 Ribbon gold leaf, 228. 
 Richness without confusion, 253. 
 Ridgley trimmer, 113. 
 Ripolin, 195. 
 
 Roller for paperhanging, 102. 
 Rosewood, Graining, 209. 
 Roughened ground for painting on, 
 276.
 
 325 
 
 Rubbing down, 163, 188. 
 
 ,, ,, after burning off 
 
 wood-work, 159. 
 ,, ,, after priming, 154. 
 
 felts, 191. 
 ,, ,, in colour, 156. 
 
 ,, newly painted walls, 
 
 148. 
 
 ,, walls, 103. 
 
 Rules, Useful, to the colourist, 290. 
 
 SABLE pencils, Hints on use of, 
 
 238. 
 
 Preservation of, 66. 
 ,, writers, 66. 
 Sablea, Extra long, 66. 
 Short, 66. 
 Sizes of, 66. 
 Saint Anne's marble, 214. 
 Sanding compo, 150. 
 Sanitary wall papers, 95. 
 Sappy wood, 154. 
 Sash tools, 62. 
 
 ,, window, Painting a, 160. 
 Satin wood, Graining, 210. 
 Satinette, 195. 
 Scaffolding, 35. 
 
 cords, 39. 
 Iron rods in, 43. 
 knots, 36. 
 poles, 34. 
 Storage of, 43. 
 Testing of, 42. 
 Scale in ornament, 253. 
 Scales and weighing machine, 18. 
 Schemes of colour used by the writer, 
 
 293. 
 Science and truth, 6. 
 
 ,, Relation of, to art, 6. 
 Scientific aspect of colour, 283. 
 Scotch whitewash 133. 
 Scrub brush fibre, 58. 
 Seccoline, 85. 
 Selecting a colour scheme, 289. 
 
 ,, papers, 97. 
 Selection of ladders, 32. 
 
 ,, poles and planks, 34. 
 
 Sequence of coats in painting, 161. 
 Setting out ornament, 261. 
 ,, sign writing 235. 
 
 stencils, 263. 
 
 Setting out, Tools required for. 
 
 261. 
 
 Sgraffito, 282. 
 
 Shade and light in painting, 273. 
 Shaded lettering, 230. 
 Sheets, Dust, 41. 
 Shelves in paint shop, 20. 
 Ship-painting, 305. 
 Shreds, 15. 
 Sichel glue, 144. 
 Sienna, Burnt and raw, 76. 
 
 marble, 213. 
 
 Sign writing and lettering 229. 
 ,, ,, Aphorisms for, 244. 
 ,, ,, General notes on, 243. 
 ,, writers' easels, 22. 
 Signs, Painting, 168. 
 Silicate paint, 83. 
 Silk, Painting, 275. 
 
 ,, Writing on, 240. 
 Silver, Laying, 226. 
 Situation of colours in a scheme, 
 
 291. 
 Size, 86. 
 
 Burnishers' gold, 218. 
 Clear, 219. 
 Isinglass, 219. 
 Japanners' gold, 218. 
 Matt gold, 219. 
 Oil, 217. 
 
 on painted work, 162. 
 Preservation of, 86. 
 Water gold, 218. 
 Sketch designs, 260. 
 Skinning of stock colours, 27. 
 Smalts, 79. 
 
 Smudge and fat colour, 25. 
 keg, 19. 
 Salvage of, 26. 
 Thinnings for, 26. 
 Smutch pan or brush washer, 17. 
 Softeners, 65. 
 Solvents for removing paint, 159, 
 
 172. 
 
 Souring of paste, To prevent, 106. 
 Special considerations in painting, 6. 
 Spliced, On using ladders that are, 
 
 33. 
 
 Splicing ladders, 33. 
 Spirit stains, List of, 178. 
 
 ,, varnishes, 184. 
 Spontaneous combustion, 15. 
 Spray painting, 171. 
 Stain graining, 175.
 
 326 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Stainers, Complete list of, for dis- 
 temper, 133. 
 Staining, 173. 
 
 Artistic limitations of, 174. 
 Chemical, 174. 
 Classes of, 174. 
 ,, Colours for use in, 125. 
 ,, Decorative effects in, 181. 
 Designs for, 181. 
 
 Emphasising grain of wood 
 
 by, 177. 
 
 finished plaster work, 181. 
 floors, 176. 
 Oil, 175. 
 Ornamental, 179. 
 
 Spirit, 175. 
 Test for pigments' power 
 
 of, 82. 
 
 Varnish, 175. 
 Water, 174. 
 
 Woods for, 174. 
 Stains and dampness, 141. 
 Application of, 176. 
 Chemical, 178. 
 Comparative utility of, 175. 
 in plaster, 140. 
 List of oil, 177. 
 
 water, 177. 
 Treatment of ceiling, 137. 
 Wax, 175. 
 Stencilling colour for use in dis- 
 temper, 267. 
 Elaborated, 273. 
 glaze, 273. 
 , , in paint, 269. 
 ,, on a distemper ground, 
 
 270. 
 
