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All Rights Reserved. 19O7. ir )) ^ THE Manual now laid before the public has been made possible by the sifting and arrangement of many years' notes of all that has appeared worthy of record, in processes, combinations, and practices connected with the trade coming under my notice during practical work. For the past twelve years I have tested all recipes and methods in a room set apart for the purpose, with the ultimate object of collating them in a form for publication. The need of a comprehensive manual for technological classes in house painting and decorating has provided the opportunity for carrying out my intention, and I now, for the first time, issue the whole in a concise and orderly form for refer- ence. The chapters follow the sequence, and cover the ground adopted by me in lectures given to the students at the Manchester Technical School for House painting and Decorating; and, feeling that the possession of a very advanced education should not be necessary to the under- Standing of such a work, I have endeavoured to convey the matter in as simple and direct a form as is consistent with the subjects treated of. The scope of the volume being limited to elementary facts, the underlying chemical and scientific reasons for methods and processes have only been dealt with where they immediately concern the working painter and decor- ator. Colour and ornament have been lightly touched upon in a practical and popular manner where unavoid- ably intermixed with the practice of the craft, but the principles laid down are based upon a wide experience. For additional information upon materials, I refer the student to Hurst's Painters' Colours, Oils, and Varnishes. Graining, sign writing, marbling, and paperhanging have only been touched upon in so far as principles are con- cerned ; the space at disposal preventing a more lengthy treatment. I have felt it necessary to devote more space to such subjects as have hitherto been but superficially handled e.g., plain painting, colour mixing, distemper- ing, and the technique of decorating. I have written as a painter to painters, and if the infor- mation is sometimes dogmatic in form, I believe it to be reliable in substance. I shall be at all times pleased to receive additional facts, corrections, or notes for the benefit of future editions. The illustrations, initials, and head and tail pieces are intended, not as ideal designs, but as explanatory of the text and of the application of the principles advocated in the book, for which purpose they have been specially drawn. PREFACE. vii I am indebted to Messrs. Hamilton & Co. for illustra- tions of brushes and samples, and to Messrs. Mander Bros., Messrs. Harland & Co., Messrs. Reeves & Sons, Messrs. Lewis Berger & Sons, Messrs. Wilkinson, Hey wood & Clark, The Silicate Paint Company, and many others for assist- ance, both directly and indirectly most of the materials recently used for testing and experiment having been presented by these firms to the technical class which I conduct. WALTER JOHN PEARCE. PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. THE present edition of this book will be found to contain much new matter and mention of many new materials and processes. An exhaustive correspondence with manufacturers and care- fully conducted experimental tests have enabled me to sift and reduce the new matter to the smallest and most readily accessible proportions. I take this opportunity of thanking many of the foremost firms for keeping me supplied with samples of their latest productions, which are at all times welcomed. It is not possible to speak authoritatively upon paints and varnishes without ample opportunity of keeping them under lengthened obser- vation and putting them to practical tests of long duration, which, in the interests of the students for whom this book is primarily intended, I am always ready to do. Many materials are not dealt with at length because no such opportunity has been afforded. The rapidity with which certain new materials and ideas have become common to the whole trade during the past few years, due in a measure to demands created by change of fashion and taste, is most remarkable, and indicates further revolutionary changes in trade practices. The coloured plates have been re-drawn, and many minor alterations made in the diagrams. WALTER J. PEAKCE. RESTHAVBN, 29 LANSDOWNB ROAD, WEST DIDSBDKY, LANDS. GENEKAL CONTENTS. PAGES INTRODUCTION, ... 1-4 CHAPTER I. ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF HOUSE PAINTING. The Principal Reasons for Painting General Special Practical Application Economy in Working Cleanliness in Work- ingTrade and Health Causes of Bad Health among Painter? Clients' Requirements, 5-12 CHAPTER II. WORKSHOP AND STORES. Efficient Premises a Necessity THE PAINT SHOP Position Lighting Must be Dry Water Heating Arrangements Ceiling Colouring Fittings and Furniture Colours, Driers, Oils, &c., required on Paint Bench Drawers to Paint Bench for Tools Palette Knives for Paint Stone To Clean Paint Stone Brush Trays Brush Washer or Smutch-Can Zinc Covering for Paint Bench Ready-made Colours Large Kegs Drawers for Powder Colours Weighing Machine and Scales Rough Day-BookOil Tanks Whiting and Plaster Bins " Pickle " Cask Smudge Keg Flour Barrel Shelves Cupboard Pigeon Holes Paint Mill THE PAINT- ING-ROOM Wall for Large Cartoons, &c. Benches and CONTENTS. PAGES Drawers Reference Book's Gas Portable Benches Paint Stone Muller and Knives Sign- Writers' Easels Entrance Way s Shelves Heating Stores Fittings Use Return of Empty Packages Storing of Parts of Cases Putting up Material for a Job Despatch of Material for a Job MANAGE- MENT OF PAINT SHOP Waste Returned Residuum Paint- Fat Colour and Smudge Salvage of Fat Colour and Smudge Thinnings for Smudge Prevention of Skinning and Har- dening of Stock Colours White Lead Conservation of Tube Colours Stock Articles Enumerated Purchase of Stock, . 13-30 CHAPTER III. PLANT AND APPLIANCES. Ladders Selection Mode of Using Ladder Brackets Scaffold Poles Planks Scaffold Construction Trestles Steps Cords Window Brackets Cradles Pulley Blocks Paste Boards Paint Bench Trestles Dust Sheets To Protect Stone Floors, Tiles, &c. Testing Scaffolding Marking and Repainting Plant Cartage Storage of Scaffolding Iron Rods and Tube for Scaffolding Small Articles Buckets- Cans or Kettles Pots or Pans Small Pots, &c. Stock Drums or Kegs Mixing Boards Burning-off Lamps Char- coal Burners Strainers Plant Book Rough Entry or Day Book for Paint Shop Quantity of Plant required on Jobs, . 3148 CHAPTER IV. OF BRUSHES, TOOLS, &c. PAINTING BRUSHES. Hog-hair Various Hair used in Brushes Foreign Brushes French Brushes Methods of Fixing Hair Selection Test of Good Brushes Distemper Brushes The Best Distemper Brushes Sizes Wash-off, Caustic, and Lime-white Brushes Painters' Dusters Paint or Ground Brushes Patent Ready-made Brush Bridles How to Bridle a Brush Varnish Brushes Sash Tools Stipplers Paperhangers" Brushes CONTENTS. XI PAGES Fitches Softeners Stencil Tools Sable Writers Brushes Found by the Employer The Purchase of Brushes True Economy in Brush Buying Storage of Brushes, CHAPTER V. MATERIALS. PIGMENTS White Lead Tests Zinc White Other White- Ochres Umbers Browns Chromes Dutch Pink Artists' Yellows Reds Blues Smalts Greens Blacks Consis- tency of Colours Ground in Oil Commixture of Pigments Derivation of Pigments Adulterations of Pigments Test for Staining Power in Pigments Twelve Colours for Oil Colour Box Whiting Coach Painters' Colours Ready Mixed Pig- ments DRIERS Drying Agents for Paint Liquid Driers and Terebine Powder Driers French Powder Driers PAINTERS' OILS Turpentine Linseed Oil Size Glue- Mediums and Binders Washable Distempers Plasters and Stoppings Glass Paper and Smoothing Materials Import- ance of Good Pigments Comparative Prices of Materials, . 70-92 CHAPTER VI. PAPER AND OTHER HANGINGS. WALL HANGINGS. Wall Papers Qualities Varieties Dimensions Comparison between Wall Paper and Painting Selection of Wall Papers Hints on Choice of Wall Papers for Special Purposes- Relievo Wall Hangings Lincrusta Walton Fibrous Plaster Sheet Metal Friezes Jute Canvas for Wall Hangings, . 93-100 CHAPTER VII. HANGING PAPER. Tools Preparation of Walls Measuring for Papers Paste- Edging Papers Hanging Pasting Matching Lining CONTENTS. PAGES Papers Papering Ceilings Lining Cracked Ceilings Panel- ling and Borders Removal of Fittings Hanging Relief Materials Glue Paste Paste for Anaglypta, . . . 101-114 CHAPTER VIII. COLOUR MIXING-. Mixing Clairecolle Mixing Distemper Mixing Paint Effects of Oils and Turps in Mixing Paint Drying Action of Paints Action of Raw Oil versus Boiled Oil Protective Agency in Paint General Hints on Paint Mixing Colours Recom- mended for Tinting and Staining Paints Opaque and Transparent Pigments Matching Colour in Paint Important Rules for Matching Colours Mixed Tints and Colours Quantity of Paint to Cover given Area Stopping Complete List of Distemper Stainers Media for Decorative Painting in Distemper, 115-133 CHAPTER IX. DISTEMPERING. DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. Advantages Objections Mixing Distemper Surfaces for Dis- temper Colour Limit of Distemper Durability of Distemper Cleaning Distemper Work Whitening Ceilings and Walls Washing off Old Distemper Stippling Distemper American Distemper Painting Plaster prior to Distempering Damp Walls Duresco and Distemper, 134-144 CHAPTER X. ON PLAIN PAINTING. Definition Object Qualifications of Paint Painting on New Plaster First Coat on New Plaster Second Coat Third Coat Flatting Painting on Stucco and Cement Walls CONTENTS. XH1 PAGES Painting on Stone Re-painting Painted Walls Painting New Wood-work Stopping Filling up Re-painting Old Wood-work Burning off Old Paint General Hints on Painting Wood- work General Notes on Painting Spreading and Consistency of Paint Sequence of Coats in Painting Knotting on Work Prior to Painting Sizing on Painted Work Technical Terms Descriptive of Paint Washing Down Prior to Re-painting Knots Rubbing Down Tar Spots Painting Round Edges Dusting Fat Edges Hints on Flatting Faults in Painting Cracking Blistering Cissing Striking or Flashing Ropiness Ladders Grinning Through in Painting Drying of Paint Time for Outside Painting Effects of Undercoats in Finish Re-touching Rubbing Down Priming Painting Signs, &c. Painting Metal-work Re-painting Old Iron- work Painting Hot Pipes and Boilers, &c. Painting Rough Wood-work Quick Paints Painting Canvas Acid Resisting and Insulating Paints Fire-proof Paints Luminous Paints, . . . 145-172 CHAPTER XL STAINING. Woods for Staining The Artistic Limitation of Staining Classes of Staining Water Staining Chemical Staining Water Coating Oil Staining Varnish Staining Spirit Staining Improving Natural Graining Comparative Utility of Stains Application of Stains List of Colours for Water Coating Wood List of Deepening Stains Ornamental Staining, 173-182 CHAPTER XII. VARNISH AND VARNISHING-. Varnish Classes of Varnish Oil Varnishes Spirit Varnishes Elastic and Hard Varnishes Successive Coats of Varuish Applying Varnish Principal Varnishes in Use Straining CONTENTS. PAtJES Varnishes Hints on Varnishing Surfaces for Varnishing Felting Down Varnish Polishing Varnished Work Faults in Varnishing Pinholing and Cissing Pock Marks or Pitting Grittiness Specks Cracking Wrinkles The Use of Enamels Lacquers Testing Varnishes White Polished Enamel, ...... 183-195 CHAPTER XIII. IMITATIVE PAINTING. What is Graining? Limitations to Graining, &c. The Condemna- tion of Graining The Intentions of the Grainer What to Imitate in Graining Positions Suitable for Graining Limits to Imitation Varied Methods of Graining, .... 196-201 CHAPTER XIV. GRAINING. Graining Oak Pollard Oak Mahogany Walnut Pitch Pine- Rosewood Maple Satin Wood Ash Fancy Woods- General Hints, 202-211 CHAPTER XV. MARBLING. White Marble Sienna Marble Italian Pink Marble Black and Gold Marble Grey Marbles Red Marbles Green Marbles Lapis Lazuli Graniting Devonshire Marble Alabaster St. Anne's Marble 212-215 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVI. Methods of Gilding Old Gold Size Japanners' Gold Size Water Gold Sizes Burnish Gold Size Matt Gold Size Isinglass Gold Size Clear Size for Gold Tools for Laying Gold- Laying Gold Leaf To Prevent Gold Sticking to Ground Burnish and Matt Gilding Glass Gilding Platinum and Silver Laying and Metalling Bronzes Lacquer for Metals Preparing Open Grain Wood and Stone for Gilding, . . 216-228 CHAPTER XVII. LETTERING AND SIGN- WRITING. Shaded Lettering Illegible Type in Lettering Books on Letter- ing Forms of Letters Changed by Environment Rules for Construction of Letters Lettering and Methods of Work Colouring of Lettering Enrichment and Prominence of Letters Setting and Sign- Writing Pounces Painting Letters Hints on Using Sable Pencils Writing on Silk- Glass Embossing Etching Glass General Notes on Sign- Writing, 229-245 CHAPTER XVIII. DECORATION GENERAL PRINCIPLES. Importance of Colour Position of Ornament Scale in Ornament The Consideration of a Decorative Scheme Laws in Decoration and Ornament, 246-259 CHAPTER XIX. DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. Qualities in Distemper for Decoration Sketch Designs Setting Out Ornament Stencils and Stencilling Distemper Painting, 260-270 CHAPTER XX. PAINTED DECORATION. Comparison with Distemper Stencilling in Paint Hand- painted Ornament Contrast of Gloss and Flatting, . . 271-276 ILV1 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXL RELIEVO DECORATION. PAGES Relief Materials Gesso and its Treatment Decoration of Relievo Materials generally Sgraffito, 277-282 CHAPTER XXII. COLOUR. Colour in Historic Ornament Theory of Colour The Chromatic Circle Classes of Colour Combination Colour Values and Qualities Requirements for the Study of Colour How to decide a Colour Scheme Useful Rules for the Colourist Colour Combinations for Decorators Effects of Artificial Light on Colour, . CHAPTER XXIII. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. Methods of Measuring Work Estimating. 297-299 CHAPTER XXIV. COACH PAINTING. Differences between House and Coach Painters' Work Preparation for Coach Painting Filling up Finishing Varnishing Lining and Decorating Ship Painting, 300-305 CHAPTER XXV. PAINTERS' TECHNICAL CLASSES, . INDEX 311 LIST OF PLATES. PLATES IN COLOURS. Plate I. Polychromatic Colour Scheme, .... Frontispiece ,, II. Complementary ,, ,, , . . facing page 56 ,, III. Monochromatic ,, ,, . . . ,, 140 IV. Analogous ,, ... ,, 244 PLATES IN BLACK AND WHITE. Plate 1. Decorative panels designed for conventional colouring, facing page 6 2. Decoration of house front above shop, . . ,, 10 3. Panels designed for naturalistic colour treatment, ,, 12 4. ,, ,, flat naturalistic colouring, . , 16 5. ,, ,, flat polychromatic colouring, , 26 6. Selection of contrast in paper hangings, . ,32 7. Contrasting arrangement of paperhangings, . , 48 8. Diagram showing drop pattern, .... ,64 9. Panel designed for semi-natural colouring, . ,78 10. Panels suited to stained wood decoration, . ,86 10a. Combined wall paper, ,96 11. Panels designed for monochrome painting, . . , 120 12. Simple stencils, illustrating importance of contrast, ,, 136 13. Design complete in itself at all distances from the eye, ,, 154 14. Outline patterns for staining upon wood, . . ,, 160 15. Naturalistic patterns for staining in flat colourings, ,, 162 16. Simple borders for practising brush work, . . ,, 170 17. ,, ,, . 188 18. Original treatment of plain alphabet, ... 204 19. Lower case letters for same, .... 206 20. Original alphabet, modern, 220 21. Gothic, ,,236 22. Letters for glass embossing 252 23. Degrees of conventionality in floral designs, . 258 24. Influence of pattern upon colour effects, . 268 25. Constructive decoration in application, . ,, 284 26. Borders for one colour stencilling, ... ,, 294 27. Natural ties in stencil work, .... ,,296 28. Stencil friezes for blended stencilling, . ,,300 29. Friezes for polychromatic colouring, ... ,, 302 30. Patterns stencilled over joints of wall paper, . ,,304 practical operations involved in painting and decorating must be based upon sound theoreti- cal knowledge, otherwise they are invariably unsuccessful. Sound theories, in their turn, must have a basis of definite and clearly understood facts. Hence, the student, when he has acquired theoretical knowledge, must further culti- vate the ability to correctly appreciate the postulates, or existing facts and conditions of each particular field of operation, in order to attain practical success. In other words, like the surgeon, he must first diagnose his case, then apply his theoretical know- ledge to it, and finally, operate. In no other realm of mechanical labour is this method more obviously necessary than in painting, because in no other class of work are there more ever- varying conditions. Each particular class of work has its own requirements and sur- roundings, and, beyond this, each individual case will vary materially from the same kind of case elsewhere. One of the main factors in the decadence of good craftsmanship in the trade has been the lack of this perception of what is re- qiiisite, and the adoption of a striving for superficial and often unnatural effect, embodied under the phrase "what looks well." The wholesale provision of manufactured decorations, designed and coloured for anywhere in general and nowhere in particular, has fostered this spirit of lazy acceptance, and dwarfed the faculty of critical perception of what is suitable for given positions and uses. Exquisite and well designed as are the decorations supplied by many art manufacturers, even work admitting of so much indi- viduality as do many of the stencilled friezes, becomes hackneyed by repetition. Such decorations as these are frequently out 2 PAINTING AND DECORATING. of character and out of harmony with the surroundings in which they are placed. The insinuating charm of work possessing in some part individual hand labour makes this class of decoration a dangerous obstruction to improvement in the quality of work designed and executed in situ. It is not enough that the general style and scale of a frieze or a ceiling shall accord with its associated decoration, but the repeats, the angles, and the whole setting out of the ornament ought to be determined upon the spot. The habit of working to a ready-made specification, drawn up by persons devoid of a knowledge of the chemical and technical aspects of the craft, has also done much to discourage the practical interest of the craftsman in his operations. This has removed from him any responsibility for technical failures, and set up that de- structive standard of comparison, cheapness, which is another foe to thoroughness and good workmanship. Nothing, on the other hand, is more helpful than an intelligently drawn specification from a man who understands the capabilities and peculiarities of the materials and the craft. Such a specification, in the hands of one who can detect any attempts to go behind it, is in every way conducive to the elevation of the trade. In order to arrive at a correct appreciation of the position, and to use theoretical knowledge to the best advantage, the question that first demands settlement is the all-important and common- place one What is the precise object to be attained in the case to be dealt with 1 Success, as has been pointed out, depends upon the shrewdness with which we completely survey the position and sum up the postulates. A man may be a very dictionary of recipes and processes, but unless he commences in this way he will certainly fail as a decorator. The principle which in criticism will be applied to all our work is the question Does it fulfil its primary object? If it fails in this it fails in every- thing, for no amount of technique or elaboration or costly material will compensate for the lack of fitness for purpose. First, then, what is the end generally to be attained 1 A compliance with the hard matter of fact laws of utility is inseparable from good taste and sound craftsmanship. Beauty is so inextricably bound up with fitness, especially in relation to arrangements of form and colour, that we may almost assent to the proposition that in this connection abstract beauty cannot be considered to exist at all. The " beautiful " is determined by more or less fixed rules based upon fitness ; it admits of no excess and no deficit. It must comprehend due proportion and purposeful distribution of parts. Incongruity of association must be absent, the sensation it should give is one of satisfied INTRODUCTION. 3 complacency and sufficiency and of precise suitability. A feel- ing of extravagance, superabundance, redundancy, or waste destroys this impression. It cannot certainly exist conjointly with any lack of fitness either in material, form, or colour. In the division of mechanical work the same rules apply. The excellence of work is in a large measure dependent on its efficiency in fulfilling the purpose for which it was executed. What would be an excellent finish for one class of work would show bad judgment and ignorance if used for some other position. Utilitarian considerations are of relatively greater weight with the average Briton than purely esthetic considerations, and whilst the endeavour of the decorative house painter should always be to cultivate and forward the aesthetic side of his craft, if he can show that the two considerations are really inseparable, he will go far toward persuading the householder to be less chary of spending his money for the purpose of making his home and surroundings well-preserved, tasteful, cleanly, beautiful, and refined. The question of colour deserves far more consideration than the average house painter gives to it. When we consider thoughtfully the very large quantity of external painting that is done yearly, and the lamentably tawdry, muddy, or dirty results, and contrast these with what might be done by the same amount of labour and material in the hands of a good colourist working in accord with a common well-defined scheme, we are astounded at the supiueness of those in authority, whose tastes are supposed to be cultivated. We almost pine for compul- sory legislation on the subject. Take, for instance, the west-end of London, where acres, yea miles, of frontage are painted annually, and practically the whole triennially. Just imagine a standard three or four colours made compulsory for outdoor work for a period of five years, and what a different scene the place would present ! Our cities, instead of reflecting the dirt and smoke in the colouring of the walls and roofs, might be cheery and even elevating to the senses. Is there some weighty element that makes for the universal sadness and badness] We believe there is, and that it is in great measure due to a total misconception. Ninety per cent, of persons appear to think that the one desideratum in a paint is that it " wont show the dirt." This is quite desirable, but when the desideratum is obtained by using "dirt colour," it evidences a lack of thought and a failure to appreciate the value of colour. In however dirty an atmosphere they may be placed, clean looking tints will look cleaner than the dirty sombre ones ; PAINTING AND DECORATING. and under the ordinary deposits of soot and dust, bright colours will have a generally cleaner and brighter appearance than greys and drabs. Yellows, blues, and reds, when bright in hue, will actually be improved and toned by the acccumulation of a normal quantity of dust. These facts should be borne in mind, and no opportunity allowed to pass unimproved when the surroundings of our life may be cheered and brightened by a little of one of God's best gifts to man, " colour." PAINTING AND DECORATING. CHAPTER I. THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 'OUSE PAINTING is undertaken for three principal reasons : The first is for preservation. The second for cleanliness. The third for beautiftcation. General. These three principal reasons are placed in the above order, because the quality of cleanliness is of greater importance to the community than that of beauty ; and further, be- cause the first necessity provides the reason for the very existence of the craft. In addition to these reasons, the fact is also apparent, that it is not possible to have complete and true beauty if the first two qualities are absent. These three principal requirements may be termed the general reasons why house painting as a craft is a necessity of modern D PAINTING AND DECORATING. life. They must be kept fully in view, and given due and relative prominence when determining what is to be done and how we will do it. Health and art have been said to be twin sisters, and, in the old English sense, science meant knowing what to do, and art expressed the act of doing what science dictated as necessary and right. Thus, health, science, and art are inseparably inter- mixed ; each makes for each. It is the artistic surroundings that induce health ; it is health that produces the perfect man ; and the perfect man physically is the perfect man aesthetically. The separation of art and work is quite a latter-day innovation, the two being really indissoluble. As has been pointed out, art means the act of doing work, provided the doing is scientific, right, and true. Again, science is exactness, viz., truth; thus we see that truth must be in work to ennoble it into art ; art work, therefore, is true work. It is interesting to note how in old times this idea was firmly rooted in the mind of the people. In the Bible, as in many other old books, the idea of a connection between truth and beauty is constantly met with. Take the phrase " beauty oi holiness,"or wholeness viz., freedom from moral imperfection or inaccuracy, and many other instances of similar kind ; every- where the relation between truth and beauty is insisted upon. Special. Next to these general reasons, there are more special and particular reasons which apply to each separate part of the work, and which will be found to vary with each particular set of circumstances surrounding the work. These particular reasons are of no less importance, and must be looked for, discovered, and considered, if the craftsman desires to have the credit of being a sensible and successful workman. For instance, there are the following : Some parts of the work will have much wear and tear ; Others will have little or none. Some will be exposed to the weather ; Some will be in protected situations. Some will be seen by daylight only ; Some will be seen by gaslight ; Some will be seen by both daylight and gaslight, Some will need constant cleaning ; Some will be out of reach and, therefore, difficult to clean. Business premises must look smart and attractive. Signboards must compel attention. Some rooms must be quiet and unassertive. Some work will be for places of amusement and gaiety ; Some for places of gravity and seriousness. In different business houses the class of goods shown must be considered. PLATE i.-DECORATIVE PANELS DESIGNED FOR CONVENTIONAL COLOURING. To face p. 6.] THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 7 In public places the class of frequenters must be taken into account. Architectural features may need emphasizing ; Other features may require disguising. Personal idiosyncrasies of clients need respecting, and a host of other special requirements need taking into account. All these, it may be noted, are points altogether apart from workmanship or technique, and are often overlooked by good craftsmen, but no amount of good detail or workmanship is a substitute for the proper and due recognition of them. The failure to appreciate their importance will lead to error, miscon- ception, and dissatisfaction. Practical Application. As an illustration of the simplicity with which these considerations apply themselves in practice, it may be useful to glance rapidly through an ordinary dwelling- house which, we assume, has to be re-painted. It will then be seen that, though apparently it is a difficult matter to remember, and to apply so many principles to an ordinary job, the diffi- culties vanish on the approach and application of a little common- sense reasoning. First, the outside of the house will be exposed to wet, heat, and frost. To meet these demands the work must be finished in hard, glossy colour with a good body ; each coat must be thoroughly dry before the next is applied. The colours chosen must be of a permanent character, those having the greatest weather-resisting properties being preferable. We must re- member that the destructive action of the elements will commence upon the surface. In the colouring, allowance must be made for the action of the weather, and also for the surrounding brick, tile, slate, or stone. The Entrance Door should be particularly well finished, as being the first thing that the visitor to the house sees and examines. Upon entering the house, the remarks that apply to the entrance door will hold good in regard to the hall. Effort should be made here to convey an impression of comfort, warmth, and homeliness. It should, moreover, be a reflex of the tastes and character of its owner. Any undue parade of gilding or expensive ' material will impart an unpleasant air of chilling grandeur and ostentation, which better befits a public building than a home. The display of wealth should be reserved for more pi'ivate apart- ments. The colouring of the hall should be low in tone and richly quiet in effect, suggesting comfort and even opulence, but forming a simple contrast to the entertaining and other rooms opening out of it. The finish of the work should be hard 8 PAINTING AND DECORATING. and durable, with, few ledges upon which dust can accumulate, as it will be less shut in than the rooms. If there is a Vestibule before entering the hall proper, it may be safely treated in brighter colouring, as it will be a mere passage-way, and a little extra brightness or even hardness will not offend the eye in passing by to the same extent that it would do in a room where we have to stay for a length of time. Here again, the colour should have a hard and durable surface, readily washable, as it will be more exposed to dirt than the hall. In the Lining-Room^ the surroundings may be so treated as tc be redolent of cheery comfort and prosperity. Full-toned, rich, juicy colouring and decided treatment will give the necessary effect (see coloured plate No. II.). As the time spent in the room is not of long continuance, we may indulge in fairly decided hues without fear of tiring the eyes. Again, as the room will be much used at night, we must make allowances in colouring which will be determined in character and extent by the kind of artificial light used, a subject which will have attention in a later chapter. The ornament, too, may be so selected as to be especially appropriate to the room ; not necessarily consisting of bunches of game and vegetables, but yet in harmony with the fact that the room is principally used for eating and drinking. A great charm in old work is the evidence of thought and meaning, without vulgar parade of facts, which results in appropriate symbolism only noticeable to the thoughtful and initiated. Next we come to the Drawing-Boom. Here we have quite a different key to work in lightness, grace, cheerful brightness, and free play for fancy a room used for work, music, dancing, reading, and other recreations, giving unlimited scope for the absence of conventionalism. It is par excellence the ladies' room, and in its decoration we may cultivate a certain femininity of style, without weakness, in pretty contrast to the more masculine treatment accorded to the dining-room. Here, too, we have less rough wear and tear than in any room in the house. The pre- sence of nic-nacs and bric-a-brac tends to more care in cleaning, We may, therefore, use our most delicate tints without fear of their being injured, and indulge in fine and beautiful surfaces. In this room the afternoon and evening are usually spent, and light colours will assist the light. They must also, of necessity, be used as a fitting background to delicately tinted evening dresses, and as a foil to the complexions of the ladies ; hence we carefully avoid hot colours as salmon or terra-cotta, and prefer soft greens, greys, or delicately broken yellows. THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 9 The Breakfast or Morning-Room next compels attention. Cheer- ful hues should here aid in raising the spirits and setting the keynote for the day. Neither too heavy nor too light, the colour and ornament should be healthily contrasted, suggestive of life and motion. All effects of colour conducive to somnolence should be avoided. If a foliage paper is introduced, let it represent a vigorous, upward, spring-like growth and freshness ; and avoid autumn leaves and winter stems, drooping, heavy- scented flowers, and drowsy colouring. We are hardly as con- scious as we should be of the powerful influences of little things in our surroundings. The eye, more than any other sense, conveys its impressions with electric force and rapidity, and with a certainty of result which we are slow to trace to its real The Library and Study will each in its turn suggest thoughtful and sober treatment. Here we may use tertiary colouring and forms without a disturbing or startling element. The decoration should not court attention, but it should be so studied in form and meaning as to lead the mind back by suggestion to books. Quotations and mottoes will not be out of place, especially if they embody the ideas and principles of the master of the house. General quotations that apply anywhere are not to be recom- mended, nor is it good taste to exhibit moral injunctions in the guise of quotations, unless in nurseries, schoolrooms, or children's rooms. The colouring should not be heavy and depressing, but of a medium depth. Next in reference to these rooms generally, one may be very lofty and another too low ; they may be badly lighted, or too gaunt and cheerless by reason of large windows. All these, and similar faults, must be, to the best of the decorator's power, corrected and improved by his colouring and treatment. The Bedrooms will also engage the same kind of attention. Their treatment must be cleanly, airy, and cheerful, not too insistent, and forming a good contrast to the staircase and landings. Purity of tint and freshness of colour will attain this end. The free ventilation must not be interfered with by cooping up windows. The surface of the walls must not be too absorbent. The size and paste used should be deodorised and sterilised by the addition of a little carbolic acid, essence of cloves, or some other similar purifier. All traces of minute fungus growths must be removed by thoroughly washing the walls. Musty and mouldy odours must be traced and their causes removed. In this connection it is well to remember that all 10 PAINTING AND DECORATING. cupboards should be ventilated. The painted work must be made easily washable, and all crevices likely to hold dust or to encourage moth or insect life should be scrupulously filled up. Patterns of disturbing element and pronounced line, or of an angular tendency, should be discarded. In the Children's Nursery or Bedrooms all these points need more emphatic attention, and especially the matters of colour and surface finish. A sanitary paper which can be sponged, or something equally durable and washable, should run up as high as the hands of the children can reach. Enamel or varnish finish is best for the wood- work. White or light wood- work that shows finger marks and dirt will have an educational value which will repay the trouble of-occasionally sponging them off and lead to the use of handles and finger plates, besides having a cheerful and purifying effect on the senses. The presence of plenty of white surface in the nursery enables the eye to discern colour, improves the sight, temperament, and digestion, stimulates the exercise of the muscles, and materially improves the circulation of the blood and general health, especially if it be judiciously present in conjunction with pure tints and cheerful bits of good colouring. This fact has long been recognised on the Continent and applied to the manufacture of toys, and is being more and more acknowledged and acted upon by scientists and medical men. This subject will receive more attention in a later chapter. Economy in Working. The relation between real economy and fitly applied decoration has already been noticed in its bearing upon the client. It is equally important to note that economy of procedure has an important bearing on the workman, and is directly dependent upon the use of method, order, and clean- liness. This will be shown in detail as each part of the work involved is discussed, but the present place is most suitable for general remarks on this important aspect of house painting. Haphazard work the taking of things as they come, and the absence of a specific order of procedure is responsible for dis- satisfaction, loss of time, the breaking of engagements, and often bankruptcy ; but what more concerns us at present is that it is absolutely impossible to obtain good results in workmanship without attention to these points. The following short rules will, therefore, perhaps be found helpful : The best order in which to carry on the various parts of the work, so that each portion is prevented from exerting any damaging effect upon that which is previously finished, must be studied. The work must be so arranged that dust is absent PLATE 2.-DECORATION OF HOUSE-FRONT ABOVE SHOP. To face p. 10.] THE PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR PAINTING. 11 when wet paint is about, that paint is dry when papering is being done, that floors are not wet when we are varnishing, and that many other similar contretemps are avoided. Rooms must be finished in such order that it is not necessary to carry on work in them, or traffic through them, after they are completed. The work should commence, in theory, at the farthest point from the front door, and be completed in due sequence, until the painter finds himself outside. The external painting of windows, &c., should be done before the inside of the room is finished. In painting a room the work that involves the use of steps, &c., should be done first. Cleanliness in Working, Then comes the great question of cleanliness in working. All fittings should be carefully covered or removed before commencing work, and not after they are already soiled. There should be no unnecessary moisture put on the floors in stripping walls or washing down, even though apparently it can do no harm. Splashes and spots must be avoided, even though the floors are covered up, and the hands and clothes kept religiously free from paint. Trade and Health. As an occupation, the painter's is one of the healthiest in the building trades, providing only that moderate cleanliness is observed in person and habits. It has been proved beyond doubt that the volatile products given off by oils, &c., used in painting are not only innocuous, but beneficial. That white lead in particles does not mingle with the air we breathe ; that the smell arising even from the use of arsenical colours is equally non-poisonous ; and that the only possible methods of introducing painters' poisons into the system are through the pores of the skin by the totally unnecessary handling of the pigments, and through the mouth by eating food with painty hands, are all facts well known to scientists. Causes of Bad Health among Painters. There are a few prevalent favourite methods of useless " self-sacrifice " that may be here noted. First, the use of tools and brushes with unclean handles, by which the paint on the handle is deliberately forced into the pores of the skin of fingers and hands. There is no excuse for this dirty, but common, practice. The handles should be scraped clean with a sharp bit of glass or a steel scraper, working from the bristles, and should then be coated with knotting. Second, the filthy habit of putting the hands into colour when mixing, a habit as unnecessary and absurd as any in the trade, but clung to by ancient and thoughtless practitioners as a sort of fetish. 12 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Third, the use of the finger and thumb nails in lieu of a knife for scraping off spots of white lead and other matters, frequently followed by biting the nails. Fourth, and perhaps most prolific of danger, the use of white lead putty, and stopping with the hands instead of with a knife and stopping board. Fifth, the rubbing down of white lead filling in a dry con- dition, with consequent inhalation of dust. Sixth, a general aversion to soap and water, and sometimes the substitution therefor of turps and oil, which serve the better to convey the poisonous particles into the perspiratory system. These points will mostly come up for discussion later, but deserve a place at the front, hence their mention here. Clients' Requirements. In conclusion, it must not be supposed that the painter will always find it possible to give the rein even to his rightly-guided instinct in matters of taste and detail. Clients' requirements have to be studied, as well as the personal prejudices of the untrained. The wise painter, therefore, has to find a via media betwixt what he believes to be the correct treatment and what his client requires, and will best consult his own interests and those of his client by bringing the one into harmony with the other that is, by doing what his client actually requires in what lie knows to be the best way, rather than by endeavouring to press his own views too persistently, always remembering that in matters of mere technique it is due to his self-respect to have hia own wsy. PLATE 3.-PANEL8 DESIGNED FOR NATURALISTIC COLOUR TREATMENT. To face p. 12.1 13 CHAPTER II. is necessary to deal briefly with the accommodation requisite for workshop and stores, and the manner of arranging and managing them to the best advan- tage. The class of premises used, the par- ticular exigencies of town and country work and available space, and the various classes of business involved, all serve to make it impossible to admit of precise description ; but in so far as the practices recom- mended here will be based upon, and assume the existence of efficient accommodation, it is perhaps as well to detail what may be regarded as quite necessary, and to indicate the more important desiderata in a well regulated establishment. Economy of Proper Storage Boom. In the first place, it will be desirable to have two separate shops and an additional store room for materials; which will be called, respectively, the paint shop, the painting room, and the stores. A paved and covered yard or shed should be retained for the 14 PAINTING AND DECORATING. plant and appliances, as it is important that ladders, poles, and planks should be kept dry. As indicating the importance of small matters of this kind, it can be shown that many tons a year are saved upon the cartage account of a large establishment by the use of a covered place for storage of planks and poles. On one occasion a large consignment of scaffolding was sent from London to a church in the country in a wet and sodden state. After standing in the dry for some weeks it was re-consigned to London, and the difference in cost for carriage was nearly two pounds sterling. In many such ways the adoption of careful, methodical, and orderly ways of managing a business conduces to the saving of money. The Paint Shop. The paint shop must be quite 24 feet long by 14 feet wide, and a room of this proportion will be found more convenient, if properly lighted, than a squarer form of shop. Position. It should be on the ground floor, for the con- venience of taking in heavy goods, and generally facilitating the removal of material in and out. Lighting. It must be well lighted; this is an absolute necessity, and may be regarded as of the very first importance. In the winter months, gas, or artificial light of some kind, will be requisite. A T pendant in the centre, and a couple of side brackets will suffice, fitted with good incandescent burners. An ideal shop should have side lights all along the north side. Roof and sky-lights are an abomination, as besides the danger of breakage by stones or hail, experience proves that wet and dust at times will come in, and that spiders and flies have a particular partiality for dropping from them. But more to the purpose, the direct sky-light, changing as it does in character from hour to hour, is deceptive and difficult to work under if making and matching tints. It is too glaring and strong to be a comfortable working light. The north is the best side for lights if it can be so arranged ; and if these are set at a slight angle out of the perpendicular viz., the lower portion of the sashes set out 4| to 6 inches further than the tops, the lighting can hardly be improved upon. The sashes can be hinged at the top, and open otitwards for ventilation. Must be Dry. The shop must be a dry one, as many materials deteriorate if kept in a damp atmosphere. Water. A supply of water will be required, with sink and waste. Heating Arrangements. A gas stove or fireplace in a safe corner. A shut-in stove is safest, but the danger of fire, if WORKSHOP AND STORES. 15 ordinary care is used, is more remote than at first appears, as but few of the ordinary materials are inflammable without actual and purposeful ignition. The fireplace or gas stove will be required for heating water, size, glue, paste, &c., and should be large enough and strong enough to hold a glue kettle or a 3-gallon bucket. Ceiling. The ceiling, if there is a room above, must be dust- tight, and not mere open joists and ordinary floor-boards, or the dust will percolate through, and the colours will need continual straining. Colouring. It should be white in colour, to assist tbe light. The floor should be of stone or concrete. It is immaterial whether the walls be of feather-edge board or brick, so long as they are solid and dust-tight. They are whitened, as, though there will be little of them seen, it is as well to get all tbo additional light that can be reflected from them. Fittings and Furniture. The fittings necessary will be strong shelves, a cupboard or two, and strong benches. First, a long bench under the windows, about 2 feet 8 inches high and 2^ feet wide, with stout supports, will be the mixing bench. It should be furnished with three paint stones. These may be slabs of Purbeck or other hard even-grained marble, or French burrstone, without flaws, about 2 feet square and 1| inches thick. One of the three may be smaller, and of white marble, for use for fine bits of colour. A cheaper substitute for a marble slab is a sheet of stout plate glass set in white lead to make it solid. To keep it in place, a fillet of wood may be screwed to the bench on each side. This will also protect it from being chipped. Rough cast plate will do if levelled by rubbing with coai-se emery and another piece of thick glass till an even surface is produced. The front edge of the stones should be set level with the edge of the bench. A muller will be required for each stone, as, although every colour can be purchased ready ground for use, the good workman will often prefer to grind his own in special mediums for special jobs, and is not always satisfied with the degree of fineness attained in the paint mill. It is also unneces- sary to keep such a comprehensive stock when the means for grinding up a bit of special colour are handy and familiar. Beneath each stone there should be a drawer for material for cleaning the bench. Cotton waste or odd rags are used for this purpose, but the most efficacious and most lasting material, one which never seems full of paint, and which does not ignite if heated by long confinement in the drawer, is a material known in the old-fashioned trade as " shreds." Whether commercial 16 PAINTING AND DECORATING. and economical development has or has not driven it out of the market at a price within the painters' scope for such a purpose is uncertain, but of its absolute efficacy and cleanly application and power of absorption there is no doubt. It was obtained from curriers, and appeared to be the dressings or scrapings from the interior sides of the coarser hides. Cotton rags or waste, when saturated with oil, are a fruitful source of fires by spontaneous combustion, and should be shunned unless they can be cleared out periodically under skilled supervision. Colours, Driers, Oils, &c., required on Paint Bench The space at the back of the stone will be the place for small kegs of tinting colours available for use when mixing. Ochres, Umbers, Sienna, Venetian and Indian reds, red lead, vegetable black, and Prussian blue should be kept there, within easy reach of the hand. Space between the stones at the back will accommodate patent driers and white lead, of which a small keg should be specially set apart for the same purpose, as the frequent dipping of palette knives into the large casks is liable to soil the contents and disturb them unnecessarily. Upon the paint-mixing bench we shall also require small hand cans, spouted for pouring, to hold raw and boiled oil, terebine, turpentine, and a generally useful varnish for adding to colour. Plenty of room must be left between the paint stones for standing and straining the colours that are being made up. Drawers to Paint Bench for Tools. Narrow drawers between the paint-stone drawers will be useful to hold the mixing or palette knives, a piece or two of pumice stone for cleaning off any hard spots that dry upon the stone, and for occasionally cleaning down the stone thoroughly in addition to the general wiping down after use, a few clean rags, pieces of straining muslin of different degrees of fineness and string, also a hammer, tacks, a screw-driver, shears or large scissors, a cork screw, a cask opener, a case opener, odd corks and bungs, taps for racking off the oil and turps, and many other odds and ends that experience will dictate. Palette Knives for Paint Stone. There should be a pair of palette knives to each stone, of from 8 to 1 2 inches long in the blades, for different quantities of colour. To Clean Paint Stone. A word may be interposed here on the method of cleaning down the slabs after use. Expert handling of the palette knives will leave the stone almost clean enough to dine from, but it may be stained by strong colours, as Prussian blue ; or varnish or turps colour may stick near the edges. To thoroughly clean, put a little whiting on the stone and rub it up 1S97 PLATE 4.-RANEL8 DESIGNED FOR FLAT NATURALISTIC COLOURING. To face p. 16.] WORKSHOP AND STORES. 17 in a little raw linseed oil, work it over the surface with the muller as if grinding colour ; collect and take it up with the knives, and put it into the keg reserved for odd bits of light colour. This will leave stone, knives, and muller all clean, and a wipe over with the " shreds," or a rag, or cotton waste does the rest. Brush Trays. On the bench near the stones a place must be set apart for the brushes. A tray of zinc, divided into sections by bars across the top, and large enough to hold the number of brushes generally in use, must be provided. It should be 5 inches deep, so that the brushes may be suspended in the water and not rest on the bottom. This is accomplished by boring holes through the handle or stock of the brushes or tools, and slipping a piece of steel wire through the hole, the ends of which will rest upon the divisions of the tray. The holes must be bored at a height which will permit the whole of the bristles to be in the water. A tinned tray or an iron one will rust and corrode. Zinc is the best material, as it can be easily scraped free from paint, and will withstand the action of water, turps, or oil. A smaller tray may be provided for Fi g- L Skeleton elevation of i i i , -i smutch-can. A, Inner can. B, brushes kept in oil. Outer can. 0, Mouth of toner In putting away the brushes, it can . j^ Sloping top of inner can is well to scrape as much paint as to prevent splashing. E, Filter possible out of them and rinse them of perforated zinc to prevent in turps, otherwise the water will * hi k tur P s , Corking up from f,' ., . ,, . , , bottom. The turps will reach cause the oil m the paint to congeal up to the dotted H e F and become "furred" in the brushes. Brash Washer or Smutch-can. For the purpose of washing the brushes, smutch-cans or rinsers will be necessary. A double galvanised or tinned iron kettle made as in Fig. 1 will be a good form. The inner kettle has a bottom of perforated copper or copper gauze, the top edge is sufficiently sharp to scrape the edge of the brushes or to free them from excess of turps, and overhangs to prevent splashing. The perforated bottom allows all solid matter to pass through and settle, and prevents it from working up again. After scraping the brushes out on the stone, thoroughly rinse them in the turps in the smutch-can. It is " "^^T 3 A --F... />-^v I^r-'T'.'.rs V;> ^ll" IS.*& B 18 PAINTING AND DECORATING. a good plan to have one for preliminary rinsing, and a second for cleaner turps. To thoroughly rinse, whirl the brush round in the turps, by spinning the handle between the palms of the hands. To free it from turps, do the same thing, but keep the brush higher so that it does not touch the turps. A further spinning in an empty can or keg will leave the brush almost dry, in which condition it is safe to put it into the water tray. Varnish brushes may be treated in a similar way before being stood in oil, but they will be fully dealt with under the heading of brushes. Zinc Covering for Paint Bench. The spaces between the paint stones, if covered with stout zinc, will be kept much cleaner, and scrape and clean down more readily than if left in the bare wood. Stout No. 11 gauge zinc will be suitable; allow the zinc to go under the stones, dress it square over the edge of the bench, and nail to the edge. Ready-made Colours. All colours that it is possible to make up at the shop should be sent to the job ready for use, except thinning, but of course this only applies to jobs near the shop. Large Kegs. Under the paint bench, a suitable place may be found for large kegs of colour, casks of whitelead and driers, barrels of ochre and Umber, &c., from which the smaller kegs on the paint bench are kept supplied. Drawers for Powder Colours. A nest of drawers will be found truly economical for powder colours. The drawers should vary in size, and be easily pulled out; each drawer should have an all-round solid partition dividing it from the other drawers to prevent an inter-mixture of the colours. They may have lids, but this is not material if the drawers are self- contained. They should not be too large, as they can be replenished frequently from the stock in stores. The great advantage accruing from the use of drawers is, that the drawers can be taken across to the stone or bench, thus avoiding the carrying of dips of dry colour on the tip of the knife, and conse- quent waste. Where the dry colours are kept in bulk in casks, there is generally a series of coloured tracks on the floor between the casks and the paint stone. Another gain is the cleanliness and freedom from dust and grit in the colour. In sending dry colour to a job, on no account send it in paper packages. Tin canisters should be collected and set aside for the purpose. Weighing Machine and Scales. A weighing machine for heavy goods, and scales and weights for lighter packages, are necessary. These should not only be in the shop, but their use should be WORKSHOP AND STORES. 19 insisted on, and all goods coming in or going out should be weighed and entered. Rough Day-book. For this purpose a rough day-book should be placed on a small desk in close proximity to the scales, and near the door. This is not a manual on book-keeping, even for painters, but it may be noted with emphasis that the initial stage of book-keeping begins here. One book, always at hand, fixed (like a chained Bible) if desired, must contain a record of everything that goes in or out of the shop and stores. Material, tools, plant, or objects to be, or that have been, painted, must all be set down in the order they occur, with the date and name of destination or derivation. The sorting off of these various items is a matter for the clerks at a future stage. Oil Tanks. In a place removed from the tire or stove, tanks are required for the oils one for raw linseed, and one for boiled oil, and a couple for turps. It is generally the practice to buy two kinds of turpentine. One, the best Russian; and the other, American. Sometimes French is also stocked. These should not be mixed, as they have special qualities which, if kept separate, are valuable under different sets of circumstances. The tanks should hold about 120 gallons each or more. Square tanks take least room. Wood, zinc-lined, and with taps near bottom, or galvanised iron are the best. The advantages of large tanks are many. One is, that as the oil is generally new it becomes matured by being stored in bulk for a little time. Another, that by mixing the different consignments a more uniform quality is maintained ; and another, that the contents of the barrels can be checked and examined when they are racked ; there is thus an avoidance of much waste. Whiting and Plaster Bins. A large box or bin for the whiting must be set in a dry corner, and smaller ones for the plaster and Parian cement, mastic, and sand, Portland cement, <fcc. These will occupy the further side of the shop. The centre part of the floor may be taken up by the barrels of dry tinting colours or other items of the kind. "Pickle" Cask. A place must be reserved for a cask of "pickle" in which to throw the pots and cans which require cleaning. This is made from potash, black ash, or caustic soda and water, and must be strong enough to remove the paint, but not so strong as to attack the metals of the cans as well as the paint in them. Zinc cans must not be put into this solution, or they will be dissolved. An old oil or turpentine cask may be cut down to serve the purpose of a "pickle tub." Smudge Keg Two casks should be retained to hold oddments of paint smudge, and one to hold refuse and skins. 20 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Flour Barrel. A barrel to hold a sack of flour, with tight- fitting lid, may be stored in a dry corner. Shelves. Strong shelves will be necessary at the ends and back of the shop, sufficiently wide to hold paint cans, tins of varnish, paint in use, and other matters. The bottom shelf may be a foot wider than the others, so as to serve for packing upon. Never arrange hooks along edges of shelves. The practice results in waste of time in removing the articles hung upon them, prior to being able to take things from the shelf behind, or in knocking down the objects from the hooks in the endeavour to save the trouble of moving them. In reaching up to the shelves, there is also danger of the hooks catching in the sleeves. Do not have the shelves further apart than necessary for the goods intended to be stored on them. Fig. 2. Paint mill. Cupboard. A cupboard may be retained for the brushes not in use, and another for glasspaper, glue, concentrated size, special colours, &c. Pigeon Holes. A set of pigeon holes to hold artists' colours in large 1-lb. tubes (now so much sold for tinting purposes) will be requisite, if there is much good work done in the shop. Each hole should be plainly marked with the colour it contains. Paint Mill. A paint mill (Fig. 2) is desirable for grinding up rough colour, making hard stopping, and other like purposes. WORKSHOP AND STORES. 21 A small sized one, to hold about 28 Ibs. of white lead, will be sufficient. One constructed to grind on the cone principle, with a side handle, can be easily screwed to one end of the paint bench. Other small conveniences will be mentioned under the various headings for which they are required, and need not be specially referred to here. The Painting Room. The painting room will next be con- sidered. This apartment is required for the purpose of working in, as its name implies. There are a large number of small jobs which have to be done in the shop, such as the painting of signs, the writing of facia glasses and advertisement boards, the painting of fittings and furniture, gilding, and other matters of a similar kind. There are also many operations which it would be better and more profitable to do in the shop, which are at present muddled through on the job for want of proper accommodation, such as the decoration of material, the preparation of drawing pounces and stencils, and priming of new work prior to fixing. The size of the room should be larger than that of the paint shop and of a similar shape. It must be well lighted and, pre- ferably, in the same manner. A first-floor room above the paint shop and stores would present many advantages over a ground floor. The floor of the room should be of wood and the walls and ceiling whitened. The remarks made as to the character of the ceiling and the absence of sky-lights apply with no less force in the painting room than in the paint shop. Wall for Large Cartoons, &c One wall that is well lighted will require to be boarded with close, flush-jointed boards of 1 inch in thickness, for the purpose of working painted canvasses, banners, cartoons, or large drawings upon, or for the tacking-up lengths of anaglypta or linoleum for decorating. Benches and Drawers. Under the windows a fixed bench oi convenient height may be placed, about 2 feet 8 inches high, running the length of the room. It may be supported upon pedestals of drawers for holding stencil plates and drawings, pounces and cartoons. These drawers should be 3 feet 6 inches long and the full depth of the bench from back to front, which should be not less than 30 inches. Shorter drawers may be arranged between these, allowing sufficient room for working at the bench upon stools with the knees under it. They will be required for a few materials, as gilding, writing, and stencilling tools and materials, gold leaf and metals, bronzes, special colours, gelatine, isinglass, cotton wool, and numerous articles of this kind. 22 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Reference Books. A few books of reference and examples of lettering may be usefully kept in them. A bar from pedestal to pedestal may be fixed as a foot-rest. Gas. The gas brackets should be fitted to the window frames, and have universal swivel joints to bend in any di- rection. Shades made from tin, coloured white upon the inside and green upon the outside (with Duresco not paint), will be required for writing and gilding in the winter evenings. The shades must be removable. Portable Benches. Other benches will be required, but it is convenient to have them portable, as at times the floor space will be required for furniture, or even for setting out upon. It is specially useful for planning panelled ceilings, so as to arrive at the exact templates for stencils and pounces. The benches will, therefore, take the form of trestles and boards; 6 trestles of the form shown in Fig. 3 will suffice. A piece of 4J-inch x 3-inch deal, 40 inches long, forms the top of each, and three supporting legs are halved into this, or, better still, dovetailed at such an angle that the legs stand 9 inches apart on the floor in the clear, two on the outside and one on the inside. The inch yellow deal boards upon They should be all about Fig. 3. Portable bench trestle. boards are tongued and grooved battens of the same thickness. 40 inches wide, and differ in length from 15 feet to 5 feet. There may be four or five of them. The battens should be screwed on so that they can be easily taken off and re-clamped, as they shrink or twist. Paint Stone Muller and Knives A small paint slab say 18 inches circular, will be handy, provided with a glass muller and a pair of 8-inch knives. Sign- Writers' Easels. For the convenience of sign-writing, one or two common easels will be necessary. For heavy signs, a good plan is to have a couple of primitive easels made as follows : Two 9-feet lengths of 3 inches by 1| inches are fastened together by battens nailed across at top and bottom, leaving them a clear space 1^ feet across, and forming a rectangu- WORKSHOP AND STORES. 23 lar frame. In the long sides of this frame, f-inch holes are bored for stout pegs of oak. These easels will lean against the walls at any angle, and will hold any shape or proportion of sign, as two or three of them can be used in conjunction. They are also handy for lengths of lincrusta, which may be tacked to the battens ; they are then easily stood in any position, and in front of each other without rubbing. Entrance Ways. The room must have a sufficiently large doorway to admit articles of furniture or large boards, and, if it be an upper floor, it is best to have an outside staircase with good large double doors at the top. If, on the other hand, a small staircase exists indoors, there may be an arrangement of casements, and a pulley block or crane above them, so that work may be taken in and out with as little danger of damage as possible. Shelves. A few shelves will be requisite, also a cupboard or two to keep colour clean and free from dust, when in use from day to day. Heating. A heating stove is necessary ; a close coke one will be found safest and most convenient. Stores. The next room for consideration is the store room, or stores. It must be a dry room on the ground floor, in which a fairly equable temperature of about 60 can be maintained. If possible, it should adjoin the paint shop, so as to save time and labour in transferring goods from one to the other. But little light is necessary ; indeed, for many materials, an excess of light is undesirable. Fittings. The whole four sides of the room may be shelved for varnishes and japans, kegs of colour, and other items of stock. A few drawers are desirable for small articles, sash tools, stencil tools, sponges, leathers, &c. Brushes, dusters, limers, and distemper brushes should be hung from the ceiling in bunches of 3 dozens For this purpose, and to accommodate new cans or kettles and buckets, the whole of the ceiling may be fitted with rows of galvanised hooks, like those used by butchers and in larders. The upper shelves should be kept for articles requiring a particularly dry place. Glasspaper, concentrated size, and glue will come under this denomination, as will dry colours, lacquers, and spirit varnishes, knotting, &c. Then below these will come the oil varnishes, japan, stainers, enamels, &c., and below these the oil colours and colours ground in water, and heavier goods. On the floor, which should be of stone or concrete, we place the heaviest goods casks of white lead, driers, Umber, and ochre, 24 PAINTING AND DECORATING. barrels of oils and turps, firkins of powder colour, and kegs of Duresco, paint-remover, and other like matters. Use. The stores should be used for goods in unbroken packages only. Each particular article should be represented in the paint shop as well as in the stores. If this is done, the value of the stock can be much more readily ascertained. In the stores only whole packages are retained, rendering stocktaking easy. The stock in use in the paint shop consists entirely of partly- used packages, which, it is safe to assume, are upon an average half full. As the assortment of goods in use in the paint shop will not materially vary, it can always be taken to be "as before," the real difference in value being in the actual stores. Keturn of Empty Packages. As each cask or package is emptied of its contents it must be headed and hooped up and set aside for sending back to the manufacturer, and as soon as a sufficient quantity is got together to make a consignment, they should be despatched. This should be done at least once a quarter. Storing of Parts of Cases. A bin under the paint shop bench can be reserved for lids, heads, and portions of packing-cases that have to be removed and ultimately returned, as, if the shop is kept properly clean and the goods are to be easily got at, these will not be required during the use of the contents, except in special cases where it is desirable to exclude the air from the contents. Putting up Material for a Job. A word or two may fitly be added here on sending material to a job. All jobs repeat themselves to a greater or less degree. A general list may, therefore, be made of the materials usually required, to be supplemented as occasion demands. It may be divided under the heads of outside painting, inside painting, paper-hanging, and distempering. All the usual tinting colours should always be included, as it is not possible to know exactly what may be required. If the lists are printed ones, a large column may be left for filling in the quantities of each article. In making out the list it will only be necessary to mark one or two articles, as the others will follow in proportion. Thus, the quantity of whitelead for an inside job will govern the quantity of staining colours, oil, driers, turps, terebine, putty, and glass paper, unless under the existence of special conditions. In these special cases the list could be marked first for the normal and afterwards for the extra quantity of any given WORKSHOP AND STORES. 25 article. Thus, if the bulk of the painting were white and the job would take 2 cwts., the list would be marked for ^ cwt., which would carry the necessary amount of et ceteras, and in the extras column it would be again marked 1J cwts. whitelead extra, which would infer extra thinnings, but no extra stainers. Or, again, a job requires extra quantities of Indian red and black, the whitelead entry would carry a certain amount of each as stainers and the extra column would ask for, say, 14 Ibs. black extra and 28 Ibs. Indian red extra, which would infer the extra oil necessary for them. The great value of having a set form or general list is that, by this method, small items are not forgotten. Such items as varnishes, papers, &c., must, of course, be particularised. Despatch of Material for a Job. The storekeeper or paint shop clerk, who superintends the sending out of stuff, must keep a stock of necessaries ready to hand for prompt despatch. A supply of clean pots and cans should also be always in hand. Empty bottles and jars should be stored in an odd corner, and when returned dirty must be at once put into the pickle and allowed to clean themselves. Management Of Paint Shop. Before leaving the subject, it is as well to deal briefly with the economic side of the paint shop management. Waste. A considerable amount of waste is the unwitting result of ignorance and thoughtlessness, but the direct waste in this way is even less than the waste of labour and the unsatis- factory results of injudicious attempts at economy. Returned Residuum Paint. On every job, however well it may be regulated, there will be a certain amount of residuum. This does not always depend upon the skill with which the job is managed, but is frequently due to the character of the job in hand. The less varied the class of work in a given job, the more likelihood will there be of a large amount of waste colour. In a job of mixed character there will be plenty of opportunities for using up the odds and ends. An inside job of painting, if it be confined to the principal rooms, will of necessity result in this overplus, and unless it be intelligently dealt with on its return to the shop it will be wasted or worse than wasted. Fat Colour and Smudge. Paint, after being thinned for use with a proper quantity of driers and spirits, soon becomes partially oxidised, and, consequently, viscid and greasy. This is partially due to the exposure to the atmosphere, with the consequent loss of the more volatile portions of the oils and the rapid absorption of oxygen ; and partly to the chemical action 26 PAINTING AND DECORATING. of the added driers, and sometimes of the pigments upon each other. This explains why paints sold prepared ready for im- mediate use seldom prove satisfactory, even if of tolerably good quality as far as the ingredients go. Such paint is technically known as " fat." Fat colour has thus lost some of its power of hardening, is bad in drying, and most readily softens under ordinary heat. In practice it will be difficult to spread, and, consequently, more turpentine is added, which, when evaporated, leaves behind it further resinous matter, so that the amount of gummy matter in the paint is more than necessary for the binding and cohesion of the pigment, and prevents it hardening off. Most of the returned colour that comes to the paint shop will be of this character, and the larger part of it will probably be colour that has been mixed with a large quantity of tur- pentine, which, when fat, is more unmanageable than fat oil colour. It will be perceived from these remarks that "fat" colour in the condition in which it is returned is only available for the very roughest of outside work. Even when treated, it is not capable of so hardening as to make it a safe paint for work likely to be much handled, or for work which is situated in direct sunlight. It will not dry dead or flat. Salvage of Fat Colour and Smudge. The method recommended for putting it to the best use is to first throw it together in kegs kept for the purpose one for light tints, one for medium tints, and one for dark shades. All blues should be kept to- gether separately, as the addition of blues will render the other warm tints useless. It must be allowed to settle, and a lid placed over it to retard "skinning." The tops may then be skimmed off and used for grinding up with common dry colours for outside painting, a little turpentine being added to free the "fat" oils. The bottoms or settlings will be useful for priming, if thinned with turpentine, excepting for very good work or for first coating new plaster or stucco, painting rough unwrought timber, or rough brick walls, outside painting under eaves and outhouses, &c., always bearing in mind that it must be thinned with turpentine, as there is already a plethora of oils present. Thinnings for Smudge. For thinning all "fat" colour, the cheaper grades of turpentine and substitutes for the same are even better than the best commercial turps, because they volatilise more completely, and leave less resinous gum be- hind ; for new paints, however, they are useless, as the absence of this resin means absence of binding properties. In the fat PLATE 5.-RANELS DESIGNED FOR FLAT POLYCHROMATIC COLOURING, To face p. 26.] WORKSHOP AND STORES. 27 colour there is already enough binding medium, and all that is required is a thinner, to enable the paint to be spread easily and evenly, which, after fulfilling this purpose, volatilises rapidly, leaving little or no residuum. The same quality, or absence of quality, fits these commoner spirits, for the purpose of brush washing. They are more penetrating and solvent in their action than a good turpen- tine, and where turps is given as the best medium for cleaning certain brushes, cheap grade turps may be used with advantage. Prevention of Skinning and Hardening of Stock Colours. It should not be necessary to point out that all waste caused by allowing colours in their paste form to harden or skin over is easily preventible. All that is required is to effectually keep the air from them. On oil colours, pure linseed oil is best for the purpose. The colour should be pressed level, and care must be exercised that it is not stirred up or mixed with the oil in any way. In taking colour from the keg it should be sliced out with a small trowel or similar tool, and not dug out of the middle with the point of the knife. As little oil as will cover the colour should be used, not over half-an-inch in depth, and it may be occasionally changed. Some prefer to use boiled oil or nut oil for the purpose. If the colour remain open for a length of time before getting used up, the lids may be kept over the kegs. They ought also to be kept over all rapidly-drying colours. Certain colours are better bought in collapsible tubes, which we shall refer to in a later chapter. Colours ground in turps may be kept in condition by turpen- tine, used in the same way as oil for oil colours, but changed more frequently to prevent "fattening." Water colours may be preserved by covering with water to which a little glycerine has been added. Whitelead. Whitelead and patent driers are very usually kept under water. If great care is exercised and the water is not allowed to get locked up in the lead by carelessness in taking out portions of lead, it is not objectionable, but, unless the lead is of very stiff and putty-like consistency, there is a danger of the water getting beaten into the whitelead. When water is used, the lead, when required, must be well patted and knocked about on the paint stone, to drive out the water, before any thinners are added to it. Conservation of Tube Colours, Tube colours, if used very seldom, have a tendency to become "fat" and "leathery." If they are kept in a canister or elsewhere shut in from the air, 28 PAINTING AND DECORATING. they will remain longer in good condition. Crimson lake has a bad tendency to become "leathery" independent of external conditions, but even this is retarded by keeping the tube in a jar of water. Stock Articles Enumerated. It will be advantageous to here mention the articles required for stock in a small shop. The various articles will be fully described under the heading of materials, and are merely enumerated here to give an idea of the relative quantities required of each for an average class of business. List of Stock Required. 1 ton of white lead. 1 cwts. patent driers. 2 barrels turpentine. 1 barrel boiled linseed oil. 1 , , raw linseed oil. 6 gallons terebine. 6 ,, patent knotting. Oil Colours. 1 cwt. ochre in oil. 1 , , burnt Umber in oil. 4 ,, raw Umber in oil. 4 ,, Indian red in oil. 4 Venetian red in oil. 14 Ibs. Prussian blue in oil. 28 vegetable black in oil. 28 , . Oxford ochre in oil. 28 ,, raw Sienna in oil. 28 , , burnt Sienna in oil. 28 ,, lemon chrome in oil. 14 , , orange chrome in oil. Putty, Pumice Stone, Cements, dec. 1 cwt. linseed oil putty. 4 ,, lump pumice stone. 14 Ibs. pumice stone powder. 1 ream of glass paper assorted, one half being No. 1 J. 1 ton whiting. 5 cwts. plaster Paris. 2 ,, Parian cement. 2 Portland cement. 2 ,, oil mastic. \ dry whitelead. 1 ,, dry red lead. Dry Colours. 1 cwt. dry ochre. 4 dry Venetian red. WORKSHOP AND STORES. 29 4 cwt. burnt Turkey Umber. 28 Iba. dry lime blue. 7 common ultramarine. emerald green. lemon chrome. vermilion. Indian red. lamp black or drop black. mahogany lake. drop black ground in turps. Vandyke brown ground in oil. burnt Umber in water. ,, Sienna in watar. blue black, raw Sienna, each sundry fancy colours in dry powder and 1 Ib. tubes of fancy oil colours, as lakes, best blues, yellows, Terra Verte, &c., to be added as required. water. 14 Ibs. sugar of lead. 14 litharge. 1 sack good rye flour for paste. 1 cwt. concentrated size. 28 Ibs. best glue. 1000 best deep gold leaf, one-half transferred, and the other in plain books. 1000 silver leaf. 1 Ib. bronze powders, assorted. 2000 aluminium leaf. 3 gallons lacquers assorted. 14 Ibs. oil gold size. 6 gallons japanners' gold size. Varnislies. 20 gallons good outside oak varnish. 20 ,, inside best pale copal best pale carriage ,, common hard oak varnish. each of maple, white copal, encaustic, flatting, and other special varnishes, best black Japan in quarts. Brunswick black in quarts, best white enamel. Sundries. 300 paint cans 200 paint pots. Brushes as required. 5 cwts. white Duresco. 2 liquid ,, 30 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 1 cwt. peacock blue Duresco. 1 ,, lemon yellow. 1 ,, bright red. (These will make most tints, but if special tints are required in any quantity they had better be ordered ready-made). 1 ,, laminated lead in sheets. 56 Ibs. filling up powder. 1 cwt. paint remover. Lamp for burning off paint. 1 dozen paint and distemper strainers. This will form a useful and sufficiently varied stock from which to carry out any ordinary jobs. Purchase of Stock. Unless for very large businesses it is the better plan to purchase each article as required irrespective of the rise and fall of the market, and it is hardly necessary to enforce the truism that in all departments the best is really the cheapest. Of course, every rule has its exception, and there may be times when it is provident to buy more largely of a particular material, but the master-painter should not go out of his way to speculate on the rise and fall of values. A thing is not cheap if there is not a fairly immediate use for it. It is not necessary to say more on this head here, as it will be dealt with in detail under materials. 31 CHAPTER III. |HE plant and appliances required by painters are largely the same as those needed by other branches of the building trade; and the treatment of this branch of the subject will be little more than an enumeration of, and a specification of, the principal items. Ladders. Ladders come first, both in order of importance and in cost. The form slightly varies in different parts of the country. The ladder best constituted to meet the demands of the general house painter is formed from the two halves of a sound fir pole, lightened down to a size just sufficient to bear the strain of its length. The staves or rounds, sometimes called " rungs," are of ash, oak, or hickory; and for painters maybe placed 10 inches apart from centre to centre. At each ten staves or so, a wrought-iron bolt is inserted, either below or through the stave, and secured by washers and nuts or rivetted over, on the outside of the ladder. Sometimes an iron stave half to three quarters of 32 PAINTING AND DECORATING. an inch thick is substituted for the oak stave at intervals ; in either case the object is to hold the sides of the ladder together. The width of the ladder between the staves is to some extent regulated by its height, but at the top they must be just wide enough to allow a man to stand with both feet side by side easily. Ladders for general builders are heavier, and the staves are placed more closely together to facilitate the easy ascent with heavy weights. Ladders are required of various lengths, ranging from 10 feet to 60 feet. The most generally useful are from 24 to 40 rounds long. A good ladder should have plenty of spring in it, and both sides should give equally, forming a perfect curve when suspended by its two ends, the curve, of course, being less sharp at the foot end of the ladder than at the top. Selection. Of two ladders of equal length, the lightest should be preferred, other points being equal ; as in the painting trade no great strain is put upon the ladders. In selecting a ladder, buy it before it is painted, and look for straightness of grain and solidity of wood to the heart. Avoid pithy centred wood or wood that is sappy, in the outer rings especially. Notice that the holes are clean bored for the staves, that the staves fill them properly, and that in wedging the staves the side has not been split or shaken. Mode of Using. When a ladder is too short for a particular purpose, it is sometimes spliced by lashing another ladder to it. This is done either while the ladders are on the ground, when it is a comparatively simple matter, or after the first ladder has been reared up. In the first method the long ladder is placed upon the ground, and the shorter one laid upon it. At least six rounds should be covered. The bottom stave of the top ladder should then be firmly lashed to the sixth stave from the top of the lower ladder, and the cords carried up the sides round each stave, bringing the sides of the two ladders firmly together, working over each round to prevent the top ladder slipping, and finishing off by lashing the top stave of the lower ladder to the sixth from bottom of the top one. The lashing must be repeated in an exactly similar manner, so as to obtain equality of tension and spring. Strong flax sash cord are better than scaffold ropes for splicing, as they take less room and leave the rounds clear of encumbrance. In use, the spliced ladder should be placed so that the top ladder is beneath the lower one that is, the position in which they are laid on the ground is reversed. If this is done there PI-ATE 6.-SELECTION OF CONTRAST IN PAPER HANGINGS. To face p. 32.] PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 33 is no obstacle to the ascent, and no trap to catch the unwary when descending, both of which faults occur if the top ladder is in front of the lower one. Another advantage is, that all knots are on the underside, out of the way. Ladders should be painted with boiled oil. The addition of red or white lead adds materially to the weight. The oil is the true preservative element in paint, and any light pigment may be added merely to give distinctiveness without needlessly adding to the weight of the ladder. In common with all plant, ladders should be lettered with the name and address of the ownei-, both for the sake of easy recognition and for advertisement. They should be branded with a hot iron on every 10 feet, for protec- tion, as the painted name can easily be obliterated. In addition, ladders and steps should always be numbered. This simplifies entering and aids identification. London painters probably possess the best and longest ladders in the Kingdom. The London form of painter's ladder combines the maximum strength with the minimum weight. Many in use in the West of London are 80 feet in length. In raising and lowering long ladders considerable variance of procedure exists. The methods are necessarily changed by change of circumstances. Whenever possible a ladder fall or long rope should be used, both for the sake of safety and economy. It is let down from a window or roof, and one end is fastened round the top stave of the ladder. The end of the ladder is placed against the wall, a curb, or is "footed" by a couple of men, and the man at the top hauls in the rope. As soon as the ladder is up, the two men at the foot can guide it into position. A ladder of any length can be easily raised by three men in this way, and an ordinarily long ladder by two. In raising such a ladder without the fall or rope at least four men will be necessary. The two shortest and heaviest men should always foot the ladder, or, if it can be set against a curb, one will suffice at foot. When partly up, the amount of leverage exerted by the long end of the ladder is considerable. The use of a shorter ladder as a crutch to take the weight while the men shift positions or rest is often resorted to in the case of very long or heavy ladders. The fact that by this means a man can reach so much higher than the other men, gives him increased power over the weight and makes his assistance trebly useful. In connection with the use of ladders the following warnings are necessary: The ladder must be firmly set on both legs. Both top ends must rest equally against the wall or other support. The foot of the ladder must be at such distance from 3 34 PAINTING AND DECORATING. the wall, that when sprung by pressure upon itself it will not recoil to a vertical position. If the ladder has more than thirty rounds it should be lightly secured by a cord at or near the top. Seen in front elevation it should always be perpendicular. If the ground is not level, one end must be wedged up to make it so. Ladder Brackets. From ladders to ladder brackets is but a step. There are several patterns, the simplest being the best. One of the simplest consists of a Y-shaped iron, having the split ends of the Y hooked, to clip the stave of the ladder. At the bottom of the Y, or single end, is a ring and chain having a hook at the end. It can be used either over or under the ladder, and is merely hooked on the stave by the double end and the chain hooked a few staves higher up in such a way that the Y-iron forms a horizontal rest for the plank. Another simple form is a fixed triangular bracket, the top of which forms a level bearing for a plank. A turned up end prevents the plank from slipping off, and the side of the triangle which rests against the ladder is continued above the angle and provided with hooks by which it is hooked over the staves of the ladder. Preference should be given to those forms of plank supports which do not depend upon the strength of one stave of the ladder, and which have no loose working parts, as pins, &c. Scaffold Poles. For scaffolding halls, public buildings, stair- cases, &c., a few good scaffold poles are requisite. These should range from 20 feet to 40 feet long. Fir poles are used for the purpose. They should be straight, light, and free from large shakes. A seasoned fir pole always contains a number of small superficial cracks, but these should not extend into the wood below the outer annular rings, and are not to be mistaken for defects. In selecting poles, notice that the butt end of the pole has not been thinned down, but tapers naturally, gradually, and regularly from butt to top, and that the pole is not too heavy for its length. New poles should be barked, and all roughnesses taken off with a spokeshave. It is a good plan to char the bottom ends of painters' scaffold poles, and to well saturate the top ends with boiled oil and red lead, as they get less use than a general builder's poles, and this plan will preserve them. Planks. Planks are the next items of importance. Local usages and prejudices prescribe many slight differences in thickness, quality, and breadth. A plank should be selected for its toughness, lightness, and Stiffness; a large amount of spring in a plank, although indi- PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 35 cative of strength and toughness, is an element of danger. A springing plank on trestles will sometimes of its own action and recoil, close up and overthrow the trestles before attention has been drawn to the fact that they were closing up. On the other hand, a plank that will not bend is probably a cross- grained one, and will snap off like a carrot if overweighted. Good spruce is better than pine for planks if it be free from large knots. Wood from small trees is the toughest for ordinary work. One and a-half to 2 inches by from 9 inches to 11 inches is a good thickness and breadth, and from 10 to 16 feet in length will be most useful. In selecting a plank, choose a fir or spruce board in which the centre portion of the board has formed the heart of the tree. Long knots running transversely through the board near the ends are useful, as they prevent the ends splitting, but on no account must these knots occur near the centre of the board, or the board will snap across at the knots when under pressure. The portion of the board between the ends should be quite free from large knots. If there are a number of small knots equally distributed so as not to interfere with the free play or spring of the board, they are of no consequence ; indeed, the board will wear better for their presence. Sometimes it is the practice to clamp the ends of planks with hoop iron, to prevent splitting. This is a clumsy practice not to be recommended for painters' planks. It makes the plank unfit for use in a good house, as, when set down on end, it scratches the floors. The irons are also dangerous to the hands of the workman. They work loose, too, and sometimes trip a man up or tear the clothes. If it be deemed necessary to protect the ends against a tendency to split, a three-eighths of an inch augur hole and a glued dowel in it through the board 3 inches from each end will do so. The corners should be cut off, so that if the board is dropped on one end, it does not get all the force of the blow on the extreme points, a thing which often starts a board to split. Scaffold Construction. The subject of scaffold construction will not be dealt with in the present work. It is usually left to special hands, who have had special experience, and does not come within the range of ordinary painters' work. A few self-explanatory sketches of ties and knots which may be of occasional use are, however, given here. In Pig. 4, 1 and 2 represent the method of tying cross poles or ledgers to uprights, back and front view ; 3 and 4, the method of attaching slings to uprights to take a plank without 36 PAINTING AND DECORATING. ledgers, the plank resting in the slings, back and front view given ; 5 is the method of tying two ropes together to make a longer one, to use as a ladder fall or for haulage ; 6 and 7 show the method of tying two uprights viz., splicing poles to add to their height, back and front view ; 8 is the same for per- manent scaffold, wedged and the ends tucked in ; 6 shows the Fig. 4. Scaffolding knots and ties. appearance of this method when seen from the back ; 9 is a suspensory sling used for dropping the pole a stage lower than the supporting ledgers; 10 and 11 show the hitch and half hitch used for hauling poles and planks to the top of the scaffold, a ready method that cannot slip. The technical names for these knots differ with localities. Trestles. Trestles, or tressels, are double ladders hinged PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 37 together at the top and arranged for use in pairs to support a plank. Both sides of the trestle being equally available for use, it is not the practice to insert staves on both sides at every step, but to omit one alternately on each side, thereby proportionately lightening and cheapening the construction. A single trestle or ladder set upright in a fixed frame or stand is used in the Midlands, but the extra thickness required to make the trestle of sufficient strength, and the ungainly shape of the stand at bottom, causes it to compare unfavourably with the ordinary hinged trestle. This trestle cannot be used apart from a plank, and is not easy to ascend and descend. The trestles in common use appear generally to err on the side of weight and clumsiness. If designed with a more scientific knowledge of construction they might be equally safe and of half the weight. They are frequently set out and made by an ordinary carpenter in his slack time. If made in hard wood they might be less cumbrous and would last longer. No staves, except a stay bar, are required in the lowermost 2 feet, and for high trestles staves 18 inches apart are quite close enough. Some of the trestles and steps used in the north of England are so substantial as to materially interfere with the view of the general effect of the work in progress and the free movement of the men. It occurs to the writer to mention here, as a companion fault, that many decorators have their steps, &c., painted in such a pronounced and assertive fashion as to interfere with one's sense of colour and correct judgment. This should be avoided. The top of the trestles should not be wider than will con- veniently hold a wide plank; the bottom should slope out to from 2 to 3 feet, according to the height of the trestle, so as to give stability. A form ot trestle used on the Continent has much to recom- mend it. It is especially steady in use; it leaves the wall clear and impedes the worker less than the usual form. The sides are made of ash, lance- wood, or hickory, and are curved to the well- known Eddy stone lighthouse form. The middle staves are thus shorter and lighter, and the stability is retained. They are hinged at the top in such a way as to be readily disconnected and used singly as short ladders. Trestles range in height from 6 to 20 feet, the generally useful being from 8 to 10 feet. Steps. Steps, or step ladders, commonly referred to as a pair of steps, a name generally misapplied, are so common as to need little or no description here. The fronts, or steps proper, consist of a couple of boards 3 or 38 PAINTING AND DECORATING. 4 inches wide and an inch thick, between which are set flat steps about 9 inches apart, and at such an angle as to be horizontal when the steps are in use. They are kept in position by a back, consisting of two (3 inches by 1 inch) sides framed up to the neces- sary width by tenoned rails and hinged to a fixed back piece at the top. They are held open at the correct angle by cords pass- ing from the back to the sides of front. Above all is a top board, Fig. 5. Steps. rather broader and wider than the steps, but not necessarily more than 6 inches in breadth. The form and details of steps vary considerably. Fig. 5 shows a usual form. There are a number of patent patterns, but when the wear and tear and other matters are taken into account they do not appear to be equally serviceable to the PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 39 painter. The old style steps can be readily adapted to various positions, spaces, and uses. They should be of tine dry pine, light, with strong wrought- iron hinges ; the framing together must be strong and accurate to stand the knocking about it is necessarily subjected to. Strength and lightness combined should be the idea aimed at in selecting a serviceable "steps." The hinges should be of L-form, and fitted on the inside, so that there is no strain on them when the steps are in use. The edges of the top piece and back should be shot on the bevel, so that when the steps are open the weight is taken off the hinges. In practice, in order to economise time, they are more often hinged on the outside, so that all the weight falls upon the hinges, and gradually loosens them. Steps are often made wider at the top than is necessary ; 9 inches between the sides at the top is quite wide enough ; the width at the bottom depending on the height of the " steps." Cords. Scaffold cords are an important item, being costly if purchased without proper consideration. Good hempen cord prepared by saturation in Stockholm tar is to be preferred for outside work. For indoor work lighter cords without tar are preferable, especially for securing scaffolding to beams, columns, and structural work. A cord made from a number of strands is better than one made of a few. A cord ^ inch in diameter is usually selected for ordinary scaffolding, but practice varies according to the quality used, and a ^-inch cord may be as strong as an inch one. Thin cords are more easily manipulated, and a fine quality |-inch cord will outlast a |-inch cheaper one. Long cords for pulley blocks and ladder falls should not be so tarred as to be stiff. From 50 to 100 feet is their usual length. Tarred ropes must be used for scaffolding which has to be left standing out of doors for months together. Many special appliances are used in certain districts, and are more or less peculiar to those districts, but our space will not allow us to do more than just mention ne or two of these. Window Brackets. Window or gallows brackets, to fit on to sills and project over the thoroughfare sufficiently to allow the painter to paint outside sashes, frames, and louvre shutters or sun-blinds, are used in the south of England and in London and the home counties. They are especially useful at seaside resorts, where external sun-blinds are much used. In principle they are merely large brackets ; the back of the bracket rests against the wall outside ; the top plank extends into the room, and a series of holes and pins, or a ratchet attachment, allows a 40 PAINTING AND DECORATING. second back plank to be adjusted on the inside to the thickness of the wall, which it grips immediately below the window. Cradles. Cradles or boats are suspended scaffolds for lowering from the roof in narrow streets or busy thoroughfares, thus replacing ladders. They are also useful in cases where buildings overhang rivers, or where glass houses or abutting buildings prevent the use of ladders. They consist of a broad plank slung on iron hangers, with hand rails for protection. A couple of poles are run out from the roof, and pulley-blocks rigged on their ends through which the suspending ropes are worked. The loose ends of the ropes are carried down and are under the control of the men using the cradle, who raise and lower themselves as required. Pulley Blocks. Pulley blocks have already been referred to. Single and double blocks are required. They are useful for many purposes, as for taking stuff up to the top of the scaffold, the erection of poles, and the erection and striking of scaffolding. Paste Boards. Paste boards and trestles are requisite for the paperhangers. Paste boards are light ^-inch pine boards, 21 inches wide, for cutting and pasting upon. They are usually made from two 11 -inch boards, each 6 feet long, hinged together so as to fold for the convenience of carrying. The ends should be tongued with hard wood tongues. A groove is cut into the end grain of the board inch wide, and an inch deep, and a piece of oak or ash glued into the groove. The hinges should be brass butts fixed with long fine screws. This allows the board to be used on both sides, and the brass hinges will not rust. Some paste boards are made with ledgered backs and wrought - iron back flap hinges, which are neither so light nor so convenient. Fig. 6.-Paperhanger' S trestle. If both sides are ava ii a bl e for use one side can be kept for pasting narrow work and oddments, and the other for work which does not soil the board. The trestles to hold the boards are made in several ways. The best are small shut up trestles, in pairs ; one for each end PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 41 of the board, consisting of two light frames each hinged together with webbing or light hinges (Fig. 6). They are compact and firm. Another good form is a collapsible X-shaped trestle (Fig. 7) made from 1-inch by 1^-inch stuff, and pivoted so as to Fig. 7. Paperhanger's trestle, close one within the other when not in use. Sheard's patent combination board and trestle has recently placed all others out of date. Paint Bench Trestles. Bench trestles, similar in construc- tion to the first-mentioned paperhanger's trestles, but rougher and heavier, are recommended for the portable paint bench. A board constructed of four 6-feet lengths of 6-inch x 1-inch flooring, and battened at the back, forms the top. Paperhanger's boards should never be used for a paint bench, because of the danger of oil working into the paper ; neither should the provision of a proper paint bench be left to chance, but a bench such as is here described should be sent to all jobs of any size or import- ance. Dust Sheets. Dust cloths or drop sheets are frequently neglected. They form a most necessary part of the painter's outfit. Rough unbleached sheeting of a coarse make, 2| yards wide, in lengths of 5 yards each will be necessary. They should be stamped with the owner s name, and sent to every job in sufficient numbers to cover up the floors and furniture. With those who care for a clean and tidy house, a sufficiency of cloths form a powerful recommendation, and no outlay on plant brings a better or more profitable return to the employer. A few narrow 1-yard wide cloths are useful for covering passages, stairs, hand-rails, <kc., and a few square ones for throwing round gai 42 PAINTING AND DECORATING. fittings and small objects. Some smaller, heavier, close-woven cloths, about 1 yard by 1^ yards, for men to move about with them when doing dirty jobs, as when rubbing down or burning off, are very desirable. The canvas used for packing bales of paper is of little use as drop cloths, as, from its coarseness, the spots of paint and distemper splash right through them. A few heavy twill or sail-cloths of very large size are desirable for covering the whole floor of a room, when it is likely to be in the painter's hands for some weeks. This will stand the constant wear and tear of men and trestles. The material of which shop blinds are made is good for this purpose, and the expense should not be grudged when it is considered that the use of such means to protect the floors, does so much to ensure the confidence and respect of the client. All dust sheets should be hemmed round and stamped near the edges, or they are apt to become smaller by degrees and beautifully less, as strip by strip is appropriated for paint rags. To Protect Stone Floors, Tiles, &c. It may be noted here that the best method of protecting tile or stone floors where much painting is being done, as in churches, &c., is to liberally strew the floor with sawdust. This absorbs the spots of oil paint as they fall and prevents irreparable injury where soft stone is in question. It also prevents scratching or grazing upon tiles, when shifting scaffolding about. Testing Scaffolding; Marking and Repainting Plant. All scaffold-poles, planks, steps, &c., must be periodically examined and tested for flaws, loose hinges, rotten cords, and similar defects. Every article should be marked anew with the full name and address of the owner, both as a safeguard against loss and as a good advertisement. They should be both branded and lettered. The re-painting should be done at stated periods when other work is slack, and should not be overdone, as every coat of paint adds to the weight and consequent cost of handling and cartage. Cartage. Oartage is a question which may fairly be con- sidered in this connection. It is not possible to make any general rule for this item, as circumstances in urban, suburban, and rural districts and city centres all vary. A hand-cart or truck must of course be kept; or two, if necessary. In few town cases is it economical to keep one's own horses and carts, but in suburban or country districts a light cart is a necessity. A valuable general principle is that apprentices or skilled workmen should not be employed in the handling or haulage of scaffolding. Labourers and horse power are cheaper and more effective. The delegation of this work to the skilled craftsman, PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 43 though in no sense derogatory to him, inevitably lowers his standard, lessens his pride in his craft, and gradually makes him a rougher and more careless workman, besides which it is unprofitable to the employer. Storage of Scaffolding. The storage of scaffolding is a matter that is frequently overlooked. All classes of scaffolding require putting under cover, if possible. Ladders should be well supported to keep them straight, and not be suspended by the two ends. A good plan is to form a rack with rollers, so that the sides of the ladders do not get all the paint scratched off them in getting them in and out. When ladders are hung up by one side there is a tendency to loosen the staves. Poles may be laid on the ground, and piled one upon another, but the lower ones should be kept ventilated by being raised on short cross poles or they will draw dampness from the soil. If the ladders and poles cannot be kept undercover, the next best plan is to keep them erect, safely kept in place by rails, cords, or chains. They must be quite upright with no strain on them. Planks may be set on edge, with air spaces between them, firmly supported so that they are kept straight. The outhouse in which the steps and trestles, as well as the foregoing scaffolding, are kept will be better if freely open to the air viz., with lattice sides. They must be kept dry or, when taken indoors, the joints will shrink and the wedges fall out. Iron Eods and Tube for Scaffolding. In considering the question of scaffolding, it may be borne in mind that ordinary iron barrels (gas-piping) with the usual elbow and tee joints and sockets are very useful adjuncts; difficult bits of work may often be reached by the use of them. The writer has seen them used with considerable ingenuity in theatres and churches. The weight sustainable by a 30 feet drop of |-inch bore iron gas-pipe, connected in the ordinary way by f-inch iron threaded sockets, is, in a vertical pull, no less than 4^ tons. Even an ordinary gaselier with f inch connection, if properly fixed, will sustain a weight of 2 tons. The knowledge of these facts is often turned to profitable account by painters who are also plumbers and gasfitters, as is usual in London suburbs and many other places. Due regard must be paid to the question of leverage, as the threads will not stand diagonal pressure in any great degree. Small Articles. In addition to the scaffolding, very little actual plant is required except brushes, which will be dealt with in a separate chapter, but the few remaining small goods which are now enumerated are indispensable. 44 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Buckets. As buckets for distemper, washing off, &c., ordinary 2- and 3-gallon galvanised pails or buckets are the best. Cans or Kettles. Paint cans or kettles are made of tinned iron, galvanised iron or zinc. Of these, a large number is requisite. Zinc will scrape out easily, but will not stand paint solvents or removers. Tinned and galvanised iron can be left soaking in the pickle tub till the paint will rinse off. Three, four, five, and six, and a small number of eight-inch cans are required, the same in height as in diameter. In some parts of the country they are made bucket or tapered shape. The gain in convenience is counterbalanced by their increased liability to overturn. Some cans are made with provision for hooking to ladders for outside work, and some have a nick in the handle to keep the ladder hook in the centre. Pots or Pans. Thumb or hand pots or pans are desirable for distemper colours, and are useful for many purposes. Ordinary red-clay or brown-clay pots, glazed on the inside, are made for this purpose, with handles at the side. Iron vessels must not be used for distemper, as they rust, but zinc ones may be used, and are extremely light and serviceable. The pots must be thoroughly soaked in water before use, and after being well soaked, they may be used for paint ; the larger sizes are very convenient for general mixing. Pots are some- times made with a lip to facilitate pouring. In the larger sizes this is an advantage. Small Pots, &c. For small bits of colour, galipots, jam pots, and small tins may be accumulated ad libitum. Bottles, both of glass and sheet tin, with wide necks or with narrow ones should also be stored up for use. Odd plates, saucers, and cups are always useful in the paint shop, the former for using over- graining or glaze colours from, and the latter for using on the finger when picking out cornices and similar work. Tin handled drinking mugs are also light and extremely convenient for this work. Stock Drums or Kegs. Drums, kegs, and varnish bottles for storage and mixing purposes may be retained instead of being returned. Many up-to-date firms now send all small quantities up to 2 gallons in free packages, so that there are always plenty of small tins available. It is better to repaint all drums that are retained, your own distinctive colour, as soon as you decide not to return them. This will prevent errors arising. Mixing Boards. Mixing boards as a substitute for the paint stone on the jobs, and for making up tints when upon the scaffolding, may be made from f-inch pine boards, about 12 inches PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 45 by 9 inches and 15 inches by 10 inches irrespective of handles. A handle may be left at the narrow end, making the shape like that of the back of an ordinary hair brush, with a hole through Fig. 8. Paquelin lamp. the handle to hang it up by when not in use. If covered thin sheet zinc they will keep clean and scrape easily. Burning-off Lamps. For removing old paint nothing is more with Fig. 9. Swedish lamp. effective than the spirit lamp, which is made in several forms. The writer prefers the "Paquelin" lamp (Fig. 8), to all others. 46 PAINTING AND DECORATING. This lamp can be used indoors and out, and in any position is easily controlled, and the blast is strong and steady. All the working parts are renewable. It is made in different sizes, and a medium lamp burns at full blast for nearly two hours, giving a heat of 1500 degrees Fahr. The spirit used is benzoline, and the action of the blast is automatic, commencing as soon as the blast chimney is heated to the flash point of the oil. Fig. 10. The Invincible British blow lamp (Allen's patent). Other good lamps are the Swedish torch (Fig. 9), the Invincible CFig. 10), and the Etna, which differ in the method of producing the blast. Barthel's patent automatic is also a useful pattern. Fig. 11. Patent strainers for paint or distemper. Charcoal Burners. In some situations charcoal burners are useful, and several patterns are on the market. They are especially recommended for burning-off large flat surfaces. Strainers. Strainers for both distemper and paint are requisite. PLANT AND APPLIANCES. 47 Those with removable bottoms which allow of the gauze being readily replaced by new are the most convenient. They may be made by any tinman. Two patterns which have been tested and found useful are illustrated here. A is suitable for either paint or distemper, but the other is especially designed for paint, and the perforated bottom prevents any mishap owing to breaking away of the gauze under the weight of paint. These strainers will be found very convenient, as the gauze can be easily taken out and replaced ; the arrangements for this purpose being very handy and effective. As shown in the illustration, the clips B secure the band C, and thus firmly hold the gauze D in position. A new strainer with loose interchangeable bottoms and no under edges has been recently introduced by Mr. Bennett, of Manchester. Other sundries will be mentioned in connection with the operations with which they are used. Fig. 12. Hamilton & Co.'s improved paint strainers. Plant Book. The importance of a correct record of the whereabouts of plant, and the assurance of its due return to the shop, cannot be too strongly emphasized. A plant book in which each item is tabulated should have a page devoted to every job, with columns for date and enumeration. This ensures the return of each item sent out. A second book should be kept as a stock plant book, in which a page is devoted to every article, and its whereabouts clearly entered from the preceding book. The employer can then see at a glance where the par- ticular ladders or trestles are, and judge whether they are at liberty to be fetched away and taken elsewhere. Rough Entry or Day Book for Paint Shop. The work of trans- posing the entries from the rough day book to the plant book will of course be the duty of the clerk, and will not be done at the workshop, where the only book that is necessary is the rough 48 PAINTING AND DECORATING. day book, in -which everything, plant or material, that goes out or comes in, must be set down in the order of its coming or going, for future separation and allocation in the office. Quantity of Plant Eequired on Jobs. In sending out plant to a job a complete and sufficient quantity should be sent at once to avoid additional expense of single items going in supplementary journeys. It may be calculated that a pair of steps or a trestle will be necessary for each man sent, and a plank to each two men. For every man on an outside job one ladder will be necessary, this allows for splicing and contin- gencies. These suggestions are, of course, comparatively useful. A better plan is to know exactly what will be the actual require- ments by a careful look round the job itself. Scaffolding must be calculated for with care and accuracy, length and number of poles, planks, number of ropes, wedges, &c., as all these items, in the absence of a correct list of requirements, may mean an unnecessary amount of haulage. Two cans, and a bucket, and a set of brushes, are the minimum allowance required for each man. A good plan is to have a printed requisition form setting forth all the items usually required, and having spaces for filling in the quantities. This saves much time and thought, and obviates the possibility of important items being left out. There must be a space left for contingencies, as there are many items that are only occasionally required which it would be useless to enumerate. A copy of this form can be filled in by the foreman or the employer when making out the estimate. There are many additional items of plant which are required in shops where special classes of work are predominant. 7CONTRASTING ARRANGEMENTS OF PAPERHANGINGS, Tojmcep. 48.] 49 CHAPTER IV. PAINTING BRUSHES. RUSHES for painting are various and costly, ranging from coarse dusting brushes to those composed of the finest and rarest hair found in the animal kingdom. Various kinds of hair and bristles adapt themselves to special manipulative processes ; thus the variety used is considerable. The bristles are set in holders and handles of wood and metal of various kinds and shapes, and are held together by twine, cord, wire, metal bands, quills, and other contrivances. Hog-hair. The principal ordinary kinds are made from hog's hair of various qualities, obtained from Russia, America, and, in lesser quantities, Germany and France. With this is mixed for the commoner brushes other less expensive substances, as horse hair, whalebone, vegetable fibre, &c. Hog's hair is divided into grades ; the finest, used for small tools of the very best quality, is usually termed " Lyons hair," and comes from Prance. This is not available for very large and. 4 50 PAINTING AND DECORATING. long brushes. The next quality used for best varnish and paint brushes is termed "lily hair" or "best whites." Then come "yellow " and " grey " bristles, and, finally, " black," which are the cheapest. Various Hair used in Brushes. Brushes for fine lining, artist's work, graining and special processes, are made from a large assortment of hair ; among the most important are ox hair, or taurus hair, fitch hair, camel hair (which is not obtained from the camel now, but from the fox), bear hair, sable hair, badger hair, and others. Indeed, nearly all fur-bearing animals are laid under contribution to the cause. Hog-hairbrushes are more freely sophisticated than any others, and they form the bulk of the whole list of brushes. The articles used for adulteration are horse hair, cow hair, whale- bone, and vegetable fibre, the latter being usually the fibrous sinews of the evergreen aloe leaf, a plant found in South America, and having thick, fleshy, long, spear-like leaves. Foreign Brushes. A large variety of hog-hair brushes are made in Germany and in America for export, and find their way into this country. Most of the bristles used in them are of fair quality and genuine hog hair ; but it is so dressed and bleached that it is not safe to assume its quality without a practical test. A large amount of care is bestowed in making these brushes presentable for the market, and practical utility is sacrificed thereby. Actual experiment proves that in wear the bristles that have been so bleached have less spring and durability than ordinary English grey brushes of similar weight. French Brushes. French brushes are usually carelessly and clumsily made, so far as appearance goes, but in working they are excellent, and it will be found that proper allowance has been made in French brushes for swelling, wearing in, &c. They are often dipped in glue size and allowed to dry, in order to keep them in good shape till they are required for use, a proceeding that does not improve their saleable appearance, but a good one from a practical standpoint. French scene painting and dis- temper tools are particularly serviceable. Methods of Fixing Hair. The method of tying or binding hog- hair brushes are so varied that space will not admit of par- ticularisation. In practice, it will be found that heavy metal ferrules are objectionable ; that for large brushes string binding is liable to get cut, to burst, or to rot ; that the method selected should offer the least possible harbour for grit, the lodgment of hard colour and water; and that it should be capable of scraping and cleaning without danger of loosening the hairs. PAINTING BRUSHES. 51 Selection. Oare must be taken in making a selection that brushes intended for paint shall stand both turps and water without coming to pieces, as some brushes made for special pur- poses will not do so. Hog-hair brushes should be soft at the point, the hair being split and divided at the ends when left in their natural state. Inferior bristles are cut and trimmed up at the ends, and are thereby rendered coarse and stiff. In a well-made brush the bristles are sorted into lengths, and any irregularities are corrected by a process of grinding or scraping the bristles. The selection of brushes made from good hog-hair is not a diffi- cult matter to a man who understands the techniqtie of painting, because he knows the qualifications of a good brush and looks for them. The most that a maker of a poor brush can do is to make it present an appearance of the real article. Test of good Brushes. The first test of a good brush is its price. The value of hog bristles, fit for the best brushes, is about 10s. per Ib. Allowing for a margin of waste in making up, it is thus at once apparent that 8 ounces of genuine bristles in a brush, means a cost of at least 5s., plus the cost of making-up. But this is merely a negative test, because a spurious brush may be sold at a high figure. The next test is microscopic. The horny appearance of the true bristle is thus readily distinguishable from all kinds of fibre, while its complete sectional form prevents its confusion with split whalebone or with horse hair. Next, the spring of the brush is a fairly reliable test, especially if single hairs be bent at a sharp angle and then released. A final, and most reliable, test for fibre is to singe the hairs singly. The true bristle frizzles up and gives off an offensive odour, while the fibre burns clear and is odourless. Different hairs give off different odours, which are distinguishable with practice. Fibres leave an ash after burning, bristle leaves none. Returning to the microscopic test a good complete bristle tapers from root to point, while horse-hair tapers much less, indeed, to any but a keen eye, it is apparently of the same thick- ness throughout its length. From these remarks it will be apparent to the practical man that he need not be imposed upon by the substitution of other materials for bristles. The real difficulty of selection lies in the distinguishing of the different qualities of the genuine article, and here there is a wide field in which to buy experience. The microscope will again be of assistance, revealing any defects in the condition and preservation of the bristles, ex- 52 PAINTING AND DECORATING. posing hollo wness, dryness, lack of solidity and bleaching or other doctoring up of cheap bristles. It will further show if all the bristles are of the same quality. It would, however, take a complete course of study to become an expert in the quality of bristles. The safest plan is to buy of a maker who has a reputation to maintain, and to use practical judgment in the selection of what feels to be a brush having the qualities you know that such a brush requires. A brush, the bristles of which have any tendency to spread outwards, should be avoided. The wood core of the brush should not be too large, or it will cause separation of the brush and hollowness in wear, nor should the core project too far into the brush, but only sufficient to take the pressure of the binding. The quantity of bristle should be compared with the size of the brush, by winding a piece of string tightly round below the stock. The diameter of the core should not be more than one-third that of the brush. Fig. 13. Two- and three-knot distemper brushes. Distemper Brushes. The following list comprises most of the general brushes used in the trade. Distemper brushes for large surfaces, as walls and ceilings, are made in various qualities of bristle and of various patterns. They are made in separate knots of hair, each knot separated by and bound to the stock. Two-knot brushes (Fig. 13) are the most generally used, but three and four knots get over the ground more quickly, and are preferable for large ceilings or PAINTING BRUSHES. 53 walls. The labour is proportionately heavier, so that the saving is not great. The three-knot brush (Fig. 13) is the commoner kind used for rougher work. Distemper brushes are also made in the flat form shown in Fig. 14, in which the bristles are evenly distributed along both sides of the stock, and kept in place by leather bands nailed to the stock. This form is used in country places, and is a favourite in the North of England, Fig. 14. Nailed stock distemper brushes. The Best Distemper Brushes. Two patterns of these are shown, the smaller one being the Yorkshire pattern. Another form, and one fast becoming a favourite, consists of a single flattish knot of bristles kept in place by a copper or brass band (Fig. 15). The better qualities of this description are used in America and elsewhere, for painting compo or weather boarded PAINTING AND DECORATING. outsides where a considerable space has to be covered. Various patterns, showing the most important variations in make, are B'ig. 15. The best form of distemper brush. illustrated (Figs. 16, 17 and 18). Some of the slight differences of form are due to local prejudices. Fig. 16. Common tin bound distemper brush. The American brush (Fig. 17) is light and sparse in bristle, and is particularly well adapted for the plastico and gypsum Fig. 17. American distemper brush. preparations which are apt to set and harden in the stock of full bristled brush. PAINTING BRUSHES. 55 Sizes. Distemper brushes are denominated by the weight of hair they contain, which ranges from 8 to 12 ounces. They Fig. 18. Wall, shingle, and weather boarding brushes. are also distinguished by the number of knots, and in the case of flat brushes by their breadth, ranging from 3^ to 8 inches. Wash-off, Caustic, and Lime-white Brushes. Wash-off brushes (Fig. 19) are like distemper brushes in form, but made Fig. 19. Wash-off brush. from cheaper hair. Some brushes are made for use in strong alkali, and vegetable fibre is used for these in place of hair. They are made in both the knot and nailed stock forms. Special round coarse fibre brushes are made for applying 56 PAINTING AND DECORATING. caustic solutions and paint removers (Fig. 20). Lime-washing brushes are a cheaper form of distemper brushes, but another form, shown in Fig. 21, is also used for lime. All the foregoing brushes should be well soaked before use, not only when new, but also after any length of disuse. They Fig. 20. Caustic brush. must be thoroughly washed out, after using, in warm water and rinsed in cold water. If they have been used in Duresco, or other washable distemper, they must be thoroughly freed from all trace of it by rinsing in vinegar. They must on no account be left standing in any preparation containing lime for a length Fig. 21. Loose head lime white brush. of time, neither should they be left in water sufficiently long for it to attack the binding. Painters' Dusters. Dusters that is, brushes for removing the dust from work prior to painting, and for sweeping the margins of the floor near the skirting, treads and risers, <fec. are made in many forms (Figs. 22, 23, and 24). The pattern used in Manchester (Fig. 23), and in the North generally, is better for getting into corners than the round duster, and is especially useful on staircases. Dusters should be occasionally washed, the bristles only being wetted, or they may be loosened from the stock. For dusting down brickwork or compo walls prior to repainting SfflfiM PAINTING BRUSHES. 57 fibre scrub-shaped brush (Fig. 25) is used. It is also very Fig. 23. Manchester painter's duster. Pig. 24. London painter's duster. necessary for well brushing fences or gates near the ground, and kindred purposes. 58 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Paint or Ground Brushes. Paint or ground brushes is the name given to the larger brushes used for oil painting. They are made in a variety of forms of which we illustrate the more general types. No. 1 (Fig. 26) shows a knot brush. This brush is elliptical in form and keeps its shape when in use fairly well. No. 2 is an oval wire - bound brush. These brushes, which are termed Fig. 25. Fibre scrub brush. O val, are more correctly speaking elliptical. It is a reliable form of brush, and is readily cleaned and changed from colour to colour. No. 3 is a round brush, and No. 4 is a No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Fig. 26. Paint or ground brushes. No. 4. "flat oval." All these brushes are wire-bound, and the wire binding is soldered together to prevent untying. They are PAINTING BRUSHES. 