 ,, on painted ground, 273. 
 Stencils, Care of, 269. 
 Cleaning, 270. 
 Correct register of, 270. 
 Cutting, 262. 
 
 , , Drawers for, 21. 
 
 ,, Paper, 262. 
 
 ,, pins, 265. 
 
 ,, Preparation of, by writer, 
 
 263. 
 
 ,, relievo work, 278. 
 tools, 66. 
 
 37. 
 
 Clumsy, 38. 
 
 Selection of, 38. 
 
 Various forms of, 38. 
 
 Stipplers, 64, 149. 
 
 ,, Washing of, 64. 
 Stippling, 149. 
 
 ,, in distemper, 140. 
 Stock articles enumerated, 28. 
 ,, Purchase of, 30. 
 , , varnishes required, 29. 
 Stone, Blister on, 164. 
 
 floors, To protect from paint, 
 
 42. 
 
 Matching, 150. 
 Paint, 16. 
 
 ,, To clean, 16. 
 Painting upon, 150. 
 ,, Pumice, 88. 
 Stopping and plasters, 87. 
 ,, new wood- work, 154. 
 old ,, 156. 
 
 ,, plaster walls prior to paint- 
 ing, 129, 151. 
 ,, prior to distempering, 
 
 136, 146. 
 
 ,, Recipes for, 132. 
 Storage of brushes, 69. 
 
 ,, room, Economy of, 13. 
 Stores, 23. 
 
 ,, and workshops, 13. 
 Fitting up, 23. 
 Stove pipes, To paint, 169. 
 Straight edges for lining, 268. 
 Strainers, 46. 
 Straining varnishes, 187. 
 Stripping walls, 104. 
 Stucco, Painting on, 150. 
 Study of colour, 286. 
 Style, Use of knowledge of, 251. 
 Styles of ornament, Danger of mixing, 
 
 250. 
 Substance in relation to colour, 
 
 248. _ 
 
 Successive coats of varnish, 185. 
 Suffield green, 80. 
 Suggestion of weight in colouring, 
 
 248. 
 
 , , for stencilling, 273. 
 ,, v. imitation, 199. 
 Superfluous ornament, 250. 
 Surfaces, accidental relief, 278. 
 
 ,, for distemper, To prepare, 
 
 ",, ,, ,, Large,' 137. 
 
 ,, ,, varnishing, 189. 
 Swan quills, 67. 
 Symmetry in ornament, 255.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 327 
 
 TABLE of mixing proportions, 120. 
 
 Tar spots, 163. 
 
 Technical classes for painters, 306. 
 
 ,, terms, 162. 
 
 Technique useless without applica- 
 tion, 7. 
 
 Temperament and colour, 249. 
 Temperature while distempering, 
 
 139. 
 
 Terebine and liquid driers, 84. 
 Terra vert, 79. 
 Testing scaffolding, 42. 
 ,, varnishes, 194. 
 white lead, 70. 
 Texture grounds, 279. 
 Theories based on colour circle, 284. 
 Thinnings for smudge, 26. 
 Time for outside painting, 167. 
 Tints, Mixed, 127. 
 Tools and brushes, 49. 
 for gilding, 219. 
 ,, graining, 202. 
 ,, paperhanging, 101. 
 ,, sashes, 62. 
 
 ,, setting out ornament, 261. 
 Touching up new places in old wood- 
 work, 157. 
 
 Trade and health, 11. 
 Transfer graining, 211. 
 Transferring cartoons to work, 263. 
 Transparent and opaque pigments, 
 
 126. 
 ,, colours on distemper, 
 
 269. 
 Treatment of bedrooms, 9. 
 
 breakfast room, 9. 
 dining-room, 8. 
 drawing-room, 8. 
 entrance doors, 7. 
 library, 9. 
 nurseries, 10. 
 outside of house, 7. 
 rooms generally, 9. 
 vestibule, 8. 
 Trestles, 36. 
 
 Closing 37. 
 Clumsy, 37. 
 Continental, 37. 
 Heights of, 37. 
 for paint bench, 41. 
 ,, paperhanging, 40. 
 Single, 37. 
 
 Trimming knifes, 114. 
 
 , , machine for paperhanging, 
 
 106. 
 
 Triune colour combinations, 294. 
 Truth and beauty, 6. 
 
 ,, science, 6. 
 
 Tube colours, Conservation of, 27. 
 Turpentine, 85. 
 
 , , Effect when mixing, 1 1 9. 
 Twelve colours for oil colour box, 82. 
 Tynecastle tapestry, 99. 
 Type for lettering, 229. 
 
 ULTRAMARINE, Factitious, 78. 
 Umber, Burnt, 76. 
 
 Raw, 76. 
 Unity in decoration, 252. 
 Utility of stains, Comparative, 175. 
 
 VALUES, Colour, 287. 
 Vandyke brown, 6. 
 Variety in ornament, 252. 
 Varnish and varnishing, 183. 
 brushes, 61. 
 
 flat, 62. 
 