59 made by C. A. Watkin's patent, and we regard them as the most perfect brushes in the trade. Ground brushes are made in sizes distinguished by numbers, and weights in ounces which designate the weight of bristle in the brush, as Nos. 1 to 8, and 1 oz. or 1/0 to 8 oz. or 8/0. The 4/0 brush is usually the best size for general purposes. Before putting a new brush into paint it is desirable to soak the stock of the brush if it be a string-bound one or has a wooden stock. Many of the better patterns made now do not require soaking, asthe bristlesare held in place by mechanical contrivances. Do not wet the bristles, but hold them open and pour water into the centre, or stand them handle down in water up to the binding for a few hours. When not being used, after having once been put into the paiut, they must be submerged to the stock in water, or if not likely to be used for some time, they should be well washed in hot water and soap. These rules apply to all brushes used in paint. Yellow bar soap is better than any other for this purpose. Patent Ready -Made Brush Bridles. When new, a ground brush or tool will require tying up, or bridling, so that the bristles are not too long for use. This added binding will require partially removing, from time to time, as the bristles wear down. A ready-made bridle (Fig. 27) is supplied by brushmakers. How to Bridle a Brush. Most practical men prefer to bind on their own bridling, a process somewhat difficult to adequately describe in words. There are several methods of accom- plishing the purpose. Our illustration describes Fig. 27. Brush one of the neatest. It represents the pro- bridle, cess of tying up a 4/0 round brush. A knot of whipcord is used for the purpose of making the bridle. Taking the brush in the left hand, make a cross loop at the end of the cord, and lay it on the brush as in 1 A (Fig. 28) ; then, on the opposite side, place a loose loop of ordinary twine or string, which will not form part of the finished bridle, but is merely for the purpose of bringing the end through from the top of the bridle when the binding is finished. Then, keeping the two loops in place with the thumb and forefinger, proceed to wind the cord round the brush, starting from the binding and working toward the tips of the bristles. 1 A and 1 B show the upper and under side of the brush when three or four coils have been wound round. Do not wind too tightly. Continue plain winding till within about three strands of the required height, but in the last , GO PAINTING AND DECORATING. three intertwine the cord as shown in 2 B and 3 B, and in the last round of all, thread it through the two loops. Then draw the loops down as shown in 2 A on the one side, and in 3 B on the other side. In the latter case disengage the twine loop which is done with, and draw the loose end of the cord through until tight. Then knot the two loose ends as in E, and drive a tack through the centre of the knots into the stock (as in C). D shows the finished bridle and gives the correct proportional depth of bridle to brush. The size of the cord is purposely exaggerated to show the twisting more clearly. It will be noticed that in this method, both the straight cords are kept inside the bridle, thus making a neat and strong finish. IB VfflV 2 B C 2.A Fig. 28. Bridling a brush. 3B To partially release the bridle and lower it, take out the tacks, and unthread the last few coils by passing them over the ends of the bristles. This may be carefully done without cutting and without allowing the ends to slip under. Tighten up as before, and re-knot, cutting off the unnecessary ends of cord. PAINTING BRUSHES. 61 Messrs. Bennett have recently introduced a useful addition to paint brushes that require bridling. It is known as the Joyce patent shoulder and loop, and is a practical improve- ment. Varnish Brushes. Varnish brushes (Fig. 29) are similar in form to the foregoing, but, in consequence of their never being used upon rough preparatory work to break them into shape, they are bevelled for use. In the case of paint brushes, their use in rough work accomplishes this bevelling. Varnish brushes are also specially cemented to withstand the action of spirits, and are not always made to resist water, as they are not supposed to be put into water. Fig. 29. Ordinary varnish brushes, three patterns. The bristles are usually of a superior quality, finer and straighter than those used in any but the very best paint brushes. Flat varnish brushes (Fig. 30) are a more recent innovation than the preceding form, and are designed for coach and highly- finished wood-work, and for use in the enamels now prevailing. They are of far better form for leaving a highly-finished surface than the oval or knot brush, but do not last so long in wear if used on ordinary general work. An additional form of varnish brush is shown in Fig. 31, which is useful for general outdoor work, sashes, fences, and gates, railings, &c.; also an ordinary varnish sash tool (Fig. 33). 62 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Varnish brushes of every pattern, when not in use, should be suspended by the handle in oil or varnish, and care taken that the bristles do not touch the bottom of the vessel. Nickel Plated Cases. Polished Cedar Handles. Fig. 30. Bevelled flat varnish brushes. Fig. 31. A form of varnish brush for general work. Fig. 32. Varnish tool specially recommended for paper varnishes. Sash Tools. Sash tool is the name given to the smaller brushes used in painting. The forms they take are legion, and a few selected patterns are shown (Figs. 33 to 35), with notes on their special uses. They are intended for the smaller parts where the 4/0 brush is too large and bulky, and also PAINTING BRUSHES. 63 for cutting up the edges of work, sash bars, &c. The same form of brush is used as an auxiliary to the distemper or flat brush ; they should therefore stand the action of both water and temperature. The same class of tools are frequently used for varnishing. Fig. 33. Sash tool, string bound, ordinary form. Fig. 34. Copper bound sash tool C. A. Watkins's patent. Fig. 35. Sash cutting tool in tin. Fig. 36. The Ensign Brand, newest method of fastening bristles into brushes. A copper ferrule closed over the bristles by patented machinery. Tools are known by numbered sizes ranging from 1 to 12. Paint tools must be kept suspended in water when not in use, or may be washed and put away. 64 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Stipplers. Stipplers are brushes used for producing a soft and even surface to paint and distemper. The brush is dabbed against the painted wall after the paint has been spread, and while it is still wet, producing a granular instead of the usual brush-marked surface. Stipplers must be washed in soap and water, ordinary yellow soap, not soft soap, and dried and hung up so that the bristles remain straight. The water must not be boiling, and the wooden portion of the brush should not be put into the water. Dip the tips of the hairs in and then rub them across the soap till there is a composite lather of soap and paint, then rinse. Do not scrub or bend the bristles unnecessarily, Fig. 37. Hog-hair "fitches" in tin, round and flat. Fig. 38. Hog-hair lining fitch in tin. Fig. 39. French hog-hair tool string-bound for distemper painting. Fig. 40. Quilled hog-hair for stippling and distemper lining. but give the soap time to amalgamate with and destroy the oil in the paint. Shake out the surplus moisture, dry by stippling on a cloth and leave hung up or stood on edge. Never leave the brush lying on its back, or the water will cause the back to buckle up. In common with all other brushes, the bristles, if they get doubled up, or "crippled" are materially injured, and the injury is more or less permanent. Care must therefore be taken that brushes are so packed or stored as to keep them straight. The best way to remedy accidental crippling is to PLATE 8.-TWO BREADTHS OF A DROP PATTERN PAPER. To face p. 64.] PAINTING BRUSHES. 65 stand the bristles of the brush in hot water for a quarter of an hour. Then straighten them with a comb or the hand and leave them to dry slowly. Stipplers are illustrated in the chapter on Painting. Paperhangers' Brushes. Paperhangers' brushes are of soft, long, pliable bristles set in knots, and are used for pressing the paper on to the wall or ceiling. They are illustrated in the article on paperhanging. Pitches. "Fitches," or hog-hair brushes in tin or albata ferrules are used for decorative work, picking out enrichments, painting mouldings, and the painting of ornament. They are made both round and flat in section. Fitches are also made with a bevelled edge for lining. They are used in distemper and in oil, and when laid aside should be washed in soap and water or stood in water. The latter course is apt to rust them and corrode the tin or rnetal ferrules. They are numbered in sizes 1 to 12. The usual term for fitches is derived from the fact that they were formerly made of fitch hair. To avoid confusion, they are usually to be found catalogued as "hog-hair tools in tin," but in the trade the word "fitch" is universally employed to denote them. Softeners. Softeners are brushes used for blending or softening one colour into another, or for softening down the brush marks in painting. They are made in both hog hair and badger hair, set in knots in a wooden handle, and are illustrated in the chapter on Graining. They must always be well washed in soap and water immediately after use, or they will become coarse, harsh, and useless. After washing they should be hung up to dry. It is especially important that the water used for washing should not be too hot, and that they should be rinsed in cold water and whisked as dry as possible before leaving them. The hog-hair softener is used for heavy body colours and varnish colour, and the badger for glazes, water-colour, and similar purposes. They are illustrated, and all other graining brushes are dealt with under the head of Graining and Marbling. Stencil Tools. Stencil tools or brushes (Fig. 41), as their name implies, are used for stencilling. Large, sizes are made in sets or small inserted knots in a wooden stock. The smaller sizes are set in tin. Still smaller ones, sometimes termed "poonah" brushes, are quilled and thread-bound. Stencil tools must be washed out in hot water and soap after using, and thoroughly dried. To keep the bristles straight, soak them in cold water after washing. They must not be allowed to lie in the hot water, or the cement in winch the bristles are set may 5 66 PAINTING AND DECORATING. give way. They must not be soaked in turpentine, unless specially made to withstand turpentine. Sable Writers. Sable writers' and sign-writers' brushes need little description other than the illustrations given in another part of the book. Red sables are the best in quality, and are recommended for use in heavy pigments as white lead, or upon a rough wall. Brown sables are superior for use in deep colours which have little weight, and for use on sign boards and glass. They are a little less costly than the red hair. Ox hair writers are useful on the rougher kinds of compo wall, and for large coarse work. They are less than half the cost of sables. Fig. 41. Stencil tool in tin and in sets. Camel-hair writers are only of use in working under-hand upon a bench, but are especially recommended for glass-painting, or for use on tiles or other hard shiny surfaces. They are quite useless for heavy pigments, as white lead. Writers are made in both metal and quill settings. The latter work best; the former, of course, stand rougher usage. The setting does not affect the life of a pencil if properly cared for. Short sables of red and brown hair, and also short ox hair, fitch hair, and camel hair, are used for various classes of work by the decorator. Extra long sables, known as riggers, are used for underhand tracing and outlining. Liners are long sables having a square top instead of a point. The hair is about 2 inches long, and they are used, as their name implies, chiefly by coach painters. All the foregoing pencils are known in size by the size of their quills, as swan, goose, duck, crow, &c. Pencils in ferrules are sometimes numbered from 1 to 12, commencing with the smallest. They all require washing out in turpentine and moistening with grease or Russian tallow when not in use. This should be done as follows : The whole of the paint should be rinsed out by agitating the brush in a vessel of turpentine ; the brush must then be dried by pressing on an absorbent piece of PAINTING BRUSHES. G7 cloth, and the tallow should be well worked in to the stock or heel of the brush by careful manipulation of the left thumb and forefinger, taking great care not to cripple the hairs. It should be drawn gently through the fingers, the tallow being pressed into the brush, and left with a fine point. These pencils should be kept in a tin case or box to prevent vermin nibbling them for the sake of the tallow. Swan quills (Fig. 42) are full pencils of soft camel or other Fig. 42. Swan quills in quill and in ferrule. hair, somewhat stumpy, and with straight cut points. They are used for laying even washes of colour on mouldings, bands, or small surfaces. They are mostly made in quills, but sometimes in metal ferrules, and are made in four sizes, 1 to 4, com- mencing where the smaller pencils leave off. A larger kind of camel-hair round brushes are known as " mops or dabbers " (Fig. 43), and are used by gilders and for lacquering and spirit varnishing. Fig. 43. Camel-hair domed mop quill and wire bound. Camel-hair brushes of flat form (Figs. 44, 45, and 46), set in tin, are used for laying washes of colour, for spirit varnishes and ormolus, and for lacquers, isinglass, and other sizes, &c. The hairs are firmly set in tin and secured by cement and rivets. They are known by their width in inches, which range from | to 4 inches. They vary greatly in quality and also in thickness. When used in lacquers or varnish, these brushes should be washed in methylated spirits otherwise, in water. Spirit PAINTING AND DECORATING. washed brushes should be kept in a canister free from the air. This keeps them soft. Brushes Pound by the Employer. The tools and brushes described here are such as are always found by the employer, as Fig. 44. Thin camel-hair, flat, unri vetted. Fig. 45. Best thick camel-hair, flat, rivetted. Fig. 46. German domed camel-hair, flat they are worn out during the progress of the work. Other tools, which are sometimes found by the workman, will be described in their separate connections, together with their uses. The Purchase of Brushes. In the purchase of brushes one element of importance is frequently overlooked. Each class of brush and each pattern require different treatment in use. Some are made to stand water and some turpentine, some both, and some neither. Nothing but a personal acquaintance with a particular make of brush will enable a man to use it to the best advantage. Familiarity with a particular pattern of brush or tool in painting, as in other trades, leads to expertness. It is quite as unreasonable to expect the best and most economical results from a workman to whom you are continually giving different makes of tools and brushes, as it would be to expect a man to write his best hand with a strange kind of pen. Mere caprice and lack of thought is responsible in many PAINTING BRUSHES. 69 instances for a continual change of policy in respect to brushes, and causes a sacrifice of efficiency and the destruction of many good brushes because they are unfamiliar to the men, in addition to much loss through ignorance of the character of the brushes themselves. True Economy in Brush Buying. It cannot be too strongly laid down that the truest economy is to obtain the best quality of brushes, and to always adhere to the same kind for the same work. Personal observation has convinced the writer that of two employers doing a fairly equal business, both in volume and class, one may be spending just double what the other spends upon brushes and tools, and yet have no increase in efficiency. Storage of Brushes. Brushes should be carefully stored. It is absolutely necessary that they be kept in a moderate temperature. Heat and dryness will cause the wood stocks to shrink and perhaps crack, the animal glues to split and crack, and the twine to loosen. On the other hand, dampness or frost will destroy the glue, rust the metal, cause the wood to swell and the leather to give way, and rot, and finally burst the twine. Next, it is equally important that they be laid so as to avoid crippling. The tools should be kept in the boxes or packages in which they are supplied, free from dust and dirt. The camel-hair and sable brushes are very liable to be attacked by moth. Pepper, camphor, or insecticide may be placed in the drawers with them to keep away these pests, who will soon do a pound's worth of damage, and will, when once established, remain till every brush has been ruined. Most of the brushes illustrated are made by Messrs. Hamilton & Co., and are personally known and have been used by the writer for many years, but this fact does not by any means imply that they are the sole manufacturers of reliable brushes. 70 CHAPTER Y. {OR a complete manual of materials used in painting, the reader is referred to Hurst's Painters' Col- ours, Oils, and Varnishes. In the present Chapter the principal necessary materials are merely enumerated, and their technical qualities noted. PIGMENTS. Pigments claim first attention. White Lead. The staple white lead, from which all tints in oil are prepared, is a carbonate of lead with which is present about 25 per cent, of lead hydrate, or water. When pure it is a stable and dxirable pigment of great body and good working quality. In consequence of its cost it is much adulterated, chiefly with barytes, China clay, &c. When genuine, it is frequently badly prepared, bad in colour, or accidently impure. Tests. There are simple tests, rough and ready, for adultera- tion ; one of the easiest to apply is to put some white lead in a ladle and convert it into blue lead by heat, weighing both the MATERIALS. 71 white lead and the resultant piece of metallic lead and comparing notes. Another easy method is to mix up some of the paste lead on a piece of glass, using a glass strip, with some sulphuric acid. If a smooth paste results, the lead is free from earthy adulteration. There is, however, no test equal to that of use, and the painter soon finds out whether his white lead is up to the mark by its behaviour in working, which will not only detect actual adulterates, but what is equally important, shows him whether the pigment is properly ground in good oil and is well made, of good body and pure colour. Brimsdown White Lead. White lead manufactured by the Bischof method, by which the pigment is produced by the wet process in about 48 hours, is said to cover better than the old stack process lead, though it is identical in analysis. The lead is first converted into litharge, this in turn to sub-oxide, hydrated oxide, and, finally, basic carbonate. White lead is useless as a water colour, but may be used in every kind of oil, varnish, or other diluent common to oil colours. It is sold in a dry powder as well as in a paste form ground in linseed oil. White lead turns yellow and brown with age or exposure to gas and impure air. Permanent White Lead. White lead being a carbonate, is attacked by all the deleterious gases present in the atmosphere even the weak carbonic acid of rain-water gradually dissolving it and eating away its surface. Many attempts have been made to find a more permanent substitute, but the only metal which hitherto has been found to yield a good white is the metal zinc, and unfortunately its density and refracting power are so low that it is very trans- parent when mixed with oil. Many attempts have been made to prepare a more permanent lead compound which would retain the density and whiteness of the carbonate without being so perishable. Until recently these efforts were not crowned with complete success, the want of success being due in some cases to the failure of the process to yield a steady, good colour, but more often to a fundamental difference in the character of the perma- nent white so produced from that of common white lead. The compound usually chosen to form the new white lead was the sulphate, as it is a white body nearly as dense as the Dutch carbonate, and it is the most permanent compound of lead known. The causes of the difference between this pig- ment and the common white lead were somewhat obscure till the researches of Mr. J. B. Hannay, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., rendered 72 PAINTING AND DECORATING. more clear the cause of high pigmentary power in white pig- ments, and showed it to be very closely identified with density and refractive power. By a comparison of various carbonates of lead, varying from the neutral carbonate to carbonates of extreme basicity and with different proportions of combined water, it was discovered that the more highly basic the body was, and the less moisture it contained, the greater was its pigmentary power or "body" or opacity. It was thus made evident that high basicity was absolutely essential to obtain a white lead of the necessary density and refractive power to form a white, lead of good covering power. Now this had been entirely overlooked by former experi- menters, and Mr. Hannay, who has devoted nearly twenty years to the subject, set about to find if it were possible to manufacture a sulphate of lead as highly basic as the "Dutch" carbonate, and at the same time free from the water which the Dutch hydrated carbonate contains when made by corrosion, and he has succeeded in manufacturing by a new proces a sulphate of lead as basic as the Dutch carbonate, and of even higher density and refractive power. The process is automatic and certain. As this white lead is prepared at a white heat, it is extremely permanent and quite unaffected by the gases in the atmosphere or by great cold and moisture. It has now come into very general use both in Britain and abroad, and may be regarded as the most important new development in painters' materials of the century. We quote from the Government blue-book viz., the Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops for 1900 the following description : "It has long been known that lead ore or galena may be partially volatilised and oxidised into a good white, but for one reason or another all attempts to establish the industry have failed to obtain permanent commercial success. Mr. Hannay, one of the experimenters who has devoted many years to this subject, has recently brought his experiments under the notice of a firm of colour manufacturers of Wolverhampton, and they have gradually built up a large industry. The most important improvement recently discovered by Mr. Hannay is the method of insuring the total volatilisation of the ore and its conversion into a very pure white, somewhat resembling zinc white in its fineness of texture and beautiful colour, but which at the same time is a pure white lead. It is chemically a true ceruse i.e., MATERIALS. 73 it has the same basicity and constitution as the Dutch white lead, but replaces the feeble carbonic acid by the more stable sulphuric acid in the compound. " In former processes it was attempted to combine the pro- duction of pig lead with manufacture of a white pigment, and this complication was the cause of much of the uncertainty and failure of former processes. Mr. Hannay has, however, succeeded in converting all the ore into one product white lead). So quickly can the conversion be completed that lead ore from the mines, which was taken out of the railway waggons in the morning, has been converted into white lead, mixed with oil, and used for painting a building in the afternoon of the same day. " The process is as follows : The galena (PbS) or lead ore is heated in a furnace and volatilised ; it then passes through oxidising chambers, into which air is sucked by means of a fan, and lead sulphate (PbS0 4 ) is formed in fumes. These fumes are filtered through textile fabrics and deposited in chambers as a very fine powder. This is shaken down by means of ' shakers ' into barrels." The white lead so produced is a practically non-poisonous brilliantly white pigment in the form of a powder of extreme fineness. It is produced in the same manner as zinc white, and has all the beauty and fineness of the latter, combined with the high density and "body" of the lead. The new white lead is extremely fine, consisting of from fifty to one hundred particles to every one of the ordinary or corroded lead, so that when mixed with oil it paints out with a very glossy surface. This extreme fineness and all absence of "caking" in the dry state renders it the only white pigment which can be mixed from the dry powder directly by the painter. Thus all the waste of time and material caused by the har- dening and skinning over of the corroded lead ground in oil, and the "mess" occasioned by keeping white lead covered with water in casks, the sides of which are incrusted with dirty lead, are entirely avoided. No straining is required, the powder mixing instantly with the thinners, so that the paint can be prepared at the job, and the remainder of the powder can be kept for future use without deterioration. The paint is made ready by simply stirring up the dry powder with oil, turpentine, and thinners in the pot with the brush, 74 PAINTING AND DECORATING. and it mixes at once and paints out with an absolutely smooth surface without specks or knots. The new white has very high purity of colour and whitening power, as can be proved by a test like the following : Two equal lots of ultramarine were reduced to exactly the same shade of blue tint by adding Dutch corroded lead and the Mander-Hannay white, and accurately weighing the quantities used. These two trials took 112 parts of Dutch and 72 parts of Mander-Hannay, thus proving that the whitening power of the Mander-Hannay is 35 per cent, greater than the Dutch. Very extensive trials in actual painting of large buildings have proved the same fact i.e., that the covering power of the Mander-Hannay white lead is from 30 to 35 per cent, higher than that of common white lead a fact to be expected when we consider its extreme fineness, its great whiteness and purity of colour, and its high basicity and density. Zinc White. Next, we have zinc white ; a good pure white pigment useful in oils for internal work, of high luminosity, and especially useful as a permanent distemper white for special purposes. It retains its colour well over gas. Its preparation has been recently much improved as the result of an increased demand for a non-poisonous pigment in place of white lead. Oxide of zinc when finely ground and properly mixed is a good white with a little less body than white lead. Its pro- tective power and durability have never been tested to the same extent as the latter. Its use is, however, gradually extending, and both in a pure state or mixed with white lead it is a very useful pigment, covering far more ground, weight for weight, than white lead does, and standing well in colour under all vitiated atmospheric conditions. It is also sold as Chinese white. Oxide of Zinc. One of the advantages of zinc white is its stability in the presence of acids or salts. It is, therefore, particularly serviceable for use at the seaside or in towns where the atmosphere is chemically polluted, as sulphuretted hydrogen has no effect upon its whiteness. Another point in its favour is the fact that 7 Ibs. of zinc oxide will cover as much work as 11 Ibs. of white lead. Zinc white is, in the first place, whiter than white lead, hence clearer and more delicate tints can be made from it. The fact that the use of white lead as a paint has been made illegal in France and Switzerland, and is hedged round with restrictions in other places, points to the conclusion that zinc white will ultimately come into general use, and painters would, MATERIALS. 75 therefore, do well to accustom themselves to the more frequent use of them. It is, however, quite certain that the protective power of white lead and linseed oil paint upon woodwork gives it a position that is not yet seriously challenged by any other white pigment. Orr's White. Up till 1874 zinc white was a name exclusively applied to oxide of zinc. In that year J. B. Orr put his white on the market as " Orr's zinc white." Charlton white, Griffith's white, lithopone, and some others are only Orr's zinc white under different names, and all depend upon the chemical interaction and treatment of barium or strontium and zinc salts. The annual production of " Orr's zinc white" in this country exceeds 6,000 tons. " Orr's zinc white " is the almost exclusive white basis of all the washable distempers now in use. Other Whites. Pattinson's white is a form of lead white un- equal to the ordinary white lead. Many patent whites have been made and sold under fancy names, which have a zinc base, as albissimma white, silicate white, and others. Charlton white, a patent combination of barytes and zinc, is a useful pigment with greater covering power than white lead, but less weight. It has not the same value as a preservative on outdoor work, but for interior decoration is preferable, as it is non-poisonous, possesses many of the qualities of white lead, and has but few disadvantages. It does not harden so thoroughly as white lead, but keeps its colour far better. Its action upon the pigments has not been demonstrated to the same extent as that of white lead, but it appears to be without reproach in this particular, except in its action upon some metallic colours. The chief concern of the painter will be the covering power of these various whites, and a simple test for this may be named here. Take a page of ordinary evenly printed matter, black letters on white paper, and give it a couple of coats of clear - size ; then take 1 ounce of linseed oil and 1 ounce of the white pigment, mix into a paint and apply with a new hoghair fitch. Do the same with the other pigment that you require to examine, and compare the result. The test may be carried further by ascertaining how many coats of either it will i*equire to entirely hide the black letters. Ochres. Ochres come next in importance. Spruce ochre or Oxford ochre, yellow ochre, and golden ochre, and Mander's yellow are the yellow varieties principally used, the latter being of a very fine hue. All are good, stable pigments, and are not 76 PAINTING AND DECOEATING. much adulterated. They are varieties of yellow earth. The excellence of an ochre lies in its particular brilliancy of hue, and its colouring properties or staining power. A common trick in cheaper varieties is to grind it in oil when insufficiently dry to increase its weight, and also to add clays and earths of little or no colouring power to increase both bulk and weight. Ochres owe their colour to the presence of iron. Red ochre, light red, and burnt ochre are varieties of yellow ochre subjected to calcination in kilns, but sometimes this is due to volcanic action. The same remarks apply as in the case of the raw ochres. Raw Sienna is a translucent and strongly tinctured variety of yellow ochre originally found in North Italy. Burnt Sienna is raw Sienna calcined. Both the Siennas are permanent and valuable pigments, and their relative value depends on their transparency. Umbers. Raw Umber is a brown earth found in England and in the Levant. It owes its colour to the presence of iron and manganese. The Turkey Umber is the richest in colour. It is of a greenish-brown. Burnt Umber is the result of calcining raw Umber ; the colour changes to a more transparent and warmer brown. The whole of these earth colours are permanent and safe in both oil and water colours, and can be purchased either ground in linseed oil or in water, as well as in powder or lump form. Burnt Sienna and burnt Umber are very hard to grind, and it is therefore unwise to purchase them in dry form. Browns. Vandyke brown is the only other brown in common use by house painters. It is a peaty earth containing some amount of bitumen and iron. Artificial Vandyke brown is also much sold. The genuine article is rich in colour and very transparent, a powerful stainer, and cannot easily be replaced by any substitute. It is a bad drier, and changes colour and substance under the heat of the sun. The artificial variety is much less dangerous in use, dries well, but has not half the depth or translucency and richness of the first named. Some of the best Vandyke, brown in colour, is liable to fusion after use in oil. In this quality it resembles bitumen or tar. If used in a water-colour glaze upon a hard ground, and varnished, it may always be relied upon. When used in oil there must be no excess of raw oil, and the substitution of varnish for raw oil is desirable. It should only be used when its transparency demands it in preference to other pigments, as for graining, <fec. Amongst other browns used by decorators, and for ornamental painting, are Cappagh brown, Mander's Seville brown, Caledonian MATERIALS. 77 brown, asphaltum or bitumen, Prussian brown, and Spanish brown. Chromes. Chrome yellows are the most brilliant yellows which are within commercial range of the house painter. Non- scientifically, chromes may be described as white pigments dyed yellow, and the different depths are produced by intensified action of the yellow dye. In most chromes the white base is white lead, and lead chromes will not retain their colour if used in water. But chromes are also made on a barytes and zinc white base under the names of lemon yellow, permanent yellow, and non-poisonous chromes. These colours are fairly permanent either in oil or water colour, but sometimes they gradually assume a greener hue. Failing any other yellow that will compare in price and purity of tone, lemon yellow is the best pale yellow for distemper colour. Chromes are sold as pale, middle, deep, and orange. Dutch Pink. Dutch pink, a familiar colour in the scenic artists' list, was much used by the older house painters. It is transparent when of good quality. It is less permanent than lemon yellow, and of a slightly olive tone. For glazing in oil colour or for tinting in distemper it is useful. Artists' Yellows. Other yellows available for the artistic details of decoration are the cadmiums, gamboge, yellow lake, Indian yellow, aureolin, Naples yellow, orpiment, pure orange, or alizarin yellow. Beds. Venetian red of commerce is an artificial preparation of iron oxide. There is also a natural variety which is used under the name of " rouge," and constitutes the base of the red chalks so much used by artists. Venetian red is one of the best and least expensive of painters' colours, and is extremely useful and permanent in oil, water, or any other form. Persian or Indian red is a natural earth owing its deep purplish -red to a large percentage of iron. It is perfectly permanent and useful in oil or water. A number of red earths are sold under fancy names, all of which owe their colour to red haematite or red iron ore, different localities providing different qualities and hues ; all such colours are absolutely safe for use in oil or water. Vermilion is the brightest red at the disposal of the decorator, and although costly can hardly be dispensed with. It is a sulphide of mercury. Many qualities of artificially produced vermilion are sold. In tint they range from orange to deep scarlet. Vermilion is a permanent pigment and can be used in oil or water. 78 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Chinese or Derby red and vermilionette are factitious repre- sentatives of vermilion at a lower cost, and are now generally superseded by Mander's Persian red or new fast red. Red lead is the least expensive bright red, and has all the good qualities, as well as all the failings, of white lead as a pigment. It is a most indestructible and strongly protective agent when properly incorporated with its diluents. Orange lead is a washed variety of red lead. Brown lakes, as Victoria and mahogany lakes, damp lake, &c., are useful for water colour, and some of them are suitable for oils. They are prepared from aniline matter, and from other sources, and their permanence and use depend upon their origin and preparation. Of artists' colours, crimson lake is used for obtaining delicate pinkst It is a product of the cochineal. Though fugitive it is sufficiently permanent for much ordinary house painters' work. Crimson and scarlet alizarin are powerful reds of similar character to the carmines and crimsons, but are permanent. They are colours obtained from the coal-tar products. A number of substances are now in the market under fancy names which owe their richness of hue to the same source and are reasonable in price. Some of the earthy reds are heightened in hue by aniline dyes and make an inexpensive class of useful bright reds. The madders are too costly for any ordinary work, except for fine touches in flower or figure painting. Aniline Reds. Recently introduced reds of great value and at commercial prices are Sunlight red, fire red, Antwerp crimson, Bordeaux red (all these are Mander's colours), and are due to the improvements in chemical research among the aniline group of reds. Blues. Prussian blue is the standard blue for oil colour use, and is quite sufficiently permanent in oil for house painting. It is useless in distemper, rapidly changing in colour as soon as mixed with whiting or any form of lime. It can be safely used in water as a glaze, and also with zinc white, if not upon a lime surface. Antwerp blue is a finer tone of a similar class of pigment, being slightly greener. The better qualities of Prussian blue are sold under the name of Chinese blue and bronze blue. New blue or artificial ultramarine is a permanent blue of great purity. Its tint ranges from a fairly pure blue inclining to green to a decidedly violet hue. It is absolutely permanent in oil or water. Lime blue is a cheaper pigment than artificial ultramarine, UTJ.P '897 PLATE 9. -PANEL DESIGNS FOR SEMI-NATURAL COLOURING. To face p. 78-] MATERIALS. 79 and is frequently replaced by adulterated ultramarine. It is made from copper and is unaffected by lime. It is not recom- mended for use in oil. Other blues made from copper are useful for distemper, especi- ally for the production of pale sky blues. Of these Bremen blue and blue verditer are the best known. A recent blue of fine hue is azuline, introduced by Messrs. Mander Bros. Cobalt is a blue of rare purity, but its price places it beyond ordinary reach. It is useful for artists' work, and is permanent in any medium. Indigo is a useful blue for distemper or oil. It is not as much used as it might be. It is economical on account of its intensity. For deep neutral tones of blue it is unsurpassed. It is of suffi- cient permanence for ordinary decoration. Smalt is a cobalt blue not now used to any great extent. Strewing smalts were formerly much used for sign boards, &c., and consist of fine particles of blue glass, which is strewn over a coat of varnish and adheres to it. Greens. Most painters' greens are admixtures of yellows and blues, or yellows and blacks ; these are sometimes mixed in manufacture and sometimes in grinding. The exceptions worthy of note are emerald green, the finest and brightest green that can be produced, for which there is no substitute. It is reliable in oil or water, but lacks body, and is crude and staring in tone if used without admixture. Natural green or terra vert viz., green earth is a deep olive green of translucent character, useful in oil or water, and permanent, but of no great power. Others, in less common use, are verdigris, a copper green of great intensity, but very poisonous ; only used in oil. Verditer, a copper green of a fine bluish tone, useful for artistic purposes. Cobalt green, expensive, but useful for the highest class of work in oil or water. Viridian, a transparent pure toned blue-green, quite permanent, and of great value to artists in oil or water. The commonly known commercial mixed greens are bronze greens and quaker greens, which are ochre and black or chrome and black; Brunswick greens, in shades of light, middle, deep, and ex-deep, are made from chrome and Prussian blue, with a base of barytes. There are also the chrome greens made from chrome yellows and Prussian blue, with less barytes. (There are true chrome greens obtained chemically oxides of chrome but they are expensive, and made for artists' use.) Another useful class are emerald tinted greens viz., Bruns- wick green, with an admixture of emerald green and common mineral green ; a colour made up to match the true mineral green or malachite, from verdigris and other ingredients. 80 PAINTING AND DECORATING. The decorator will find the green lakes and aniline greens useful for glazes and stains ; also many fancy greens termed peacock, Queen Anne, olive, <fcc. Suffield green, of which there are several grades, is a recent introduction that is rapidly displacing the older, cruder, and less reliable inexpensive greens. It is permanent, unfading, and of greater covering power than the greens of Brunswick type. Blacks. Blue black is a charcoal black, permanent in oil or water, but not absolutely black in colour. It is the best black for use in water, being free from fatty matter. Lamp black is a soot black of great opacity, slightly brownish in colour, useful in oil, but not a good drier, and too greasy for water. Vegetable black is a soot black of a higher order of merit. It is intensely black and of a finer, silkier texture than lamp black. It is of extreme density, and is very light in weight ; it also is too greasy for water. Drop or ivory black is a carbon black from bones and other animal refuse. It is, to use a double positive, a black black ; indeed, the blackest black we have. It has less body than vegetable black and makes a good glaze. It is a bad drier, and better adapted for oil or spirit colour than for water colour. Ordinary black paint as sent out by the dealer in paints, is usually either lamp black or vegetable black, to which has been added a certain amount of barytes, usually as much as can be added without detriment to the colour of the black. Barytes with black oxide of manganese is also sold as a black paint. But a few years ago it was usual to grind the majority of these pigments one's self, and certainly the obligation to do this made the painter take a greater interest in the quality and nature of his materials. Now, however, even the finest colours can be procured ground in linseed oil, turpentine, or water, in the most perfect manner and by highly scientific methods. There are numerous most useful additions to the list of pig- ments that space does not permit mention of, the most numerous being the colours made from gas-tar residuum, the number of which are constantly being increased and their purity of tone intensified. Consistency of Colours Ground in Oil. Colours ground in oil should have about the consistency of butter, while those ground in water may be slightly more solid that is, of the consistency of soft clay. The finer colours should be purchased in collapsible tubes, holding 1 Ib. each, and the commoner ones in J-cwt. kegs. Those coming between these extremes may be in 7-lb. tins. Matsine. Colours are prepared under this name by being ground in a special matt medium, which dries hard and firm and MATERIALS. 81 with an eggshell gloss surface. It is useful for staining new work, for scumbling or graining on painted work and for other purposes. Commixture of Pigments. The commixture of pigments having different derivations is a subject that is much overlooked. In the present advanced condition of the science of chemistry we can have no certain guarantee that the colours or pigments of commerce are composed of just what we have supposed they are derived from ; we are only able to form general deductions. It is, however, safe to assume, for all practical purposes, that as long as we know a pigment to be of mineral, or vegetable, or of organic origin, whatever identical means have been used to produce it, the origin will remain the same. Derivation of Pigments. Broadly speaking, we have altogether three classes : Mineral, both natural and artificial ; organic, both animal and artificial; and vegetable, as indigo. Now, each' of these classes will fail to prejudicially affect others of the same class as that to which they themselves belong. The first named may be taken as positively permanent, and the last as representing fugacity. The more preparation, chemically, a colour demands in its manufacture, the less able we appear to be to depend upon its lasting powers. The moral of this is that simple pigments are most dependable ; and whenever we can produce our tints from ochres, earths, &c., we may be sure that it is best to do so, from the double point of view of economy and permanence; and when mixing, to use, where possible, each class of pigment separately. Adulterations of Pigments. The same difficulties meet us in detecting so-called adulteration in purchasing pigments, inas- much as the great desideratum of the painter is to get a paint which shall meet certain requirements, and not necessarily to obtain a given chemical compound. His business is chiefly to ascertain whether the paints he purchases answer his purpose, and are good relative value for their cost. It is really extremely difficult for an expert chemist to say what is and what is not adulteration, in regard especially to tinting colours. In reference to adulteration, see that the colours are free from grit or foreign matter, and test them for staining capacity, pay- ing always a good price for a good article. Every respectable firm prefers to sell a genuine article at its real value to those who will prefer and appreciate such, rather than to deal at cutting prices for inferior stuffs. The item of great cost is not paint, but labour; and it takes a man longer to spread 2 Ibs. of bad stuff over a given space, than 1^ Ibs. of good stuff over the same ground 6 82 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Test for Staining Power in Pigments. To test colours for staining powers it is necessary to have standard samples ; obtain tubes of artists' colour from a thoroughly reliable maker, and mix, say ounce of each with 1 ounce of white lead of best quality. The results should be painted on a piece of glass, and preserved for reference. To use the test samples mix the same weight of the colour to be tested viz., ounce with an ox nee of white lead, and compare with sample. Twelve Colours for Oil Colour Box. When filling an oil colour box whose capacity is restricted to, say, 12 tubes, and permanence is desired, the following will be found capable of matching every other pigment with sufficient accuracy for the decorators' purpose : Flake white. Vermilion. Ivory black. Cadmium yellow. Cappagh brown. Aureolin. Burnt Sienna. French ultramarine. Raw Sienna. Cobalt. Carmine. Viridian. Whiting. Whiting is ground chalk (carbonate o/ lime), and forms the basis of our distemper colours. All the ordinary mineral colours may be used for tinting it, but it is destructive to vegetable pigments. It has great body when finely ground. A finer preparation than that usually sold is known as gilders' whiting. Whiting is of no use as an oil paint. Its extreme lightness and porosity permit it to absorb so much oil, that it becomes almost transparent. Prussian blue, Brunswick green, and the lakes are useless as tinting colours in whiting, the two former rapidly changing colour in a few days. Indigo, the ochres, Umbers, Siennas, emerald green, blue- black, Venetian or Indian red, vermilion, and lime blue, or cheap fictitious ultramarine are suitable tinting colours for distemper tinting, and will, in combination, produce almost every conceivable hue. Chrome may be used for delicate tints of cream colour, if not on a white lead base viz., lemon yellow or barytes chrome. Coach-Painters' Colours. The colours used in coach -painting are similar to those used in house -painting, but are usually sold either in dry specially impalpable powder, or ready ground in turps or other prepared mediums. The latter should be sent out in hermetrically sealed and full tins, so that no oxidisation can take place prior to use. They are also put up in tubes varying from 5 inches by 1 ^ inches to 3 inches by 1 inch in size. MATERIALS. 83 Messrs. Lewis Berger & Sons, of Homerton, have recently introduced a patent tin and machine for extracting the colour from same, which deserves wide recognition. It does for the colour in larger bulk all that the tube does for artists' colours, and any quantity from a teaspoonful to a can-full can be ex- tracted clean and free from skins, <kc., at a moment's notice. The principle is so simple, that the wonder is why it has not been adopted years since. Many coach colours are sold ready mixed in given tints, thus obviating all chance of danger in mixing antagonistic pigments together, and though these facilities may foster a lack of interest in the chemistry of paints, in present-day pressure we are bound to take advantage of every help which saves time and labour, and makes results more certain. These paints are, many of them, sold under special names, and a coloured tint card is issued for the guidance of purchasers. Silicate Paint. The silicate paints based on Charlton white are now much specified by engineers, being anti-corrosive and free from poisonous ingredients. The base is zinc with baryta. Ready Mixed Pigments. Colours mixed ready for use are, of course, mainly intended for amateurs, but where a large bulk of work, as the exteriors of large public buildings, are concerned, much labour may be saved by ordering in this form, if the quantity required amounts to half a ton or more. The past few years have, however, seen the introduction and continually extending use of paints prepared ready for use expressly for the painting trade. This has been the result of a demand for hard finish in plain colours, both in glossy and flat or dull surfaces. The supply of these paints is also due to the fact that the mixing of many paint ingredients can be better and more thoroughly accomplished by machinery in large quantities at a time than by hand. Another contributory cause is undoubtedly the high price and decreasing supply of tur- pentine. Many substitutes for, and many combinations of, turpentine with gums and other oils can be manipulated during the preparation of ready-made paints, and by heat and chemical additions can be made really efficient and economical substitutes. Pigments and substances that are not usually recognised by the painter may also be incorporated by the manufacturer with success and assist in the production of good paint, when, if the same substances were ignorantly added during the ordinary hand mixing, they would properly be called adulterates, and would be detrimental to the life of the paint. Among the recent improved paints that are upon the market 84 PAINTING AND DECORATING. we find that Messrs. Lewis Berger's are thoroughly practicable painters' paints. DRIERS. Driers are necessary to almost all colours. Some paints, as antimony, red lead, &c., have a strong affinity for oxygen, and thus act as driers ; others, as verditer and lakes, are of opposite character. The general painters' drier is termed patent driers. The original patent drier was made from sulphate of zinc, acetate of lead, litharge, and boiled linseed oil ; to make it into bulk and to reduce its rapidity to reasonable limits, white lead and barytes were added. It is now made in many ways and of many materials, the above remaining the staple ingredients. Copperas is frequently admitted into patent driers, and vitriol in other forms than the sulphate of zinc. Good patent driers should not deepen to brown in drying or skinning; water should have no effect on it. The skin formed should be tough and leathery. Drying Agents for Paint. Eed lead is a drier. Sugar of lead is one of the best and safest driers for lead paints. Litharge is another good drier for all lead paints. Borate of lead and borate of manganese are used to make drying oils. Most of these substances are capable of causing pure linseed oil to dry, if added in the proportion of about 1 Ib. to the cwt. as their ulterior action on the paint is always detrimental, except in the case of litharge, sugar of lead, and red lead with white lead paints, a sparing use of them is recommended. The ordinary commercial drier is often very low in drying power, and consists of as much as 80 per cent, of barytes or whiting, For ordinary purposes 1 Ib. to 14 Ibs. of white lead is excessive. Varnishes may be utilised as drying agents, and are safe, if of good quality. Liquid Driers and Terebine. Liquid driers and terebine are much used by painters, as they are conveniently added at any stage of mixing, or after mixing. The more powerful kinds are liable to be dark, and will discolour delicate tints. The pale varieties are not such strong driers. Used too freely, all tere- bines are strongly contractile, induce cracking, and some react under heat as a kind of solvent, if very excessively used. Messrs. Harland & Sons, of Merton, produce a reliable pale liquid drier, and Powers, of Coventry, a good terebine. Different kinds of driers should not be used in conjunction; indeed, the drying may be retarded, instead of hastened, by adding one kind of drier to paint that already contains another kind. The true effect of most liquid driers is seen by the soft, sticky mass that will form in the spout or about the neck of tins containing them. MATERIALS. 85 They must never be used in such excess as to overbalance the natural oxidisation of the oil ; about an ounce of terebine to 3 Ibs. of colour is recommended. If the colour is very oily this may be increased by one-half. Seccoline, a combination of japanners' gold size and terebine made by Messrs. Blume, is a medium between ordinary driers and the latter. It is a safe and useful article which does not discolour the tints, and is less contractile and solvent than most of the older liquid driers. Powder Driers. A good white powder drier for zinc or Charl- ton white may be made by mixing in powder equal quantities of sulphate of zinc, acetate of manganese, and sulphate of man- ganese, and adding sixteen times their combined weight of white oxide of zinc. French Powder Driers. This is a similar composition to that known as French packet driers, or powder driers. One ounce of this powder is added to 7 Ibs. of ordinary paste zinc or Charlton white. PAINTERS' OILS. Painters' oils are usually bought by the barrel of 36 gallons. Turpentine, linseed oil, and boiled linseed oil are those in ordinary use. Nut oil, poppy oil, oil of lavender, &c. , are used in decorative processes, and in picture painting. Turpentine. The most important is turpentine. The best turpentine should remain limpid and clear for at least a month, if placed in an open jar and left exposed to the air ; a piece of muslin laid across the jar will keep out dust, &c. It should also leave no oily mark if a drop is dripped upon a sheet of note- paper and held near a fire so as to allow it to evaporate. Turpentine is prepared from many sources and is of varying quality and smell. The odour of really good turps is refreshing and not nauseous. Turpentine dries mainly by evaporation, leaving behind a resinous and somewhat sticky residuum. When used as a thinner, to paint, it causes it to dry with flat, dead, or dull surface. American and Russian turpen- tines are the most frequently used, the latter being considered the best for general purposes ; but by far the greater part of the turpentine used is American, and is perfectly reliable. Petroleum and turpentine substitutes are used for low grade work, and are dangerous and untrustworthy, unless for special purposes. Linseed Oil The next in importance is linseed oil. Colour and smell are a valuable test for linseed oil in its raw state. Compare the odour with that of good crushed linseed meal. So also is the comparative test of weight, as against water. A 86 PAINTING AND DECORATING. measure of oil weighing 9 Ibs. 6 ozs., should hold 10 Ibs. of water, if the linseed oil be what it professes to be. Oil dries by oxidisation, remaining in the paint in the form of an elastic, transparent, and leathery skin. Boiled oil is linseed oil heated to boiling point, in which a little manganese is generally steeped during the boiling process It is also known as "drying oil." The chief fault in the boiled oil of commerce is ropiness and viscidity. It should be a good colour, quite as limpid as the raw oil, and should, if spread upon a piece of glass, dry or have a skin over it in twenty-four hours. Boiled oil is often dark and cloudy (if so it should be rejected), and is slightly deeper and richer in colour than the raw oil. Size, Glue. For distemper colours the binding medium is size or glue. These materials are extracted from bones, horns, hoofs, leather, skins, &c. Two principal qualities are present in them viz., gelatinous- ness and adhesiveness. For painting purposes a gelatinous size is preferable to an adhesive one, but for some purposes, as preparing walls for papering, adhesiveness is desirable. The adhesive quality in glue can be reduced, and the size therefrom purified by soaking the glue for a couple of days in cold water preparatory to dissolving it for use. This method also tests the quality of the glue, as the best glues will absorb the largest weight of water in a given time. One pound of good Scotch glue, when placed in water for twenty-four hours, and taken out and weighed, should weigh at least 7 Ibs. The various products used in preparing and refining size should be removed before the size is fit for use, as acids and alkalies are often present in sufficient quantity to affect the colour of painters' pigments. Pure gelatine size is insoluble in cold water. The use of alum or vinegar in size is to precipitate the adhesive portion of the compound, leaving the gelatinous part pure and clear. It is added to the size while hot, and the size strained after the addition. Overheating of size prevents its jellying. The addition of oil of cloves or peppermint to size gives it a pleasant odour, and prevents decomposition ; a lump of camphor floated in it, or a teaspoonful of carbolic acid, has a similar effect. Size is purchased in the form of cake glue, cake gelatine, desiccated glue, or concentrated size, and in jelly form, known as " patent size " and " double size." The concentrated size known as Mander's, requires a 1-lb. packet to make 1| to 2 gallons of jelly size of usable strength. Undoubtedly the most convenient form of size is the patent PLATE 10.-PATTERNS SUITED TO STAINED WOOD DECORATION. To face p. 86.] MATERIALS. 87 jelly, especially for distemper, as in this form much of the adhesive gluten has been extracted or precipitated, and the remaining part is more or less pure gelatinous matter. It is so treated as to keep good for a length of time. It is a far more dependable and workable size for general use, always maintaining a standard strength. The strength of a size in solution may be tested by the same kind of instrument as milk is tested by for added water viz., a lactometer, the specific gravity of a size of sufficient strength for general use being the same as that of pure milk. The addition of sugar or glycerine to distemper colour keeps it from drying rapidly, which is sometimes desirable. Mediums and Binders. Starch, milk, gum-water, honey- water, and beer are all used for fixing or binding water-colour, as is also fuller's earth and other substances, but not generally by the house painter. Washable Distempers. Washable distempers are produced in various ways, usually by the introduction of oils made miscible with size by the addition of some solvent or medium common to both, as the addition of enough alkali to saponify the oil, or render it amenable to the action of water. They have a use in the economy of painting, being especially serviceable upon damp or new walls, and as damp- resisting media. The best washable distemper in the market is that known as " Duresco." Plasters and Stoppings. Plaster of Paris is gypsum. It makes a good useful stopper for walls under paper, or for distemper work, but cannot be painted upon for a few days with safety. It is mixed with water. Caustic soda and powdered resin added to plaster will make it more porous and extremely tenacious. Plaster and red lead used mixed with oil makes a good pointing between wood and brick. Keen's cement, a sub- stitute for plaster for painted walls, can be painted upon at once ; mix with water. Mastic cement is a cement used for connecting wood and stone, or stone and metal ; it is mixed with boiled oil. It can be made from slacked lime in powder, finest sand and litharge, in equal parts, or with less litharge if not required to set quickly. Putty is linseed oil and whiting, mixed to the consistence of clay and well kneaded. It is used for stopping ordinary painted woodwork, on previously painted wall surfaces, and for glazing. Plastine. The best substance, however, for glazing is "plas- tine," a proprietary article of Messrs. Carson's, Battersea, which, whilst forming a skin on the surface hard enough to paint on in twenty-four hours, never gets bone dry or hard and brittle, and 88 PAINTING AND DECORATING. can always be cut out easily though holding tenaciously. It is always soft, and, therefore, does not get wasted as putty does. Hard stopping, dry white lead, and ordinary putty, or paste white lead, and whiting are used for stopping after first coats. Extra hard stopping is made with dry white lead and whiting, and Japan gold size, boiled oil, and turps, and is used for facing up when required to harden off at once. Filling-up powders are preparations of clay, silica, or slate in dust form ; they are used in hard varnish and turps. Harland's filling-up powder is a very reliable one and rubs down well. Glass Paper and Smoothing Materials. In the production of smooth surfaces, several rubbing down materials are necessary. First, glass paper for new wood, soft paint and distemper, plaster, &c. Glass paper is strong paper coated with glue, and strewn over with powdered glass, sand, firestone dust, or emery powder. It should be flexible and stand repeated creasing with- out breaking and the sand and other particles should adhere firmly, as may be ascertained by slightly rubbing the surface with the finger tips. The particles should wholly cover the glue and be sharp and angular, points which can be determined by examination with a magnifying glass. The glass paper should be kept in a dry place and at a moderate tempera- ture, as in a moist hot place grains will become detached. It is made in degrees ranging from 0, very fine; to No. 3, very coarse; 1^ is the most useful number for general work. The numbers do not express the same degree of fineness in all makes, those quoted being Oakey's. The life of glass paper in use varies considerably ; if the glue used in making the paper is a poor one it will clog immediately, especially on paint that is not too hard. Firestone paper is good for rubbing distemper filling ; it clogs less than other papers in working. Pumice stone in blocks is used for rubbing old or hard surfaces. It should be light in weight and open in grain. Patent composition blocks are also made for the same purpose, of varying degrees of grain from 1 to 4, and, being of even grain throughout, are very convenient in working, especially for coach or door work. Powder pumice is used for rubbing with a felt and water, for finishing varnished or enamelled surfaces. It is sold in several degrees of fineness. Rotten stone and putty powder are used for polishing and fine finishing ; rouge and fine flour for varnish polishing by hand. Other materials, such as varnishes, will be dealt with, and their merits discussed under their special headings. Importance of Good Pigments. In conclusion, it is desir- MATERIALS. 89 able to insist on the use of the very best materials of every description, and, in paints especially, not to rely too much upon chemical analysis and chemical purity. It is frequently a source of amazement to the initiated to find that after an architect or surveyor has made sure that he is getting the real article used that he has specified, he is really obtaining a material which, though chemically pure, is of so low a grade, and made in such a careless manner, as to be of far less value, from a technical point of view, than that which he has rejected as adulterated. The writer remembers a case, in which, for a large amount of indoor painting, where covering: power was required to produce a certain effect with a specified number of coats, a mixture of best white lead and ^ Charlton white was being used, it was condemned by the rather young and inexperienced architect. The employer who had the job in hand was so disgusted at his skill and honesty being called in question, that he at once ordered a ton of white lead of a cheap grade, and produced the warranty from the manufacturer; this was passed and used. The work, however, looked 50 per cent, less satisfactory, while the cost of material was just 40 per cent, less than it would have been. The true way of ascertaining if the material is good is to see how it behaves in working. Comparative Prices of Materials. The following is a list of some of the principal materials now in use, with their pre- sent market values. The prices are for the best genuine articles, except when more than one price is stated for the same article, in which case the two prices represent the extremes of quality : White lead varies with the market price of the metal : Present price, . . . 25/ to 16/ per cwt. Red lead, .... 21/ Orange lead 32/ ,, Patent driers, . . . 28/ to 18/ ,, Sugar of lead, . . . 6d. per Ib. .Zinc powder driers, . . 4d. ,, Putty, 10/ per cwt. Zinc white in oil, . . . 36/ to 24/ ,, Note. Its bulk is nearly double that of white lead. Lead chromes in oil, . . I/ to 9d. per Ib. Drop black in oil, . . . 6d. ,, ,, in turps, . . 9d. ,, Black paint, .... 24/ per cwt. Prussian blue in oil, . . 2/6 per Ib. Body blue, viz., blue paint, . 6d. ,, Purple brown, . . . 4d. ,, PAINTING AND DECORATING. Raw Sienna, .... Burnt Siofina, Raw Umber, .... Burnt Umber, Vandyke, .... No. 1 Brunswick greens, 6d. Quaker green, Ochre yellow (English), . Real Oxford ochre or Italian, . Indian red, .... Venetian red, .... Red oxide, .... Colours in powder Chromes, .... Zinc chromes, .... Dry flake white, . ,, zinc ,, ... Vermilion, .... ,, best Chinese, ,, substitute, . . Chinese red, .... Indian , , Metallic . Oxide of iron red, . Venetian red, .... Vermilionette, Carmine reds (aniline), . Finest carmines, Dutch pink, .... Rose Yellow ochre, Italian . Oxford (best), . Maroon lake, .... Yellow , Mahogany or Victoria lake, . Rose madder, .... Crimson lake, .... Aniline lakes, .... Emerald greens, ,, tinted greens, . Mineral green, Royal greens, .... Quaker and bronze greens, . Veronese green, . . . Brunswick ,, . . . Chrome greens, Antwerp blue, Bremen ,, . . . Azure ,, ... Celestial . Chinese ,, . 6d. per Ib. 9d. to 6d. 4d. to2d. 6d. 6d. per Ib. to 20/ per cwt. 6d. to 4d. per Ib. 36/ to 18/ per cwt. 48/ 9d. to 6d. per Ib. 24/ to 18/ per cwt. 24/tol8/ ,, 1/3 to 6d. per Ib. 1/6 6d. 4d. 2/9 8d. to 4d. 3d. ,, 14/ per cwt. 14/tolO/ ,, 1/6 to 6d. per Ib. 2/3 4/ per oz. 4d. per Ib. 8/ per 'cwt. 24/ 28/ 6d. 1/6 6/ 2/6 4/ per oz. IS/ to 3/ per Ib. 10/ to 5/ l/to9d. ,, 6d. 2/ 1/6 6d. to 4d. 8/ 56/ to 22/ per cwt. 1/6 per Ib. 4/ ,, (used for cobalt.) 2/3 MATERIALS. Cobalt, . Indigo, . Lime blues, Prussian blue, French ultra, . Verditer, Brown lake, . Mahogany brown, Purple brown, Raw Sienna, . Burnt ,, Raw Umber, . Burnt ,, Vandyke, Vegetable black, Lamp black, . Drop 40/ per Ib. 56/ to 28/ per cwt. 2/ per Ib. 51 to 6d. 1/6 2/6 9d. 36/ to 16/ per cwt. 6d. per Ib. 8d. 18/ to 10/ per cwt. 241 to 20/ 9d. per'lb. 28/ per cwt. 9d. to 4d. per Ib. 10/ per cwt. 8/ per gallon. 4/6 7/ 8/ 121 Terebine, .... Brunswick black, . Pale paper varnish, Hard oak . Copal oak, .... Best pale copal, ... 14/ ,, French oil, ... 18/ ,, white marble, . . . 21/ Spirit varnishes, ... 7/ Knotting 6/ Methylated finish, ... 3/ French polish, ... 6/6 Furniture varnish to dry in 3 hours, 10/ Best black Japan, . . . 15/ to S/ Japan gold size, Flatting varnish, . Body carriage varnish, . Under coating body carriage varnish, Best elastic finishing varnish, Turpentine Linseed oil, .... Boiled oil, .... Turpentine substitutes and mixtures, Old "gold size Bronze powders, Glass paper, . Lump pumice stone, Pumice powder, Rotten stone, . French chalk, . Glue, Soda, . Alum, Patent size, Double ,, Concentrated size, . 7/6 10/ 22/ 20/ 24/ 3/6 2/6 2/9 2/ 2/6 per Ib. I/ to 2d. per oz. 16/ per ream. 25/ per cwt. 4d. per Ib. 4d. 4d. lOd. to 4d. 6/ per cwt. 16/ Id. per Ib. 2d. 8d. to 6d. 92 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Since this list was originally compiled a general advance of 10 per cent, must be allowed, and an additional advance of 20 per cent, on all colours derived from or dependent on copper. Turpentine has advanced 50 per cent, and oil 25 per cent., but these prices are again falling. In connection with the testing of colours for staining power, Messrs. Mander, of Wolverhampton, have recently issued a book giving actual specimens of their principal colours painted full strength, and also reduced by so many parts of white lead or zinc white. This is an admirable plan, and altogether safeguards the buyer, who has only to experiment likewise with the goods supplied to find out whether the quality has been maintained. It also permits the buyer to see exactly the effect of what he is purchasing when in actual use. CHAPTER VI. WALL HANGINGS. iANGINGS have been used for the covering up and embellishment of wall surfaces from the earliest times. Probably the first of the kind were skins of beasts. Then with the introduction of weaving came woollen and fibrous cloths, plain or embellished by needlework or paint- ing. Leather was a further development, doubtless suggested by its greater dur- ability, and the ease with which it could be cleaned. Later came tapestry, stamped and embroidered velvets, silks, and rich stuffs of other material. The use of hangings was doubtless originally suggested by the necessity of keeping out draughts and colds in the rudely- fashioned buildings of early date, and the dwellers in tents used, and still use them for this purpose, as is exemplified to the present day by the Nomadic tribes of the Soudan. The neces- sity for a cheaper matei'ial than was in current use was evidently felt, as no sooner was paper invented than it was used for the purpose of wall decoration. Wall Papers. The first wall papers were introduced into 94 PAINTING AND DECORATING. this country by William of Orange, and the first attempt at their manufacture in this country followed immediately. They were, of course, made in sheets, as the ability to make paper in con- tinuous rolls was not acquired till quite a century later. They were, moreover, stencilled, not printed ; the art of printing being limited to smaller work, and being more costly at that date than stencilling. Heavy taxation and duties considerably hindered developments, and also checked the wholesome influence of foreign competition ; a duty of as much as 5s. per piece being enforced on all foreign papers imported, until a couple of genera- tions ago. Wall papers are broadly divisible into two great classes, hand- and machine-printed. A few are hand-painted, principally marbles, high-class friezes, French scenic and landscape goods. Others are stencilled, or partially stencilled, and partially printed and hand-coloured a rapidly improving and increasing class. The difference between machine - printed and hand-printed goods is seen by a careful examination of the margin, which in hand- or block-printed goods shows the register of the repeat of each block. The finish of the pattern may also be observed at the ends of the piece, a portion of plain ground being left clear of pattern at either end ; whereas in a machine-printed pattern there is an unbroken continuity. An expert will also detect the difference in colour surface left by the block and the roller. The practical advantage gained by the hand printing is mainly that the matching of the paper is truer, and the colouring more even, an inseparable drawback to machine printing being the slight unevenness of tension which occurs as the roll of the paper passes round the printing machine rollers, and the tendency to slight oscillation of the paper from side to side. In block printing each colour or tint is printed separately. In machine printing any number of colours can be printed at one operation, the paper coming under the whole of the variously tinted rollers one after the other before leaving the machine. Qualities. The different qualities of wall papers are many, and are mostly distinguished in the trade by the class of grounds on which they are printed. The number of printings, except in hand-printed goods, has less influence in the assessment of cost than would be supposed. Varieties. The cheapest class of wall papers are pulps, in which the natural colour of the paper itself, either as ground or ornament, forms part of the finished surface. Then we come to grounds, in which the whole paper is coloured with a ground WALL HANGINGS. 95 preparatory to printing the design upon it. The operation of grounding the paper is done by machinery. Satins are papers in which the grounds are polished or glazed before printing, by rotary brushes actuated by machinery and the use of French chalk. Micas, golden frosted, and crystal damask are papers in which, while yet wet, the grounds are powdered with talc or mica to produce a satiny sheen. The papers are rich and effective. Embossed or stamped papers are those in which the ground or pattern, or both, are stamped in relief. Papers which are merely given an all over texture in stamping are termed grained papers. Ingrain papers are pulps of a stout high quality, in which additional colour and apparent texture are introduced by the use of coloured fit>re added to the pulp during the paper- making process. Sanitaries are papers in which the printing is done in oil colours upon a heavily sized or otherwise prepared ground. These papers, owing to the oxidisation of the oil, become brittle and carbonised if kept in stock long, and have an objectionable gloss. Sanitums and washables, either the ground or pattern, or both, are printed in a washable distemper and spirit colour insoluble in water. They are an improvement on Sanitaries as they do not have the glossy surface. Pegamoid papers are a recent introduction, in which, after printing in ordinary colours, the paper is treated with an elastic water varnish prepared from "pegamoid." Metal papers, as their name implies, are papers in which pattern or ground is printed in an imitation gold, metal, or in bronze powder, and are not to be confounded with papers in which the metal is lacquered and varnished. Golds; in these the real article, gold-leaf, is substi- tuted for the imitation. Flocks are divided into three classes. Plain, ordinary flock has the pattern or ground of finely desiccated cloth known as " flock." This is made to adhere to the paper by printing in a tenacious gold size, and strewing or dusting the flock over the size while it is tacky. Heavy flocks are those which are subjected to flocking three or more times, thus making a raised pattern some y 1 ^ to i of an inch high. These are used for painting, and are frequently only printed in white for that purpose. Stamped and relief flocks are those which are printed with several flock- ings, but not from the same block, the relief being thus graduated and alternated with the undulating surface of the pattern, and afterwards stamped by hot dies with shaped relief. Many varieties and combinations of these processes are to be met with, making up an almost endless list of special effects and special classes, many of which emanate from particular makers. 96 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Varnished papers are those sold ready varnished by machinery. The varnish used is a quick drying, white hard spirit varnish that has little durability in it. It is far better to varnish paper after hanging. Imitation leatlwr papers are legion in their variety. Heavy stamped paper pulps are sometimes printed before and some- times after stamping, and are treated with metals, bronzes, and lacquers in a variety of ways, all suggestive of stamped Cordovan and Venetian leathers of the olden times. The description of their manufacture does not fall within the scope of this chapter. Dimensions. English wall papers are made in pieces 12 yards long and usually 21 inches nett width that is, from 22 inches to 22 inches before trimming its edges. These dimensions are a curious reminder of the days of taxed sheets. The original paper sheets were what is termed by stationers and papermakers "imperial" size viz., 22 x 31, and "royal," 24 x 19, &c. The former, then the largest size made, were generally used for paper hangings. The pattern was usually stencilled, that being the cheapest method of working. A sheet of the paper prepared with oil and cut out formed the stencil, which was laid on each sheet in turn, and the pattern stencilled through. Of course a margin was left of about | an inch, and this gave 21 inches nett for the pattern by 30 inches nett. When continuous paper was first allowed to be used, the Act of Parliament limited its use to one or other of these breadths, a higher duty being payable upon the broader paper, and the length of a piece was limited to a score of the 21-inch by 30-inch blocks pasted together, which roughly made 12 yards by 30 inches. At the same time, in France and Holland, the royal size paper was mostly used, and the import duty in the pieces was calculated upon a paper 18 inches nett in width viz., the width of a sheet in royal. These old sizes have never been successfully departed from. Most English papers are 22 inches wide by 12 yards long. Certain papers are made of 30-inch width, usually such as have not to be printed, and in a few cases those that have to be printed by hand. They embrace lining papers plain and tinted, ingrain grounds, hand-painted marbles, and a few block-printed goods of large scale. All French and German papers are still made 18 inches wide and 9 yards long ; the exceptions to the rale are similar in character to the exceptions to the English rule of 22 inches. Friezes and borders are made of almost every width, but 21 inches, 18 inches, 10 inches, 9 inches, 7 inches, and PLATE lOa.-WALL PAPER WITH COMBINED FRIEZE AND FILLING. BY JEFFREY & Co. To face p. 96.] WALL HANGINGS. 97 5 inches are amongst the most usual. They are generally so arranged that one or more exactly occupy the whole width of a 22-inch paper. Composite Papers. The latitude allowed by modern machines in printing irregular repeats has now brought about the use of many specially-designed composite papers, on which the frieze and filling are all upon one common ground. They require some knowledge of design and taste in arrangement to properly hang them. Some makers, principally American, have carried this idea to great length with most successful decorative results. Hand printers, like Messrs. Jeffrey, of London, have carried the idea still further, and, as our illustration of their Standard Rose design will show, with complete artistic success. Note how the picture is hung to aid the general tout ensemble. Comparison between Wall Paper and Painting. The relation of wall papers to painting has now become so intimate, that no hand-book on painting could be compiled without reference to them. Their commercial and practical value far outweigh their apparent temporary character, which is more fanciful than real. A papered wall will actually last longer in fair condition under modern necessities of domestic life than a plain-painted wall, which can only be used when in a passage, staircase, or room not continuously in use; unless it be provided with a varnished or enamelled dado, which can be renewed when requisite without re-painting the upper portion of the walls. Selection of Wall Papers. The selection of papers for various rooms and positions can only be dealt with briefly here. They are subject, in as far as pattern and colour are concerned, to the same laws as painted decoration, and, where necessary, will be referred to in the chapter specially dealing with that subject. The following may be taken as general rules : Light papers are conducive to health as opposed to dark ones. A cheerful colour is better for one's surroundings than a sombre colour. In deep-coloured wall papers the lustreless surfaces enhance the gloom of shadows, and, for the same reason, tame and pale washy tints and undecided patterns become tamer and lose character. Washable and sanitary papers should be retained for the especial use of kitchens and offices, or passages. They do not look well on the raking walls of staircases, as they intensify any inequalities on the surface of the wall. They may be used as staircase dadoes, or for staircases in lodging-houses, &c., where a great deal of wear has to be endured, with advantage. The lustreless sanitum papers are better for fillings to staircase walls. Bathroom and W.C., housemaids' closets, and sculleries 7 98 PAINTING AND DECORATING. should be papered with a varnished paper, or varnished after- wards. Sanitary papers varnish well if sized once after hanging. Metal papers do not last long, especially in rooms where much gas is used. Flocks should only be used in good rooms where there is not much dust and gas viz., in high-class houses. They are very serviceable wear, but soon look dusty. Hints on Choice of Wall Papers for Special Purposes. Prefer- ence should always be given to good, simple designs, in two or at most three tints, where there are plenty of pictures and furniture. Lively patterns in many colours will assist to furnish comparatively empty rooms. Caution must be shown in the selection of spotty patterns. These patterns are most effective in halls, staircases, and very large apartments, but are disastrous to the decorative effect of ordinary dwelling and sleeping rooms. Pure- tinted papers look clean and healthful ; they are specially recommended for use in bedrooms. Delicate floral patterns have the same effect, and are specially suitable for town houses, giving by their contrast a pleasant reminiscence of other scenes. Floral papers should be tabooed for country houses, where they come into awkward and distasteful competition with nature. Style must be borne in mind in the selection of more than one paper in the same room ; not absolutely to the extent of main- taining one pure historic style in the two or more papers, which is often impossible with the selection at disposal, but at least to the extent of decorative harmony and fitness. In selecting a ceiling, frieze, filling, and dado, due contrast in style of pattern must be maintained, without incongruity. If the ceiling be geometrical, the filling should be a free trail or scroll pattern, and the dado again in geometrical or perpendicular lines. If the ceiling is spotted, then the filling will require to be an all-over pattern, either geometrical or scroll, and the dado should contrast in plan with the filling. Preference should be given to geometrical dadoes, as having most consistency and sense of support. The geometrical basis may be a straight or curved one, upright, horizontal, or square, and the filling should partake of a contrasting character. Plates 6 and 7 illustrate good con- trasting arrangements of pattern. A larger scale detail design should not be placed above a smaller, unless in a very lofty room for freize or ceiling, or unless the more emphatic contrast in colour counterbalances the weakness in pattern. A relief pattern material of whatever scale will always be stronger in effect than a printed paper, and must not be used above a printed paper except it be for a high frieze, or there be something in the colouring and design of the paper which WALL HANGINGS. 99 makes it more pronounced in effect than the relief pattern material. Relievo Wall Hangings. Turning now to relief materials, we have an abundant variety both in material and design in the market. The most useful are, perhaps, the Japanese leather papers. These, as the name implies, are made in Japan, and are usually metallic in colouring, full use being made of the rich hues of Japanese lacquers. Paper pulp, occasionally assisted by cotton- wool, is beaten into a matrix or mould, and then dried and hardened, metalled, and lacquered. They are made 36 inches wide, in most cases, but sometimes less, and are in 1 2-yard rolls. For dadoes they are rich and generally artistic in feeling. FO-- the upper walls of smoke-rooms and dining-rooms they may also be used with confidence. For ceilings they appear a little ineffective and out of place, lacking that sharpness which suggests rigidity and permanence. Certain materials used upon ceilings seem to suggest that the ceiling is not duly supported and may break away ; this is one of them and flock paper is another. This may be merely due to a nervous sensibility on the part of those who think so, but it is a curious fact that if the ceiling is panelled by mouldings, this objection to Japanese papers on ceilings is at once removed by the sense of added support given by the mouldings. Anaglypta is a hardened paper pulp of extreme durability and utility. It, is capable of a variety of effective finishes which will be dealt with later. It is usually 24 inches wide and 12 yards long. It is pressed in iron moulds. Cordelova is a similar substance but less hard and sharp, accommodating itself to higher relief and to old style designs ; it lacks the mechanical sharpness of anaglypta. Tynecustle tapestry is also a very beautiful material. The name tapestry is misleading; it resembles stamped leather in the low relief, and modelled plaster in the high relief. It is in rolls of any length required, and the usual width is 24 inches. It has a canvas face which considerably enhances its commercial and decorative value. Tynecastle vellum is the same material with a vellum like paper surface or face. It is cheaper than the tapestry. All the above materials are made in panels of various sizes, as well as in rolls, and the relief varies from 1 inch to | of an inch, a material factor in governing the prices. Anaglypta is the cheapest of these, and Tynecastle tapestry the most expensive. This does not refer to art value, but merely to cost price. Lincrusta Walton. Lincrusta Walton is a material made from 100 PAINTING AND DEOO BATING. solidified oil spread upon a cotton, linen, or paper backing, and pressed by rollers into relief patterns. It has great durability and is a good material to withstand dampness if it is well fixed. It is highly sanitary, having a flat back. It has, however, some drawbacks as a material compared with those already mentioned. It will sometimes shrink, leaving open joints ; its effect is hard and rather monotonous, the patterns being extremely sharp and regular, and it deteriorates if kept long in stock. Its relief is from J F inch to f inch in height. It is heavier in weight than Cordelova, Anaglypta, or Tynecastle. For vestibules, bath- rooms, and conservatories, steam boats and rail cars, it is unrivalled. It was the pioneer of all the others in the market. It is made in widths of 18 to 20 inches, and also in special shapes and sizes. Several additional materials of the kind might be mentioned, but need not take up our space as they differ little from those already enumerated. Fibrous Plaster. Fibrous plaster viz., plaster on canvas backing is now much used for friezes, but the fixing is a plasterers' job rather than the painters'. Sheet Metal Friezes. Thin sheets of metal are being used for stamped relief friezes, dadoes, and borders ; iron, bronze, brass, copper, and latten are used for the purpose. They are fixed with a cement and round-headed copper nails. The use of them appears open to criticism, unless they are of some substance, as they suggest a sham. Jute Canvas for Wall Hangings. Jute, woollen, and flax cloths, both printed and stencilled, are a later innovation still, and have the recommendation of texture and softness. Their general introduction into first class work is so recent as to scarcely justify criticism. The sanitary questions involved in the pasting of such materials on the wall require consideration, but in the straining after new and original effects this aspect of the question appears to have been somewhat neglected and overlooked. Fabrikona. Since the first edition of this book was written there have been many attempts to overcome this sanitary objection, and a material is now on the market known as "Fabrikona" and by other names; it is a dyed and protected canvas that will not harbour germs or insects. Fabrikona is the best of these and is made in a wider range of shades than any other. It is 36 inches, and in some cases 72 inches, in width, and is sold in 12-yard rolls. It can be painted or stained after fixing or when the first effect has become dirty and worn. 101 CHAPTER VII. N the work of the paperhanger, two primary qualities are essential cleanliness, and precision or exact- ness. Tools. The paperhanger will re- quire the following tools: Scissors, of which two pairs are desirable, one pair with long blades about 1 2 inches over all for trimming or edging, and a pair of shorter ones, say 9 or 10 inches, for cutting the paper when wet. Paperhangers' scissors require frequent washing, and are now ob- tainable with nickel-plated blades and japanned handles (Fig. 47) which will be found a great advantage. They may also be had with a 6-inch rule engraved on the blade, but this does not appear particularly advantageous, as the 2-foot rule should always be at hand. Rollers, of which he will require two, a 7-inch roller (Fig. 48) for general use, and an edge or angle roller 1J inch wide with 102 PAINTING AND DECORATING handle at one side (Fig. 49) to allow of its being readily intro- duced into the angles. In the joints, a roller made of earthen- Fig. 47. Improved paperhangers' scissors, nickel-plated blades and japanned handles. ware, like a chair castor, is excellent. The rollers are of wood, leather covered, and the general roller is additionally covered with white flannel to offer a soft and clean surface to the paper. Fig. 48. Paperhangers' roller. Fig. 49. Paperhangers' angle roller. This flannel covering is added by the workman and renewed as occasion requires. Putting-on brushes are used for ceiling or sanitary paper, or HANGING PAPER. 103 for papers which would be crushed by the use of the roller. These are in two forms as here illustrated (Fig. 50). Many paperhangers prefer the shoe brush shape, although this is not specially made for the purpose. A clicker's or shoemaker's knife to trim stout goods will be necessary. Other requisites are a 2-foot fourfold rule, a 3-foot steel Fig. 50. Paperhangers' brushes. edged, or solid steel straight-edge, which should be nickel-plated, to prevent rust; a plumbline and bob, a chalk line, a small hammer, a screw-driver and pincers to remove nails, screws, or small fixtures which are better papered under than cut round It is a good plan to have a clean sponge and water at hand in case of accidental soiling. Preparation of Walls. Before papering walls, it is necessary that they be properly prepared for the process. They should present a slightly absorbent, even, and smooth surface, akin to that of good notepaper ; that is, they should be more absorbent than a painted surface, and less so than a distempered surface. In re-papering old walls, it is necessary, both on technical and sanitary grounds, that all the old paper be removed. This is readily accomplished by well wetting the old paper, allowing it time to saturate, and then using a paper scrape or broad 104 PAINTING AND DECORATING. chisel knife; a good one can be made by inserting a piece of steel bedlath 5 inches wide into a wooden handle, and rivetting it firmly through all. They can, however, be purchased of the pattern here shown (Fig 51) for about Is. each. The stripping of old walls is not usually done by the paper- hanger, but by painters' labourers or apprentices, as it is a job requiring little skill. Care must be taken not to dig into the walls with the scraper, Fig. 51. Paperhangers' scraper. or to damage the edges of the woodwork. When there are more thicknesses than one, they may all be removed together if well soaked. Flock or varnished papers and some sanitaries will require hot soda water, which entails great care in its use, or the skirting and frames will be sure to suffer damage. After the paper has been scraped off, a great deal of paste will still be adhering to the walls ; before this has time to re-dry it should be scrubbed off with a short wash brush and warm or hot water. If the walls are good, they will now be ready for re-papering as soon as dry, but any holes, &c., must be stopped in the same way as for distempering, and all nibs and roughness removed by glass paper use 2 to 2 glass paper on a cork block, 1 inches thick, and rub with a circular sweep. Particular care must be taken to stop cracks or angles, and the joints between woodwork and walls, top of skirting, and round door frames. If the ceiling has been whitened after the walls have been stripped, look well for spots and splashes, and rub them level. If much stopping has been done, or the walls are new, they wili require sizing with a coat of weak size. A little whiting may be added to take away the colour of the size. Damp walls occur and frequently require treatment. A temporary cure may be effected under paper, where such a method could not be used on a painted or distempered wall. The commonest method is to hang thin sheets of laminated lead to the wall with stout paste, and tack down the edges with small copper tacks. This is temporarily effectual, but if the cause of HANGING! PAPER. 105 dampness is not removed it will in time spread beyond the limits of the impervious lead and find a way out. Another way, useful for basement walls, or walls against the inside of which the earth has been allowed to rest, is to chip off the whole of the plaster affected, down to the bricks, and spread on the bricks a coating of Limmer asphalt, or a mixture of pitch, tar, and brick dust. The coating should be \ an inch thick ; strew the surface with sharp gravel and then re-plaster with a quick setting plaster or cement. All such cures must be accompanied by external removal of the cause. If the outer wall is stone and the rain percolates through it, a coating of red lead and linseed oil will stop the influx. If the damp rises from the ground a damp course must be put in, consisting of air tiles, slates, or pitch. If the dampness results from bad drainage of surface water, there must be a dry area made, and plenty of surface drain pipes put in. Measuring for Paper. Assuming the room is ready for papering, the requisite quantity of paper must be ascertained. There is an arithmetical method of doing this, which is theoreti- cally accurate. There is also a rough working method, which, from the dissimilarity of rooms and cases, gives more correct workable results. The first method is to measure entirely round the room, and to multiply the result by the height between the skirting and cornice. This gives the area in square feet ; divide this by 9 to bring it into yards, and then by 7, the number of super yards in a piece of English wall paper. The result is the number of pieces required. There must be deductions made for doors and windows, and 10 per cent, added for waste and matching. The second method is to take a stick 21 inches long, or a roll of paper, and measure how many breadths of paper are necessary, ignoring short ends above doors and under windows, and calling all the rest full lengths. Mentally calculate how many of these lengths can be cut from each piece of 12 yards, remembering that any lengths between 8 feet and 10 feet will only go thrice, allowing for matching and waste (most rooms are between these two heights) ; divide the number of breadths required by the number each roll will cut, and you have the number of rolls required. Thus a room 9 feet high taking 42 breadths requires 14 rolls. Paste. The paste must now be made. For ordinary work, 2 Ibs. oi flour must be stirred into a smooth thin batter in cold water, and boiling water poured upon it, still stirring the whole time, till it assumes a transparent appearance and thickens. Take 106 PAINTING AND DECORATING. care to pour in the water gradually and evenly, and stir regularly to avoid lurapiness. Some good pastry flour does not make good paste. A rye flour is good, and some kinds of wheat are better than others. It is well to test it. A table-spoonful of oil of cloves or peppermint will give a pleasant odour to the paste and prevent it fermenting or sour- ing ; or a very little carbolic acid will prevent its putrefying. Alum is added to paste by some to strengthen and bind it, but it is liable to destroy some of the colours used in paper printing. Paste boards and trestles will be required for pasting upon, and a short, handy pair of steps to reach the top of the wall. Edging Papers. Trimming the paper is accomplished in several ways. For ordinary work, many men sit upon a chair, stretch their legs out stiffly in front of them, and, unrolling a piece of paper, allow it to roll down to their feet, where it is kept in position by the upturned toes ; they then commence edging on the right hand side, re-rolling with the left hand ; a cut with the shears in the right hand is succeeded by a roll up with the left hand until the piece is completely edged. Great rapidity and precision can be obtained by this method. Others unroll the paper on the paste board and cut the two edges con- secutively for the length of the board, then roll, slide on, and unroll the next length, which is similarly treated. A yet better method for good papers is to trim with a knife and straight-edge. A piece of plate-glass or sheet zinc is neces- sary to cut on to avoid damaging the board. Both edges should always be trimmed, but in a thin paper only one should be trimmed quite closely, the other edge may be allowed an eighth full for lapping over. In trimming a plain ground paper where there is no pattern to edge to, it is usual to drive a needle point or shoemaker's awl into the edge of the paper as a guide, or to cut a notch into the end with a tenon saw as a guide to cut it. Machine Trimmers. Several forms of practical paper trimmers are now in general use. The most practical is the Gates machine, the latest pattern of which will accurately trim or- dinary papers on both edges at the rate of 60 or 70 per hour. The operator has only to exercise ordinary observation and guard against faulty rolling or printing. The machine unrolls and re-rolls the paper automatically at the same time as it trims the paper, and, if the paper is correctly printed and rolled at the outset, the action is purely mechanical. If the machine is kept clean and in good order, it will last for several years of average HANGING PAPER. 107 work. Additional fittings are now supplied which enables this machine to trim relief materials. The illustration clearly shows the construction of the machine. A heavier make, with additional fittings, is supplied for Lincrusta and heavy materials for which the "cut" is clean, and the relief is not injured in the process; it also trims ordinary papers. As in the case of all such improved methods, the adoption of the machine has been much retarded by ignorant prejudice. An enormous saving of time and an accuracy of edge are obtained by its use that will immediately commend it to the scientific and trained worker. Fig. 516. Gates Machine Trimmer. Paper-trimming machines of several kinds, and suitable to every class of hangings, may now be obtained. A descriptive notice of the most usual will be found at the end of this chapter. A good machine is that known as the Gates trimmer. Messrs. Hamilton also supply a hand-wheel, known as the Simplex, which is worked against a straight edge, and is much used in both Canada and the United States. Hanging. The hanging must be commenced on either side of the window, or principal window, and worked round to the 108 PAINTING AND DECORATING. door or other convenient stopping place. By this rule the edges, when they lap, are against the light, and are not emphas- ised by any shadows. Some thought is necessary to avoid showing where the papering is finished up, as this place will not be likely to match peri'ectly. Over the door, or in the angle of the chimney breast, is usually the place selected, and some men show great ingenuity in so dodging the pattern, that no half leaves or half flowers are left exposed at the point of juncture; a zig-zag cut will appear much less obtrusive than a perpendicular joint. The paperhanger requires an apron with a large waist pocket or pouch, so that his scissors, plumb-line, rule, and roller are always within reach of his hand ; and a pair of light steps just tall enough to allow him to reach the top of his paper and to take up no superfluous space. The trimming completed, the breadths are now cut to their proper lengths. Commence cutting them off face upwards upon the board, and cut each short or long length as required, using up the odd ends for the former purpose. Cut all that go one way to the door, and see that they match properly, then turn them over and arrange them, so that they are well back on the board. Pull forward the first breadth and arrange it, so that the bottom end and the matching edge just cover the end of the board, and the other edge is safely laid on the next breadth. Lay the paste on evenly and swiftly with a good distemper brush, a 2-knot or flat, working from the centre to the margins in all directions, commencing from the bottom of the paper. The left hand must be resting firmly on the paper to keep it from slipping while it is being pasted. No portion of the board will be exposed if the paper is laid as directed. Pasting. When pasting the last piece, one edge must be finished first, and then the other brought over to the edge of the board. The length of the board being but 6 feet, it will be found that only a portion of the length has been pasted. The bottom end is now lifted up and folded over, so that there is room on the board to pull the remainder of the length up and paste it. A few inches of the top end are now turned down so as to facilitate handling, and the piece of paper is taken up and placed upon the wall. Before rolling it down it is tested by the plumb-line for uprightness. The same routine is followed with the rest of the breadths, careful attention being paid to the matching. The breadths must be split into two in turning angles, as the angles of the room are never perfectly true. In splitting breadths the upper part should be folded as well as the bottom end ; this lessens the length to be split, and enables the HANGING PAPER. 109 operator to be guided by the visible pattern on the outside of the folded length. No papers should be hung with an absolutely butt or level joint unless they are very stout, a far better result is obtained by hanging thin papers with an eighth of an inch lap joint. Under the best class of papers it is usual to use a white lining paper, which improves the surface of the wall. It must be hung in the same manner as an ordinary paper, with a little lap at the edges, and when perfectly dry the laps must be well glass-papered down. Walls or ceilings that are lined for painting or distempering upon, are lined in the same manner. In working round the room full breadths only should be used, leaving the odd places to be filled in with the cuttings later on. When nearing a door or window, if the portion required is more than half a full breadth, a full one should be used, and the portion not required cut out and hung somewhere to dry, so as to be available for filling up some other small space. If only a narrow strip is necessary, it is better to use a short length full breadth sufficient to go over the door, and leave the lower part to be afterwards filled in. Whether short or long breadths are used, the match must be retained by always using the full breadth ; even if it has to be split both portions must be used, and this rule must be observed until the place of finishing is reached. It matters not which side of the room is hung first, but each side must in turn be started from the window, and continued without a break in the pattern to the finishing point. Matching. The matching edge is always placed on the board towards the operator, because in that position it is less liable to accidental soiling with wet paste. Measurements for splitting are also always more easily taken from the near edge. To obtain a good match the operator should hold the paper with the pasted side towards the wall, and the top few inches falling over the fingers towards him so as not to soil the cornice or ceiling, and while keeping the off-edge well away from the wall, gradually approach the near or matching edge to the piece last hung ; having secured the accurate point of matching, in as far as height is concerned, the forefinger should hold it firmly in place, the paper being actually in contact with the wall at this point only a manipulation with the other hand of the off-edge will now allow it to swing pendulum-like till the match is secured all the way down, then, and not till then, can the paper be allowed to settle against the wall. If this is carefully done it becomes very easy to keep a vertical and true match. Do not " handle " the paper, but allow it to attach itself to the wall of its 110 PAINTING AND DECORATING. own weight and gravitation, after doing which it can be brushed or rolled firmly on, and will not require any coaxing to get it into its proper place. It is important that the same length of time should elapse between the pasting and final hanging of each breadth of the ptper, as when very damp with paste it expands and interferes with a true match being obtained. When hanging very short pieces, as dado or frieze lengths, it is often advisable to paste two pieces to start with and hang the first one, and then paste a third and hang the second, and so continue, thus giving a little more time for each length to become soaked and pliable. It is very necessary to be sure, methodical, and regular, and to go about the work without hurry or confusion. Some papers by reason of their design do not repeat hori- zontally, but diagonally. These are known as " drop patterns." It will often happen that such patterns create great waste in matching on account of the length of the repeat. This can fre- quently be avoided by cutting the lengths alternately from two rolls of paper instead of consecutively from one roll at a time. (See diagram, Plate 8). The first length hung must be plumbed truly upright, or the pattern will run out either up or down as the case may be at the ceiling line, and at every few lengths the plumb-line must be used as a check. When cutting off the top and bottom, the line is marked by running the point of the scissors blade along the angle, at the same time keeping the end off the ceiling or skirt- ing with the other hand. Be guarded against allowing the pasted paper to touch the paint work, skirting, or architraves, and if it does so, wipe off the marks with a damp, clean sponge at once, or it will damage the paint. Lining Papers. Lining papers are used as a ground for dis- tempering upon, and for protection of the more costly papers. When used for the former purpose they should be trimmed to remove the burred edge, and hung with a very slight lap ; but when merely used to improve the surface of the wall for a better paper they may be hung with a butt or even joint; or if lapped, the lap must be well glass-papered down before the finishing paper is put on. Lining papers must be allowed to dry thoroughly before the other paper is put over them or blisters will result. Papering Ceilings. In papering a ceiling it is necessary to have two steps and a plank, so that the entire length can be put up at one operation ; for large ceilings two men, or a man and a lad, will be desirable. Commence near the light and work from it ; let the joints run across the light, not from it. If working HANGING PAPER. 11] without assistance, a straight-edge or T-square is useful to sup- port the paper. Paperhanging upon painted walls is very liable to turn out unsatisfactorily, as the paste is a strong solvent for paint. A good plan is to hang first with stout lining, using a paste made with glue size and ordinary paste, but not too strong. The glue size will set quickly and prevent the action of the paste upon the paint ; stout buff paper in sheets will answer well as a lining, but not newspapers, as the ink often works through the top paper. Before hanging the lining paper the wall must be well washed with soda water and when dry rubbed down with glass paper, to give a key for the paste. Take care that the joints of the top paper do not come immediately over those on the under lining. Lining Cracked. Ceilings. Badly cracked ceilings or walls may be lined with unbleached calico or sheeting. This is applied upon a good heavy coat of glue size and paste laid on freely, and the canvas stretched tightly and well rolled or brushed into it ; a few tinned tacks driven in at the edges serve to keep the canvas tight while drying out, and the surface is sometimes well-sized while it is still wet with the paste. The joints should be closely butted, and the selvedge edges cut-off the calico. Calico 1 yard wide will be found easy to hang, and wide enough for most purposes, but for ceilings 72-inch sheeting is better. The hanging of wide sheeting requires care to avoid blisters or creases. It is well to have the canvas lightly tacked to a rod at each end, so that it can be held taut while rolling and brushing down the central portion. If the pieces are cut a few inches longer than requisite the rods can be cut away instead of untacking the canvas. Panelling and Borders. Panelling and borders must be set out in pencil on the wall prior to hanging ; borders should not be hung on the face of the filling paper, but a space should be left for them. If the border is set out with a soft black lead pencil, when the filling is hung the line of setting out will transfer itself to the pasted back of the paper, and no further guide for cutting off the filling to its proper length will be found necessary. To keep borders straight they should be placed in position at both ends, and then by a gentle pressure of the palm of the hand stretched taut before rolling down. Removal of Fittings. All fixtures that can be removed, should be ; as a far neater finish is got than can be obtained by cutting round them. 112 PAINTING AND DECORATING. This particularly refers to bell and gas fittings, shelf brackets, and picture hooks. Care must also be taken to wash down all fixtures such as marble mantels before papering, especially close to the wall where the paper will finish against, as this cannot be properly done after the paper is hung. Accidental soils or stains upon a new paper can best be removed by the use of clean cold water and a corner of sponge ; to touch up the spot some of the same colour should be worked up with water from an odd piece of the same paper and applied with a camel-hair brush. Sanitary papers can be sponged freely without injury. Flock and satin or mica papers should on no account be brushed, as they will show every mark ; the roller is far safer to use. Plain grounded papers also show any undue use of the brush, especially when hung at a diagonal angle with the light, as on a staircase. The roller will leave no trace if properly used and not allowed to catch or drag. Take care that the paper is pressed well into the angles of the wall, or it will shrink and draw across the angles. Stamped or embossed papers require to be hung quickly without much soaking, or the em- bossed pattern will work out and the paper match badly. If a paper is found to be a bad matching paper, it is well to see that it is accurately matched at about the level of the eye, as any slight mismatch near ceiling or floor will be less observable. Before cutting up the lengths of paper, look over the rolls and see that they are all of one tint, as slight differences due to the time of printing are sometimes apparent. If so, they must be sorted up ; those of one tint kept for the light side of the room, and those of the other for the dark or shadow side, then the difference will not be noticed unless it is very great. All paint work must be dry before papering, and all the edges that come in contact with the paper must be finished. The parts that do not touch the paper can be finally coated after the paper is hung. Hanging Relief Materials. The various relief decorations are hung in a similar way to paper, except that they require trimming on a piece of glass or on a sheet of zinc, with a steel straight-edge and knife. They will require a close, even, butt joint. Glue Paste : Paste for Anaglypta. Glue paste is used. It is made in the following manner : To half a bucket of paste made in the ordinary way, add, while the paste is hot, 1 Ib. of strong glue; ^ Ib. Venice turpentine may be added instead of the glue, or a |-lb. packet of concentrated size may be stirred in while the paste is very hot. HANGING PAPER. 113 The manufacturers of these goods all supply special instructions for fixing their own Materials. Careful planning is necessary, and good setting out before cutting up the material, so as to avoid waste. Anaglypta requires soaking with paste before hanging. Thin paste is applied freely to the back of the material, and it is set aside until it becomes pliable. Cordelova does not require much soaking, neither does Tyne- castle tapestry or vellum. For Japanese leathers, the glue paste may be half the strength, and for Lincrusta Walton it must be fully strong. If Lincrusta is hard it may be placed in a warm place to soften. None of these materials may be rolled, or the relief will be damaged. Hollow-backed materials, like Cordelova or Anaglypta, may be strengthened by using paste mixed with plaster of Paris to fill up the recesses before putting on the wall. It can be applied with a palette knife. Dirt or paste can easily be washed off any of these with soap and water. Lincrusta may be cleaned with turps. Cordelova and Tynecastle vellum are lightest in weight and best for ceiling work. Anaglypta and Lincrusta both stand wear well. Some notes on the selection of pattern will be found in a later chapter. Shrinking. The trouble experienced in papering upon a painted wall has been now met by the introduction of a material which is better than ordinary clairecolle as a preparation before papering. It is known as klingcona, and appears to be a vege- table glue modified in some special manner so as to be more stable and less gelatinous than ordinary glue. It is made by the manufacturers of Fabrikona, and was brought out to meet the objectionable crawling and shrinking that followed the use of Fabrikona over paint or varnish. The Ridgley Hand Trimmer is a useful plane-like instru- ment that is made to run along a metal straight-edge. It trims paper cleanly, whether wet or dry, and is of great assistance in trimming lengths, panels, &c., which the larger machine will not do so well. In place of using the scissors for cutting the wet paper round casings, upon skirtings, cornices, &c., the use of roller cutters is now becoming general. They have long been in common use in America. The illustrations fully explain themselves. 8 114 PAINTING AND DECORATING. " Ideal" Casing Knife. With these knives the paper can be trimmed on the wall while wet. "Standard" Wheel Knife for Angle Cutting. Convenient to use with any straight-edge, as the hand is held clear. Paperhanger's Knife for Cutting on the Board. Fig. 51c. American Paperhangers' Knives. 115 CHAPTER VIII. is a belief fostered by those out- side the painting trade that if the colour is only mixed ready for use by a practical man, it is easy enough to make a practical job. Although this is far from being a correct view, it is nevertheless perfectly true that unless the colour is properly mixed no man can make a practical job with it. The mixing of paints can rarely be made the subject of definite recipes, each particular case of ground, finishing, and intermediate colour must be governed by the particular cir- cumstances of its own case, and more harm is done by cut and dried instructions on this point than good. The bon mot attri- buted to Opie that colour must be mixed "with brains," contains all that can be said on the subject without fear of contradiction. 116 PAINTING AND DECORATING. In order to give an idea of the methods adapted for particular purposes, it will be necessary to give a few formulae, but they must be taken to apply strictly to the conditions associated with them here ; it is of great importance that all the conditions of the work in hand should be carefully considered before adopting any of them. The compounds will first be dealt with irrespective of tints, colours, or grounds, it being inferred that they arfe required for a good average surface of a kind usually treated with the material or pigment under consideration. Mixing Clairecolle. Clairecolle, or size preparation for under- coating for distempering, is made in the same manner as the distemper itself, next described, but the proportions of the ingredients are different. To make 2 gallons, take 1 Ib. of good glue, or 4 Ibs. of patent size, jelly form, or 1 Ib. of concen- trated powder size; dissolve it in enough water to make 7 quarts; and add 1 Ibs. of whiting soaked in a quart of water. When alum is added the quantity will be 1 ounce of powdered alum. Mixing Distemper. Distemper, also called whitewash, and size colouring. Take two clean buckets, and put into the first some good whiting broken into lumps not larger than walnuts. Pour upon it, without agitation, clear cold water more than enough to cover it ; allow it to stand awhile until thoroughly soaked ; then pour off the water carefully, and stir with a stick or bat to ensure that it is quite soaked through, and to break it up. It should now be of the consistency of very soft clay, batter, or mud viz., it should be just possible to stir it with the exertion of some force. Now warm some jelly size, about half as much in bulk as you have of the batter, and of a strength that would, when cold, turn out of a mould and keep its shape viz., the strength of an ordinary table jelly as served up. The size must not be boiling hot. Slowly pour this, part at a time, into the batter, stirring the while, until it is all in. This will reduce the batter to the consistency of cream. Stir it thoroughly, and strain, while hot, through a distemper strainer, or a piece of coarse muslin, cheese or butter cloth, into the clean bucket. Cover it up and set aside to get cold. When cold it is ready for use and should present the consistence of thick clotted cream. Before use beat it up, as the whiting has a tendency to settle while cooling, and the size to rise to the top. This may be over- come by an occasional stir whilst cooling, which will also prevent skin or scum arising. The tinting colours may be added either before or after the size, but before straining. They should be COLOUR MIXING. 117 wetted up to the same consistency as the whiting, and, prefer- ably, added prior to the size. The quantity of size to whiting depends upon the exact amount of water in the whiting, which in apparently dry whiting, varies considerably. If the method of proportioning given above is closely followed, any little excess or deficit of water is corrected by the amount of size added. If the proportions are governed by the consistence at various stages a lot of needless weighing and measuring is also avoided, and the results are more uniform and workable. Too little size fails to bind the pigment, and when dry it will rub off on the hands and clothes. Too much size will cause the distemper, when dry and heated, to flake, crack, and curl off. Many writers advocate the use of the hands for mixing distemper. The custom has the sanction of age and prejudice, but after mature consideration it must be condemned as an unnecessary and uncleanly habit. To thoroughly mix distemper having an excess of staining matter in it, pass it twice, or even thrice, through a wire-gauze strainer. A distemper strainer may be quickly made by crossing the ends of four pieces of wood and nailing them together like an Oxford frame, and tacking a piece of canvas over it so as to hang down a little in the centre like a shallow bag. Some workers prefer when mixing distemper to use the size in a cold i.e., jelly form. The main difference in effect is, that there is not such an intimate commingling of the ingredients, and, consequently, the mixed distemper slips over the work more easily, the particles of size acting as lubricators. The finished work done in this way can never look so fine and solid as when a thorough intermingling of the size and the pigment has taken place. Distemper mixed with chilled size is, however, useful on a hot or porous ceiling, or one that has been previously coated. Alum is sometimes added to distemper. This has a solvent action on the size, and reduces it to a liquid state, so that if it is added to cold size distemper, it produces the same result as if the distemper had been made from liquid size, and had failed to " chill." The action of alum upon certain pigments is bad, and its use in distemper is not recommended unless under special condition?. For deep colours it is merely necessary to substitute a pig- ment, as ochre, Venetian red, kc., for either the whole or a part of the whiting. If the pigment is a fine powder colour it will not require soaking, it only needs mixing on a slab or the paint stone, to the same consistence as described for the whiting by the addition of cold water. Never add dry colour to dis- 118 PAINTING AND DECORATING. temper, even in small quantities, without well rubbing it up in water, or the particles will be sure to work up in streaks when laying on. The addition, to distemper of various matters for special conditions of work will be found treated of in the chapter upon distempering. Distemper should not be strained through an excessively fine strainer, as the particles of whiting which give body, luminosity and purity of tint are not so small as to pass through a very fine one, unless the whiting used is of an exceptionally finely-ground quality. Mixing Paint. Paint in light tints for general use, from a white-lead base are recommended to he prepared as follows : Take two clean cans, kettles or pots, into one put a little linseed oil, and whirl it round to oil the sides of the can and prevent the white lead sticking to it. Add enough white lead for the work in hand. With a bat or flattened stick or spatula, stir into this enough raw linseed oil to make a smooth, raw paste, add patent driers about one-twentieth in bulk of the paste-lead, and mix well in ; continue to add oil until the stick will not stand upright in the centre of the paint without carefully balancing. Then add any staining colours (colours ground in oil) that are required. If a large quantity is added, of course additional driers will be requisite also. Thin with turpentine, to a thick, creamy consistency, and strain through a fine wire gauze or a piece of muslin into the other clean can. It may here be noted that for all general purposes metal gauze strainers are better than any other, because they break up the paint and separate the particles as it passes through. A little oil or turps as desired will be added to the colour when ready for use. In the foregoing directions, weighed proportions are purposely avoided, as so much difference exists in the consistency and weight for bulk of the materials used, and when the proportions are made to appear interdependent on bulk and consistency these differences correct themselves in the working out. Contradictory as it may seem, the old-fashioned rule-of-thumb methods in this way become very reliable, even more so than scientific measurement and weight ; as all scientific calculations must be based on exact and similar conditions ; which are not met with in the ordinary commercial materials used by the painter. For mixing a small quantity of this class of colour, the white lead should be put out upon the paint stone and worked up with the palette knives to the same consistency, and by the same rules. It may be strained directly from the stone. In mixing COLOUR MIXING. llg, colours on the paint stone far greater command is obtained over them, and a more thorough commingling of the different in- gredients is possible ; moreover, when matching tints, the advantage of having the whole bulk of colour spread out on view is considerable. Zinc white paint for general purposes and Charlton white are mixed in the same manner; but as they will absorb more thinners they will require more driers, and must be thinned with a mix- ture of two- thirds linseed oil and one-third turpentine where oil alone is specified for the white lead paint. Zinc or powder driers should be used instead of the patent driers. This is pre- ferable, though not essential. If white lead in bulk is very unusually thin and oily, the oil may in part be abstracted from it by thinning it with turpentine and allowing it to stand. The oil will rise to the top and may be poured off. For mixing colours in the keg or bucket, or in cans or pots, sticks or spatulas may be made and kept. A flat stick, smooth and rounded at the handle end into a bat shape, of hard, tough wood, ranging from inch by 1 inch to 1 inches by 3 inches, and about double the depth of the receptacle they are to be used in, will be what is required. The following recipes are for paint, irrespective of tint or colour, and are recommended for special purposes. They must be mixed by the methods previously described, and will be found to provide for most sets of circumstances. Their adoption for particular work must be governed by proper and careful con- sideration of the exact conditions of work and requirements in each individual case. The differences are mostly in the proportion of oils and driers used. All weights and measures are approximate, and a little variation in the substance and quality of the raw material used will sometimes be found to upset the exact proportions given, which must be adopted with reason and common sense, and checked by the consistency described as necessary in the first method of mixing given. As a general rule, the turpentine should be added last as it rapidly evaporates, and its legitimate effect upon the paint is thus lost. When possible, it should be added immediately before use. Effects of Oils and Turps in Mixing Paint. Many working painters have a lazy habit of throwing in the turps first, because it saves time in beating up the white lead i.e., it dissolves the paste. It should be borne in mind that the action of oil and turpentine as thinnings differs, not only in the drying result, 120 PAINTING AND DECORATING. but also in the immediate result, and that in a somewhat peculiar and irregular manner. As oil is added to colour, it changes into a soft, butter-like consistency at first, and then gradually becomes more and more liquid, soft and silky in work- ing. The flow or spreading capacity is increased exactly in pro- portion to the oil added. If turps be added at various stages it will have different effects at different stages. When added to stiff colour it does not appear at first to thin the colour as oil would do; but acting upon the oil, it produces a paste hardly less stiff, though lighter in weight than before. When the quantity of turps added is increased gradually, the mass becomes puffy and appears aerated, intractable, and loses spreading capacity as the turps is still added. At a certain stage it will suddenly become limpid, and thins more rapidly than would be expected from the quantity of turps put in. If the colour is thinned to a creamy consistency with oil before any turps is added, and turps be then added, the thinning effect at once asserts itself. If the turps be added first, and the oil later, a slight tendency to floc- culence is noticeable in the colour, and it works less tractably than if the oil had been first added, until it has stood for a couple of days, by which time a more complete conglomeration appears to have taken place. Proportion Table for Paints. Paints for Various Purposes. Priming on new deal or pine. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, 7 ounces. Raw linseed oil, 11 ounces. Turpentine, 7 ounces. Another priming. White lead, 7 Ibs. Yellow ochre in oil, 1 Ib. Patent driers, f Ib. Linseed oil (raw), pint. Turpentine, \ pint. Priming for indoors to be finished in white. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, 4 ounces. Patent driers, 4 ounces. Linseed oil (raw), 8 ounces. Turpentine, 9 ounces. PLATE ll.-RANELS DESIGNED FOR MONOCHROME PAINTING, To face p. 120.] COLOUR MIXING. 121 Priming for outside, dark finish (old recipe). White lead, 7 Ibs. Black lead, 1 Ib. Patent driers, J Ib. Boiled linseed oil, 10 ounces. Turpentine, 7 ounces. Another (modern ditto). White lead, 7 Ibs. Lamp black in turps, 4 Ib. Patent driers, f Ib. Boiled linseed oil, f pint. Turpentine, pint. Priming on oak or other hard wood, and on work which has been stripped of former paint by burning with lamp or charcoal brazier. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, } Ib. Patent driers, 4 Ib. Linseed oil, 7 ounces. Turpentine 12 ounces. Priming on work that has been pickled off with alkali and treated with acid. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, 4 Ibs. Linseed oil, 6 ounces. Turpentine, 16 ounces. Second coat colour for inside new wood-work, or as first coat on old work that is in good condition, or third coat if to be finished in oil. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, 2 ounces to 6 ounces, according to the required depth of finishing colour. Driers, Ib., regulated by amount of red lead. Linseed oil, 8 ounces. Turpentine, 9 ounces. Second coat for outdoor wood-work. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, Ib. Patent driers, 5 ounces. Boiled oil, 9 ounces. Turpentine, 5 ounces. First coat for new plastered walls. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, 2 Ibs. Patent driers, 4 Ib. Raw linseed oil, 1 pint. Turpentine, 1 pint. 122 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Second coat on same. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, Ib. Raw linseed oil, f pint. Turpentine, | pint. Oil coat on walls prior to flatting. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, J Ib. Kaw linseed oil, 14 ounces. Turpentine, 2 ounces. Ground colour for graining upon in oil, outside work. White lead, 7 Ibs. Stainers, ^ Ib. Patent driers, 6 ounces. Boiled linseed oil, 8 ounces. Turpentine, 5 ounces. If raw oil be substituted for boiled oil, as some prefer, increase the patent driers to 9 ounces. Ground colour for graining upon in oil on inside work. White lead, 7 Ibs. Stainers, Ib. Patent driers, 4 Ib. Raw linseed oil, 7 ounces. Turpentine, 6 ounces. Ground colour for graining upon in water colour or for crayon marbling, outside work. White lead and stainers, 7 Ibs. Terebine or liquid driers, 3 ounces. Raw linseed oil, 5 ounces. Turpentine, 7 ounces. Ground colour for water graining, inside work. White lead and stainers, 7 Ibs. Terebine, 4 ounces. Raw linseed oil, 4 ounces. Turpentine, 8 ounces. Flatting for interior walls. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, i Ib. Turpentine 14 ounces. First coat on new compo, outside work. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, 7 Ibs. Boiled oil, 30 ounces. Turpentine, 7 ounces. COLOUR MIXING. 123 Second and third coat on same, and also for first coat on pre- viously painted outside walls. White lead, 7 Ibs. Red lead, f Ib. Patent driers, f Ib. Boiled oil, 10 ounces. Turpentine, 6 ounces. Finishing coat for outside oil colour work or compo, stone, iron, &c. White lead, 7 Ibs. Driers, 2 ounces. Boiled linseed oil, 13 ounces. Turpentine, 3 ounces. Finishing coat for outside wood-work in plain colours, glossy finish. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, 3 ounces. Boiled linseed oil, 12 ounces. Turpentine, 4 ounces. The last two are greatly improved by the use of a pint of good outside oak varnish in lieu of half the boiled oil and turpentine. Colour for last coat before flatting wood-work. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, 4 Ib. Raw linseed oil, 13 ounces. Turpentine, 3 ounces. Flatting colour for walls. White lead, 7 Ibs. Patent driers, 2 ounces. Turpentine, 1 pint. Raw linseed oil, 1 ounce. Bastard flatting egg shell, glass, flat finish. White lead, 7 Ibs. Japanners' gold size, 2 ounces. Turpentine, 12 ounces. Pale copal varnish, 2 ounces. Boiled linseed oil, 1 ounce. Note that a given quantity of turpentine will make a given quantity of white lead thinner than the same quantity of oil will do. Drying Action of Paints. The whole of the foregoing recipes are based on the assumption that paste white lead is used, ground in good linseed oil that is, in oil which is neither unduly old nor too new. The circumstances under which boiled oil is used should be specially noted. Boiled oil should be used for most outside work, as it stands the weather better 124 PAINTING AND DECORATING. than raw linseed, retaining its gloss for a more lengthened period. It should also be used for such colours as are bad driers, or are too dark to stand the addition of a white drier without loss of purity of hue, though for this latter purpose terebine and liquid driers may be used. The boiling of the oil has increased its body and altered its structure to such an extent as to make it more elastic ; that is to say, that while its drying has been hastened by the addition of manganese, the thickening that has also taken place, prevents its reaching so extreme a point of hardness after it has taken up a certain amount of oxygen as the raw linseed oil which goes on oxygenising for an indefinite period. The addition of oxides and other agents for the purpose of increasing its drying powers, are productive of acidity in the oil, and detrimental to its protective power, its gloss, and its per- manency. An excess of driers added to oil paint is, therefore, extremely detrimental. It causes the drying to take place in an unnaturally hasty manner, so that the outer surface of the paint is rendered impervious to the air before the paint under- neath has taken up sufficient oxygen to harden it. This partially sealed-up paint never properly hardens afterwards. Action of Raw Oil versus Boiled Oil. Boiled oil is the proper oil to use in all cases where japanners' gold size is used as a drier, or where liquid driers, varnishes, or other forms of " cooked oils " are also used. There cannot be a proper intimate commixture between raw oil, and any form of cooked oil, without the intervention of heat, especially in cold weather. Turpentine, on account of its solvent power and penetration, will combine with these oils and varnishes without the use of artificial heat. In drying, the commercial boiled oil has a tendency to darken rapidly ; indeed, exposure to the air or light will darken the oil itself Raw linseed oil, on the contrary, will bleach when exposed to light ; hence its great value for pale tints of colour. The better quality of boiled oil, which has been boiled without the addition of drying agents, has not this fault to the same degree, but it is not wise to use it for whites. Protective Agency in Paint. It must be borne in mind that in the mixing of all paints the dry pigment must be regarded as mere colouring matter and body. In only a few cases has it any real protective power, and this principally in the staple white lead and its relatives. That the protective powers of even white or red lead only comes into operation when mixed with an oil, and saponification is produced, must also be well remembered. It is the effect of the oil upon the pigment that COLOUR MIXING. 125 makes the oil into a protective skin or shell. A volatile oil, without much residue, combined with a pigment does not act in this manner. Volatile oils, such as turpentine, are only used to dilute the paint in order that it may be conveniently spread. They will not even bind the particles together, or prevent their rubbing off at a touch as soon as they have evaporated. Linseed oil (either raw or boiled, or in some compound form) or some other oil of the same class is, therefore, a necessity for all paint in sufficient proportion to form a skin or mass, and to bind the particles cohesively together. General Hints on Paint Mixing. On no account must dry colour in powder be thrown into the can and stirred into the oil. It will have little value as a paint when thus served. Always mix colour either ground in oil or in turpentine. If the colour be in powder form, and is a very impalpable powder, it may be rubbed up on the paint slab with a palette knife before being put into the can. When dry colour is not properly mixed before use, the particles will continue to absorb the oil after the paint is spread, resulting in a dead and unequal surface, besides in some cases working up stronger and streakily when the work is in progress. In mixing a number of tints for the same job, prepare or thin down, or partially thin down enough white for the whole job prior to making the separate tints. It is helpful to the colourist to tone this mass of white to the palest tint he is using, so that unity and harmony may run through the whole of the tints used. In a room where yellows and reds predominate, a pale cream may be used as the base colour for making all tints from, and in a green room the white may be toned a pale green tint, in a blue room a pale blue tint, &c. In making the various colours for a room it is always advisable to, as far as possible, restrict oneself to the use of one yellow, one red, and one blue. This also contributes to the unity of the colouring as a whole. Colours Recommended for Tinting and Staining Paints. The colours used for tinting should be the cheap staple colours, as ochres, earth reds, Prussian or common ultramarine blue unless it is quite impossible to produce the required colours from them. This is not recommended for economical reasons only, but because such tints are more pleasing and, generally, more harmonious. Avoid the use of such colours as browns or blacks for lowering the tones of brighter colours. Colours should be toned by the addition of their complementaries. Thus to lower the tone of a yellow, add blue and red. To lower a blue, add red and yellow, and to lower a red, add blue and 126 PAINTING AND DECORATING. yellow. By doing so purity and luminosity are retained, and only the hue is affected. The addition of Umbers, &c., lowers the standard of purity in a greater degree than it affects the hue. Opaque and Transparent Pigments. Colours are divided into two great classes, those that are opaque and those that are transparent, or more properly speaking, translucent. Some colours are neither the one nor the other, but come midway between them. An opaque colour may be described as a colour that has body; that appears about the same colour when mixed with oil as it does when dry ; and that has the same appearance whether laid on thickly or thinly. A transparent colour has no body or covering power, is deepened considerably by the addition of oil, and looks paler the more thinly it is painted over a light ground. Semi-transparent colours are those that come between the two classes, as terra vert, emerald green, &c. All are used for tinting, but the addition of a very large proportion of transparent stainers lessens the covering power of the paint. In graining, marbling, &c., where the ground colour is required to show through the top coat to a more or less degree, transparent colours are indispensable. Matching Colour in Paint. In making and matching tints the colour to be matched should always be examined separately from its surroundings, which alter its appearance. This may be done by placing a piece of white paper having a hole in it, over the colour to be matched, and examining the colour through the hole. To obtain pure blue, both yellow and red must be absent ; the addition of one of them will still produce a pure colour, though not a pure blue; while the addition of a third lowers the scale of hue and causes it to approach neutrality. To obtain pure red, yellow and blue must be absent, and to obtain pure yellow, blue and red must be absent. All greys, drabs, and browns contain the three elements of yellow, red, and blue in varying degrees of combination, and black, which is the border line between deepest grey and deepest brown, is the result of a neutralising combination of these three colours in such propor- tion that each kills the effect of each. Ideally these proportions are yellow 3, red 5, blue 8. Grey may be said to be black with some yellow taken from it. Drab is black with some red taken from it. Brown is black with some blue taken from it. The addition of a white or black pigment to coloured pigments always adds to their bluishness. In the case of reds they look COLOUR MIXING. 127 more purple, in the case of yellows they appear greener, and in the case of blues they appear bluer. In matching a colour first take its base, then its most pro- minent component, and gradually add its toning or lowering elements as the case may be. For instance, in matching a fawn colour, take white and thin it to a workable consistency ; then add ochre or Sienna, and afterwards the burnt Sienna or red ochre ; last of all secure the precise match by a touch of blue or red as may be necessary. Important Rules for Matching Colours. Remember that a colour may always be made to appear brighter than it is, by the presence of its opposite or complementary colour. If matching a poppy, leaf and flower, the amateur colourist will probably make the red too pure a scarlet, and the green too crude a green, and will find a touch of brown to the red, and of grey to the green, necessary when he comes to compare them with nature. The effect of adding a given quantity of a colour to a tint of its own family, and to a tint of another class, varies considerably. This must be constantly kept in mind when matching. Thus it will be found that the slightest possible touch of red, added to a blue or green tint, will totally change it ; whilst the same quantity of the same red, added to pink or warm yellow, would hardly effect a noticeable change at all. There are a number of facts relating to colour which it is important for the colour mixer to be acquainted with, embodied in the chapter upon " Colour in decoration," but the points noted here are absolutely essential to the painter, and are based upon the practical results that accrue in the mixing of ordinary painters' pigments. Mixed Tints and Colours. To assist in the identification of certain colours and shades, and in the recognition of their components, the following list of mixed tints are given as suggestions. They are equally applicable to oil or distemper, subject to conformity with the lists of colours specified for use in oil only, and water only, respectively. Colours which may not be used in oil : Lime blue. Damp lake. Sepia. Bremen blue. Lime greens. Dutch pink. Gamboge. Zinc chromes. Blue verditer. Rose pink. Vandyke brown, crimson lake, Dutch pink, and indigo may used as glazes. They are bad driers and fugitive, 128 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Colours which may not be used in distemper: White lead. Red lead. Lead chromes. Prussian blue. Antwerp blue. Bitumen. Prussian brown. Brown lake. Vegetable greens. Vegetable lakes. Common vermilionette. I Naples yellow. Prussian white and madder lakes, Antwerp blue and Prussian brown, may be used in water colour as glazes, and afterwards varnished or sized, but not with or upon lime. In mixing different pigments together, some are absolutely safe to exert no bad influence on others; some are liable to change others slightly if they are not pure and well made ; and yet others are destructive of each other. The following lists, though incomplete and unscientific in compilation, will be found to be just what are required by the colour mixer to enable him to select those pigments which will lead to the best results, and to use the safest combinations. In the advanced state of chemical science, a variety of causes, such as uncertainty of origin, varied processes of manufacture, and special diluents, may upset the result as tabulated ; so that they must not be regarded as absolute. Colours that usually combine well with each other : Zinc white. Venetian red. Cobalt. Indian red. Raw Sienna. Yellow ochre. Raw Umber. Burnt Umber. Burnt Sienna. Chrome green (oxide). White lead. Whiting. Cadmium. Common ultramarine. Vermilion. All blacks. Malachite green. French blue. Of these the cadmiums, vermilion, and common ultramarine sometimes act prejudicially on the lead and whiting, and inva- riably hasten the discolouration of white lead owing to the action of the sulphur. Colours containing sulphur should be lightened by the addition of zinc white. The greens, reds, and blues derived from aniline sources are safe with any of the above colours. Colours that are destructive of each other and ought on no iccount to be mixed together : Cadmium yellows and emerald green. White lead and vegetable lakes. Aureolin and indigo. Emerald green ana ultramarine COLOUR MIXING. 129 List of Composite Tints. PRINCIPAL INGREDIENTS GIVEN FIRST, REMAINDER IN ROTATION. Pompeian red, . Pompeian yellow, black, blue, Flesh tints, Fawn colour, . Buff, Wallflower brown, . Poppy red, Red for walls, termed terra cottas, . Bright red, Salmon for walls, Brighter, .... Colour for walls between salmon and fawn, . Chestnut brown, Daep chestnut brown, Vandyke red, . Bay brown, Brick reds, Chocolate, Leather brown, Light ,, Woody brown, . Brown, Pink, brightest, Vermilion and Italian ochre ; or, vermilion, chrome, and a touch of ultramarine. Italian ochre and white, toned with a touch of ultramarine and vermilion. Ochre, vermilion, and ultramarine. White, ultramarine, a touch of vermilion and Italian ochre. ,, and burnt Sienna. ,, vermilion, and ochre. ,, ochre, and lake. Naples yellow, and a little vermilion and lake. White, burnt Sienna and ochre. ,, raw Sienna, raw Umber, Venetian red. ,. ochre, Venetian red, a little Umber. Chrome yellow and brown lake. Orange, vermilion, carmine, and brown lake. Alizarine scarlet and Indian yellow. Venetian red and ochre, or ,, ,, chrome and white, or ,, ,, and chrome. ,, ,, and orange vermilion. White, Venetian red, and chrome. ,, vermilion and ochre. ,, ochre, chrome, and lake. Burnt Sienna, ochre, and chrome. ,, ,, and Vandyke brown. Vermilion and Vandyke brown and lake. Brown madder, ,, ,, and vermilion. Burnt ochre. Red ochre. Yellow ochre and Indian red. Venetian red. Burnt Sienna, vermilion, ultramarine, and lake. ,, ,, Indian red, and black. Venetian red and black. Ochre and brown lake, white. ,, burnt Umber, burnt Sienna, and white. Orange chrome, raw Umber, and white. Venetian red and Prussian blue, and burnt Sienna. Red lead and Indian red, Vandyke brown. Burnt Umber and orange chrome. Vermilion and Vandyke. Burnt Sienna and black, and vermilion. Indian red and mid chrome. Rose madder and white. 130 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Pink for walls, A good cold black, . ,, warm Pearl grey, . . Cool grey, Fine pearly grey for walls, Useful ,, ,, Cold grey, Warm Warmer Bright French grey, . Useful distemper grey, Sky blue, . Sandstone (red), (yei.)- Pea green, Willow green, . Slate green, Seaweed green, Sea green, Grass green, Spring green, . Ivy green, Distemper green, Duck's egg green, Apple green, Tea green, Grey green, Bronze green, . Olive greens, Tints of olive green, Sap green, Sage green, Blue sage, . Primrose green, yellow, Daffodil, Cream tints, . Drab, Mansfield stone, Straw colour, . Hyacinthine blue, White, vermilion. ,, Venetian red. ,, orange chrome and lake. Ochre, emerald green, and ivory black. Ivory black, Indian red, Venetian red. White, Prussian blue, and lake. White, Prussian blue, and lamp black emerald green and vermilion. cobalt and Venetian red. and blue black. Venetian red, Vandyke brown, lake and Vandyke brown. ,, ultramarine. lime blue, damp lake, blue black. Bremen blue in water, cobalt in oil. red ochre and brown ochre, yellow ochre. , pale Brunswick green. Ochre and indigo, White, burnt Sienna and black. ,, chrome, yellow lake and indigo. ,, mid chrome and Vandyke brown. ,, cobalt and raw Sienna. ,, ochre and cobalt. ,, mid chrome and black. Yellow ochre, burnt Sienna, ultramarine. Chrome, burnt Sienna, and Prussian blue. Whiting, Dutch pink, and lime blue. raw Sienna, and blue black. White, Prussian blue, lemon chrome. ,, ,, cadmium yellow. ,, ,, burnt Sienna and chrome. ,, terra vert. Deep chrome and black. Ochre and French ultramarine. Mid chrome and black. ,, ,, and burnt Sienna. Add white and pale chrome. White, raw Sienna, Prussian blue, burnt Sienna. black, and burnt Oxford ochre. ,, ,, Prussian blue, and burnt Oxford ochre. ,, lemon yellow, Prussian blue. ,, pale chrome. ,, pale cadmium or chrome, Venetian red. mid chrome, a little vermilion. Umber and ochre and Indian red. Umber and Venetian red. pale chrome and raw Umber, ultramarine and rose madder. COLOUR MIXING. 131 Apricot, . Peach, Orange yellow, Old gold, . A better old gold, Pale golden yellow, Turquoise blue, Metallic blue, . Peacock blue, . Neutral blue, . Grey old blue, . China blue, Moonlight blue, Sea blue, . Deep sea blue (intense), Slate, ' . Warm grey slate, Lilac, Lavender, . Silver grey, Steel grey, White, mid chrome and vermilion, and a touch of lake. ,, deep chrome and carmine. Cadmium orange, or orange chrome and burnt Sienna. Ochre and burnt Sienna. Mid chrome, vermilion, burnt Sienna, cobalt. Italian ochre and white. White, cobalt, and emerald green. Cobalt and emerald green. Ultramarine, white and emerald green. White, Prussian blue and burnt Umber. ,, ,, ,, ,, Sienna. Indigo and cobalt, raw Sienna and white. Cobalt and white, with Vandyke brown Cobalt, lake, indigo, white and yellow ochre. Indigo and cobalt, brown madder, and white. Wl ite and blue black. , , , , lake or Venetian red. Prussian blue, and lake, vermilion, and Prussian blue, black, and indigo. cobalt, blue black, and Vandyke brown. The foregoing list might be indefinitely extended, but will be found to comprise a large number of the most generally required tints and shades. Most of the colours may, of course, be com- pounded of other than the pigments named. The following additional hints are given for general guidance : Bright reds and blacks make rusty browns, but rich browns are obtained by mixing two low-toned reds or a red and brown. Bright greens are made by using pure blues and yellows ; dull greens, by yellows and purples or orange and blues. Bright orange tones are made by mixing pure yellows and pure reds ; dull Orange by yellow greens, and red, or by brownish reds and yellow. Quantity of Paint to Cover given Area. It is important that the colour mixer should know the quantity of paint re- quired to cover a given area. This will be found to vary considerably with the texture of the surface to be covered and its power of absorption, and equally so with different classes of pigments and paints. The writer has proved by practical experience that the following mixture covers 40 square yards of previously painted wall, there being practically no absorption : 7 Ibs. white lead. 10 ozs. patent driers. 1 pint linseed oil. J pint turpentine. 132 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Also, that 64 square yards of the same wall were covered by the following mixture : 7 Ibs. Charlton white (zinc and baryta). 2 pints linseed oil. \ pint turpentine. Ib. patent driers. It will be noted that both paints when mixed and strained were of the same consistency the difference in. the bulk of the lighter pigment accounting for the difference in the thinning required. Further it was tested that the following mixture would cover 30 square yards of a new plaster wall not previously painted, prepared, or papered : 7 Ibs. white lead. 12 o/s. drier. 1$ pints linseed oil. 4 pint turpentine. From these data the approximate quantity required for any particular work can be ascertained. This chapter would be incomplete without some allusion to the composition of stopping. Stopping. Putty is prepared by beating together the in- gredients upon a stone slab or hard-wood table with a mallet or pounder. In well-ordered shops a stout wood club is kept for the purpose, square at the end and gradually rounded off into a handle i.e., like an Indian club, but square sided. If the paint stone is a thick one it answers the purpose of making the stopping on ; but if it is thin, a paving stone or stout block of teak will do. The dry ingredients are powdered, sifted, and mixed together with the knife till they reach the consistency of clay ; then more powdered material is added and gradually beaten into the mass with the club till stiff enough for use; the degree of stiff- ness depends on the work for which it is required. Ordinary putty is made of dry whiting and raw linseed oil. Hard putty is made of equal parts of dry white lead and whiting with a little litharge and linseed oil. Hard stopping is made from paste white lead, dry white lead, and japanners' gold size, or hard drying varnish. Extra hard stopping may be of dry white lead and litharge in equal parts beaten up with japanners' gold size and boiled oil. The addition of varnish or japanners' gold size tends to make the stopping work coarsely and stickily, and when no special hurry is necessary, ordinary hard putty is preferable. Litharge or red lead will hasten the hardening of putty. COLOUR MIXING. 133 Complete List of Distemper Stainers. The following list is recommended as affording a complete palette for tinting dis- temper for every class of work, including paper staining and the matching of wall paper tints : Blue black. Damp lakes. Pulp azure blue. Carnation paste. Bremen blue. Pulp azure lake. Lime blue, various tints. ,, magenta lake. Pulp raw Sienna. ,, maroon lake. burnt Sienna. ,, mauve lake. raw Umber. French ochre. burnt Umber. Italian ochre. Vandyke brown. Dutch pink. African green. Rose pink. lime greens. Venetian red. Olympian green. Imperial yellow. mineral greens. Pulp chromes. Media for Decorative Painting in Distemper. For highly executed decorative work, such as flower and fruit painting in distemper, a good medium is composed of stale eggs well beaten up in vinegar and diluted with water, as it does not "jelly" as size does, and remains open a long time. A London recipe for distemper, to be made in the manner previously described, has the following proportions which may commend themselves to Metropolitan painters : 4 "balls" whiting. 2 Ibs. Young's patent size, and sufficient water to cover the whiting. A Scotch distemper is described as : 12 Ibs. whiting ; size, as given previously. 2 ozs. alum ; 2 ozs. soft soap. It is very fast, for passages, schools, &c. Tinting colours for lime wash should be restricted to ochres, Umbers, lime blue, lime greens, charcoal or lamp black, and earthy reds (as Venetian). External lime wash for farm buildings, &c., may be made as follows : Lime, bushel, slaked with 1 gallon of milk and remainder of water, 1 Ib. salt and 4 lb. sulphate of zinc to make it withstand the weather. 134 CHAPTER IX. DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OP DISTEMPER. 'iSTEMPER is paint made from pig- ments diluted with water, to which some adhesive substance is added to fix it to the ground on which it is used. The application of distemper is usually limited to plaster, stucco, brick, or stone surfaces, as the atmo- sphere in this country is too humid and changeable to allow of its suc- cessful Tise xipon wood. Advantages. It is the cheapest preparation used by the painter and decorator. It is principally noteworthy for the purity of the tints obtainable and for the rapidity with which it may be worked, both for large surfaces and for decorative details. Though usually relegated to the attics and offices of our houses and to the upper portions of our public buildings, it is by no means incapable of considerable artistic expression, and is a worthy companion and equal in this respect to oil paint. It is the material used by scenic artists and by continental decorators, in whose hands it has DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 135 been shown to be capable of the highest and best results. Most of our wall papers, too, are manufactured in the same medium, its soft and suant surface, its freedom from gloss, and its re- flective power under strong light fitting it admirably for this purpose. Many of the valuable " old masters " in the National Gallery and other picture galleries, indeed all those painted prior to the 15th century, are painted in some kind of distemper medium. Objections. The standard objections to distemper as a decorative medium in this country are the facts that it is readily attacked by damp and cannot be washed. These reasons should not operate against its use in dry buildings nor in situations where it is out of reach, as on friezes, &c. Painted work, unless in situations where it is much handled, seldom or never is washed down in actual practice, although frequently selected because it is washable. Mixing Distemper. To make a successful job in distemper, the colour must be properly mixed so as to bind and not rub off, spread easily, and dry quickly. For particulars, see the chapter on " Colour Mixing." Surfaces for Distemper. The wall should present a good surface for the reception of the material ; not too smooth, but about as rough as a sheet of No. 2 glass paper is the best surface for the medium. It is hardly possible to produce a successful surface on the smooth lime-putty finish of ordinary English plastering. There should be good sharp sand in the finishing coat to give a grip or key for the distemper. A cement finish gives a capital surface for distemper decoration. The surface must be properly prepared, all the old distemper completely washed off, and the absorption made equal over the whole surface by a coat of preparation viz., size or clairecolle. Particular attention must be paid to greasy or smoky walls, or to walls impregnated with stale paste and size. Such matter should be removed by a good washing with water in which a little weak disinfectant has been dissolved and to which a few teaspoonsful of vinegar have been added. There must be no grit or unmixed material in the distemper. It must be put on rapidly and regularly and allowed to dry off quickly with free ventilation. The deeper the tint used, the more important it is that no time be lost in putting on or drying off. Colour Limit of Distemper. There is no colour limit to distemper, any and every tint and shade, from white to black can be successfully used if the right ingredients are properly mixed 136 PAINTING AND DECORATING. and judiciously applied. Any paperhangings pattern-book amply illustrates this fact. Durability of Distemper. If used in a suitable position, distemper is quite as lasting a medium as paint ; indeed, in some respects even more so. It does not discolour witb age or with impure gases in the air ; it will clean and dust down if properly tempered. The ruined houses of Herculaneum and Pompeii and the tombs of Egypt show that distemper has stood the attacks of time for centuries. Cleaning Distemper Work. To clean down distemper work, use a lump of well-leavened dough, dust off the loose dust with a dusting brush and rub lightly in one direction with the ball of dough, kneading the dirt into the centre of the ball after each rub. Dirt does not cling to distemper with the same tenacity that it does to the receptive surface of oil paint ; the lustreless surface has no grip for the floating particles of carbon and other matter. Whitening Ceilings and Walls. Ceilings are frequently distempered in pure white. A crude white made from whiting only is unsatisfactory, it should always be toned either to a warm greyish white, or to a warm creamy white sufficiently to give a distinct tinge. Creamy or ivory tints are most desirable greenish or bluish tints less so. In distempering a ceiling or wall, always work from the light, and lay off as little as possible, and in a variety of directions, always inclining to the direction from which the light comes, so that any edges left may be away from the spectator and facing the light, they will then cast no shadow. The preparation for distemper is that previously described as clairecolle. A new ceiling or wall is first rubbed down with glass paper and all cracks stopped. These may be stopped with a mixture of whiting and plaster of Paris and water. The quantity of each may be gauged to make a stopping of equal porosity to the wall or ceiling. One-half of each will be a fairly good general proportion. It is a bad plan to use size or dis- temper in the stopping, as it causes it to contract when drying. Keen's cement, or Parian cement, or a mixture of lime and sand may be used ; the last takes longer to set than the two former. The principal concern is to use a stopping which, when lird, will present a surface of the same or a similar character to the wall itself, especially in absorbent power. In preparing the crack or hole for stopping, it must be under- cut at the sides to form a dovetail or key, and cracks should be cut out quite half an inch in width to enable the operator to face PLATB 12.-8IMPLE STENCILS ILLUSTRATING IMPORTANCE OF CONTRAST. To face p. 136.] DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 137 the surface up level, as a wall is usually out of plane on the two sides of the crack, and if an attempt is made to stop the crack without cutting it out at all the surface of the stopping will probably present a bevelled edge instead of being in plane with the wall. The broader the crack is cut out the less this will be noticeable. The crack or hole must be soaked or the stopping will not adhere to the dry porous surroundings, which will draw the moisture from the stopping before it has time to set. All loose plaster near the hole must be removed, or the new plaster will pull it away as it sets. The stopping being dry and the surface having been glass papered, the work is ready for clairecolleing. Treatment of Stains in Ceilings. Should there be any damp places or stains, they had better be treated to a coat of paint. Flatting, which has plenty of driers in it, should be used, and it should be of the same tint as the surrounding plaster. Clairecolleing. The whole must then be clairecolled ; ordinary weak jelly size in which a lump of alum as big as a walnut has been dissolved in 2 gallons of the size is a usual pre- paration. This may in ordinary cases have a pint of the finishing distemper added to it. In most cases the alum may safely be left out, but for a hot or porous ceiling its use is a safeguard against the distemper working heavily in the finishing coat. Some painters add a little soap and others add oil, but these substances are foreign to the character of genuine distemper and frequently exert a damaging effect upon the tinting colours used afterwards. In addition they add to the fixative quality of the distemper in an annoying degree, and prevent clean washing off on subse- quent occasions. However good the surface of the plaster is, it is better to prepare it by a coating of clairecolle, as this ensures that the work will be equally non-absorbent, over its whole surface. The surface of even the best of newly plastered work is always, owing to the trowelling, harder in some portions than in others, as the larger particles of lime and sand gather together and the finer parts absorb more water than the coarser. If the space to be covered is a large one it is a good plan to omit the colouring matter and also whiting, to size the ceiling with alum size, and to distemper while it is still damp. This keeps the distemper free and wet on the edges for a much longer time, and allows the necessary pauses for scaffold shifting, without danger of the break joints showing up. In such a case a little less size and more body is used in the distemper to counter- balance that picked up, in the working, from the clairecolle or size. 138 PAINTING AND DECORATING. The use of alum is especially recommended where the dis- temper has been mixed with chilled size, but the preferable practice is to mix distemper with warm size, and to leave the alum out whenever it is unnecessary, as it precipitates chondrin (one of the essential elements and active components in the size) and reduces it to a liquid consistency which often results in bare and shady finish. A very bad wall or ceiling may be hung with lining paper prior to distempering. No preparation or clairecolle will be necessary upon a white lining paper, unless it be upon a very large surface, and then a very weak size may be coated on, to be followed at once with the distemper. Lining paper should not be painted prior to distempering; this stops its power of absorp- tion, and retards the rapid and even drying out of the distemper. In laying on size or clairecolle it should be done evenly, sparely and without unnecessary motion. The same ground must not be covered twice, and it should be done slowly and deliberately to avoid the size frothing and clogging. Laying on Distemper. When putting on the finishing dis- temper it should be laid on boldly, freely, and equally, with a light free sweep of the brush. It does not require crossing or spreading. Each brushful of colour should be expended on its own little space, and left as finished, before taking another dip. Never attempt to use a second coat over ordinary distemper. If unsatisfactory, wash off and recommence. See that the pre- paration of the work has been properly attended to, as on this more than on anything else depends the finished effect ; but when actually laying the finishing coat, go right ahead, put the distemper on and leave it to dry out with confidence in the result. Use the portion of the brush nearest the tips of the bristles, and do not bang the ceiling with the whole side of the brush; an amateur may be recognised at once by the slap, dab, bang, bang motion that he invariably adopts. Lay off quite indiscriminately in all directions, as long as the distribution is equal over the whole surface. The great difference between painting and distempering is that, whereas paint needs spreading on barely, distemper requires laying on fully and freely. Pay particular attention to the stirring of the distemper, as some tinting colours (as blues) will rise to the surface, and others (as reds) will be heavier than the whiting base, and sink to the bottom of the bucket or can. If the distemper has been made with hot size, and stirred while chilling, the necessity for stirring during use will be done away with, as the size will hold the particles in suspension as soon as it becomes a gelatinous mass ; DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 139 but if not, then a stick must be kept at hand for stirring occasionally. Do not stir with the laying-on brush on account of the danger of the brush gathering the particles from the bottom of the bucket, and retaining them until the brush is used, producing streaks of dark colour. The room in which the work is being done must not be overheated, otherwise the jelly of the distemper will assume a watery form, the work will dry off too quickly to allow of care in the working, and the distemper will be liable to trickle after it has been laid on a little freely. Neither should it be damp and cold, as this slackens the drying, allows the distemper to skin in drying, and in minute ways interferes with the production of a good clear luminous surface. A temperature of 56 is a good one, and free circulation of air is desirable. Washing off Old Distemper. In washing off old distemper, use clear water; and when the walls are unclean add a little carbolic acid to it. First soak in well, giving time for the distemper to become saturated with water before scrubbing. Labour may be minimised if this point is attended to. Work in large patches, and see that they overlap each other sufficiently to avoid any imperfect washing between the patches. For mouldings and cornices, extra soaking is required to reach the deeper parts, and it should be done before rubbing at all, other- wise the portions removed from the projections will gather in the recesses and make them more difficult to wash out than they were before. Pieces of deal or any soft wood may be cut to fit into the moulds, quirks, and enrichments ; the use of the knife for this purpose is sure to result in damage to the plaster. When a ceiling flat is thickly coated and difficult to remove, a zinc scraper will be found more workable than a steel one, as it does not stick into and damage the plaster. Modelling tools are sometimes useful to clear out the inter- stices of modelled work ; and for plastering up any cracks in the enrichments those of steel are handy. A ceiling or wall that presents uneven and great suction all over (a matter which should be noticed when washing off), must be either lined with paper or given a coat of paint ; flatting. A coat of Duresco is also effective, and is by some painters preferred to paint. It must, however, be borne in mind that the suitability of a surface for treatment in distemper is destroyed by painting, as all respiration, as it may be aptly termed, is stopped, and an impervious surface, suitable only for an impervious pigment will have been formed. The painting is only recommended as a method of doctoring an 140 PAINTING AND DECORATING. otherwise incurable complaint, and must not be resorted to un necessarily. Bad old stains must be coated with patent knotting before painting. If a stain is not dry, it may be dried, or dampness driven off the surface, by a burning-off lamp and the place coated with knotting while dry and hot. A coating of sulphate of zinc in water will have the same effect as the knotting, and may be substituted for it. The cause of stains and dampness must always be ascertained and removed. A frequent cause is the use of cavity walls without sufficient free ventilation. These walls are valuable aids to dryness if associated with a thoroughly efficient system of air ventilators. If unventilated, the currents of damp air find outlet at the warmest spot viz., into the rooms. Stains caused by the percolation of smoke through inferior brickwork are common, and may be cured by surface treatment of knotting and paint. Whenever danger of infection or vermin is present, carbolic acid should be freely used, both in the washing water and in the clairecolle ; cracks and crevices may be syringed with the acid in half-full strength. For beetle holes and other vermin haunts the stopping may be mixed with carbolic acid and water, and a little powdered glass. Stippling Distemper. In finishing high-class distemper work, a pleasing texture may be got by stippling, but it is by no means necessary ; in order to produce an even surface, more- over, a stippled distemper surface is inconvenient to work upon with the pencil or fitch. American Distemper. In America, lime preparations under the name of " kalsomine " are largely used for distempering, as also are patent preparations of gypsum (plaster of Paris) and other similar materials, under the names of " water fresco," ' : anti-calcomine," " alabastine," &c. These are not regarded as meeting all the climatic conditions of this country equally with ordinary distemper, though they have individual advan- tages which often prove useful to those who are conversant with their use. The student is recommended to acquaint himsell practically with all new materials of the kind and their cap- abilities, but there Is no need for their fuller description here. Painting Plaster Prior to Distempering. In enriched cornices it is sometimes urged that the work becomes furred up with continued application of distemper, and that this is not so likely to occur if the work is painted prior to distempering. The real cause of furring is to be attributed to careless and insufficient DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF DISTEMPER. 141 washing off, and the failure to clear out the interstices of the work and free them from the former distemper prior to re-coat- ing. Painting for such a reason is not justifiable, and though it has the general sanction of metropolitan practice, it is so contrary to the true principles of tempera work that it can only be regarded as vandalism. Damp Walls. One of the many troubles that lie in wait for distemper is damp walls. A number of compositions have been patented and placed on the market with the object of curing this evil, but in all cases they are the veriest makeshifts. It cannot be too plainly set down that there is no cure for a damp wall. The source of dampness must be entirely removed. If damp comes through a wall exposed to the weather the wall should be tiled, slated, or cemented, or coated with a water- proof solution on the outside. A hot mixture of equal parts of linseed oil, resin and tallow, or bees-wax, will form a good one. Cemented walls, if very sandy, will sometimes let water through. They may be cured by coating them with a strong soap jelly made by dissolving 3 IDS. of yellow soap in enough boiling water to make a jelly. It must be well rubbed into the wall on a dry day, and when dry, a coating of strong alum size (say 1 Ib. of alum, 2 Ibs. of glue, and 2 quarts of water) must be laid on freely over the soap preparation. This mixture has much the same effect as two coats of liquid petrify- ing solution or Duresco, but we prefer the method given. Duresco and Distemper. There are cases (as in cellars) where, though not badly damp, the walls are in contact with the earth outside. If possible, dry area spaces should be arranged, but in such cases the best distemper to use is a washable one, such as Duresco. This material is also by far the best for use upon new plaster. It is a proprietary article, and consists of barytes, oil, glue, and other ingredients. Tested by the writer it has been found to withstand wet lime putty finish, plaster, the damp from vapour baths and Turkish baths, heat and steam. In one instance a fungus growth accumulated upon its surface for months, the material remaining unimpaired upon its removal by washing. Like most patent distempers, it is not sufficiently well understood to allow of its being put into the hands of the work- ing painter without full and definite instructions for use, and in all cases of importance it is desirable that the advice of the manufacturer as to thinning and applying should be carried out. The liquid Duresco supplied for thinning may be used as a claire- colle under ordinary circumstances where the body Duresco is used in place of ordinary distemper; it is also a good stone pre- 142 PAINTING AND DECORATING. servative. A coat of Duresco on new walls over ordinary size, or clairecolle produces a good finish for temporary work. Both distemper and Duresco may be used for renovating internal discoloured stone work on porous stone. They should be applied in the following manner : A tint should be made to match the colour of the stone, and then be diluted with weak size or with water or liquid Duresco till it is semi-transparent. This must be well brushed into the stone leaving nothing upon the surface; when dry, the colour of the stone will appear as new, while the texture will not be interfered with either in local colour or in grain. Duresco should not be used as a foundation or substitute for the under coats of paint. Its intervention between the paint and its ground is disadvantageous except in certain special cir- cumstances ; for instance, upon metallic or smoky surfaces, copper, or zinc, as recommended in another chapter. Colouring is sometimes necessary upon a brick wall. For this purpose Duresco, tinted to match or improve the colour of the bricks is far preferable to paint ; it renders the bricks imper- vious to water, and resists the action of soot and weather in city streets. Bricklayers usually use ochre and Venetian red in milk, beer, or alum water, as a medium for the dry colours, and brushed on freely to tint their brickwork. Copperas, both white and green, with or without ochre, is also used for improving the colour of yellow bricks. Distemper may be used upon wood-work. The wood-work should be first sized strongly, or, better still, painted with a coat of flatting. Great attention must be given to the relative strength of size, and porosity of the wood, otherwise there is danger of the work flaking off. It is in no case desirable to use distemper upon deal or other soft porous wood, which is likely to shrink and detach the distemper, unless it be upon narrow mouldings, frames, &c. The size used for distempering upon wood should be highly gelatinous and not glutinous. French gelatine makes a good size for specially fine and highly finished work. When using distemper upon white lining paper, rather less size can be used, and the distemper can be laid on more barely than upon a plastered *vall. Large decorative panels are often executed in distemper upon canvas. This plan is followed in scene painting. For this pur- pose a rather heavy canvas is selected as best. The canvas is first sized, then coated with clairecolle, and finally distempered. The size should be a glutinous or gummy one, as this makes a less brittle distemper and is less liable to crack. A little treacle or glycerine is added to further obviate cracking when the canvas DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OP DISTEMPER. 143 is rolled and unrolled. Large foliage panels ten yards by five yards were executed by the writer for the Brussels exhibition buildings in this manner, the work being painted upon the dis- temper ground in colour thinned with stale ale. Almost the whole of the decorations at the great Paris Exhibition of 1889 were executed by a similar process and upon similar material. The following are sometimes added to distemper to produce the special result appended to each : Turpentine, or paraffin oil, to add to the binding power and arrest putrefaction; sugar, glycerine, and treacle, to slow the drying, and to render it less liable to chip, and easier to work in decorative details ; oil of cloves and oil of spike lavender or eau-de-Cologne, to improve the odour and disinfect the material ; carbolic acid, to disinfect and deodorise ; chloride of lime for the same purposes for rough work; spirits of wine, tc harden and congeal the size and render it less easy to remove ; and alum or vinegar, to render the size more liquid, and to kill alkaline action in the lime, walls, or whiting. Several of these have a chemical action upon coloured pigments, notably carbolic acid upon vegetable pigments or organic com- pounds, and chloride of lime upon almost all colours. Greasy surfaces for distemper may best be treated with a solution of soda and lime, and afterwards with alum or vinegar. The work should be coated over with the mixture of lime, &c., and allowed to remain two hours, then be washed off with clean water and sized with alum size. The brushes for distemper have already been described, Half- worn brushes and tools viz., stamps should be used for the washing off, and the newer ones for sizing and distempering. A new brush may be worn in by using it for washing down in clean water twice or thrice. The best work can be done with the brushes in which the bristles are confined in two or three knots, or are bound in a solid knot by a copper band (see Fig. 15). The limitations recommended for distemper have already been touched on. It should not be used in places within reach of the hands or clothes ; washable distempers can be used for the lower levels. Hot water pipes, coils, boiler cases, and similar metal surfaces may be coated with Duresco. Distemper must not be used out of doors, but Duresco is a good material for outside work, or for all damp places where distemper is not suitable. Washable Distempers. Every year sees additions to the list of washable distempers, or, more properly called, water paints, for many of them are not really washable in the ordinarily understood sense of the term. Many of these new paints are notable, but, as far as experi- 144 PAINTING AND DECORATING. ments can be carried out by one person, the original Duresco has never been surpassed. The practical painter will, however, find in most of them one particular quality which fits it especially for some particular class of work. The range of colours is much improved, but the best and least chalky-looking range is, perhaps, also that of Duresco. Many of the makers are content to produce pale whitish-looking tints without depth or mellow- ness. Olsina is a notable exception to this fault, and, as a good ready-made distemper with some washable pretensions, it is one of the most easily managed and one of the best to "cover." Among others now well known are "Mayresco," "Wapicti," " Alabastine," Muraline, Vernolene, Hall's distemper, and Sanitol. The latter keeps especially well. Sichel Glue. A substitute for animal glue is the now well- known sichel glue, which does not corrode, ferment, or decompose, and which is soluble in cold water. It does not gelatinise. A limited test places it high in the list of recent advantageous additions to the paint shop stock. It can be used as a paste. 145 CHAPTER X. term plain painting, includes the preparation and application of oil paints in a simple and direct manner to various kinds of surfaces, and the prepai'ation of the surfaces themselves to receive the paint. "Paint" is understood to consist of pigments diluted by various oils, and the term is used in the trade to distinguish it from pigments mixed with water vehicles. The oils used are known as " thinners." Object. Paint is applied either as a protective or decorative agent, and sometimes as a combination of both. Its use is confined to no particular class of surface or material. Several applications of paint, known technically as " coats," are necessary to ensure a solid appearance. The earlier coats are to render the work non-absorbent ; the intermediate ones to produce a level surface ; and the final ones to give the colour and effect. These objects are frequently associated. Qualifications of Paint. The paint used for any specific purpose must have sufficient fluidity for its particular purpose 10 146 PAINTING AND DECORATING. It must become hard upon the ground on which it is used, and must be sufficiently viscid to adhere to that ground. Painting on New Plaster. Surfaces to be painted must be clean and dry, free from grit, grease, and moisture. Newly plastered surfaces, indoor work, will require no special prepara- tion prior to painting. They will require four or five coats. Assuming that they are properly dry, they must first be well rubbed down with glass paper, No. 2|. The paper should be rolled round a cork block, and its position shifted from time to time, so as to present new and unworn surfaces to the wall. All cracks and holes of any size must be stopped with Parian, or Keen's cement. Plaster of Paris will do if some days can be allowed to elapse before it is painted, but the cements named can be safely painted upon a few hours after being used. A trowel putty knife (Fig. 52) is useful for plaster stopping, and fine cracks are best filled by using the broad chisel knife (Fig. 52) and drawing the cement over them, thoroughly levelling up all slight depressions. A better surface is required for painting than for distempering, as the gloss of the paint will show up all imperfections. Fig. 52. Trowel stopping and broad chisel knives. When the stopping is dry, it must be lightly rubbed down, and the whole surface well dusted ; it will then be ready for the first coat of paint. For painting, use a brush, and a large and small sash tool for cutting round doors and windows and other fittings. For the composition of the various coats of paint, reference must be made to the chapter on Colour mixing. First Coat on New Plaster. The first coat should be rather thin and penetrative, the object being to hold to, and harden the surface, and provide a good key for the succeeding coat. When the first coat is dry, the wall should not present an all- PLAIN PAINTING. 147 over gloss ; if it does so, the colour has been used too thickly, and has not properly penetrated the surface ; or it has dried too quickly, and has not had sufficient time to soak into the wall. On the other hand, it must not present an entirely dead surface as if all the paint had soaked in, or there will be no sufficient hold for the next coat of paint. A day should now elapse. Second Coat. The second coat should be less thin and rather more oily than the first. It should be tinted slightly towards the finishing colour, but be kept much lighter than that will be. Any indentations, dents, or imperfections which the gloss of the colour will now have revealed must be carefully faced up with the putty knife (Fig. 53), and either ordinary or white lead stopping, made as previously described. The second coat should be given forty-eight hours to harden before commencing Fig. 53. Stopping or putty knife. to putty up. Allow the stopping a day to harden ; if putty is used it will require two or three days. Then the whole must be again glass-papered down with No, 1| paper, and well dusted. If five coats are to be put on, the third coat may be similar to the second. Third Coat. The third (or fourth) coat i.e., the last but one will be dependent upon the class of finish. The most usual finish for such walls is "flatting." Flatting. Flatting is colour thdt dries with a lustreless sur- face, the gloss being only about the same as that upon a new- laid egg shell. Flatting (having little binding or adhesive power, owing to the preponderance of turpentine over oil in its composition) requires to be laid on a tacky or adhesive under coat, or it will not wash. This is secured by the use of much oil in the coat before flatting, and the flatting is put on immediately the under coat is dry enough to work over. For the ingredients of both oil colour and flatting see Colour mixing. In flatting, if the walls are likely to have much wear and tear, and are passably smooth, a tablespoonful of copal varnish may be added to the flatting to harden it ; but if the walls are wavy and unsightly, as is often the case with old walls, a deader flat will be advantageous, in which case no oil at all is added to the paste white lead, but turpentine only. 148 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Between each coat, except the two last, it is desirable to gently rub down with No. 1 glass paper, used without a block or rubber. Very little pressure must be exercised, as the only object is to remove nibs, dust, or any light particles that may have adhered during the drying of the previous coat. Fig. 54. Stipplers. Flatting must always be done quickly and methodically and without confusion, and always upon a glossy under coat as described. It must be done before the under coat is too hard, or this will have no key or hold for the flatting. The flatting PLAIN PAINTING. 149 colour must be very thoroughly mixed and strained, and re- strained, and it is preferable to allow it to stand for a few hours after mixing, so that the commingling of the ingredients may be the more complete. For flatting large surfaces, two, three, or four men will be necessary, according to the height of the surface to be flatted. To ensure the joints being invisible, great care must be taken that the edges of the work do not commence to set. Each flank of wall must be continued without interruption from start to finish. The work should be commenced at the right-hand top corner, each man taking just as deep a section as he can well attend to. The top man should start first and keep half-a-yard in advance of the next man below him, who will take up and complete the work of the man above, immediately he leaves it for the next half yard. This method of working avoids collision and splashes or damage to the work below. In work- ing, every part must be well and evenly covered by the paint brush, and then regularly and evenly dabbed with the stippler. The stippler must not be trusted to, to spread the paint. The stippler has already been described in the chapter on brushes, and is here illustrated in various shapes (Fig. 54). Those provided with reversible handles are preferable. The bridge-handled stippler is preferred by many for ceiling work. The stippler must be used with only just sufficient force to get to the colour and produce a regular and uniform granulation of the surface, and must be used squarely so that the bristles are always at right angles to the wall when the brush strikes it. Painting on Stucco and Cement Walls. For stucco and rough finished walls, such as are found in the interior of churches and public buildings; and also for cement and sand finished walls, the treatment will be the same as for plastered surfaces, except that the first coats will require a larger proportion of oil, and less turpentine. No rubbing down will, of course, be required. Such walls should be repaired with Roman cement or oil mastic, and not with Portland cement, unless they can stand a few weeks prior to painting. External plastered walls, as in pargetted or open timbered work, should have a first coating of very thin colour, and boiled oil should take the place of raw linseed, except in the case of white paint, when it is better to use raw oil in the last two coats. For the composition of colour for the several coats see Colour mixing. In all other respects follow the treatment described for interior plastered walls. The treatment for out-door stucco walls will be the same as for internal work, except that boiled oil should be used instead of 150 PAINTING AND DECORATING. raw, as in last paragraph, and the proportion of oil to turpentine must be increased as in the recipes given under Colour mixing. A first coat of boiled oil and red lead is recommended upon the exposed sides of a compo or stucco house. The first coat on outside walls should never be attempted within three days after heavy rain. A reliable authority gives the following as his method of coating outside house fronts, compo : 1st coat, 3 Ibs. white lead, 1 pt. raw linseed oil, driers. 2nd 4 Ibs. \ pt. ,, \ pt. turpen- tine, driers. 3rd coat, white lead, driers, two-thirds oil, one-third turps. 4th one-third ,, two-thirds 5th ,, three-fourths one-fourth ,, It is arranged on the principle of alternating an elastic and a hard coating, and not upon the principle that is generally recommended by the writer j but much may be advanced in its favour for a stucco wall. Painting on Stone. Painting upon stone is not, or ought not to be, necessary or desirable. It is not a preservative in the true sense of the term. In cases where it is done, the same treatment as for stucco will be satisfactory. If the stone is very hard, the treatment for plastered walls should be followed. Stone may be successfully imitated or matched by painting. The work is finished in oil a few shades lighter than the colour of the stone to be matched, and when partially dry, freely dusted over with powdered stone dust of the same stone. The paint must be oily and tacky, and the stone sand must be thrown against it with some little force. The result is an extremely good imitation, and also a durable surface. Compo is often sanded after it has been painted a number of times, in order to restore its rough texture. Sand thus used has a remarkably good effect and stands the weather far better than a coat of paint. The ground colour for sanding on should have a little old varnish or fat oil in it and must be put on heavily. He-Painting Painted Walls. Wall work that has been previously painted will require two or three coats only when re-painting. It should first be washed down and thoroughly dried. This removes dust and dirt, smoke and grease, and ensures a good surface for the paint to dry upon. A little com- mon soda in the washing water gives a better key to the new paint by slightly cutting the hard surface shell of the old paint, but if used the greatest vigilance is necessary in well rinsing with clear water every hole and corner of the work. PLAIN PAINTING. 