 Classes of, 183. 
 Felting down, 191. 
 Polishing, 191. 
 Successive coats of, 185. 
 staining, 175. 
 Varnished papers, 96. 
 
 , , work, Wrinkles and cracks 
 
 in, 193. 
 Varnishes, Applying, 185. 
 
 Elastic and Hard, 184. 
 Oil, 184. 
 
 Principal, in use, 186. 
 required for stock, 29. 
 Spirit, 184. 
 Straining, 187. 
 Testing, 194. 
 Varn shing and varnish, 183. 
 Blooming in, 192. 
 carriages, 303. 
 Faults in, 192. 
 Grittiness in, 185, 193.
 
 328 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Varnishing, Hints on, 187. 
 
 Surfaces for, 189. 
 
 ,, woods without staining, 
 
 176. 
 
 Vegetable black, 80. 
 Velvet, Painting on, 275. 
 Venetian red, 77. 
 Verdigris, 79. 
 Verditer, 79. 
 Vermilion, 77. 
 Vestibule, Treatment of, 8. 
 Viridian, 79. 
 
 WALL, Cornice related to, 290. 
 ,, for large cartoons, 21. 
 ,, or ceiling in bad condition, 
 
 137. 
 
 ,, -paper, shrinkage, 113. 
 ,, -papers, 93. 
 
 Walls, brick, Colouring for, 142. 
 Cellar, 141. 
 Damp, 104, 141. 
 Flatting, 147. 
 
 , , for new plaster, 147. 
 Greasy, 135. 
 Lime nibs in, 152. 
 Preparing, 104. 
 Re-painting, 150. 
 Rubbing down, 104, 148. 
 Stopping, 146, 151. 
 ,, Stripping, 104. 
 Washing, after stripping, 
 
 104. 
 
 Walnut, Graining, 208. 
 Walton, Lincrusta, 99. 
 Washable distemper, 143. 
 Washing off old distemper, 139. 
 
 old work, 162. 
 ,, stipplers, 64. 
 Waste in paint shop, 25. 
 Water coating in imitation of wood, 
 
 174. 
 ,, ,, Colours for, of wood, 
 
 178. 
 
 , , colour pigments, 127. 
 gold sizes, 218. 
 ,, in paint shop, 14. 
 mediums for binding colour, 
 
 staining, 174. 
 
 Water staining new wood- work, 176. 
 
 ,, stains, 177. 
 Wax stains, 176. 
 Weighing machine, 18. 
 Weight in colouring, 248. 
 Wet wood, 154. 
 White, Charlton, 75. 
 ,, Enamel, 195. 
 ,, Importance of, on health of 
 
 children, 10. 
 marble, 212. 
 Modifications of, 291. 
 ,, Patent, 75. 
 ,, Pattinson's, 75. 
 use of, 291. 
 Zinc, 74. 
 White lead, 70. 
 
 ,, and ochre filling up, 155. 
 ,, How to keep, 27. 
 ,, Tests for, 70. 
 Whiting, 82. 
 
 , , and plaster bins, 19. 
 ,, ceilings, 136. 
 Whitewash, London, 133. 
 Scotch, 133. 
 
 Window brackets, 39. 
 Wood effects in relief decoration, 281. 
 fillers, 182. 
 Graining satin, 210. 
 Woods, for staining, 173. 
 ,, Improving, 175. 
 
 Natural deepening of colour, 
 
 176. 
 
 Oiling, 176. 
 ,, Varnishing natural, 176. 
 Wood- work, Bastard flatting on, 157. 
 ,, Condition of, prior to 
 
 painting, 152. 
 
 ,, Distempering on, 142. 
 
 ,, Finishing coats on, 157. 
 
 Flatting, 157. 
 
 General hints on paint- 
 
 ing, 159. 
 ,, Number of coats on 
 
 new, 153. 
 
 Painting new, 152. 
 
 ,, Priming new, 1 53. 
 
 ,, Rubbing down, 159. 
 
 ,, Stopping, 154. 
 
 ,, Touching up, 157. 
 
 Work and art identical, 6. 
 Working, Cleanliness in, 11. 
 Workshop and stores, 13. 
 I Wrinkles in varnished work, 192.
 
 329 
 
 Writer, Colour schemes used by the, 
 
 292. 
 
 Writers, Aphorisms for, 244. 
 ,, Camel-hair, 66. 
 ,, easels, 22. 
 Ox-hair, 66. 
 Sable, 66. 
 
 Writing, General notes on, 243. 
 ,, on glass 241. 
 silk, 240. 
 Setting out, 235. 
 ,, signs and lettering, 229. 
 
 YELLOW ochre, 75. 
 
 v. gold, 291. 
 Yellows, Artists', 77. 
 
 ZINC, Orr's, 75. 
 ,, oxide, 74. 
 ,, Painting on, 170. 
 white, 74. 
 
 BELL AND BAIN, LIMITED, PRINTERS, GLASGOW.
 
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 UCLA-Art Library 
 
 TT 320 P43 1907 
 
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 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 A 001 197 886 3