151 If the work has decoration or lettering upon it, this must be obliterated by rubbing well down with block pumice stone. Soda is sometimes used in the rubbing-down water, but this merely acts on the whole surface equally, and does not facilitate the levelling process. All paint has a tendency to become more transparent with age, and strong colours and lines will gradually become visible through the new painting by reason of this quality. When such cannot be obliterated, it is well to give a coat over the whole ground of some positive colour which is more assertive than the old decoration, and allow it a couple of days to harden. Stopping for previously painted walls, unless the walls are greatly damaged, may be done with putty. The cracks should tirst have a coat of thin paint, or oil and driers, to make the putty adhere. Large patches should be made good with Parian cement and dry white sand. The smaller the proportion of sand used the better will the patch dry out. These cement patches will require an extra coat of priming or two, to bring them to the same condition of surface as the surrounding wall. The first coat for the whole wall will be thinned with half oil and half turpentine ; the wall will then require glass papering with No. 1 paper. The next coat will require five-sixths oil, and one-sixth of turpentine if the wall is to be finished flatted, and will be ready for the flatting on the next day. If it is to be finished in gloss, the second coat may be two-thirds oil and one- third turps, and the final coat five-sixths of boiled oil and one- sixth turps. This last coat will be all the better for the substi- tution of half oil varnish for the boiled oil. See also Colour mixing. The foregoing remarks refer to internal walls. Outside walls that have been previously painted should be treated in the fol- lowing manner : Washed and stopped, all repairs touched up with priming twice. The whole painted one or two coats, as necessary, of colour thinned with two-thirds boiled oil and one- third turpentine, and finished as described for new walls and in Colour mixing. Three coats in all will usually be necessary. It is always economical to give one coat more than would be absolutely necessary in order to " cover ; " otherwise the old dirty coatings will soon commence to "grin" through the new paint, and afford an instance of undesirable resurrection. It is computed that if two coats can be made to " cover," a third adds 50 per cent, to the durability and life of the work. It may here be remarked that beyond a certain point, succes- sive coatings of oil paint are not of any advantage, but tend to 152 PAINTING AND DECORATING. lessen the protective value of painting. It is not easy to dog- matise in this matter, and say at what point the change occurs ; but as soon as the thickness of the new coats is sufficient to resist the atmospheric influences upon the lower ones, and prevent further hardening, no useful purpose is served by adding to them, and if they be added to, the result is a mass of soft leathery matter which is readily acted upon by changes of tem- perature, always yields to pressure, and will have to be removed entirely before the condition of the work can be improved. In painting new walls it will sometimes be noticed after the first coat is on that there are small bunion-like protubei-ances visible. These are probably bits of quicklime or stone which are still in active operation upon the surrounding plaster ; they should be cut out and the holes filled with stopping or putty. Let the hole be well painted first. In all stopping, care must be taken to cut the holes as much dovetailed as possible, and to wet for plaster or cement, and paint for putty stopping, so that the stopping will keep in the hole or crack, and adhere to its surroundings. Painting on new plaster or damp walls should never be at- tempted. New walls take six months to dry sufficiently for paint- ing. This time may be shortened by keeping up good fires, or by charcoal braziers stood about the house, and free ventilation. Duresco or distemper should be used, if it is necessary to colour the walls before they are dry ; but inasmuch as a house is not fit for habitation till they are dry the necessity ought not to arise. Painting New Wood-work. Painting upon new wood-work will require at least four coats ; a creditable surface cannot be produced with a less number, and the wood-work must be well finished by the joiner in order to allow of a good surface with four coats only. It is presumed that the work has left the joiner's hands in a proper condition for painting. If so, all the plane marks will have been obliterated, all nails well punched below the surface level, bits of glue removed, running or loose knots replaced by sound wood, and the work finally glass-papered. If these points have not been attended to, they must be, before the painter can set to work. The work will first require a thorough dusting with the brush, and the removal of any specks or nibs. If the plasterer has been at work after the wood-work has been fixed there will probably be a few splashes, which should be removed with the chisel knife, taking care not to cut the surface of the wood-work. The knots must next be treated so as to stop any exudations from them, and close the pores round about them. Patent PLAIN PAINTING. 153 knotting, a mixture of naphtha and shellac, is the modern com- position for the purpose. A mixture of red lead and glue size was formerly used ; one of red lead and liquid Duresco is also operative. Two thin coats of the knotting, one upon the knots and the second carried a little distance beyond, are better than one thicker coat. To make assurance doubly sure, in the case of very bad knots, a layer of silver or aluminium leaf may be laid upon the second coat of knotting while it is still tacky, or upon a coat of japanners' gold size laid on over the second coat of knotting. A. coat of red lead and size allowed to dry, and a second coat with silver leaf laid upon it while wet, is an effective method of dealing with knots. Gold leaf is still better than silver leaf, because though thinner it is less " pinholey." In the case of bad knots requiring this treatment, the knotting and metal raise the knot a little above its surroundings ; it is, there- fore, a good plan to scrape the knot down with a sharp steel plane iron or scraper before treating it. Knots also project by reason of the shrinkage of the softer wood around them ; the scraper will be useful to correct this tendency. The quirks of mouldings should have special attention before painting. They are sometimes rough, and, if so, will gather a quantity of paint and become unsightly ; a folded piece of glass paper (middle 2) should be run through them. The work will then require redusting and is ready for first coat or " priming." The constituents of the various coats will be found in Colour mixing. In priming, the colour should be laid on freely and allowed sufficient time to penetrate. No time is saved by hasty priming, as it is of the utmost importance that the wood should take up all the colour it requires, and still leave enough upon the surface to present a good ground for the second coat. The colour should not be so thin as to wholly sink into the wood. A fruitful source of blistering is the lack of combination between this coat and the next, owing to the priming having been of thin spirit colour and wholly absorbed by the wood, leaving no key for the second colour. The practice of priming wood-work many days or weeks before it is second coated is an extremely bad one, and conduces to the same result. The object is to lay well hold of the wood, stop further absorption, and give a tacky key for the next coat, and unless this threefold object is attained the value of the workman- ship is materially reduced. It is essential that the work be of dry and well-seasoned wood if a good job is to be made of the painting. The work must be weather dry when primed. Im- mature or ill-seasoned wood will contract in the soft parts and 154 PAINTING AND DECORATING. leave the grain standing above the general surface a form of relievo decoration to be strenuously avoided. Pithy or sappy wood must be treated as knots ; if it occurs in a first-class job it ought to be removed altogether. Particular care should be taken when priming, that all holes and cracks have a full share of paint so that the putty will adhere, and especially that the nail heads are well painted or they will rust and push out the putty. Stopping. If the work is to be finished in four coats it is well to stop all the larger holes at this stage with ordinary putty for commoner class work, and with white lead putty for best rooms (see Colour mixing}. The stopping or putty knife has already been illustrated ; the shorter and stilfer glazing knife (Fig. 55) is Fig. 55. Glazier's stiff putty knife. useful for wood- work, for bevelling up or stopping over nail heads where some pressure is required to get the putty home, and this tool should find a place in the painter's kit. The chisel knife (Fig. 56) is also a necessary aid in the preparatory work. Fig. 56. Chisel knife. In stopping, the great points to be observed are, that the ground upon which the stopping is put is tacky enough to hold ft, and that sufficient coats are put above it to conceal the stop- ping effectually. This is especially important in cases of mere shallow indentations. All stopping requires pressing solidly into its place and there must be none left on the surrounding surface. It is recommended that work be stopped two days after painting. It should then stand a clear day before re-painting. After stopping, slightly rub down, and then proceed to " second coat." In rubbing down, caution is requisite in order to avoid rubbing off the arrises or sharp edges. Carelessness in this respect will make a new door look as unsightly as an old one. If as much solicitude be shown to keep the moulds sharp and clean as is usually shown to get the broad surfaces smooth, the result will be an ample reward in improved appearance. PLATE 13.-A DESIGN THAT IS COMPLETE IN ITSELF AT ALL DISTANCES FROM THE EYE. To face p. 154.] PLAIN PAINTING. 155 The glass paper should be folded and bent to fit the mouldings, and little corks, cut for covering with glass paper, may be used for the broader members. Every edge should possess its full complement of coats in their integrity. Any further slight stopping may now be done with hard putty or hard stopper (see Colour mixing). If a highly-finished surface is required, the filling up must be done at this stage, in which event three coats afte*r tilling up will be necessary. If not, then the third and fourth coats may be proceeded with. All glass papering must be done prior to the last coat but one, or the scratches will show through the finished work. This does not infer that any nibs, &c., should be allowed to remain upon the work, as such can be removed without a general rubbing down, and without scratching the ground. These coats will be dealt with later in detail. rilling up. Filling up is done in order to level a surface which is too generally uneven to allow of effective stopping. The process is employed upon plaster, wood, and other grounds. The cheapest method is that of distemper filling up, usually limited to walls, but sometimes used upon wood-work. For distemper filling, take equal parts of the finest flour plaster of Paris used by modellers, and fine whiting ; mix well together dry, add warm weak size, stirring well till it becomes of a consistency that can just be applied with a brush. The amount of size must be judged by testing, and by the class of ground on which it is desired to work. Use at once before it begins to cool or thicken. A porous ground will need more size than a non-porous one, and vice versd. A quarter of a pound of concentrated size to a gallon of water makes a size of average strength for this purpose. Give repeated coats, as necessary. After it is dry, rub down with No. 1|- glass paper stretched over a wooden block, and prime with priming rather thin so as to penetrate the whole thickness of the filling up, and saturate it. Use the filling when warm, and before it thickens or sets. Ordinary size and whiting is sometimes substituted for the above filling. It should be made of the consistency of batter. Patent wood filling is better for wood-work than distemper filling. Harland's slate filling-up powder is a perfect one. There are other good makes which the writer has not tested to the same extent. Sold in powder they require mixing with turpentine and thinning with Japan gold size. The proportion of turpentine will be about half to half of Japanners', modified to suit special cases. Lay on repeated coats smoothly with a soft flat brush, allowing time for each coat to dry hard. Deep 156 PA1WTING AND DECORATING. depressions may be filled with some of the same, mixed stiff as putty, and laid on with the broad knife. When hard, rub down with block pumice stone and water till level, dry well, and paint as before. A handy filling is made from dry white lead or yellow ochre and white lead, or from yellow ochre alone. They are all pre- pared in the same way as the patent filling, and rubbed down similarly. Wliite lead has the objection of being dangerously poisonous. When rubbing down it is not possible to keep the hands free from danger of contamination ; and if rubbed down in a dry state with glass paper, the particles of lead find their way into the eyes and nostrils. These objections do not apply to white lead ground in oil and used as a paint. Yellow ochre has too much water in its composition and too great an affinity for water to make a reliable filler. A quickly made, and for many purposes a handy filling (as the materials are usually on the job, whatever class of job it may be) can be made thus: Mix together paste white lead in oil, one part; whiting in turps, one part; whiting in Japan ners' gold size, one part. Apply as a stiff paste with the broad knife, leaving as little upon the surface as possible. It hardens quickly ; rub down as before. Small dents, &c., can be filled up with ordinary distemper thickened to a putty with plaster, and when set, rubbed down with block pumice stone lubricated with boiled oil and turpentine. The pumice for rubbing down filling should be of open grain, and sawn across the fibre so as to have a sharp cut. The prepared pumice blocks sold by coachpainters' colour manufacturers, and made in varying degrees of fineness, are labour saving. Glass paper should be used over a block of wood or cork, about 4| by 3 inches, and 1 inches thick. A piece, of grit stone should be kept at hand for freeing the surface of the pumice stone of accumulated paint. See JNote on p. 172. Re-painting Old Wood- work. In painting wood-work that has been previously painted, the condition of the work is the first consideration. If it is a paint-finished surface, smooth, and free from cracks and blisters, all that is necessary is to wash well, dry, and proceed with the same last two or three coats as specified for new wood-work. The stopping should be done before any re-painting, in the case of two-coat work ; and after the first coat, in the case of three-coat work. Stop with hard stopping. If the work is sound, but rough, first rub down with hard block, or prepared block pumice stone, then wash and pro- ceed as before. If sound, but varnished, the varnish coat, or at least the major part of it, should be removed by a good rubbing PLAIN PAINTING. 157 with pumice stone and water; the procedure will then be as before. If cracked, but hard, the pumicing must be carried on till the cracks are obliterated, unless they extend to the wood, which is not usual. In some cases, where the cracks are separ- ated by sound patches of hard paint, they may safely be filled up with filling. Many painters treat cracked wood-work in the following way : A coat of oil colour is put on, and, while freshly wet, the work is rubbed down with a gritty piece of pumice. A certain portion of powder is ground off the pumice and forms a filling, which is deposited by the rubbing into the cracks, form- ing a solid filler. When sufficiently rubbed the work is lightly laid off with the paint brush in the usual way, and allowed to dry. If the work to be re-painted is soft and tacky, blistered, or orerloaded with repeated painting, it will be necessary to remove the old paint, and commence again as if treating new wood-work, except that the priming must be sharper colour. It is essential that all bare places, repairs, &c., shall be brought forward to the same condition of surface as the rest of the work, prior to commencing to re-coat the whole. This may often be done by coating with quick-drying colour, or thin patent knotting, if time is of importance ; but a better method is to coat in the usual manner for new work. In touching up patches of this description, soften off the edges by " badgering " in towards the patch with a dusting brush or dry tool, so as to prevent the edges showing up when the work is painted all over. The finishing coats upon new or old wood-work will be the same in character. For inside work it is usual to finish either in flatting, bastard flatting (i.e., an egg-shell gloss), enamel, or varnish. The two latter methods of finish are dealt with under the head of Varnishing. For cellars, kitchens, and offices, an oil finish is sometimes adopted, but it is not to be recommended, as it catches dirt and is less easily cleaned than varnish or enamel. For flatting, the thinnings used must be almost all turps, a little varnish being added to harden it. The amount of varnish may be slightly increased for doors and window bottoms. French oil or good copal varnish should be used. For bastard flatting three-fourths to two-thirds turpentine, and the remainder boiled oil and varnish will be found satisfactory. For work that is to be finished in varnish or enamel, a bastard flatting makes the best ground. Some prefer an absolute flat for the purpose. Burning off Old Paint. The removal of old paint is achieved either by burning off, or by dissolving with a paint solvent. For outside work, where the smell of the burning paint is not 158 PAINTING AND DECORATINO. objected to, the lamp or charcoal brazier, or even a gas flame, has every advantage. The lamps made especially for the pur- pose are to be preferred, as more cleanly and economical, and more easily controlled than fire or gas. Lamps are described and illustrated in Chapter III. The lamp is held in the left hand, and a broad chisel knife in the right ; the flame is allowed to play on the portion of the work immediately in advance of the knife, and as soon as the paint is sufficiently soft, it will be found that the knife readily slides along the bare wood, removing the paint in its course. Once started, the lamp may be kept moving as fast as the knife inclines to travel after it. When possible to do so, keep the knife below the Iftmp, AS the ascend- ing heat gradually prepares the work above for the full blast of the flame. A little practice enables the operator to establish a sympathetic movement of both hands in unison, and the work becomes quite mechanical. Always follow the grain of the wood. Never attempt to burn more than you can remove with the knife, but allow the knife to dictate the speed of the lamp, as when once heated and cooled again the paint becomes harder than before, like a stoved enamel. Do not allow the paint to " fire," and do not scorch the exposed portions of bare wood from which the paint has already been removed. Attack the broad flat surfaces first, using a 4^-inch broad knife for the stiles, so as to take them at one sweep. A narrow chisel knife must be kept handy for flats, mouldings, edges, &c. Pieces of thin, shaped, steel scrapers may be made to fit ogee or other mouldings. A plumber's shave hook (Fig. 57), with inter- changeable head, is useful for moulded and intricate work. The tools must not be too sharp, or the wood may be damaged by them. Fig. 57. Shave hook. When the paint has all been removed, the work will require rubbing down to remove odd particles of burnt colour which have stuck, and to smooth the rough surface left by the knife. Pumice stone and water may be used for this, as, owing to the previous priming being still in the wood, it will be impervious to moisture to a great extent. This fact alone is a strong argument in favour of burning off as against solvents. Some PLAIN PAINTING. 159 painters use turps and a little oil instead of water; if the work is done in damp, cold weather, it is a good plan. The superfluous oil and turps is of course rubbed off with cotton waste or rags. When water is used, the work must be allowed to thoroughly dry before re-painting. The remaining method of paint removing is by the use of a strong alkaline or lime solvent. Ordinary soda and a little lime is the commonest preparation. Caustic soda, potash, black ashes, and many patent removers are used. Harmer's Egyptian clay is a good remover if the instructions for use are carefully followed. After the use of any of these solvents the work must be thoroughly soused with clear water, and the quirks and cracks well washed out before the work has a chance of ab- sorbing the solvent. The work must next be allowed to thoroughly dry. Before painting, it is desirable to adopt the precaution of coating the work with a solution of acetic acid or vinegar to neutralise the effect of any soda residue. The work must again be allowed to become bone dry. It may then be knotted and primed, as if it were new work. This plan is considered cheaper than burning off, and if proper care be taken to carry out the instructions here given, it is satisfactory. It is certainly less cleanly, and there are many points in it where a little carelessness would have serious results in the after painting. Doors should not be unhinged and laid down for the purpose of stripping, as the alkali is liable to work under the moulds and into the grooves and interstices if this is done. If unhinged, they should be stood upright against a wall. Solvents are preferable for indoor work in an occupied domicile ; but where a house is given over to the painters, the burning-off lamp is better. When working indoors, the floors must be well protected, or the soda will blacken them. Water- proof paper pasted down to the floor is the best protector. The old pitch paper is the best for the purpose, as it withstands the alkali as well as the water. A reliable old-fashioned plan of treating " pickled " wood- work was to give it a coat of strong alum size and red lead. General Hints on Painting Wood-work. In finishing wood- work when a very fine surface is required the badger softener may be lightly used, or, if in white lead, the hog-hair softener. The work must first be carefully laid off in the usual manner and then crossed and re-crossed lightly with the softener. In flatting, the work may be finished with a flat fitch-hair varnish brush, and the mouldings with a swan quill camel hair. Stippling 160 PAINTING AND DECORATING. should not be resorted to for wood-work, as it leaves a granular surface which is easily soiled. This remark does not apply to transparent glazes, but to body colours. In painting mouldings, care must be taken to first well rub the colour into the quirks. A door, if to be painted in one colour, should be painted in the following rotation : Rebate, edges, top right-hand panel mould- ings, panel, top left-hand panel mouldings, panel, bottom panels in same order, top muntin, bottom muntin, top, middle, and bottom rails, right-hand stile, left-hand stile ; frame, commencing with back edges, and then with the meeting bead, and working right round, bringing all on together from bottom right-hand, up and across lintel, and down the left-hand frame. This order is not arbitrary, and must be modified when varnishing and enamelling. Doors and windows should never be closed until the paint is quite dry. Before painting, all impedimenta, as locks, handles, hooks, finger-plates, sash-fasteners, and blind brackets should be taken off. Necessary fastenings may be replaced with temporary old ones. Some locks will require to be left on for safety ; these must be kept clean. The time spent in taking off fittings is regained in the free course given to the painter. In painting a room, commence with the windows, cupboards (if any), doors, mantel, and skirting. It is always possible that the two latter will soil the colour and brushes. The door being the most important as to finish, the brushes will be well worked in and yet perfectly clean if this routine be followed. In painting a sash window take the runners first, then the meeting bar and outer sash, then inner sash, next frame, and, finally, sill. Do not paint the sash cords, and be very sparing of the paint upon the runners, top and bottom rails, and meeting bars. Never paint that portion of the runners that is hidden when the window is closed, except one bare coat at the finish. In painting walls, commence each flank at the top right-hand corner. Commence a cornice over the door in the nearest angle and work to the left right round the room. Commence a ceiling near the window and work away from the window. General Notes on Painting. The following general notes must be acted upon in all classes of painting. Spreading and Consistence of Paint. The amount of paint put upon the work should be as little as can be properly spread unless when priming new work. The brushes must be kept free from excess of colour and the paint well worked out before attempting to lay off. Two thin coats are better than one thick one for all classes of work, and for really first-class work PT,ATK U.-OUTUNE PATTERNS FOR STAINING UPON WOOD. To, face p. 160.] PLAIN PAINTING. 161 the less paint that is put on at each operation, consistently with a proper covering of the ground, the better will the ultimate result be. " Less paint and more painting " is the observation the writer is compelled to make to quite 90 per cent, of painter students. An overloaded coat of paint picks up and retains dust and dirt, is easily damaged by smearing when wet, does not dry from the bottom, but skins over, and cannot be laid off free from ropiness. Paint should never be used too thin or oily. There must always be enough pigment to keep the oils in their place. Thin oil colour will expand unduly, and thin flatting will crawl and crack. Thick podgy paint is equally dangerous ; it must be thin enough to spread without ropiness and yet to stay where it is put, and it should not flow after being spread, unless it be of the varnish or enamel class. It must not be so thin as to run back in the brush when working overhead. Colour of correct consistence will spread easily and comfortably, and if the painter cannot lay his colour off fairly well it is probable that there is some fault with the colour itself. The painting brushes should not be stood or dipped over the bristles in the colour ; but a little colour should be taken up on the point of the brush and patted against the side of the can to distribute it among the bristles. Some pigments are heavy, and are liable, however freely they are ground, to sink to the bottom of the can. In such cases do not use the brush, but keep a stirring stick or spatula in the can for occasionally stirring the mixture. Large surfaces require, first, a sufficient quantity of paint dis- tributed at short intervals, covering a panel or patch of wall say half-a-yard by a yard. This must then be spread evenly, crossed and re-crossed and, finally, laid off lightly. All wall surfaces are laid off perpendicularly ; borders less than a foot wide hori- zontally. Wood-work should be laid off in the direction of its grain and construction. Ceilings should be laid off across or athwart the light. Sequence of Coats in Painting. No absolute rule can be laid down for the composition and sequence of coats of paint; but as a general working regulation, subject to particular omis- sions, the under coats should dry more quickly and be harder than those above them, and the difference between two adjoining coats should not be very great. The priming and flatting coats are invariable exceptions, and depend upon the kind of surface treated and the finish required. In outside work that has to be varnished, the varnishes will follow the same rule, and the last coat of paint under the varnish must be less elastic than the varnish is. 11 162 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Knotting on Work prior to Painting. No intercoating medium should be used which will have the effect of separating the paint from its groundwork. Some authorities recommend the application of a coat of shellac varnish or knotting all over wood- work prior to painting. This is clearly a pernicious practice, as it transposes the paint into a mere detached shell, instead of allowing it to form a surface to the wood itself by absorption. The natural key, the porosity of the wood, is destroyed, and a fruitful cause of blistering is set up. Knotting coated with spirit colour and varnished has been given in technical papers as a cure for paint blistering. It is not, how- ever, painting at all, in the accepted sense of the term, and does not fulfil the functions of oil paint. Sizing on Painted Work. Sizing on painted work is a very universal and an equally unscientific practice. No better method could be devised for obstructing the natural preservative function of paint than the interposition of a coat of size between the paint and its ground. It is a most unsanitary practice, binding all the dirt and grease into a mass which the paint does not penetrate. Its action upon the appearance of the work is not prejudicial, if the size is weak ; but it effectually prevents proper cohesion of the paint to its ground, or to the under coats of paint. It is a foreign matter, and has no business there at all, and no good excuse for its presence. Its use for the purpose of stopping the suction of plaster prior to painting is distinctly damaging to the wall. The practice is a dishonest one in most cases, and the writer does not remember it ever being openly specified in a straightforward manner. In short, it is generally made to do duty as a coat of paint. Technical Terms Descriptive of Paint. The following are technical terms used in speaking of paint : Paint is usually termed " colour." " Sharp " colour is paint in which turps predominates. ' Oily " colour is the converse. ' Round " colour is paint that is stiff. 'Stiff" colour is thicker than round. ' Thin " colour is of liquid consistency. 'Fat" colour is greasy, oily, or stale colour. ' Quick " colour is colour that dries quickly. ' Slow " refers to slow-drying colours. Washing Down Prior to Re-painting. Outside work should always be washed down prior to painting. It is curious PLATE 15..-NATURAL TREATMENT FOR CONVENTIONAL FLAT COLOURING jacep. 162.] | N 8T A|N8. PLAIN PAINTING. 163 that while in London and in the south-coast seaside resorts, this practice is pretty universal, in Manchester, Birmingham, and Sheffield, where it is much more necessary, the practice is more honoured in the breach than in the observance. Knots. Be especially alert not to miss knotting any of the small knots in light tinted work ; brown spots will come through in a few weeks where the knots are missed. Rubbing Down. In rubbing down, if three pieces of pumice are used alternately, and indiscriminately rubbed face to face occasionally, they will produce an absolutely level surface. Tar Spots. Upon outside work it sometimes happens that tar spots are found. Tar is very destructive of paint, and they should be thoroughly washed off with turpentine. Brunswick or Berlin black are also dangerous if painted over, their composition being bituminous. Painting Bound Edges. In painting the wood- work of an ordinary room, paint well round the edges so as to paint under the edges of the wall paper, and well stop the angles formed by the wall and the architrave mouldings, and other wood-work. This keeps out dust and causes the edges of the paper to adhere thoroughly. Dusting. The duster must be in constant use, as the con- tinual moving and dusting creates fresh dust continually, and all dust adds to the roughness of the work. Fat Edges. Fat edges must be always guarded against. This common fault is that of allowing the paint to accumulate on the edge at right angles to that which is being painted. The brush should always be drawn out toward the edges of the work, and not in from the edge, and any accidental accumulations must be lightly removed with the point of the brush. Hints on Platting. If flatting does not turn out solid and satisfactory, the work must be repainted in oil colour. It is quite useless to attempt to reflat on a flatted surface, as the new coat will dissolve the former one and cause it to work up, making a worse finish than before. The rougher the wall the stouter it is desirable to use the flatting colour ; and the rougher the stipple, the less the wall will show up any imperfections. Flatting will do a great deal to hide unevenness and bad places in an old wall. Faults in Painting ; Cracking. Cracking in paint is caused by the under coats of paint being more elastic than the upper one ; consequently, when they are expanded by the sun's heat or other causes, the upper coat is not accommodating and splits. The same result is brought about whether the elasticity of the under 164 PAINTING AND DECORATING. coats is due to their ingredients, proportions, or to their not having properly dried before the upper coats were put over them. It must be borne in mind that oil expands in the process of oxidising viz., the oxygen is added to it, and nothing is given up to make room for it. Turpentine, on the contrary, contracts strongly, especially if barely spread. This can be well seen if a small patch of the two oils are put upon a piece of glass : when dry the linseed oil will show a wrinkled surface due to expansion, and the oil of turpentine will have a concave surface, and appear to be drawn in from the edges. If the superincumbent surfaces are not nearly related to each other in drying power, or if the varying power is not maintained in equal ratio, either cracking or blistering is pretty sure to result. Blistering. Blistering is a more general fault than any other, and may well be termed the bete noir of the painter. It is brought about by various circumstances and conditions, but the actual and direct cause is always the same. Moisture is imprisoned, expanded by heat or other causes, and finds its neces- sarily enlarged accommodation in a blister, which will occur wherever there is least resistance, and where there is imperfect cohesion between the paint and its ground. The moisture may be water, gas, spirit, or oil. It may be inherent moisture in the wood ; acquired moisture between the coats of paint ; resinous moisture from knots ; unoxidised oil in the paint ; water in the pigment, in the oil or in both, or a number of less usual faults. Sometimes the work may be damp or frosty at the time of painting, and this dampness is shut in by the paint. Sometimes the wood itself contains constitutional water. Frequently there exists free resin oil in the knots. In any case the result is mechanically the same, the heat playing upon the surface ex- pands the moisture; steam or gaseous vapour is formed and the paint rises. A close examination of the blister will clearly show between which coats the imperfect adhesion allowed the blister to form. Knots are frequently the locale of blisters, because inherent or acquired moisture in the wood itself naturally finds its exit through the open ends of the sap channels surrounding the knot. For a similar reason, cross-grained wood, because of the number of open sap vessels it contains upon its surface, will blister more than straight-grained wood. The resin in the knot often gives rise to blisters immediately above the knot itself, because the resin oil keeps the colour soft or softens it and allows it to be expanded. Curiously, too, the very precautions taken to protect the paint from the action of the knot results in a smooth, keyless PLAIN PAINTING. 165 surface from which the paint is easily lifted by the vapour. This hard shellac in spirits has no affinity for the paint, and refuses to attach itself to it or to hold it. If a blister be pricked when hot and rising, the pin-hole will allow the steam to escape, and it will not get any larger ; indeed, it may be pressed back into its place. All woods which show a large percentage of water in their analysis will blister readily. To prevent blistering, care must be taken that due cohesion and relative expansion is obtained between the various coats of paint used, and that the particulars referred to as important in outside painting are attended to. All knots, especially resinous ones, must be effectually treated, even to the extent of having very bad ones cut out and the places filled in with sound wood. If work is very much exposed to strong sun it is advisable to abstain from the use of a large proportion of oil, and to substitute an oil varnish for a portion of the usual oil. The use of poorly- bound turpentine colour is not a cure, such colour having no protective power. A blistering tendency may be much aggra- vated by the use of " fat " colour. New oil colour should be used. Stale fat colour will blister of its own defects. Blisters are fairly sure to rise if the second coat is put on while the one before it is not thoroughly dry. The use of an excessive quantity of driers also leads to blistering. The desideratum required both for preservative purposes and to prevent blistering is a perfectly homogeneous steam-tight jacket of paint, firmly attached to its ground in every part. If too elastic, it will blister on the slightest provocation ; and if too inelastic, it will crack. Paint will blister upon other paint, independently of the material painted, if the necessary conditions for a blister viz., imprisoned moisture and imperfect adhesion are present, but this is, of course, much less frequently the case upon other than wood surfaces. So-called blisters upon cement and stone are frequently caused by the action of nibs of unslaked lime ; those upon iron are caused by rusting in spots. Cissing. Cissing is the term given to the contractile action of water or paint upon a very oily surface of new paint. Varnish frequently cisses upon oil paint. The tendency is overcome by a brisk rubbing with a damp chamois leather, or a damp sponge and a little fuller's earth ; about an ounce of the earth is dis- solved in a half-bucket of water. Sometimes it may be cured by rubbing with a dry rag and powdered whiting. Striking or Plashing Striking or flashing is the name given to oily or shiny patches occurring in flatted work, and is caused by a too free use of the colour in irregular patches, or by the under 166 PAINTING AND DECORATING. coat of paint not being properly dry when the flatting was done. In some parts of the country the same term is employed when oil colour goes off in dead patches, which are not the result of absorp- tion. This is, however, akin to blooming in varnishes, and is the result of frost or fog damp, and not defect for which the paint or painting is responsible. Bopiness Ladders. " Ropiness" is the term used to express a too apparent use of the brush, a corded surface, caused either by the colour being podgy or the brush coarse, and used with too much force in the laying-off ; the term is applied to paint when it is thick and sticky, and will hold together like treacle. " Ladders" are formed by carelessness in laying-off. The term expresses the condition of things when, in laying-off for the last time, there are missed places showing the transverse laying-off between the final brush strokes. Both of these last defects are due to the painters' carelessness or want of skill. Grinning Through in Painting. "Grinning through" is caused by the top coat being too thin and transparent, or too sparely applied, or by its being either too light or too dark, or too far removed in hue to cover its ground colour. It is only applicable to colour intended to be solid and dense in finish. When done intentionally the same effect is termed " scumbling" or "glazing." All light tints should have the ground colour a few shades deeper and richer than the flatting, and very deep colours should have the ground colour a few shades lighter than the flatting. The reason for this is that the flatting alters in colour as it dries ; in painters' language " it goes down to its ground," so that the differences noted are really correctives to prevent grinning. Drying of Paint. The drying of paint is an important factor in its durability and in its successful application. Paint is not dry immediately it appears to be so to the touch ; indeed, the drying process in oil colours goes on g-s long as the life of the work permits, getting less and less perceptible as the amount of oxygen taken up by the oil is smaller and smaller, until at last the paint becomes a brittle and useless shell of dead pigment. It is important that a certain amount of this oxidisation should take place in the under coats before they are covered and shut in by the later coats, as during the first and rapid portion of this "drying" as we term it, the process is accompanied with a con- siderable amount of movement and shifting of the particles of colour. If a piece of work be painted coat upon coat of oil colour before each coat is sufficiently dry, this movement will cause the top coat to break up and open out under a voluntary PLAIN PAINTING. 16? effort of the undercoats to obtain the necessary oxygen for their proper hardening. Four days is not too much to allow for the proper drying of oil colour which will nominally "dry" in twenty-four hours. The period may be shortened by additional driers, but a good rule is to allow all paint to stand four times as long as it takes to arrive at superficial dryness. Paints dry better in a free and equably well ventilated room than in a close warm one. In the use of driers the surface must be taken into account. Copper and oak are particularly anti-drying. Pine and cast-iron are particularly good. Quick-drying paint is usually stronger in odour than slow-drying. The obnoxious smell of paint may be changed into a comparatively pleasant one by the addition of a few drops of oil of spike lavender, which will also act as a drier. In like manner eau-de-Cologne may be added to spirit varnishes and lacquers to meet the wishes of fastidious people. The smell of paint may also be modified by placing large pans of water in the room in which the painting is being done. Time for Outside Painting. The time for outside painting is largely a matter of opinion. The writer considers that the summer time is undoubtedly the best time, because of the absence of dampness in the atmosphere, and the equable temperature of the nights. Spring and autumn come next. No outdoor work should be attempted in frosty weather. Frost destroys the qualities of the oil on which the stability of the work depends, and drives moisture deep into the wood-work. Effects of Undercoats in Finish. The undercoat of the densest paint always has a decided influence on the colour of the finished work. This is especially noticeable in flatted work. It is often desirable to obtain richness by painting the last coat but one in brighter colours than the required effect of the finished coat. Thus a coat of vermilion-toned pink under a rosy pink finish will give a depth and soft richness otherwise unobtainable. The bloom of an apricot can be represented by painting a pink over a full bright orange tone. The peculiar charm of the turquoise can be got by using a pure blue over a green, and so on ad infinitum. Richness in colour may often be obtained by tinting the pigment with a transparent stainer. Thus raw sienna and white makes a richer yellow than ochre and white. The com- mixture of two transparent colours produce washy results, but the use of two solidly opaque colours mixed together produces chalky heaviness. Retouching. Painting must never be retouched after it has commenced to set. If it should get rubbed and damaged it had 168 PAINTING AND DECORATING. better be left to dry, as any touching up at this stage will only make a bad matter worse, and such accidents frequently are less observable when the paint has finished drying than when actually occurring. If such places do mar the finished work, it is best to repaint the whole piece at once. Rubbing Down. Rubbing down must be accomplished by even and regular pressure, with special care to avoid rubbing the paint bare upon projections, mouldings, &c. In rubbing to produce a level surface as in felting down or rubbing filling up preparations, a rotatory motion is used. In rubbing slightly to remove dust, nibs, &c., between coats it is better to follow the direction of the grain of the wood. In work that is to be treated transparently viz., glazed, stained, or varnished the scratches are less liable to show if in the direction of the grain. The use of felt and powder pumice is not recommended for oil paint generally. All that is desirable between the coats of paint may be accomplished with glass paper ; while for preparatory rubbing upon old paint the natural or prepared block pumice is a far quicker and more reliable method. When the glass paper clogs in rubbing down oil paint, a little powdered whiting may be used under the paper, or a sprinkle of dry pumice powder. Priming. Care must be taken that wood-work is thoroughly dry when painted, and especially when primed. Knot the end grain parts of the wood, also sappy portions, with a coat of diluted knotting. It will save an extra coat of paint on these porous portions, and at the same time it does not entirely destroy its absorptive power. Painting Signs, &c. Painting for sign-boards for lettering in gold, or work for elaborate decoration, require special qualities and care. The work must be hard enough to stand working upon and washing. For this reason, colour made up in turpen- tine and varnish is the best for the purpose, and will give a good hard, reliable and durable finish. Slow drying varnish should be used for the purpose. If time is not pressing it is by far the best plan to varnish the board and allow it time to properly harden before putting on the writing. Painting Metal Work. In painting metal work, iron requires the greatest amount of attention. The paint for iron- work should be harder than that for wood-work, as there is not the same liability to shrinkage or swelling, and less absorption. If varnish take the place of oil in the later coats, and the other ingredients be used as recommended for wood- work, a good and permanent job will certainly result, and the additional cost is balanced by additional durability. Enough varnish or boiled PLAIN PAINTING. 169 oil must always be used to prevent hardness and consequent chipping. Red lead is regarded as the best paint for iron, and may be used for the two first coats with boiled oil and a little turpentine. The great point to be observed is to be sure that the iron is well dried before painting. Cast iron is spongy in texture and absorbs dampness readily. If all iron castings were well coated with red lead and boiled oil while still warm, there would be little trouble with rust. As soon as the casting cools it com- mences to absorb moisture, and one-half of the efficacy of paint- ing is lost by the delay. Many other pigments are useful for iron- work, and are recom- mended especially for the purpose. The oil, however, is the real protector, and if that is there and good, the pigment only plays a secondary part, the oil being itself an actual preservative against rust. Re-Painting Old Iron- Work. Old iron- work should not be washed with water prior to painting, but should be scraped and well rubbed with card wire and coarse emery cloth. The rust may be scrubbed off by the use of a lubricant, as paraffin. Special wire scrub brushes are made for this purpose by Messrs. Hamilton & Co. It should not be painted within a week of wet weather, so that no water can be imprisoned under the new paint. After the first and second coats any colour may be used, as for wood- work. In re-painting old iron-work, a coat of red lead should be first used, or half of red lead may be added to the colour used, if it can be done without prejudice to the covering power of the finish- ing colour. Black has a good preservative effect on iron-work, especially animal blacks, which are greasy in nature ; any of the carbonic blacks can be mixed with red lead to produce a good and durable brown. Rust, if allowed to accumulate under paint will go on spread- ing and lift the paint off. One of the fruitful causes of rust in iron-work is the unprotected condition of the portions which are scnewed or bolted together before painting. All iron-work ought to be painted in sections before being fitted together. Painting Hot Pipes and Boilers, &e. Hot water pipes, coils, and hot air grids and boiler cases must be painted with japanners' colour. This is made from equal parts of japanners' gold size and turpentine, and varnished with japanners' varnish. Fire stoves and gas stoves can, by the use of this preparation, be painted in any colours, or bronzed, gilded, &c., and yet stand great heat. The practice of blackleading stoves is quite un- necessary, except for the actual bars and parts in direct contact 170 PAINTING AND DECORATING. with the fire. All the other portions look far better enamelled, the same colour as the other painted work in the room. Copper and zinc require scratching or roughing to take the paint well and hold it firmly. A coat of Duresco is a good method of treatment, over which is added a coat of varnish or varnish colour. Oil colour must never be used as a first coat, as it will peel off. Copper must be well washed with turpentine rags before painting, to remove any machine oil or grease. In all metal painting, good sharp colour is to be used for the first coat, if the metal has been turned, drilled, fitted, or worked upon. For castings this is not so necessary. Painting Rough Wood-work. In painting the rough ex- terior boarding of sheds, barns, and outhouses, and for rough fences, it is sometimes necessary to use a cheaper material than ordinary oil paint. In such cases for new wood-work, Stockholm tar and boiled oil in equal parts make a capital preparation, giving the effect of stained pine at a moderate cost. It should be mixed by heating together and well stirring. Ordinary gas tar and turpentine, with some pitch added, is better than plain gas tar, and dries a fairly hard and weather-resisting black. Tar should always be applied hot for effective results, and pitch added to increase its hardening. These tar mixtures are all impervious to water, and good preservatives for rough wood-work. Quick Paints. It is often desirable to paint and finish small articles quickly. Shellac varnish, or patent knotting with powder colour added, dries very rapidly with a good gloss, bears handling, and stands well. Another method is to use distemper, or water colour, and then varnish with spirit varnish. Patent knotting is an extremely useful agent in touching up or making good little odds and ends at the finish of a job, and can be utilised in many ways. It must be of the best quality, made from naphtha and good shellac. As a rapidly drying varnish to stand handling it may be considered perfectly satisfactory for small surfaces. Some of the methylated knotting sold is not equally to be recommended for these purposes. Painting Canvas. In painting canvas, the absorption must be stopped by sizing, or, as the oil paint oxidises, the canvas will become brittle and useless, indeed, a slow combustion process goes on which in time quite destroys the fibres. Acid Resisting and Insulating Paints. Paints and enamels are now manufactured to resist acids and electrical currents. Harland's air-drying resist enamel is useful for these purposes, and may be used for electric light fittings and surroundings. BORDERS FOR BRUSH-WORK PRACTICE. PLAIN PAINTING. 171 Fire-Proof Paints. Asbestos fire-proof paints are also obtainable, but do not largely concern the house painter. They are useful for a variety of purposes which will occur to the reader, and are capable of a limited amount of artistic treatment. Full instructions for their use is supplied by the various makers. Luminous Paints. Luminous paint has also been placed upon the market, to which pigment the same remarks apply. Lubrose Paints. These paints are supplied quite ready for use and require no thinning. The pigment is incorporated during manufacture. They can be applied directly upon wood or any metal, or upon old paint. It is much used in Government Dockyards, &c., for metal work. In no case should oil or turpentine be used with it as the diluent is a form of wood naphtha. The manufacturer supplies a suitable "thinnings." Portland Cement. The old difficulty of painting upon Portland cement may be overcome by giving two coats of alabastine prior to oil painting. Grounds for Enamelling. Enamels should always be laid upon a hard ground without undue gloss. Three parts turpentine and one part linseed oil, with a little French oil varnish, will make a capital ground. There should be no oily or elastic undercoat. Two coats of the above paint on wood-work after priming, and one coat oil paint and one of the above on walls, will be a good ground for enamels. All enamels should be laid on liberally, and flat enamel should be stippled. Spray Painting. The distribution of paint, distemper, or stain by means of a spray diffuser in which the paint is forced into a fine spray by a jet of air has long been possible, though it is only recently that it has met with any trade recognition. Now, however, the use of an aerograph spray has become quite common for special purposes, and in America and on the Continent has been more generally used than in England. The rapidity with which it is distributed with a fine and even grain over any given surface, whether flat or modelled, without the intervention of a skilled painter, indicates an increasing demand for the process. It is already in common use in Government departments, for the preparation of paint samples by manufacturers, in works and mills where articles have to be painted prior to sending out, and in many other places. The Aerograph Company supply a machine that will spread anything from flatting or enamel to limewash far more quickly and evenly than any painter can possibly do so with a brush. 172 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Stencilling can be beautifully executed by its aid, and the colours can be blended together with the finest gradation. The initial cost is heavy, as it involves the cost of an air pump, a painter's outfit costing about 25. whilst a small outfit suitable for decorating and lithography can be obtained for about 10. "White Enamel. A rapid method of white enamelling is as follows : First coat on. new wood Alabastine, 2 measures ; water, 1 measure. Brush out well and lay off across grain. Second coat Add another measure of water to the above proportions, finish with the grain. Let dry and rub down with fine glass paper and cork. Third coat Raw linseed oil, driers, a very little white lead or zinc white, and -J turps. Fourth coat White enamel. Fifth, if desired Ditto. The alabastine holds up the gloss of the enamel, and the process is very rapid, as the whole can be done in two days. Solvent Removers. A new class of solvents prepared from benzine and similar spirits has recently been invented. Of this class Pyrol, Verdalene, and Pintoff are the leading makes. They have the immense advantage of leaving the work ready for painting again without any washing down or wetting, are easy of application and rapid in effect. The greatest objection to them is their strong odour,which pene- trates into every part of the house in which they are being used. They are also very inflammable, and require careful handling. Pyrol was the first of these solvents on the market, and the patent, which is of great value, is nowbeing tested in the law courts. Note to p. 156. A special filling composition has recently been gaining wide favour, known as Harland's enamel filling. It is in the form of a stiff paste, and a special thinning is supplied as a diluent. Under severe weather tests it has been proved a most durable filling, not given to cracking or peeling, and holding most tenaciously to the wood, iron, or other ground on which it is put. It may be spread stiffly with a trowel or broad knife, or it may be brushed on more thinly. It can also be mixed with dry white lead to make a hard and impervious " stopping." The base appears to be a finely ground hard slate or granite, and the thinning a special varnish diluted in correct proportion with oil of tur- pentine. Two coats may be applied at four hours interval, if necessary, but a safer plan is to coat morning and night. This filling cuts down specially well with natural pumice stone of a soft character, leaving a good ground for priming. It can be used either prior to or after painting. For front doors or shop fronts in exposed sunny positions, if the work is first coated with the tilling two or three coats, and then rubbed down and finished in the usual way, cracking or blis- tering are said to be impossible. A panel exposed to the sun and heat from May to December presented a perfect surface. 173 CHAPTER XL increasing use of hard woods and of closelygrainedsoft woods of fine marking and texture, such as cypress, sequoia, kauri, Canadian redwood, jarrah, and others, has rendered a know- ledge of staining of considerably increased utility to the painter. Indeed, unless he is content to pass a large proportion of his legitimate work over to the cabinet-maker and French polisher, it is absolutely necessary that he make himself acquainted with the art and craft of colouring and finishing woods in their natural grain. These woods when naturally finished have a superior effect to merely painted work. Formerly the only wood which was left to the staining of the house-painter was pine or deal, and the staining was invariably the mere imitation in colour of a more expensive wood. All other staining was done by French polishers. It is now quite customary to colour woods by stain- ing to any and every hue 174 PAINTING AND DECORATING. The Artistic Limitation of Staining. Staining may be defined as coating with a colouring matter which changes the hue without obscuring the grain or texture. It is accomplished either by the use of transparent colours or chemical action, or both. When, as is generally the case, it is applied to wood- wook, the colouring is, or should be, limited in range to such colours as are common to woods, or are suggestive of wood. Artistic instinct revolts against the fashion now in vogue among some classes, of staining woods in crude greens and steely greys, mauves, and peacock blues. These colours do not impart that structural solidity or importance to wood-work that is natural and proper. It is not at all necessary that the colour used should be the actual colour of any particular wood, as long as it is not so far removed from a woody colour as to be altogether unlike wood. Thus a bright red or an olive green, are not colours which we find reproduced in any actual wood, but they are so nearly allied to wood colours that they do not do violence to one's sense of propriety. Classes of Staining. Staining may be roughly divided into at least four classes Water staining, oil staining, spirit staining, and varnish staining. In addition to these, staining is used decora- tively to produce various ornamental effects. French polishers have a few other names for certain processes which are worthy of note viz., chemical staining, water coating, improving, in- graining, mottle staining, overgraining, &c. These devices are, however, seldom used by painters, but might be usefully em- ployed with more frequency. Water Staining is the application of aqueous coloured solutions obtained from colouring substances soluble in water and having no body in them, as walnut juice, logwood extract, gamboge, turmeric, indigo, the juice of berries and bark of trees, and some pigments having little or no body, as Prussian blue, burnt and raw Sienna, Vandyke brown, and alkaline dyes. Chemical Staining is the use of aqueous solutions not in themselves having colour, but which change the colour of the woods to which they are applied, as soda, lime, potash, ammonia, various sulphates and salts. Water Coating is the use of body colours ground in water, as ochre, Umber, Venetian red, chrome, drop black, &c. It is in reality a form of distempering, differing, however, in the fact that it is not all left upon the wood to dry. Size is added to bind the colour, as in distempering. This process, of course, hides the natural grain of the wood somewhat, and disguises its shortcomings and defects. STAINING. 175 Oil Staining is, as its name implies, the use of oil colours of a more or less transparent nature, as the Siennas, Vandyke brown, Prussian blue and brown, and the aniline and cochineal lakes. Varnish Staining consists in the use of varnish with the oil stains described in the last paragraph. The varnish is added to stop absorption, and prepare the work for varnishing or surface polishing. Spirit Staining is akin to oil staining, but certain aniline and other dyes are more tractable and more easily miscible in spirit than in oil or water mediums, and are consequently used in this form. Improving is a term used to denote a mere brightening of the actual colour of the wood, without changing its hue. It may be accomplished by either or any of the staining processes used singly or in combination. Natural Graining is the adding to the wood more markings, in order that plain pieces may be made fuller of interest and richer in grain. It does not imply a change in the kind of wood. All the processes used in ordinary graining, as mottling, pencilling, and overgraining, are resorted to in this operation. Wax Stains. Oak and other hard woods are often wax stained and polished by hand. Wax stains are made from a mixture of beeswax and turpentine, and oil colours, such as Vandyke brown, burnt Sienna, &c. They are applied freely when warm, and when well soaked in and hardened, say in twelve hours, a fine dull eggshell polish is produced by briskly rubbing with a hard shoe brush, or a roughish piece of jute canvas. Comparative Utility of Stains. Spirit stains evaporate so quickly, as to require great expertness in handling in order to avoid patchiness and unequal depth. Varnish stains are only useful where economy is of more importance than durability, and when a high finish is not requisite. A comparison between the different classes of stain shows that the most durable stain is an oil stain. This has a protective as well as a decorative value, and the oil, by reason of its slowness in drying, penetrates very deeply into the pores of the wood. Water stains are likely to raise the grain in the wood, and roughen its surface. They enhance the appearance of the grain if it be good, as the resinous parts resist the action of the water, and remain in strong contrast with the softer and spongy portions. They dry quickly and are inexpensive. Polishing or varnishing can be done upon all the different classes of stain. The processes are dealt with under the head of Varnishing. 176 PAINTING AND DECORATING. The great desiderata in staining are clarity, evenness, and depth. Application of Stains. Large brushes should be used, and the work saturated and brushed in, so that the wood takes as deep a colour as the colour of stain used will make it. It is always better to err on the light side in making up the stain, as the work can always be gone over again to deepen it further. It is difficult to evenly manipulate a very deep stain on white wood in one coat. A flat duster or a softener may be used to remove brush marks and keep the stain even. It will sometimes be necessary to stain wood in such a way as to subdue or partially hide the natural markings. This can be well done by the use of oil stains, and stippling, or flogging it while fully wet, and before it has entirely soaked in. Water staining upon new wood-work should be done upon the unprepared wood as it has left the plane, and without glass papering. It will require sizing prior to varnishing, if the varnishing is to be limited to one or two coats ; but the work will be more durable if the sizing be omitted, and a further coat of varnish given instead. Resinous woods, such as pitch pine, should be oil stained, or varnish or spirit stained, and not sized before varnishing. In varnishing woods in their natural colour, sizing may be used either before or after the first coat of varnish, to assist in stopping the absorption, or a coat of thin knotting may be used first instead of the size. Varnish only is, however, the best for transparency and durability. This will necessitate at least three, generally four, coats of varnish. Cheap and fairly good finish may be secured by twice sizing and once varnishing. Staining Floors. When staining floors they must first be thoroughly cleansed. After washing in the ordinary way, dilute oxalic acid may be used to remove stains of ink or iron rust, &c. Floors should always be oil or beeswax stained, so that the stain penetrates well into the wood . Oil stained floors can be varnished, but beeswax stain must be polished with beeswax and turpentine and a stiff, short shoe brush a somewhat laborious and costly process for the housekeeper. It is necessary that whatever is used, the wood should be thoroughly well saturated. Sizing and knotting preparatory to staining is not to be recommended, as, if this is used, the stain will chip off and tread up white and shabby-looking in a short time. It is possible to add to the prominence of the grain of wood by staining. This can be done by using water stain hot, or by oil stain made much deeper than the work is to appear when STAINING. 177 finished. In either case the stain should be laid on freely and allowed to thoroughly soak in. In the case of oil stain it may be allowed a quarter of an hour to penetrate, and the superfluous stain may then be wiped off with rags. Oiling Woods. Linseed oil is applied to wood before polish- ing or varnishing or without any after operation, to bring out the lustre, colour, and beauty of the grain. Boiled oil should be used for this purpose, and it should be of good quality ; a little terebine must be added to assist the drying. Before staining wood-work, go over the end grain and sappy portions with a coat of thin knotting so as to reduce the absorbency of these parts. If this is not done they will come out black against the other portions of the work. It is necessary to bear in mind that all woods have a tendency to deepen in colour when exposed to the atmosphere. This is extremely noticeable in pine, which rapidly darkens. The staining should therefore be lighter and brighter than you wish the work to appear when permanently toned with age. Allow- ance should also be made for subsequent varnishing and polish- ing. It is also the nature of all oils and varnishes to deepen and become discoloured with age in a greater degree than the natural wood will do. When oil or varnish stains are used upon wood, without the intervention of size or shellac, this tendency will be mutually assisted, and the darkening or ageing goes on at an increased speed. Woods containing a large quantity of oil or resinous matter deepen more quickly than dry light woods. List of Stains. The following list of stains may be used for the classes of staining indicated : Water Staining. Stephens' or Mander's prepared stains. Vandyke brown in water. Raw and burnt Sienna in water. Raw and burnt Umber in water. Indigo in water. Blue black in water. Mahogany lake in water. Alkaline dyes (not to be used with aniline dyes). Aniline dyes (not to be used with alkaline dyes). Yellow lake in water. Terra vert in water. Gamboge in water. And other transparent or partially transparent pigments. Oil Staining. All the pigments named above, and others that are trans- 12 178 PAINTING AND DECORATING. parent but ground in linseed oil and with a little liquid driers, Japanners' black (best) thinned with turpentine; bitumen or asphaltum thinned with turpentine. Spirit Stains. Boiled and macerated solutions of the various dyewoods and dyestuffs as logwood, Sanders wood, Brazilian redwood, ani- line powders, dragon's blood, turmeric, arsenate of copper, saffron, indigo, and others ; also various berries, cochineal, &c. Chemical Staining. Alkaline manganates, permanganate of potash and Epsom salts, liquid ammonia, carbonate of soda, bichromate of potash, acetic acid, and other substances. Water Coating. Ochres, Umbers, Venetian red, lamp black, rose pink, all in size. The following stains and dyes, &c., are recommended for the special purposes named : To deepen the natural colour of oak, mahogany, and other woods. 1 oz. Bichromate of potash. 1 oz. Carbonate of soda. 1 quart boiling water. Apply with a large sponge, as this mixture destroys brushes. To deepen oak. Stand the article in a room, in which place open saucers of liquid ammonia and seal up all the crevices, so that the fumes do not escape. Or, coat the article with a saturated solution of ammonia diluted with water. Walnut stain. 1 oz. Epsom salts, 1 oz. permanganate of potash dissolved separately in 1 pint each of boiling water, and mixed together and applied hot with a fibre (not bristle) brush or a sponge. Mahogany stain. Spirits of wine, 4 oz., dragon's blood, 1 oz. Dissolve and thin with methylated spirit to required depth. Rosewood stain. A decoction of logwood and red Sanders wood in naphtha, is boiled to extract the stain. Green stains. Yellow arsenic and indigo, or indigo and turmeric dissolved in water or spirit. Yellows and yellow browns. Strong decoctions of tea, coffee, saffron, turmeric, or aloes. These may be intermixed. STAINING. 179 Reds. Decoctions of cochineal, Brazil chips, logwood, or archil. These may be mixed with the above yellows. Grey and brown. Decoctions of vinegar in which a few scraps of iron have been placed. Black. Lamp black or gas soot ; the latter is a jet black (collect it upon an iron plate). Greens. Wood, indigo, verdigris, or vitriol added to the above yellows or reds. Blues. The above four are used in green stains- Water coatings to produce all prepared in size Mahogany. Venetian red and ochre and mahogany lake. Rosewood. Mahogany lake, rose pink, and lamp black. Oak. Burnt Umber and ochre. Ebony. Irony black. Satin wood or maple. Yellow ochre and chrome. Walnut. Burnt Umber and Venetian red* Apply these while the size is in solution, and wipe down with a dusting brush, leaving streaky marks: size and varnish. This process is useful for temporary office work or cheap furniture. Ornamental Staining. Many decorative effects are obtained by the skilful use of staining, and the following processes may be briefly recapitulated here : Effects much resembling inlay or intarsia work may be obtained in several ways, all differing in detail and appearance. A pattern may be cut out of lining paper and gummed or pasted to the panel, care being taken not to soil any other portion than that covered by the paper. The paper should be well sized before the pattern is cut out of it. When the paste has dried, the panel may be oil stained, the paper protecting those portions of the wood that it covers. When the oil stain is dry, a little soaking with water will detach the paper, leaving a clean wood pattern on a stained ground. The paste or gum prevents the oil stain from running underneath the paper. Patterns may be stencilled in knotting or spirit varnish upon a panel ; the portion thus stencilled upon will resist water stain, which may be applied to the remainder of the panel, resulting in a pattern of clear wood upon a stained ground as before. Colour may be mixed with the knotting or varnish and a poly- chromatic effect produced in the same way. A stencil may be put upon the bare wood in deep rich varnish stains blended by stencilling, and the whole panel afterwards stained with a sponge and water stain to the required depth. A stencil may be put upon the bare wood in solid body colour, or in gold or 180 PAINTING AND DECORATING. silver, the panel being first clear sized, or not, as the worker prefers. When this is dry the panel may be stained all over with various stains in water, and the superfluous stains wiped off with a leather, leaving the gold or other surface clear and clean. A panel may be sized twice with clear size and decorated in any desired manner upon the clear wood ground, the wood being allowed to show through the painting. When the painting is dry the panel may be washed, removing the size with warm water, and then stained to any depth, the stain allowed to penetrate, and then the superfluous stain wiped off clean, leaving the painting clear and effective. Another method of decorating in stain is to pounce the design upon the bare wood, and outline the pattern with fine brown or black lines, then stain between the lines with oil, spirit, or water stains, and finally, varnish. The brown lines will keep the stains from impinging on each other. If light lines are desired the panel will require first sizing twice, then outlining in Bruns- wick black, then washing to remove the size, next staining in water stains, and, finally, the Brunswick black must be removed by a free use of turpentine. Several different depths of stain may be obtained upon one panel by commencing with the bare wood and using water stains. Stain with the lightest stain required first, all over the panel. Then coat the portions which are intended to remain in that depth with thick white hard varnish, and again stain the panel over with the next deeper stain; when this is dry cover the parts that are to remain this depth with the varnish and allow it to dry ; then stain all over again with the next depth of stain, and again varnish the parts that you desire to be finished in that depth ; and so on, till the whole of the stains are in. Finally, remove the varnish by applying methylated spirit and a sponge, which will not affect the stain, and polish or varnish in the ordinary way. Another method of procedure that may be adopted is to size and varnish the panel, and then coat any parts that you wish to remain uncoloured, with Brunswick black. Then stain the panel over with a water colour stain, which will not penetrate; allow it to dry and remove the Brunswick with turpentine, leav- ing the water colour uninjured. This is one of the best methods of obtaining clear, sharp lines of light stain upon a deep ground. Gilding may be done upon the bare wood and afterwards the wood-work way be stained (of course it is assumed that the wood is sized before gilding in the ordinary manner, first with glue size, and afterwards with oil gold size). The glue size must be STAINING. 181 washed off with warm water after gilding is done, and then the panel can be stained all over. These ideas can be extended, elaborated, and used in con- junction with advantage ; their scope being only limited by the invention and resource of the decorator. White wood and pine is an admirable ground for flower and decorative painting. Aniline powder colours ground in egg white to the consistency of tube colours, and used in the same manner as tube colours, have the compound property of colouring the work, staying where they are put without spreading, and stopping the suction. They have a soft and velvety effect, and the wood can be stained or varnished over after they are stopped out with a coat of egg size, or spirit varnish, and wiped off cleanly from the painting with a clean soft rag. Decorative effects upon plaster can be produced by the use of stain. The plaster ground must not be too hard or impervious nor too highly trowelled. Oil and spirit stains are the best for this class of work. Decorative effects on stains should be somewhat conventional in design, as the grain of the wood showing through the stain, while adding beauty to the texture, and imparting luminosity to the work, makes any attempt at naturalistic painting unsuit- able to the material and to the method. Flowers, fruit, figures, and ornament can be painted in body oil colours upon stained wood grounds, obscuring the grain, with perfect good taste and a good effect. Patterns which have the effect of inlay are admissible, but good judgment is not consistent with any attempts to imitate inlay, rnarqueterie, or intarsia work, especially as when freed from the trammels and limitations that surround the practice of these arts, much greater scope is afforded the designer. Stained ornament upon natural woods is so beautiful in itself that it is quite superfluous to attempt to make it appear other than it is by taking advantage of its superficial resemblance to inlay. The aim of the decorator should rather be directed to taking full ad- vantage of the freedom possessed by the brush as contrasted with the saw, and of the ease and cheapness of the manipulation when compared to that of inlaying. The sketches distributed through this chapter are suggestive of the class of design best suited to the method, and are indica- tive of the direction that the work should take. Matsine. A notable addition to the available staining sub- stances is the range of transparent colours sold under the proprietary name of " Matsine." 182 PAINTING AND DECORATING. This material is a preparation of very transparent pigments gound in spirit with a certain amount of fixative. It gives an extremely clear dye-like stain, adds to the life of the wood, wipes clear off the hard grain, and sinks into the soft parts deeply. It is ready for immediate use when thinned with turpentine, and leaves a satisfactory finish much akin to wax-polish without further treatment, or may be varnished in the usual manner without sizing. Matsine stains are useful for tinting, or can be used for trans- parency painting. They are the best medium for tapestry painting. Wood Fillers. A new material that is now much used is wood filler a substance for stopping the pores and forming a base for polish or varnish. Blume's liquid filler, with stains specially made to follow it, is one of the most satisfactory. Naphthaline Stains. These are coining into favour for cheap work. They have great penetrative power, dry rapidly, and combine well with pine woods. A rich brown when used full strength, they can be modified by adding ordinary oil stainers. Cracks in Stained Floors. After numerous trials, a new " crack filler " has been devised by an American manufacturer. Johnson's crack filler will not chip away or kick up, and takes the stain, especially their own wax stains, admirably. No other substance has quite the same properties, as it comes between putty and alabastine in character. 183 CHAPTER XH. ARNISH is a material of transparent or semi-transparent appearance, and is used either as a protective or preserva- tive agent, or as a means of obtaining a high finish. Varnishes are sometimes coloured by reason of their composition, as in black varnish or Japan ; or by the addition of dyestuflfs, as in lacquers. Japans and enamels are admixtures of varnish and colouring matter, sometimes in a transparent and sometimes in an opaque form. Classes of Varnish. There are water varnishes, as gum Arabic or isinglass dissolved in water. Spirit varnishes, viz. : Gums or resins dissolved in spirits, as patent knotting, or white hard varnish, French polish, &c. Oil varnishes, viz.: Gums and resins dissolved in oils, as mastic varnish, copal oak varnish, <fec. There are also natural varnishes, as lacquers, india rubber solution, &c. Lacquer and spirit varnishes dry and harden by the evapora- tion of the volatile spirit, leaving the gum as a thin shell over the surface of the work. Oil varnish dries by the absorption of the oxygen in the atmosphere solidifying the oil with the gum, 184 PAINTING AND DECORATING. and forming a skin of preservative character. A certain amount of evaporation also takes place, as some proportion of spirit is usually added to oil varnishes to make them freely workable. The better class of varnishes contains a large percentage of oil, and are slow in drying. The varnishes principally used by the painter are as follow : Oil Varnishes. Mastic varnish, chiefly used for pictures and paintings of value. "White oil varnishes, known variously as French oil, Coburg, white marble varnish, &c., for the bes-t internal work. Pale oil varnishes, as pale copal, pale carriage varnish, maple varnish, <kc., both elastic for external work, and hard for inside work. Medium oil varnishes, known by many names, as pale oak, carriage, &c., made in both outside and inside varieties. Dark oil varnish, known as oak varnish, church oak, hard oak, &c., both inside and outside. Spirit Varnishes. Flatting varnish, a varnish that dries without gloss. Paper varnish, a pale varnish used on wall papers, and having a large amount of turpentine in its composition. Japanners' varnish also contains a large quantity of turps, but is less white than paper varnish. Patent knotting, a mixture of shellac and naphtha, or other spirit. White and brown hard spirit varnish, made from resins, gums, and methylated spirits of wine. French polish and finishes, consisting of shellac and spirits of wine. The only water varnishes that are much used are solutions of gum or isinglass, for the protection of paper. We have also Mander's water flatting varnish, which can be used upon paper without previous sizing. Elastic and Hard Varnishes. By far the most generally used are the oil varnishes, which dry by oxidization of the oils and the evaporation of the turpentine, from which they are compounded, producing a leather-like, elastic, and transparent skin. Elastic varnishes, or outside varnishes, are those which dry sufficiently hard to stand handling, but are, as the term implies, yielding enough to contract and expand with the changes of temperature to which they are subjected. These varnishes are often useful for internal work where the same conditions are in force, as upon indoor sashes and shutters. VARNISH AND VARNISHING. 185 It will be noticed often that these portions of the room have cracked and perished, while the rest of the varnished work is in good condition. The difference between elastic and hard varnishes depends in the better qualities upon the proportion of oil to turpentine in the varnish, the former rendering the varnish elastic, and the latter hard. The better qualities of elastic varnishes are made entirely from elastic gums, while the hard varnishes have gums which are more resinous in their nature. The commoner classes of hard varnish are almost entirely produced from resins, and will not stand hard wear. The quality in working of a varnish depends greatly upon its age, also on the manner and place of its storage. It is impos- sible in making the varnish to entirely dissolve all the minute particles of gum. These are gradually reduced by filtration, but the fine particles are only removed by allowing the varnish to stand in large tanks and thoroughly settle. If they are not removed they will appear many times magnified when spread upon the work. Successive Coats of Varnish. In precisely the same way that we graduate the coats of paint in painting so that we do not get an expansive coat beneath a hard unyielding one, so we pro- ceed in the matter of varnishes. There must be a relative and near resemblance between the character of each coat and the one next to it. The hardest of all varnishes are the spirit varnishes and lacquers ; these must on no account be used either over or under oil varnish. In the first case, they would inevitably crack and crawl ; and in the latter case, would have such a hard sur- face as to present no key for the coat of oil varnish, which would be easily peeled off. Spirit varnishes will not stand hard wear, they are subject to easy abrasion. Applying Varnish. In the application of varnish, the most important point to observe is absolute and scrupulous cleanliness. To make a perfect job, it is necessary to have a perfectly clean surface, free from dust, grease, or other impurity ; a perfectly clean pot, a perfectly clean brush, and a perfectly clean atmos- phere. How clean, only those who have experience understand. The necessary good surface should be prepared before the work arrives at the varnishing stage by rubbing down and filling up all inequalities of surface. If the work is at all greasy and the varnish does not flow evenly, it must be leathered down briskly with the leather just damp. If very oily, a little fuller's earth may be dissolved in the water that the leather is damped in. The varnishes used should always be the best of their respec- 186 PAINTING AND DECORATING. tive kinds from well-known and tested makers. A great many jobs are spoiled by the constant change of material from that of one maker to another. In order to obtain good results under the varying conditions of general work it is necessary to be acquainted with the action and peculiarities of the varnish used, under all conditions, and this cannot be done if the make of varnish is frequently changed. Indeed, the same argument applies to most painters' materials. In using a new material it is always a question of paying in failures for experience, and there is every reason why this should not be repeated oftener than is really necessary. In the experience of the writer there are excellent and in some cases perfect varnishes by almost every maker; but certain makers excel particularly with special kinds, and each class of varnish requires special and unique conditions if it is to appear at its best. It would not be within the scope of possibility to enter into all the details of this question, and it would be in- vidious to select special makers of varnish for praise, especially as the writer's main experience has, in consistency with his opinions, been limited to a few tried makers. Almost every make of varnish has, however, been given a more or less limited trial for the purpose of this work. Without in any degree depreciating the value of other varnishes it may be remarked that many years' experience has proved the following special varnishes to be among the writer's favourites : Principal Varnishes in Use. Mander's white Coburg var- nish or white oil varnish for best interior white work, or Harland's white marble ditto. French oil varnishes (Turner's). Carriage varnish (Harland's). Flatting varnishes; Mander's encaustic. Black japan (Lloyds'). Knotting (Tabor & Trego). Terebine (Power's). Japanners (Noble & Hoare). Inside oak (Mander's, Harland's, Noble & Hoare, Turner's). White enamel (Harland's). Dark oak (Mander's). Body varnish (Blume's). Black Japan (Blume's). The number of reliable varnish manufacturers are yearly in- creasing, as a wider knowledge of scientific methods are dis- placing the old system of proprietary and secret recipes. On the whole, the greatest amount of satisfaction has been given the writer by Mander's and Harland's makes, yet there are some certain varnishes of these makers that may, in the writer's opinion, be beaten by other makes. Precautions. "Varnish tins must never be left open, and must be stored in a warm dry place not above 80 Fahr. VARNISU AND VARNISHING. 187 No varnish left in the can from which it has been used must be returned to the varnish bottle. No varnish must ever be thinned without a knowledge of its components. Care should be taken in selecting a perfectly clean vessel to work from, and it should be dusted out and then wiped with a clean, damp leather. The writer has a preference for glazed pots or jars, regarding them as cleaner and more easily cleaned than tins and kettles. Bennett's Patent Can. A new can has recently been devised and patented under the above name to ensure that clean varnish shall remain free from brush scrapings during the progress of the work. The can or kettle is double, like a steam cooker or glue pot, but the inner kettle, which is enamelled, is suspended by ears in the centre of the outer one, so that, as the workman draws the brush against the outer edge to clear it of stale varnish that has worked up to the heel of the brush, the varnish expelled runs down between the two kettles. It has also a device for keeping the brushes clean when not in use. The inner can lifts out, so that the inferior varnish can be used for inferior parts of the work. In pouring the varnish out of the cans into the vessel from which it is to be used, see that it does not get shaken up or dis- turbed, as there is always a minute settlement, and also beware of allowing it to aerate; pour slowly down the side of the vessel. The tin containing the varnish should not have been moved or shaken for at least a week, and the last half pint in each tin should be used up for less particular work. The brushes for varnishing should be of best quality hog-hair, and should be kept exclusively for the purpose ; when not in use they may be stood, or rather suspended, well over the stock in varnish or in boiled oil ; and a piece of paper or a lid should be fitted over the oil vessel to keep out all dust and prevent skimming over. Oval or flat brushes are the best shape for varnishing, the latter being the most suitable for high-class work. A varnish brush improves with age and wear until the bristles get too short for use. Straining Varnishes. Varnish ought not to require straining, but if by reason of accidental agitation or other cause it does require it, the straining is best accomplished by lightly plugging a wide-nosed funnel with about an inch and a half of cotton wool, and tying a bit of coarse muslin over the nozzle to keep it in ; the varnish is then allowed to trickle through of its own weight. A fine cambric or linen handkerchief makes a 188 PAINTING AND DECORATING. fairly good strainer, if the varnish be allowed to find its way through without any stirring or forcing. Selection of Varnishes. In selecting varnishes for various portions of the work, care and experience are very necessary. The varnish makers will always give all information as to the varnish supplied and its qualities and capabilities, but only long experience will form a really reliable guide. In work which it is intended to felt down, a good quality hard oil varnish is desirable; quick hard varnishes rub up chalky and scratch readily. The paleness of a varnish is not always a criterion of its value, and the palest varnishes are not desirable for general work ; a medium pale copal oak fulfils most purposes of the house painter. Hints on Varnishing. In applying the varnish to the work the following points must be attended to. Flow on a good body of varnish and do not rub it out in the least barely; in fact, put on as much as you can without allowing it to run or streak. This requires tact and skill, and it is better to have too little on than to allow of runs. A skilful hand will put on much more, and make it stay where it is put, than a novice can do. Be careful to lay it equally over the whole of the surface, not thinner in one part than in another. Do not allow it to accumu- late in corners, and crevices, and quirks of mouldings, where it will wrinkle and gather, even if it does not find its way out on to the level surface and produce runs. Do not work it about unnecessarily ; it must not be crossed and recrossed like paint, but judgment must be used to place it where you require it, straight away, without any unnecessary after-spreading. When giving under coats of varnish which are to be rubbed down, it is well to use less than for a finishing coat, as the varnish dries from the outside, and if the coat be a thick heavy one, it will take too long to harden before you can rub it down with safety and certainty. The edges of the wet varnish must not be allowed to set before attempting to join on with another patch, but must be kept well alive. In order to accomplish this it is sometimes desirable to disregard the usual order of working ; thus in the stiles of a door it is well to commence with top rail, and bring all the stiles and muntins along downwards together, should anything appear wrong after the varnishing has been done a few minutes, it had better be allowed to dry as it is, as any retouching will be sure to show; or, the whole may be cleaned off with turpentine. A perfect job of varnishing cannot be produced with less than four coats, of which the first one should be well felted down with ground pumice stone. PLATE 17. -BORDERS FOR BRUSH-WORK PRACTICE. To face p. 188.] VARNISH. 189 All varnishing should be done in as warm a temperature as is possible, certainly not less than 70 JFahr. The failure to comply with this injunction is answerable for much disappointment, and it is not always possible to work under these necessary restric- tions. The room in which you intend to work should be well swept, and the dust, if any, laid by sprinkling the floor with water. Do not mix varnishes of different makes, unless you know by experience what the result will be ; not that there is danger in mixing two varnishes of a similar class ; indeed, it is often desir- able to body up a new varnish by the addition of older stock. Flatting varnish may be mixed with copal varnish to obtain medium or egg-shell gloss. Japan black may be mixed with copal varnish to obtain a thin transparent stained varnish ; and many other mixtures are both desirable and useful. Spirit varnishes should never be mixed with oil varnishes or lacquers ; free turps or raw oil should not be added to varnish. Light is necessary to the proper hardening of varnish, as well as air. The sousing of newly varnished work (after it is dry) with clear, cold water will harden it materially, as water contains a high percentage of oxygen, which it freely gives out to the varnish. In ordinary practice it is sometimes useful to double coat work instead of felting down and re-varnishing. A very fine gloss can be got by double coating. Proceed in the following manner : Give the work a medium coat of varnish first, and when this is dry but still very tacky, repeat the coat of same varnish, work- ing very lightly and rapidly, taking care not to work up the under coating. Great care and skill is required to avoid disturbing the new under coat surface, and the less hard it is when top coated the more perfect will the gloss and finish be. No pre- paration must be used between the two coats. If the under coat is too dry there will be danger of cissing. Surfaces for Varnishing. All surfaces for varnishing should be prepared in such a way as to admit of no absorption of any portion of the varnish. Paperhangings and distemper work must be sized with clear glue size or size made from gelatine, which is better for this purpose than the former. When the colours upon the paper or other surface are not well fixed the size should be used cold in the form of a weak jelly, such as may be easily spread by the brush. Two coats will be necessary, and great care must be exercised in making sure that every portion of the work has been properly coated with the size, or the varnish will be absorbed and produce a discoloration. 190 PAINTING AND DECORATING. New wood must be sized if it is desired that the varnish shall hold out in one or two coats, but if not, the preservation of the work is best ensured by varnishing directly on the wood surface a thin or weak coat of isinglass size can then be interposed between the first and second coat of varnish. If economy is not in question it is preferable to give three coats of varnish, or even four, and dispense with the sizing altogether. Gilding should not be varnished over unless for special reasons. The gold retains its colour better without varnish, as the varnish deepens and mars the lustre of gold. In varnishing on painted work, the ground must be free from oiliness. This can be ensured by washing the work down with a little fuller's earth water, or by merely leathering or spong- ing the work with a rather dry sponge dipped in a solution of 2 ounces of fuller's earth in a quart of water. Some pigments, notably red lead, barytes, and some kinds of driers, exert a dele- terious influence upon the finish of varnished work. The ground for good varnishing should be free from these pigments. Patent driers, red lead, and chalky or bituminous colours, as whiting and Vandyke brown, can easily be avoided. The two latter are especially to be guarded against in grained oak work. The practice of using soap or rain water in graining colour is also a bad one for the varnish. Soda and soap suds are some- times used for killing grease on a surface which is afterwards varnished unless it is very thoroughly rinsed in clean water, it is a dangerous practice. The delicate nature of the composition of varnishes, and the ease with which good work may be ruined by the atmosphere, dust, and by the many adverse conditions under which the work may be done, lead us to add that even with the utmost care the results of varnishing are often unsatisfactory and disappointing, indeed, frequently puzzling to the worker, who has used, as he thinks, every precaution to ensure success and still finds an im- perfect finish. It must be borne in mind that the little specks which mar the surface of the varnish are many times magnified in a good lustrous varnish, and that the better and more glossy the surface, the more these blemishes will assert themselves. Carriage work frequently has as many as 12 coats of varnish and then looks perfect, but when the work first leaves the shop it shows many minute specks which are soon lost by the repeated washings which the work receives. The production of any painted or varnished surface equal to a piece of polished plate glass is a dream and delusion, and can only be realised by hand polishing, VARNISH. 191 of which more anon. However perfect the condition of the var- nish and the work, the " lintspecks floating in the silent air " will assert themselves. Felting Down Varnish. In felt- ing down varnishes for subsequent coatings, a rubber of felt (Fig. 58) or a block composed of cloth is used. The grinding agent is pumice stone powder of varying degrees of fineness ; pumice powder, for the most highly finished work it is well to levigate the pumice stone to avoid all extraneous grit or foreign matter which may have found its way into the powder. A long strip of list, wound round in a coil tightly and tied with a tape makes a good rubber, but solid felt rubbers are made by Hamilton & Co., of which we give an illustration (Fig. 58), and these are so cheap that home-made substitutes are not necessary. First damp the work with a sponge, using just enough good yellow soap to prevent the water cissing ; then soak the felt in water and sprinkle a little pumice on its face, and gently rub with a light circular motion, taking large sweeps similar to the method of working French polish, and going systematically and regularly over the whole surface many times. The rubbing should be continued until a uniform dulness of surface is obtained, showing no light streaks or patches. The work must be carefully watched lest the coat should be cut right through and damage be done to the ground. To levigate the pumice powder for finishing fine work, stir a pound in a large basin of water, allow the coarser particles to settle and then pour off the top water into a second basin ; the finest of the powder will be in this water and will in due time settle at the bottom, leaving the water clean. A special felt will be kept for fine powder, so that no coarse particles can get into the work and cause scratches. Polishing Varnished Work. When it is desired to finish work by hand polishing, the final fine rubbing with pumice is succeeded by a yet finer one, in which rotten-stone powder is used. This is sometimes used in linseed oil, and the rubber is a wad of cotton wool covered with soft cambric or fine, well-worn calico. The rubbing is done in the same way as before, very lightly and in a circular direction. When the surface is as fair and smooth as can be obtained, the final polishing is got by tak- ing a loose ball of medicated cotton wool and very fine wheat flour and polishing. It is important that the rotten stone and 192 PAINTING AND DECORATING. flour polishing should be done leisurely to avoid heating the varnish. A rapid polish can be obtained by brisk rubbing, but it is only fleeting and very irregular steady, persistent, and light easy rubbing is what is requisite. Some painters profess to obtain the final polish with the palm of the hand, or rather the ball of the thumb, but this is an obsolete and fanciful idea all that is desired may be obtained in the way described. Faults in Varnishing. There are several notable faults in varnishing on which a few words are desirable. They are here taken seriatim. First, blooming that is, the gathering upon the surface of a sort of mist, which is permanent or intermittent according to circumstances. The smooth, glossy surface offered to the air by good varnish induces condensation upon it of the moisture in the atmosphere. If this takes place before due hardening of the varnish, bloom will result. The same cause produces the same effect on gilded surfaces in oil gold size if the ground is well got up. Extreme cold upon a newly- varnished surface, or frost upon an old varnished surface have the same effect. It is sometimes caused by water in the varnish i.e., moisture in the gum from which it has been made, and which has not been properly elim- inated. Resin varnishes and cheap varnishes give little trouble in this respect ; it is the best class that are apt to bloom. Blooming due to moisture or frost may be remedied and removed by warmth, washing and brisk rubbing with warm water, or rub- bing with a wad of wool and olive oil. When due to the varnish itself it can seldom be eradicated entirely without re-varnishing. Any unequal amount of varnish upon a given space will affect the gloss. Where barely applied there will be less gloss than where freely applied; these dead patches are referred to as being " sleepy." Abnormal suction in the under ground in patches will cause a similar defect. Pinholing and Cissing are complaints of a similar class, caused by a recession of the varnish from a given point, usually a grease spot or a minute hole. It must be provided against by thorough rubbing down and leathering before varnishing. Pock Marks or Pitting are marks or indentations which do not extend to the ground of the work, but are in the varnish itself. They are caused by turps in the varnish brush, hot moist air in the room when the varnish is applied, the presence of smoke or steam, and the atmospheric conditions known by some as a " blight " viz., a dull, leaden heat often experienced in summer. These marks can only be removed by flatting down and re-varnishing. VARNISH. 193 Grittiness is sometimes caused in the varnish by its being stored in a cold damp atmosphere, by frost upon the cans during transit, and by chill to the varnish. Specks are formed in varnish by like conditions. No cure is possible but re-doing the work. Cracking is produced by using a hard varnish over an elastic varnish, or by coating over paint which is only partly dry. Wrinkles are caused by a too liberal use of varnish in the under coat and are not often formed upon painters' work, where the tendency is usually to put on too little. Much apparently inexplicable trouble arises from the fact that varnish is thoughtlessly exposed to different temperatures immediately before use. Varnish will turn out ropy and curdling when it has been standing out in a cold outhouse, and has been brought straight into a warm room and used. It will look thin and poor if brought out of a hot stuffy office and used straight away on a shop front on a cold or damp day. A good finish of varnishing is quite impossible upon a bad and uneven surface, even if it has been filled up, because the fact of there being a sixteenth part of an inch of filling in one place, and an eighth in another, makes it certain that the amount of gloss will vary in the finishing coat upon such unequally composed surfaces. The Use of Enamels. The use of enamel paints is very much akin to the use of varnishes; precisely the same rules apply. It is especially to be noted that all enamelling must be done upon a hard and firm surface, and not upon the ordinary oil paint grounds, if a successful result is desired. Great care is necessary in working the stiles and graining of wood- work, so as to avoid gathering and clogging, as enamels are less limpid, and possess less flow than varnish, owing to the pigment present in their composition. It should be remembered that any good varnish added to ordinary dry pigment ground stiff in turpentine, will make an enamel paint of good body and lustre. The best white enamels in the market are those which dry slowly and retain a high gloss. Quick-drying enamels are subject to abrasion and rapid disintegration. Enamelling upon slate is done in japanners' colour viz., dry colours ground in turps and Japan gold size and varnished with a japanners' varnish, which will require stoving in a high temperature in a specially constructed oven. Patent knotting and dry powder colour make a reliable quick enamel for odds and ends, where time is a consideration, but not 13 194 PAINTING AND DECORATING. for large surfaces. Powder bronze in patent knotting makes a good bronze paint for gas fittings and iron work. Japans are chiefly used for metal work, but black Japan of a good brand is capable of a high finish upon carriage and wood- work. Use upon a quick dead black ground in the same way as varnish. A white Japan has recently been placed upon the market, but the white enamels referred to meet all the requirements of the house painter. Lacquers. Lacquers, which are really a species of varnish, are principally used by the house painter for the protection and colouring of metallic surfaces, such as silver leaf, Dutch, and other metals. Their use will be dealt with under Relievo Decoration. Some of these lacquers are specially waterproof, and withstand the action of acid and steam. Brunswick black is an asphaltum varnish used for iron fittings, locks, and furniture. It is such a bad neighbour to oil paint that Japan is to be preferred. Berlin black is a similar article ; but it dries with a dead surface. It is useful for hinges, locks and fittings, stoves and pipes. Testing Varnishes. Varnishes may be tested by spreading them upon a piece of plate glass, and by using them upon a flat white ground; the former method is the test for hardness, drying, and tenacity, the latter for colour, fineness, body, and flow. One of the good qualities of varnish is that it should dry throughout, and not skin over hard on the mere surface. This may be tested by using a small portion of varnish as if it were gold size, putting it on rather freely, and, as soon as tacky, gilding it. If it is a varnish that dries superficially first, it will cause the gold to wrinkle in a few hours, and the greater this wrinkling the more faulty the varnish is in this respect. This is, however, by no means the most important point in a good varnish, as some of the best have this fault, especially finishing varnishes. White Polished Enamel. A very fine and desirable surface may be obtained upon smooth show panels of light grounds by enamel polishing. This is more akin to varnishing than painting, and is accomplished in the following manner: The work having been painted in fairly quick colour, and with a presentable surface, is coated with about six coats of colour made in the following way : Dry white lead is ground in turps, and tinted with ordinary oil colours of very fine quality, such as are sold in artists' tubes, to the desired tint ; this is thinned for use with as much body carriage varnish as there is turpentine in the VARNISH. 195 colour, and a coat is applied every second day; it should be laid on freely with a soft wide flat hog-hair brush in tin. It should then stand for a week to harden, when it can be felted down, as described for varnishing, and polished in the same manner, but using putty powder or whiting for the final rubbing instead of rotten stone (which is apt to soil the surface). This takes a fine hard polish without the necessity of varnishing. The air-drying enamels made by Messrs. Mander Brothers for metal work, cycles, and similar purposes are especially to be recommended for any but large surface work, for which we prefer colour under varnish. Enamels. Many excellent enamels have been invented since the first edition of this book was written, and others have been superseded. The use of them in place of a paint or varnish finish has greatly increased, and the old idea that a better finish could be obtained by varnishing has been exploded. Most of them are made from zinc white and an oil varnish, but the success of the better class of white enamels appears to be due to the incorporation of the pigment at an early stage of manufac- ture. Among the best known are : Mander's Olsina enamel, Ripolin, and Harland's snow-white, which are made in both glossy and matt or flat. Others are Satinette, Sisco, white Japan, Patinol (which is recommended by the makers for tropical climates), Sanalene, and China gloss. As is the case with washable distempers and proprietary paints generally, each of these enamels have their own individu- ality, and only lengthened practice and observation will enable the painter to always select the best for his particular purpose. An excellent enamel for front doors is not so suitable for bedrooms, and a good bedroom enamel would not suit bath insides or kitchens. For general internal work the first three named have been thoroughly tested by the writer, and all are good, work easily, stand well, and have a perfect gloss. A most useful product of the enamel class is the composition for black boards, prepared in a dozen colours by Ripolin. It is hard and stands rough usage, and may be useful for many more purposes than the one named. 196 CHAPTER XIII. HERE doctors differ who shall decide ? The whole question of the artistic legitimacy of purely imitative graining and marbling is now being discussed, as it has been periodically discussed in all ages. Twenty years ago the authoritative answer was given that it was inadmissible, a sham; but again its utility has thrust it to the front. In order to arrive at a fairly correct judgment on the point, let us first examine the question from the writer's pet stand- point, that of rationalism or common sense, irrespective of the personality of those who take sides on the matter. What is Graining ? First, what is graining ? Is it an attempt to deceive the observer? Second, what is the result? Third, why is it done ? Fourth, do these reasons commend themselves to our common sense ? The replies to these questions appear to be these : Graining is an attempt to represent the superficial appearance of some- IMITATIVE PAINTING. 197 thing other than the material painted. It cannot deceive the observer who has a knowledge of woods any more than a painted leaf can be mistaken for a real one. The utmost result in the direction of imitative suggestion is that it conveys to the mind the abstract idea of wood. It is used, artistically, because it conveys this idea of material, in the same way that bronzing and gilding convey the idea of metals, or that certain patterns con- vey the idea suggested by their motifs, or that certain colours convey the idea of strength. It is used commercially because, owing to its broken colour surface, it is extremely serviceable and little liable to show slight injury. Therefore, if the proper limitations are observed, there appears to be no solid argument against its use. Limitations to Graining, &c. The limitations that should be observed may be set down as follows : Graining should only be used where it is usual to employ, and desirable to suggest the employment of, wood constructionally ; and marbling must be governed by similar laws. It should only be used in cases where it is not expedient to employ the real wood, but where the employment of the real wood would be quite possible and rational. No more should be done than is necessary to suggest the wood intended. It is evidently not only vulgar, but also inartistic, to crowd into the work more features than would be likely to occur in the natural wood. The practice of filling the graining with markings is akin to that of third-rate actors, who, because of the cheapness of sham gems, crowd themselves with more jewellery than would be worn by the characters represented, and thus loudly proclaim the falsity of their representations. In this connection the words of Pope may be cited as particu- larly apt : " First follow nature, and your judgment frame From her just standard." This view of the subject suggests many doubts as to the actual importance of graining and marbling, and leads to the conclusion that if these limitations are studied there are many other equally good methods of obtaining the end aimed at. There is a great deal more graining done than there is the slightest necessity for, and much work is grained that would be better otherwise treated. The Condemnation of Graining. Before proceeding to that part of the subject, however, it is well to see who are the persons who have led the attack against imitative painting and what thay have suggested in its place. 198 PAINTING AND DECORATING. First, there are certain art critics and designers ; men whose opinions on all art subjects are worthy of serious consideration ; but who, not being thoroughly conversant with the commercial or technical advantages of graining for low grade work, hastily assume graining to be merely a sham. From a purely aesthetic view, if it be granted that graining is an attempt to deceive, they are quite correct in their denunciations. But they apparently start with wrong premises, and they are unaware of the merely utilitarian value of an irregularly broken colour surface. Then there are members of the trade who decry graining because they prefer to rush over a job more cheaply and quickly, and do not want it to last too long. These persons even ad- vocate one colour over everything ; no relief, no emphasised construction by judicious tinting. They run down any and everything that takes a little time to do properly. They wel- comed with open arms the advent of Oscar Wilde's white draw- ing-room, and thus made it an easy matter for every village upholsterer to be a "decorator." Flat it all white, is their cry ; no need to get it up to a good surface then. In the old trade days of white and gold, there was a little good smooth enamelling and polishing, but now creamy white flatting gives the craftsman no chance to show his metal. The Intentions of the Grainer. In the next place, a few personal remarks as to the real intent of the grainer and the effect of graining upon those outside the trade will support the statement that the practice is not an attempt to deceive ; that it is intended as a conventional symbol rather than a portrayal. When a man paints a flower, however well it is done, no one takes it for a real flower, or looks upon the painter as a base deceiver. The very same objections which are raised to grain- ing, appear to be equally applicable to veneering, inlaying, gilding, and enamelling, oxidising, galvanising, or plating, in fact to any method of altering the appearance of a surface, if it is assumed that it is done for the purpose of deception. The aesthetic morality appears to depend entirely upon the artistic intention. There is a great deal of inconsistency among men who con- demn graining as an imitation. One prominent denunciator of the practice has designed tile papers for bath-rooms, which appear equally open to condemnation ; others defend the use of copper and silver articles gilt and lacquered, veneers, the fashion of staining woods in any and every colour that is opposed to nature and out of harmony with the material, as blue ash, metallic green mahogany, and many other equally inconsistent practices. IMITATIVE PAINTING. 199 When the writer was a little boy he remembers to have always stopped and watched grainers at work outside of shops and houses, with a great deal of interest, and very frequently eluded pursuit and made his way into a fascinating workshop near where he lived. It belonged to a clever old decorator who painted banners, wrote signs, and enamelled and grained furniture. But until he was apprenticed to the trade and heard this kind of thing called oak, walnut, verd antico, rouge roi, &c., it never once occurred to him that the work he had watched with so much interest, was intended to deceive the eye and represent real woods and marbles. He had always mentally summed it up as a pretty and effective method of painting a conventional treatment (as we should call it), of which the motif was wood. This experience of his own, so well remembered, has led him to question others, and to note the effect of graining on their minds, and he has not yet made the acquaintance of the man who is not fully aware of the existence of " graining," and who knows it when he sees it; nor has he found the victim of delusion who has paid for graining believing it to be real "oak." What to Imitate in Graining. Following the logical result of these conclusions there appears to be no reason why so slavish an attempt should be made to imitate the actual markings of the wood. If the suggestion of woodiness and the broken surface of colour are retained, the actual markings leave scope for the artistic faculties. It is the colour and texture, the light and shade in the wood, that charm, and lacking these to a great degree some substitute of equal interest might well be imported into the work. There are some positions, of course, in which such departure would involve too great a loss of dignity and repose. Positions Suitable for Graining. There are occasions when, failing actual marble or wood, a very near attempt at imitation is required to give the necessary architectural force and character. In doors, external doors particularly, a fairly near representa- tion of oak is more suitable and refined in suggestion than any attempt to imitate porcelain or majolica, or to hide up the con- structional lines by an unbroken enamel surface more suggestive of china or earthenware than solid wood. Again, take the case of Corinthian columns in a large hall of classic architecture. No treatment will give the requisite fitness, stability, and dignity to those columns that could be obtained by the suggestive use of marble. Of course the use of actual 200 PAINTING AND DECORATING. marble is preferable if it can be used solidly. It is, however, very questionable if the use of slabs of marble placed edge to edge round an iron column to form an apparently square and solid pier is not more objectionable from a really artistic point of view than suggestive marbling, and is a double sham. Some of the proper places upon which to use graining and marbling will at once occur to the reader ; situations in which a suggestion, more or less conventional, of wood or stone is called for by the architectural arrangement existing. They may be safely left to the selection of the decorator, but it is well to point out that not only should the article itself be suitable, but the design and detail of it also. Take the case of an iron mantel. It may be either designed to appear as carved and moulded wood- work, as cast iron, or as stone or marble, according to the character of the detail and ornament. In this connection a little architectural knowledge and an acquaintance with builders' work will assist the judgment. The mouldings are generally a good guide in the matter. Limits as to Imitation. Another point of importance as a matter of taste is to know how far to give imitative quality to the work. This must be governed by the circumstances of each case, and the student is recommended to incline to conventional rather than imitative work ; to give some definite amount of originality and design to the details, and to lean towards sim- plicity and regularity. If a close adhesion to nature appears desir- able and is attempted, it must be justified by really good work. It is better to execute a careful and simple stipple suggestive of wood, good in colour, than to perpetrate a poor imitation of the finest specimen of natural wood procurable. The painting of a flower naturally, must be superlatively well done to pass muster, which is much less than to give pleasure ; it is the same with grained work or marbling. The more frequently a flower is repeated, the less natural should it be in design, and inasmuch as every grainer, by mere force of character, repeats himself in his work, the same dictum may be well applied to graining. The treatment of graining as a sketch or suggestion of wood, rather than as an attempt to represent actual wood, gives a wide field for inventiveness and resource, and enables the less talented to be contented to do well what is within their power and capability. Every one of the various processes, as combing, stippling, flogging, mottling, overgraining, and veining, can be utilised either separately or in combination, to obtain simple and inter- IMITATIVE PAINTING. 20 L esting wood-like effects, without claiming to represent particular wood. As illustrations of the thoughtless manner in which graining is often used, attention may be called to the fact that cast-iron rain-water pipes are frequently grained ; skirtings and bases are sometimes grained when occurring beneath a marbled wall, and baths are often marbled inside and grained on the outside, or marbled one colour inside and another colour outside. This is painting about as remotely removed from art as is possible. Varied Methods of Graining. The methods and processes adopted by grainers for the production of the grain, curl, mottle, and other effects that go to make up the appearance of a wood, vary much in different parts of the country and in different schools of graining. These differences are the result of various men working out their own ideas by means of their own devis- ing. Some of them are highly ingenious. It is not within the scope of this work to explain minutely the modus operandi of graining each particular wood or marble, but the following two chapters will deal briefly with the various woods and stones usually imitated, and the colours and tools which will be found to represent them in the simplest manner. CHAPTER XIV. RA.INING, or painting in imitation of woods, must in all cases be done upon a good foundation devoid of absorbent properties, unless we include in the term the processes used in improving or adding to the grain of wood. The improving of wood is produced by the same processes as here described for graining. Improving is properly included in the term staining. The various coats of paint necessary to produce the requisite grounds are fully described in the chapter upon Plain painting. This ground must be perfectly smooth, hard, and solid. The woods most usually attempted by the decorator are : Graining Oak. First and most universally, probably in larger quantities than all the other woods added together English Oak. It is most frequently done in the following manner: A ground is prepared to match in tint the lightest part of the wood it is GRAINING. 203 intended to imitate. For medium oak a mixture of yellow ochre and white lead, with a touch of raw English Umber, will produce a suitable colour. It may be remarked en passant that the prevalent fault of modern grainers is to use too bright and glaring a ground colour for all woods. For dark oak grounds more Umber and a little Venetian red may be added. For rich mellow oak, burnt Umber and burnt Sienna with ochre and no white can be used. For green heart timber or new oak, white, raw Umber and a little black will make a good ground. The ground must not err on the side of lightness or it will not keep its place well in the finished work, but should be rather on the deep and sombre side, and rather cool than hot in tone. When the ground colour is dry and hard, a graining colour of oil made from burnt Umber, to which a little raw Sienna or black may be added, for light and deep woods respectively, is scumbled Frg. 59. Flogger. Fig. 60. Steel graining comb. over the work and laid off regularly, and to a depth of colour representing the average appearance of the wood that is being matched, a little terebine or sugar of lead is added to the colour as driers, and the proportion of thinners should be about two- fifths turpentine to three-fifths boiled linseed oil, or rather more 204 PAINTING AND DECORATING. turpentine for internal work. The graining colour is now brushed out in streaks, with a thin straight-haired brush known as a " flogger " (Fig. 59), and combed with steel graining combs (Fig. 60), varied sometimes by the use of combs made from leather, gutta-percha, and other materials. The degree of combing will be regulated by the appearance aimed at by the grainer ; sometimes the flogger is used without the comb, and vice versd. The prominent little light markings known as " clashes " or " champs " are then put in, either with a horn thumb piece or with Fig. 61. Hog-hair overgrainer, in tin. Fig. 62. Badger softener. the thumb nail. The horn or nail is covered with a piece of soft rag, to allow of it cleanly wiping out the marks without leaving hard edges. The spaces between these marks are then mottled to show the undulations of the grain, and the shadows that lie side by side with the light markings, and any little touches or softening necessary to complete the likeness to the wood are put in. The whole is then allowed to dry and when dry it is ABCDE fQHIJK OM10P Q&55I INtltt PLATE 18.-QRI6INAL TREATMENT OF PLAIN ALPHABET. To face p. 204.] GRAINING. 205 " overgrained." The overgraining is done with colour ground in water. A little blue black, with, or without burnt umber is recom- mended. This overgraining is slightly tempered with stale beer or milk to bind the colour, and thinned with water to a mere wash. It is then laid on with one or other of the overgrainers (Fig 61), and softened with a badger hair softener (Fig. 62), so as to represent the general light and shade, in mass, of the wood. Gum, glycerine, sugar, and fuller's earth are used as suhstitutes for the beer. Fuller's earth is favoured by the writer as the least likely to be detrimental to the appearance of the varnish. Fig. 63. Hog-hair mottler. Sometimes the work is varnished prior to overgraining, and again afterwards, and often two coats of overgraining are used to enhance the depth and translucency of the work. In any case, the work must be varnished after the final overgraining. Deeper markings are sometimes added during the graining process by the use of a writer's sable and a fitch. Rain water, melted beeswax, whiting, yellow soap jelly (made by dissolving soap in boiling water), lime and other materials are added to the oil graining colour to give body, or to "jellify " the colour without altering the shade. The object is to cause the colour to stay in its place and not to run, spread, or too readily smear. These practices are to be strongly condemned as they 206 PAINTING AND DECORATING. destroy the hardness and durability of the work and affect the varnish prejudicially. A little slow-drying varnish will have the same effect on the colour, but unfortunately also makes it " sticky " in working. Megilp is good, but expensive, for the same purpose. They may all be dispensed with if proper care is exercised to make the colour dry to suit the rate of working, so that it sets as soon as the graining is done. Fig. 64. Oak combing roller. There are a number of more or less mechanical appliances used for the purpose of imitating the grain of oak. The effect of combing is very well obtained by the use of the patent combing rollers (Fig. 64). These rollers contain a number of notched zinc discs which revolve irregularly and disperse a number of Fig 65. Patent oak grain tinisher. streaks upon the work, which are more like the actual open grain of the wood than the marks produced by steel graining combs. They are used with distemper colour supplied from an overgrainer as illustrated in Fig. 64. Fig. 66. Bellamy's graining roller. The patent finisher (Fig. 65) is also used for putting on the final fine touches, and is useful for the purpose. Bellamy's rstuvsvy, 123456789: # PLATE 19. -ORIGINAL ALPHABET, LOWER-CASE LETTERS. To face p. 206.] GRAINING. 207 graining rollers (Fig. 66) are open to the objection that they re- peat the pattern regularly, the pattern itself being uninteresting. Various transfer papers are also used for impressing the grain upon the wet colour, with more or less success. Oak graining used frequently to be done in water medium, but it is not olten the case now, unless for japanners' work. The work done in distemper has a very clean and sharp appearance. Proceed as follows : Ground in the ordinary way. The graining colour is made from burnt Umber ground in water and stale beer, and a little spirits of wine, rum, or whisky added in the proportion of a teaspoonful to half a pint of colour. Lay on the colour with a full overgrainer or mottler, or a piece of sponge, and flog level. Comb in the ordinary way or drag with the flogger. Take out the light clashes with a wet leather drawn over the finger or thumb nail tip, and put in deep veins with a pencil and Umber. If the colour sets too quickly, add a few drops of glycerine or a little sugar or treacle. Give a coat of thin var- nish before proceeding to overgrain, or overgrain in oil colour. Fig. 67- Thick hog-hair mottler. Pollard Oak. Heart and sap of oak and pollard oak are worked in a similar manner to ordinary oak, but usually in oil. The student is strongly advised in all graining to copy nature as closely as possible, and work directly therefrom until he is able to fairly imitate the real wood, after which he may launch out on his own lines with a chance of success. Mahogany. Mahogany is the wood which is next in import- ance as it is largely imitated for office and shop work. This is not such a difficult wood to grain as oak. It is usually grained in water colour. The ground is composed of Venetian red and burnt Sienna with a little ochre. The graining colour is a mix- ture of brown or mahogany lake, and Vandyke brown or mahogany lake, and blue black. The tools used are a thick hog- hair mottler (Fig. 67), a sponge, a short camel-hair mottler (Fig. 68), and a badger softener. The colour is laid on with a distemper tool and manipulated into form with a sponge and the mottlers, then softened and 208 PAINTING AND DECORATING. lightly flogged with the side of the badger softener to produce the fine grain or texture of the wood. It is then allowed to dry and afterwards overgrained with a thin fitch-hair overgrainer Fig. 68. Camel-hair mottler. and Vandyke brown in water. Mahogany is also grained in oil upon a ground which has been previously stippled with a wash of Vandyke brown in water. Walnut. Walnut is another popular wood, and is grained both in water colour and oil, and also in a combination of both. For the ground, use yellow ochre and burnt Sienna, with Umber if for American walnut. For graining, burnt Umber and Van- dyke brown, or burnt Sienna and blue black. First, lay in the Fig 69. Pencil overgrainer. ground with the graining colour used sparely, and with a wet leather wipe out the lights and mottle in a rough representation of the disposition of the light and dark parts of the wood. Allow to dry and then put in with a fitch and an overgrainer, the main markings, knots, &c., and work them up with the badger softener and a piece of soft rag ; put in finer veinings with the sable pencil and blend together frequently. Allow to dry, and, finally, overgrain with a pencil or separated overgrainer (Fig. 69) and a camel-hair mottler. Oil colour may be used for the middle process and water colour for the other two. GRAINING. 209 Walnut wood and other rare and valuable -woods lose in effect if used in a wholesale and reckless manner which is inconsistent with the probabilities of the use of the same woods in construction. Pitch Pine. Pitch pine is one of the easiest of woods to imitate. It is best grained in oil. The ground should be from ochre, chrome, and a little Venetian red. The graining colour of burnt Sienna, raw Sienna, and a little raw Umber. The large heart markings are put in with a fitch or veining tool, and the outer and smaller ones with a pencil overgrainer, and softened with a badger softener. The flake of this wood can be exactly imitated by the merest tyro, with the badger, if the pencilling is correctly done. By keeping the pencilling open so that the softener will not run the lines into each other too quickly they may be driven into a remarkable similarity to the annular rings of the wood. Rosewood. Rosewood is a very richly-coloured and orna- mental wood, and is not difficult to imitate. The ground is made from Venetian red and a little ochre. The graining colour ia Vandyke brown and crimson lake or madder brown, with over- graining of ivory black and blue black. Rose pink is used by some grainers ; but it is not permanent. The first process is to lay in, with a sponge, a rough modelled effect of the general disposition of the grain. This is then pencilled up by the use of sables and overgrainers, a thin flat fitch-hair overgrainer, separated by a pocket comb, is the best for the purpose, as it gives irregular lines but little softening is required if the over- graining is carefully done. The grain of the wood must be seen to be understood, as it is very intricate, varied, and without much apparent principle in its grouping and direction. Maple. Maple comes next in the frequency with which it is used by the grainer as a model. Bird's-eye grey maple is the most beautiful and popular form of this wood. It is grained upon a white ground, usually in water colour. The graining colour is made from raw Sienna, burnt Sienna, and blue black. A mixture of these, with the blue black predominating, is first mottled over the ground, softened crosswise, and allowed to dry. This mottling is well done by taking a wet chamois leather, and, after the panel has been scumbled in with colour and a dis- temper tool, taking the leather in both hands, twisting it slightly, ropewise, and striking the panel with it, using it as a skipping rope, holding by the extreme corners. This produces irregular light markings having a common relation to each other and following a curved disposition. These are then softened from the centre outwards in a horizontal direction. A few high lights are theji taken out with a pointed hog-hair tool, 210 PAINTING AND DECORATING. and a mixture of warmer colour used to put in the eyes or dots. The position of these in relation to the mottle will be seen in the natural wood. When all is dry, the fine markings of grain are added with a pencil or crayon, using a rather redder tint for them, and working from the centre or heart and round the eyes Fig. 70. Improved round hog-hair maple eye tools. Fig. 71. Camel-hair maple dotters. Finally, the work is varnished and glazed with a pure wash of blue black overgraining, which is mottled to give the silky light and shade which gives the peculiar character to this wood. The student should notice that the shadows are curvi- linear, not angular, as in some other woods. Use a pale varnish. Satin Wood. Satin wood and birch may be imitated by a similar process to that given for mahogany, using the real wood as a guide for form and colour. Ground for both, a yellowish white; graining colour, raw Sienna, burnt Sienna, and raw Umber, overgrained with blue black or ivory black. Ash. Ash is grained upon a yellowish drab ground. The pro- cess used is similar to that for pitch pine, but the work is finer and more curly in character. Colours as satin wood for graining. Overgrain in water with Vandyke brown and blue black. Hun- garian ash is the same in colour, but much more free, curling, and short in the grain. American ash is straight and simple in grain. Pollard oak, burl ash or pollard ash, root of walnut, and root of birch are all similar in character and colour to their respective woods, but richer and deeper, and full of intricate workings, knots, and whorls. They should be worked from real wood patterns. Fancy Woods. Olive, tulip, and other fancy woods can all be represented truly by the use of the tools and processes already referred to, the chief point being to carefully copy the colour. The commoner woods, as pine, spruce, cypress, &c., are not much imitated, the grain being very poor and uninteresting. They can be produced by the same methods as the more beautifully grained woods. The close and even-grained woods, as cherry, pear tree, box, and a host of others, are little used. They are GRAINING. 211 often, however, very closely imitated in plain colour by the decorator, and there is no reason why they should not be made more use off, as a mere flogging and finishing with the badger would give a fair representation with very little labour. Cherry is a particularly effective wood. Some of our garden trees, as the acacia, laburnum, chestnut, and yew, also give fine colour and grain, which is not taken due advantage of by modern grainers. General Hints. As a general principle, it will be observed that the ground of a wood must be rather rich and warm ; the graining less so ; and the overgraining still less, usually par- taking of a considerable amount of grey tones. The observance of this rule gives relative depth and position. Though special tools are provided by the tool makers for almost every process, the grainer constantly finds that he can advantageously devise many rough and ready ones of his own that will do what he requires in a peculiarly apt and com- mendable manner. For inlaying and ornamenting, the student is referred to the chapter on Staining. The processes there given may be used for graining with equal success. Transfer Graining. The practice of graining by transfer papers, at one time only very imperfectly attempted has, by the aid of photographic engraving, been made of considerable assist- ance to small employers who have neither the skill to grain or marble nor the scope for the employment of a competent grainer. Panels of good figuring are first photographed, and printing blocks are engraved from them. These are next printed in oils upon absorbent or " blotting " paper and allowed to dry. The paper is sold in sheets or rolls to the painter, who cuts them into the sizes required for the different parts of the work. To use them he proceeds as follows : The work having been grounded and the graining colour rubbed in in the usual way, the panel may be combed or not at discretion ; the graining paper is then laid upon the panel and lightly rolled or pressed evenly into place with a brush. It at once absorbs the colour, or blots it off, in all parts where the non- absorbent printing has not interfered with the absorbent quality of the paper. The transfer is then removed and the panel is complete except for a light softening with a badger softener, and, at discretion, a little overgraining. The method is applicable to either oil or water-colour graining and the papers may be used again and again as long as any absorbency remains and the colour has not clogged them. 212 CHAPTER XV. MftRBEING HE imitation of marbles differs materi- ally from that of woods inasmuch as, in the case of woods, it is usual to do the greater part of the work in glazes applied in water colour; whereas the nature of marbles demands a more solid and opaque treatment. Con- sequently, marbling is almost entirely executed in paint and in body colours. Glazes are used to add depth and translucency where required, and water colour is sometimes used for the sake of its rapid drying. White Marble. The simplest marble to execute, and at the same time one of the most difficult to imitate faithfully, is white or Sicilian marble. The ground required for this marble is a dead white. When the ground is dry and hard, a thin coat of zinc white in oil is rubbed over it, and the veins are put in with a crayon ; a warm grey crayon is used for the inner veinings, and a soft black lead pencil or black conte crayon for the more pro- minent ones. The spaces between the veins are then tinted slightly with grey and green, and a few touches of yellowish grey, all very sparingly used, and the whole softened with the hog- hair softener. MARBLING. 213 Sienna Marble. Sienna marble is next in importance, and is much used for columns, pilasters, and staircase walls. The same ground is used as for the white marble, and while this is still wet it is irregularly painted with two or three tints of yellowish cast, made from white and raw Sienna. The veins are then put in either with a black crayon or charcoal, or a soft lead pencil, and softened into the ground. When this is dry, additional shadows, &c., are glazed in in raw Sienna and burnt Sienna, and the veins are emphasised with a little blue or lake. Over all a few white veins or spots are run, and a few lights put on in the interstices between the dark veins. Italian Pink Marble. Italian pink marble is used in place of Sienna, and is about the same depth of tone, but pink, as its name implies. The ground required is the same as above. The ground is scumbled over with pink, made from ochre and Venetian red, and ochre and vermilion, and shaded in with greyer tones. The veins are put in with purplish red, and the whole blended and softened with the hog-hair softener. After all, a few white veins crossing the deep ones, and a few blotches of white, with here and there rose pink glazings, are added. Black and Gold Marble. Black and gold is a popular marble for skirtings, and string courses, chimney pieces, &c. The ground is black. The larger veins are a gold colour made from ochre and red, and may be varied, in colour indefinitely ; they are put upon a dry ground with a pencil and oil colour. Very fine distinct white and yellow veins run from the main ones, splitting up the black ground into fragments. The black spaces are then shaded and lightened by the use of grey tints. A few particles of gold leaf or metal put into or upon the gold colour veins improve the effect. Another method is to work in Sienna upon a white ground, and badger and blend various golden red and yellow hues together, to allow this to dry and then to paint in the intervening spaces with black and grey. The peculiarity of this marble is the intricate ramifications of the veining. Grey Marbles. Grey marble, dove, or slate are all worked from a white ground. A feather is used to put in the veins; by this method the colour is thoroughly and irregularly spread over the whole ground. All the veins must run in one general direction, and specks and dots must be added in brighter tints, with shells and fossils in lighter greys and white. Bed Marbles. Red Derbyshire, porphry, and Irish red are all marbled off a bright red ground. Venetian red and vermilion with a little chrome are used in varying degrees of depth. The 214 PAINTING AND DECORATING. marbling is done by first glazing over the ground a coat of crimson lake, and then breaking it up by the use of a feather and turpentine with a little black. White or grey dots and veins are added in very thin white. Green Marbles. Egyptian green and verd antique are green marbles which are worked upon a black ground. Chrome and Prussian blue, and white make the marbling colours, varying degrees of colour being used. Fossil spots and rings are added in white, cream, &c., while the innermost ground shows spaces of black. Lapis Lazuli. Lapis lazuli is used for special little medallions, &c. It is obtained from a pale blue ground ; ultra- marine and gold leaf are used for the marbling and veining respectively. The veins are very fine and broken. Graniting. Red and grey granite may be imitated by spotting a ground of either colour with white, red, grey, and black The dotting may be done with a graniting brush. Fig. 72. Veining fitch. Fig. 73. Hog-hair softener. Devonshire Marble. Devonshire marble is a conglomerate mass of ochres, reds, and browns, with white markings. It is represented upon a terra cotta ground by the use of feathers, sponge, and rags ; the veins being put in with a veining fitch (Fig. 72) or pencil. Alabaster. Alabaster is a favourite marble for church deco- ration. It may be wrought upon a creamy white ground in light red, and white and lake. It is a soft stone with undulating veins, and is readily imitated. St. Anne's Marble. St. Anne's and other black and white MARBLING. 215 marbles are worked upon black grounds with white markings. Grey is also used for the middle tints. In the imitation of all marbles great attention must be paid to the shape of the masses, and the direction of the veins. The character and distinctiveness of all marbles rest principally on the form that these take, and not on their scale or size. Colour is also important, although every class of marble will present samples widely different in colour, as well as in scale. Many of the most mysterious and beautiful effects seen in marbles may be imitated by the use of turpentine, which, when sprinkled on the wet colour, opens it out in fantastically shaped forms of great beauty, and renders that translucent appearance common to the richer marbles. Amber and other very translucent substances may be imitated successfully by the methods common to marbling. Repeated varnishing and re-glazing is the means adopted to produce great depth and translucency. Many exquisite suggestions in, and revelations of colour may be obtained by the examination of fragments of rough marble and rnineralogical specimens under the microscope. The component colouring matters in marbles are seldom seen by the ordinary observer, who only receives a general impression of the apparent colour. This superficial colour may be much more truly reproduced after studying the composition of the marbles under the microscope, when the particles of coloured matter, which go to produce the effect seen, may be utilised in obtaining the required superficial effect. 216 CHAPTER XVI. LDING ILDING may be broadly under- stood to mean the application of metals in thin leaf form to de- corative purposes, by the use of mordants and vehicles. Origin- ally limited in scope to the application of gold leaf, it has now become a general practice to substitute many kinds of metal, both in imitation of gold, and in order to produce other metallic colour effects. This is not altogether to be regretted, as the use of the more precious metal in such a form that it is ultimately totally lost to the community is a deplorable waste, which is not entirely defensible ; especially as it draws a large quantity of the metal away from its more legitimate use in the arts of the goldsmith and metal worker. The small proportion used for really high-class decorative work, as in illuminating and permanent decorative schemes and pictures, is in proportion less than one per cent, of the enormous amount used for commercial advertising, and the vulgar overlaying of plaster and composition picture frames. GILDING. 217 The various metals in common use for gilding in the leaf form are : Platinum. Gold, in many degrees of fineness and tint. Alloys of gold and copper. ,, ,, silver. Alloys of copper and silver. tin. Silver. Aluminium. The alloys are known as "metal d'or," Dutch metal, ducat gold, gold metal, &c. The commonest and cheapest forms are thick and brittle in quality, while the better degrees of gold leaf are beaten to extreme thinness, the malleability and ductility of the metal allowing as many as 2,500 leaves, 3 inches by 3| inches, to be obtained from 1 ounce of fine gold, or to put it in another way, the total thickness of 300,000 leaves is less than 1 inch. Gold leaf is usually put up in books of 25 leaves, each leaf being 3J inches square. It is sold by the 1,000 leaves viz., 40 books. Silver leaf is usually 4 inches by 4 inches, and metals are made in both sizes, and larger. Gold leaf is termed white, pale, medium, deep, extra deep, citron, red, &c., according to its colour. Gold is readily damaged in the book by handling, damp, and shaking ; for this reason good English gold leaf of recent make should be selected. The best work cannot be produced by any other. It should be kept in a dry place, and may, with advantage, be placed upon a hot plate, or in the cool oven prior to using. The red powder on gold books is put on to prevent the gold sticking to the leaves of the book ; it is "bole," a red earth from Armenia, of peculiarly flaky, smooth, and soft texture. A red French clay is some- times used for the same purpose. Methods of Gilding. The various methods of applying gold leaf used by painters and decorators are termed : Oil gilding, Japan gilding, and Water gilding. These methods vary in detail upon different kinds of grounds. Oil or Japan gilding is used upon painted surfaces, or grounds that have been strongly sized or varnished. Oil Gold Size. Oil gold size is a preparation of " fat linseed- oil " viz., oil which has, by exposure to the atmosphere, lost its power of absorbing oxygen, and become viscid and less hard drying ; it may be prepared by exposing linseed oil to the air 218 PAINTING AND DECORATING. and light in a wide, open-mouthed vessel for about six months. To make it usable and give it a little body and colour, ochre is ground up in about one-third of the whole quantity and added to the whole bulk ; a little driers, usually litharge, is also re- quired, and, if too thick for use, it must be thinned to proper consistency with boiled oil. Colour makers sell ready-prepared oil gold size, that of Messrs. Mander being the best we have used. A small quantity of good varnish, one-part to twenty, added to gold size, gives it hardness and additional lustre. Good oil size will be ready to receive the gold at any time between twenty-four hours and a week from the moment of using it; and the longer it holds its tackiness the better is the result, provided that the size ultimately dries firm and hard, like a piece of gold- beater's skin. Japanners' Gold Size is a kind of quick varnish drying in about half-an-hour to two hours, and is ready for gilding as soon as sufficiently dry. It must be gilded upon at once when this is the case, as the '' tack " soon changes into a hard varnish surface. Gilding can be done with varnish, but the excessive gloss gives a blackish look to the gold, and as the varnish hardens it loses its hold of the metal, which will then wash off with soap and water. Notwithstanding this fact, it is often used in large proportions added to gold size by certain decorators, who admire the additional gloss, but do not trouble about durability. Fig. 74. Agate burnisher. Many special sizes of a varnish nature are made for sign writers. Messrs. Harland's make special size for carriage and sign work to dry at various rates, in from four to twenty-four hours, all of which are better for use under varnish, or stoved enamel, than oil gold size ; but for work that is to be left unpro- tected, the ordinary fat oil gold size is more desirable, and gives a rich mellowness to the gold without undue sheen. Water Gold Sizes vary in their nature for different purposes. For gilding on prepared wood, papier mache, plaster, or com- position, as for picture frames, two kinds are used, burnish and matt gold size. Burnish Gold Size is made from pipeclay and black lead, with a small quantity of mutton suet added in the grinding. It can be purchased ready made, and is used with ordinary parchment GILDING. 219 or gelatine size as a binding medium. Gilding on this size will take a good polish, or burnish with an agate burnisher (Fig. 74). Matt Gold Size. Matt size is for gold which is required to have a matt or dead surface, and is made from pipeclay, Armenian bole, and other materials. It can be purchased ready for mixing with the clear parchment or jelly size. Isinglass Gold Size. Gilding upon glass is done with isin- glass size. Take a pinch of best Russian isinglass, put it into a pint of water, and stand the whole in a covered jar in the oven for a few hours ; when dissolved or cooked add a pint of spirits of wine (not methylated), and strain or filter through white filter paper. The spirits of wine removes the solid or waste portion of the isinglass, and also serves to counteract grease on the glass, or in the hairs of the brushes used ; its action is similar to that of wine in milk. Fig. 75. Gilder's cushion. Clear Size for Gold. Gold is often clear sized to improve its colour and prevent blooming. This size, as well as that used for matt and burnish work, is best prepared from finest gelatine, or from boiled parchment cuttings. Tools for Laying Gold. The operation of gilding is the same, whatever process is used, in as far as laying the gold is concerned. The best and general method is by means of a cushion and tip. The cushion is a small board (Fig. 75) about 8 by 5 inches, covered with flannel, and over this a tightly stretched chamois leather. A draught screen of parchment is fitted round one half of it ; this is to prevent the wind removing PAINTING AND DECORATING. the gold from the cushion. It has a thumb strap beneath, and loops for the knife, &c., and is held like a palette on the left hand. The other tools required for the laying are a gilder's knife (Fig. 76), and a tip (Fig. 77). Fig. 77. Gilder's tip. The knife is a long flexible blade of equal breadth throughout its length. The tip is a flat brush made by setting a row of haii-s, either camel or badger's, between two pieces of card. The fingers of the left hand hold the tip and knife alternately when either is not being used by the right hand. Dabbers and camel- hair brushes, and mops, are required to press the gold down in its place, and remove superfluous scraps. Laying G-old Leaf. The size being ready to receive the gold, about a dozen leaves are put in a heap in the back part of the cushion ; then the cushion is taken in the left hand and the knife in the right. ABCDCF (DnOPQ RSTOV, WKVZ* PLATE 20.-ORIGINAL ALPHABET, MODERN. To face p. 220.] GILDING. 221 The wold is taken from the book by merely opening each leaf and gently blowing the gold out on the cushion. With the knife a leaf of gold is taken to the front of the cushion, laid squarely, and deftly blown out flat, cut to any size required by a sharp jerking, saw-like movement of the knife not like ordinary cutting; the knife is then transferred to the left hand, and the tip to the right ; the gold is then taken up by the tip and laid upon the work. The whole process is extremely simple after practice. Breathing must be carried on gently through the nostrils, so as not to disarrange the gold. When blowing a leaf flat, aim a smart jet of air right into the centre of the leaf, sudden and short. When cutting, lay the edge of the knife, which must not be keen, on the gold leaf firmly, give a little jerk, lift it up, and you will find the gold separated. Take care not to cut the leather of the cushion. The knife must not be sharp enotigh to do so. If the gold does not at once adhere to the tip, pass the same lightly over the hair or beard to slightly grease it; this also sets up a magnetic action which assists to hold the gold. It must not adhere too firmly to the tip, or the gold will tear in transferring itself to the gold size. Always allow each leaf to lap -| inch in laying, to secure a good join. Use whole leaves wherever possible, and fault up every hole and crevice before dabbing down. Well press down all joins, or there will be a slight gap apparent at the junction. In gilding a plain surface, hammer well down with a firm touch and a good cotton wool pad before skewing off, and then skew with a soft new stencil tool, using a circular motion, and polish with a soft piece of cotton wool. Laying gold upon ordinary oil or Japan gold size is sometimes done by a process of transferring. This process is economical and useful for outside work, or for etched and partial gilt work. To accomplish the process, the gold must be what is known as transfer gold viz., gold leaf which has been put upon tissue paper. Sheets of thin tissue paper are cut into convenient sizes and slightly waxed with a tablet of white wax. When pressed against the gold leaf in the book, the leaf adheres to these waxed sheets and is from them in turn transferred to the work. The waxed sheets being slightly adhesive, only those portions of the leaf that are in con- tact with the gold size leave the tissue sheet, and so there is no waste. The tissue being somewhat transparent the operator can see exactly what gold is still left upon the tissue, and utilise every portion of it for the work in hand ; he can also see when the gold size has not been covered with the gold. Gold can be transferred to the tissue leaves without the necessity of waxing 222 PAINTING AND DECORATING. them, by merely interleaving the gold book with tissue and putting the book into a copying-press and well pressing ; a heavy mangle or a joiner's bench vice will also do if the gold is put carefully between boards so that it cannot get shifted. The exceptions to these two methods of laying the gold are fanciful and individual, the most general being what is termed " laying from the book." When gilding a large flat surface, the gold leaf can be laid direct from the book and much time saved thereby, by the use of a long-haired tip which can take up a leaf at a time without the necessity of cutting. The odd spaces and small bits are afterwards filled from the cushion in the usual manner. Another method is to dispense with the tip, and by taking the book in the left hand, and opening it with the right to turn the leaves straight on to the work. This is a great sav- ing of time for large letters out of doors or for large flat surfaces of oil size gilding, but it requires some dexterity to be sure and economical. All gilding for interior decoration, and all out-door gilding that can be conveniently left long enough before gilding, should be done in oil gold size. The exceptions are, when time is an object of importance, or where the work is tine and intricate, as in small lettering, &c. To Prevent Gold Sticking to Ground. The ground for gold sizing must be free from any tackiness, hard, dry, and impervious. If it is not so it must be coated with some prepara- tion to prevent the gold sticking where it is not required. The white of an egg beaten up with a little water, termed " glaire," is the best preparation upon varnished or enamelled work. (The white of one egg to 4 ounces of water is sufficiently strong.) Upon ordinary painted work, a good rubbing with a pounce bag that is, a small calico bag filled with fine sifted whiting will suffice. A little size and water is also effective, and if a little whiting is added to it, it is still more so. White of egg must not be used too strong, never more than two-thirds water to one- third egg. This is the least detrimental to the lustre of the gold. Ordinary painted work that has to be partly gilt and then varnished, may be prepared by rubbing with a piece of very fine glass paper and some dry whiting. Whiting preparations have a tendency to cause the gold size to run. The gold size must be laid evenly and sparely. If laid too heavily it will crinkle up after the gilding has been done. It is sometimes necessary to add colour to the gold size in decorative work, so as to see better where the size is put on level, &c. Tube colours may be used for this purpose, and they should always GILDING. 223 approximate to the colour of gold as nearly as possible, as the gold leaf is full of innumerable small holes, and the colour used in the size has an effect upon the appearance of the gold when laid. Chrome, burnt Sienna, vermilion, or ochre are suitable colours. Gold size should never be gilded unless quite ready. The size should be just tacky enough to hold the gold leaf, but never wet enough to smear or move if rubbed with the finger tip. Gold laid upon too wet size will turn black and lustreless. The precise condition is ascertained by the application of the clean finger tip, and practice will enable the operator to judge very accurately. Turpentine should not be used as a thinner in gold size, because it leaves behind it, after evaporation, a resinous oil, which never properly hardens. A little boiled oil is the best thinner. Japanners' gold size may be thinned with a little turpentine if both are heated to boiling point together. Oil gilding should always be well washed down with clean water and a soft sponge, and then sized with clean gelatine size ; this washing hardens the oil, and the size protects and preserves the gold and gives it a more uniform lustre, in place of the broken metallic brilliance it has as the result of its beating. Before washing, it should be carefully pressed down with cotton wool, all faults made good, and the whole dusted off with cotton wool or a camel-hair dabber. In gilding enriched and moulded surfaces, the gold will some- times require double laying, in order to reach the interstices of the work. All waste gold, known to the gilder as "skew," should be saved and used for dusting into the carved portions, and when these are dusted out, the " skew " should be carefully collected in a tin canister for future use, or for disposal to the dealer in old gold and silver, the " skew " being worth about 3 an ounce if from good gold. Burnish and Matt Gilding. Burnish and matt gilding are much alike in method of procedure. They are principally used for Rococo or Florentine enriched ornament, cornices, and picture frames. The work is brought up to a good surface in size and whiting, and then coated with five or six coats of the matt size or burnish size, as the case requires, each coat being rubbed down with very fine glass paper, and the size laid on with a camel-hair brush and allowed to dry thoroughly between each coat. When the ground has a sufficient number of coats to be perfectly solid, the gold is laid with water only viz., the size is well wetted 224- PAINTING AND DECORATING. with water in a camel-hair brush, and the gold laid on the water, which, as it dries, carries the gold on to the size coat and fixes it there. The leaf must he laid immediately following the water while it is yet "live;" to accomplish this quickly, the expert gilder uses the water brush with his right hand by clenching it with the two little fingers in his fist at the same time as he has the gold upon the tip held between the forefinger and thumb of the same hand. The flowing water catches the gold from the tip, and spreads it out smoothly on the surface of the water in the moment or two between the application and the absorption of the water by the distemper ground. This completes the gilding as far as the matt portion is concerned, except for a final clear sizing and sometimes colouring or coating with ormolu. The burnished portion, however, requires polishing or burnish- ing. This is done at the moment the gilding is dry, and before it becomes so hard as to be brittle. An agate or flint stone, set in a handle, is the burnisher. These are of different shapes. They are rubbed lightly against the gold, which takes a re- markably high polish, and retains it. Burnished gold must not be sized. Burnish and matt gilding are confined to the flat or curved plain portions of the work, and are done first. The enriched and fancy parts are afterwards oil-sized and gilded in the usual manner. Ormolu for matt gold is prepared from best garnet shellac and white sticklac dissolved in spirits of wine, and tinted to the required depth with dragon's blood ; a few drops are added to the usual gelatine or parchment size to produce an even, lustre- less and rich surface of any desired depth. Glass Gilding. Gilding upon glass is done in the same manner as described for water gilding, isinglass size being used in the place of water. The glass is well cleaned, freed from grease, and set before the operator at a slight angle ; sometimes the glass is upright, as in a window, and has to be done in that position. The isinglass size, before described, is used in pre- cisely the same way as the water in water gilding, and the gold laid on the flowing size so as to stretch itself out as the size recedes. The size must be used freely and allowed to run off quickly. It must not be strong ; indeed, the weaker it is the brighter will the finish of the gold be. The less size there is remaining between the glass and the gold and between the two coats of gold, the better polish can be obtained. In all other methods of gilding the gold is attached from the GILDING. 225 back of the leaf, and the finished work shows the unalloyed brightness of the metal ; but in the case of glass gilding, the size comes between the gold and the eye, and the glass interposes a further medium, so that it is at once apparent that the cleaner the glass, and the clearer and thinner the film of size, the less is the brilliance of the gilding interfered with. The purity and cleanli- ness of the size and glass will be assured if the size can be laid upon the glass without cissing or gathering. If it runs off like water on a duck's back, the glass is greasy or the size is not clean, or perhaps the water used is too hard; boiled rain water makes the best size, but it must be quite clean and clear. Gilding on glass requires a second coat in order to make a solid job. The first coat of gold when dry is lightly polished with finest cotton wool, and fixed and burnished by scalding with very hot water as near boiling as can be used without splitting the glass. It may be poured over from the spout of a kettle, so as to run over the whole of the gilding, and then down on to the ground, or laid over with a broad 4-inch camel-hair flat. This removes the scum of the size from between the gild- ing and the glass and adds to its clarity and brHliance. The work may then be carefully polished with a piece of finest cotton wool. It is then allowed to dry and the whole of the gilding and clearing with hot water repeated ; after this the gold is backed up by a coat of hard Japan or varnish which will dry in about eight hours and have a perfect gloss. In cold weather the whole of the glass must be treated with the hot water whether gilded or not, or breakage will result from the inequality of expansion produced, and if the day be frosty, the job must be done very cautiously in a hot shop, or deferred. The water must never be quite boiling. The gold used for glass gilding is specially prepared, being more even in thickness than the ordinary gold, and put up in books of special paper that does not reqiiire dusting with French chalk or Armenian bole to prevent the gold adhering to the book. The gold thus supplied is much cleaner than that used for general purposes. Turps colour must not be used to back up gilding on glass. It is important that glass gilding be made to dry off quickly and that no time be allowed to elapse between the operations, or it will accumulate dust and get discoloured. Although gilding on glass is looked upon as a difficult matter to successfully carry through, all the difficulties are overcome by the exercise of cleanliness. The cleanliness of the glass may be tested by breathing on it, and if the moisture evaporates quickly, leaving the glass clear, it will do. Glass may be made 15 226 PAINTING AND DECORATING. chemically clean by the use of dilute nitric acid, and well rinsing with water. Cap or tissue paper is a good glass polisher. Filtered rain- water makes the best isinglass size, or distilled water, as it is free from metallic taint. Gilding upon paper, parchment, and vellum can be best done by using a size made from yolk of eggs and glycerine. This is ground together with a little ochre and thinned with water. If used in a very liquid state as a mere water wash size, and the gold is laid directly thereon, as in glass gilding, it may be tooled or burnished. All gold work should be sized before writing or painting upon it. Platinum and Silver Laying and Metalling. Platinum leaf is used in the same manner as gold leaf, and is applicable to all the same purposes. Silver leaf and gold leaf of very pale tint, that is, which con- tains a large proportion of silver, should never be laid on the oil gold size, neither should metals which are subject to oxidisation, as the oil has a strong affinity for oxygen, and the oxidisation of the metals is set up and goes on more rapidly. If used upon a spirit size or water size, and well protected with lacquer or spirit varnish, these metals will be perfectly lasting. Their durability depends entirely on their perfect enclosure and envelopment in an air-tight case of lacquer or varnish, both under and above them. Japanners' gold size, with, or without, the addition of a little Venice turpentine makes as good a size as can be had for metals. There are many special sizes for the purpose prepared ready for use, but nothing is better than a good full bodied japanners' size exposed to the air for a few days to fatten a little. Aluminium leaf may be used best on a mixture of ochre ground in oil and japanners'. It is reported to be unchangeable, and is so as far as it has been tested in actual decorating. It cannot be lacquered into a good gold, but silver leaf can. Silver is more lustrous than aluminium, which has a rather leaden look when used alone. It makes a pretty combination with gold, being greyer than silver. The cheaper metals can be laid by hand, as they are so thick as to stand handling freely, and can be cut into pieces with a pair of scissors. The principal qualification for success in gilding is a deft and delicate handling of the metals, especially gold leaf, and there must also be a ready recognition of the possibilities and peculiarities of each kind. Always remember that whatever GILDING. 227 the condition of the under size or ground, it is hermetically sealed up when the leaf is put on, which thus prevents any change or further drying in the ordinary way; so that if gold is laid on soft coats of paint, they will not all harden off together, but will go on working under the gold, expanding and contract- ing, and will ultimately ruin the gold leaf. Bronzes. Bronzes have the same qualities as the baser leaf metals, and the same precautions must be observed in using them. They must not be mixed with oil varnishes, or oil mediums, but can be put upon japanners' gold size, or upon any spirit varnishes in powder form. They can be mixed and applied as liquids in any spirit varnish, or in size or gum, though the tendency of gum to become acid sometimes turns the bronze black. In bronzing with the powder, the size (usually japanners' gold size), is applied, and when tacky, the bronze is dusted on with a hare's foot, a wad of close cloth, or a chamois leather pad. The bronze is protected by a thin coat of lacquer, and then varnished in the ordinary way. Bronzing should never be varnished over with oil copal varnishes, as it will rapidly lose colour and oxidise if so varnished ; some of the commoner house-painters' oak varnishes have so little oil in them that this effect does not follow- rapidly. If metals, silver, or gold be sized with a clear jelly of gelatine size, or thinly lacquered, they may be varnished with any kind of varnish, as the interleaf of size will stop the direct action of the varnish upon the metal. Bronzing is sometimes used over paint to give the effect of metal. Thus a piece of iron casting may be painted green or copper colour, and then the highest portions of the relief touched with bronze. This is done by coating the article with japanners' varnish or gold size, and when tacky dusting over a little powder bronze, which can be applied by a piece of cloth or velvet rubbed in the powder. The bronze should not be applied to the bare oil paint. The colour of the bronze must bear a correct relation to the colour of the paint used. Lacquer for Metals. Various lacquers are used to give gold or metal a different colour. Any lacquer can be made from an ounce of good shellac dissolved in half a pint of spirits of wine, and tinted with saffron, turmeric, Sanders, or other dye-woods, dragon's blood, or any of the aniline powders. The most useful colourings are turmeric and dragon's blood ; a colourless lacquer may be used, and the tinting done by the use of transparent oil colours in varnish. The house painter often has to re-lacquer small brass fittings. 228 PAINTING AND DECORATING. These are better gilded (as they can be gilt at very small cost) and then coated with French polish or a good lacquer. This does not apply to handles, &c., but to curtain hooks, curtain pole ends and brackets, bell pulls, &c. ; clean, and give them a coat of patent knotting before gold sizing ; gold size with japanners', and gild in the usual way. Preparing Open Grain Wood, and Stone for Gilding. To prepare rough cut deal, ash, open grain oak, or stone, &c., for gild- ing, give a couple of coats of French polish and spirit varnish in equal parts, or two coats of patent knotting ; then gold size in the usual manner. Japan gold size sometimes works cloggy in tine lettering. The writer has found that when working indoors at fine gold lettering on a black ground, if the Japan size be stood in a jar of hot water it keeps fluid and works extremely well, setting quickly when once on the work. It must not be too hot. A jam pot may be filled with hot water and the size in a smaller pot stood in it. Coe's Gilding Wheels. Coe's patent ribbon gilding wheels are of recent introduction, but their utility has already been recognised by imitators. They are particularly useful for gilding lines or patterns upon a flat surface. ' Difficulties of wet, wind, dust, and cost are much minimised by the use of the machine where it can be profitably used, and quite 70 per cent, of time is saved, as against tip and cushion gilding. All operations up to actual laying of the leaf are the same. The instrument consists of two wheels, one of which con- tains the gold leaf upon thin paper in an endless ribbon, and the other is covered with soft felt. A handle is attached. The wheel is simply rolled along the course of the gold size, and the ribbon unrolls, the gold leaves it, and the paper is wound upon the other wheel. The felt presses the gold as firmly in place as required, the pressure being regulated by the operator at will according to the condition of the gold size or mordant. A modification of the principle is used for gilding concave or convex surfaces, enrichments, &c., in which a camel-hair brush takes the place of the felt wheel. This is also patented, and the system will doubtless ultimately supersede the older methods. Ribbon Gold Leaf. This is supplied by most gold beaters. We can recommend the Holmes-Braunlein of Hamiltons as one of the most reliable. 229 CHAPTER XVII. LETTERING AND SIGN- WRITING. E practice of sign-writing, or, as it maybe more comprehensively termed, "letter painting," embraces the de- sign, display, and colouring of letters upon surfaces of wood, metal, glass, &c. The old English term " Letter- ing " fitly describes it. The best decorative talent has always been be- stowed upon the art, and it has been justly looked upon as calling forth the highest skill of the painter, em- bracing, as it does, all the manipula- tive methods used in the trade. Good sign-writing must embrace vigorous drawing, grace and harmony of design, well developed colour, and delicate finish of detail. It may be divided broadly into two great sections. Sign- writing for advertising purposes, and sign-writing for informa- tive purposes. The first section may be bluntly described as putting up that which you want the public to read, but which 230 PAINTING AND DECORATING. they will not search for and do not want to read. The second as putting up information which is required and will be searched for by the public. Of course this division implies two opposite courses of action in determining how to do the work. When closely examined it will be found that many of the same rules will apply to both classes of sign-writing ; indeed, the set of rules governing " Notice writing " as it may be termed, will nearly all be operative in " Advertising" writing, but with sundry additions. Notice writing will consist of directions, door-plates, street names, lists of charges and tolls, contents labels, public notices, &c. The qualities required in this class of writing are distinct- ness, legibility, simplicity, and harmony with surroundings. Sign or advertising writing, though requiring to be readable, must before all things be assertive, attractive, uncommon (if possible), and bright even to showiness. A readable type is especially important upon signs placed in busy thoroughfares, on tram routes and railways to be read by him who runs, but it is often obvious that too much importance has been given to readableness. We have heard objections raised to old English or black letter type as unreadable, and yet every one is familiar with it and can read it upon the headings of most of our news- papers. If an advertisement is sufficiently striking to attract attention, experience shows that it will be read and understood, even if written in Greek characters ; in fact, attention is some- times called to an advertisement merely because it is a sort of conundrum and requires a little puzzling out. Prominence in Lettering. The endeavour to make adver- tisement lettering prominent has* led to the exercise of a number of expedients which are more or less open to question as a matter of taste, but to the writer none of these are more inde- fensible than the attempt to represent lettering as raised, or shaded, or as in perspective. The usual excuses for this class of work are, that it makes the lettering moi-e prominent, and that we have precedent in the works of Thornhill, and a number of other great artists, for the perspective representation of objects in flat decoration. To the latter argument the reply may be made, that these works are more or less pictorial, and that though they are the work of consummate artists, they reflect the taste of their own times, and do not represent the highest and best periods of art. Shaded Lettering. If the lettering of the best types of all ages are examined, we find a total absence of any attempt at sham relief. In so far as legibility or prominence are concerned SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 231 the necessity for shading certainly does not exist. Judicious contrast, edging, or outlining, will bring any lettering into the utmost prominence possible to painted lettering on a flat surface. The illustrations give some lead in this direction, especially the headlines and initial letters. The student should always bear in mind the fact that any attempts at sham or deception are open to serious question, and require a far more reasonable justification than can be supplied in this instance. A serious argument against the representation of painted per- spective lettering, may be found in the fact that the centre of vision of the spectator has to be arbitrarily selected, a fact which makes the representation absurd and incorrect from every different station point or point of view. Illegible Type in Lettering. Another expedient which has frequently been resorted to in the search after novelty, and in order to attract attention, is the use of the curious, rather than the beautiful and legible in lettering, and especially in the ornamentation of letters. Letters formed from the human figure in grotesque attitudes, from twisted branches of trees, or from contorted ribbons. In this manner really fine typical alphabets have been neglected, and set aside in favour of misshapen freaks fit only for a museum of paleographical curiosities. The only redeeming feature one can see in such courses is that consider- able technical skill has been necessary to carry out the ideas, and thus the executant power and expertness of the sign writer have been maintained. But this gain has been outweighed by a distinct loss of refinement and artistic selection. Books on Lettering. In glancing through the many books that have been written upon sign writing, the attention is arrested by the false note which is struck by many of these guides. An alphabet is illustrated, and the student is referred to it as if the particular and identical forms there given were arbitrary. This cramped and narrow view is drilled into the reader at every turn, and he concludes that the whole art of lettering consists in the committing to memory of certain sets of symbols associated together under the name of block, Roman, Italic, Egyptian, Gothic, &c. He is directed to use these forms as if they were facts, instead of the mere visible and manual expression of facts. The most important words that can be said to students of lettering are that letters owe their precise form to convention and not to law. There is no set proportion or rule for their construction, and if the letter conveys its meaning in an unmistakable manner, it has fully accomplished its purpose. It is quite permissible, for instance, to use half a-dozen different 232 PAINTING AND DECORATING. forms of the same letter in one inscription if there is any proper reason or excuse for so doing, providing they harmonise in style and design. Forms of Letters Changed by Environment The con- tinual change of environment to which the letters in words are subject, call for corresponding and accommodating changes in form: Thus T following L and before A as in DELTA, may have more breadth at top than T coming before W as in TWO. In this way written or painted inscriptions have much advan- tage over printed or stencilled lettering (see plates and headlines). Letters, too, may be made more or less unmistakable in form in accordance with their importance or connection. Thus in the word TOO the two OO's may be looped together for artistic effect even at the loss of legibility, because the remaining letters make the word quite unmistakable. Words such as " and " or " the," which are in most instances understood by implication as much as by expression, may be made more or less ornamental, and less easily readable. On the contrary, proper names or words in which the alteration of a single letter imparts a different meaning, must be kept plain and intelligible. The form of the letters may also be altered for the sake of balance and design. If a number of letters with perpendicular lines come together, it is often desirable to introduce a few curves and vice versd. Take the two words GENU.6M6N ROCHES Fig. 78. In the former the round-backed 6 may be introduced for the sake of contrast ; while in the latter every available and admis- sible bit of straight line will be an advantage (Fig. 78). Rules for Construction of Letters. Rules for the con- struction of alphabets and letters are useful only as suggestions, and the less they are relied upon by the student the more characteristic and versatile will his style of lettering become. While this freedom of choice and design is admissible, it must SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 233 not be imagined that letters of various type and style may be intermixed indiscriminately. There are governing ideas and leading peculiarities in every age and style, which cannot be set aside without resultant discord. Certain characteristics require to be consistently upheld in all the letters of an inscrip- tion or sign. Take the plain letter known as " block." Here the governing idea is a letter of uniform breadth, no thick and thin lines, no serifs or little projections at the ends. Working within these limits, the artist is at liberty to design his letters to suit the space or position or material in which he is working. Some alphabets, on the other hand, consist of thick and thin lines representing up and down strokes. Some have serifs, or ends, of particular shape which must be consistently adhered to through- out the inscription. Some are rigidly confined to a given height ; others take any height within given lines; others again have projecting heads and tails both above and below the lines. These features, when of sufficient importance to give class or character to lettering, become fixed laws for that particular type, but still leave a vast amount of freedom to the taste and ingenuity of the designer. Another question that comes up for solution in this connection is that of style in its chronological or architectural sense. A knowledge of the laws of harmony is necessary to the student before he can successfully combine lettering of different historic periods without a sense of incongruity, but that it is quite possible to do so is scarcely open to question. In the three original alphabets illustrated, the writer has endeavoured to introduce the double curve or ogee line ; this gives quite a fresh character to the type. In the small alphabet, the letters are arranged to mix well in irregular order. The Gothic letters are derived from a combination of consistent fifteenth century lettering, but made suitable for brush as opposed to pen work ; note the brush curves in each letter. Lettering and Methods of Work. Lettering has not really changed; it has merely undergone a process of evolution, brought about chiefly through the change in the materials used for the expression of thought in writing. Thus, we have lettering which is the outcome of the stylus, the reed pen, the brush, the needle, chisel, punch, and knife; and we have alphabets that have been devised on paper, wood, linen, stone, metal, wax, and a host of other materials. All these possess interest and are full of suggestion, but in order that they may be mixed together with a sense of fitness, they must be passed through the medium 234 PAINTING AND DECORATING. of the brain of the worker, and so changed as to admit of their being suitably worked in the medium, material, and manner that he is using at the time. Students should particularly avoid the use of letters for painted signs which are obviously " pen" letters, or embroidery letters, unless they are so skilful as to adapt the whole form of them to the exigencies of brush-work. This is often done with much pleasureable and artistic result, but unless the change in form that it brings about is real and genuine, such lettering is as much open to objection as other shams. A study of some of the earlier printed books in which the capital and versal letters were left out in the type and added with the brush and pen by the illuminator, will very clearly show the marked difference between the spirit of pen, type, and brush-work. Quite recently Mr. Walter Crane has designed an alphabet, in which the flexible quill pen is used with masterly skill to give a new character to the lettering, by bulging out the centre of the perpendicular lines. The whole charm of this lettering has been lost and the idea made to appear absurd, by its slavish imitation in brush-work by sundry poster printers, &c., and it has even crept into type books. The study of the various books on lettering will help the student in his selection of good types. He should also collect any scraps of printed matter, as advertisements, title pages, headlines, and bookplates that appear worthy of study, forming the best of them into a scrap book for reference. Putting these ideas into a condensed form for application in practical work, we have, first, the necessity for the selection of good, effective, and readable type, adequate to the demands of the brush and a flat surface treatment; next, the need for adapta- tion of the forms of the letters to their position and environment, with freedom to alter their more usual shapes, consistently with general harmony and in accordance with style. Colouring of Lettering. Our next consideration is the matter of colour. The colouring of lettering is, of course, governed by the same rules as that of ornament. It may be regarded as an axiom, that lettering should always be coloured in contrast to its ground. The only divergence from, this rule is when the lettering forms a pattern, rather than an inscription, as in the use of mottoes, heraldic or otherwise, repeated to form part of diapered or pattern-covered surfaces. Prominence of colour should be given to important letters or words. The amount of contrast is determined by the position and purpose of the sign. Whilst deprecating the use of absurd and meaningless shadows, and prefering letters which appear in their proper SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 235 plane, rather than in an impossible projection, there are several methods by which the prominence of lettering may be increased, and we are not transgressing the laws of good taste if we borrow suggestions from raised or sunk letters, while making no attempt to imitate them or deceive the observer. Enrichment and Prominence of Letters. The raised letter owes its prominence to the fact of its separation from its ground. If we wish to give added prominence to, say, a gold letter on a medium blue ground, we may do so by outlining the gold with a pale yellow or cream colour on the gold, thus emphasizing the edge ; or by the contrary way of deepening the ground where it comes into contact with the gold by the use of a very deep blue outline. The same principle may be applied to all colours. A white letter on a green ground may be empha- sized by a gold outline, or by a black outline. If we borrow the suggestion found in a sunk letter we can obtain the same visual prominence by a central line of deeper hue, and a light outline. Thus, a vermilion letter on an olive ground may be given all the attraction that a sunk letter has by edging it with a salmon tint and giving it a central line of crimson. These instances can be multiplied ad libitum. Outlines may be multiplied and added to and strengthened by elaboration. Grounds may be enriched, diapered, and ornamented in a variety of ways, which give great scope to the artistic and inventive worker. These methods need not be expensive, indeed are less so than the elaborate systems of blocking and shading, now out of date. Take this suggestion as an instance : On a rich Tuscan or Indian red ground, a gold, plain type letter ; on this a little way in from the edge leaving a gold outer line, put a fine line of brightest sky-blue full in tone ; to further enrich it put a primrose line on the ground | inch broad and inch from the gold. Or, again, take a bright orange as a ground, on which stencil a close pattern all over in burnt Sienna ; on this place an open letter in gold inch wide, for, say, 8-inch letters ; fill in the centre of the letters a bright torquoise blue, not too deep, and outline the gold with creamy white outside, ^ inch wide, and very dark blue inside, ^ inch wide. Many valuable hints on colour may be noted from illuminated manuscripts. Colour effect experiments should be made on single letter sketches. Select a decided colour for the body of letters and a less pronounced colour for the ground. Setting out Sign-Writing. The practical aspect of sign- writing is the next matter for attention. Painting and varnishing have already been dealt with, and 236 PAINTING AND DECORATING. gilding, in as far as the processes are concerned, has been fully described. For specific directions on these subjects, the reader is referred to the chapters devoted to them. The setting out of lettering is the first operation. In the case of elaborate work, or a large quantity, the setting out is usually first drawn on a paper. For facia, large and displayed work that is, work where special parts are given special prominence, fee. A small sketch to scale is the better way to commence, this being afterwards enlarged directly on to the work. The setting out on the actual sign will be done in chalk or pipe-clay, or in the case of light ground or on distemper, charcoal is sometimes used. Take the case of a facia 16 feet long, with a single line of lettering, say, John Thomson and Sons. First, count the letters, reckoning every space between words as a letter also. This gives 21 letters. Now deduct a little space to be left clear at each end of the facia, say 1 foot, this leaves 14 feet to be occupied by the name, or |- of a foot = f foot = 8 inches for each letter, and each space between words. Of course, the letters will not actually fill the whole 8 inches, as there will be a slight space between the letters themselves, neither will all the letters occupy identically the same space. This is a matter for adjust- ment as the setting out is proceeded with. A space of 8 inches is now ticked off on the sign and the writer sketches in an average letter, usually the E or H, by which he arrives at a suit- able height for his letters. Lines are next struck by the use of a chalked string, held at each end firmly at the proper spot and pulled a little way off the board in the centre and allowed to snap back against it, leaving a clear and straight line. Some letters require double lines top and bottom and a central line, but the two lines suffice for most purposes. Ifc"" HvSbN AN 16 Feer Fig. 79. The setting out is then undertaken. The best method is to consider each 4 or 5 letters in groups and allocate to each its proper portion of space. Thus the first four may be taken, 32 inches being their limit. J will not require quite the average amount of space, a little above the average, H and N being two straight letters want a little extra allowance of space between them, while the shape of J suggests that it may be carried a little beyond its limit into the preliminary space. PLATE 21.-ALPHABET, ORIGINAL, DEDUCED FROM GOTHIC, To face p. 236.] SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 237 The illustration shows the application of the principle; the dotted lines indicating the 8-inch spaces. The letters should be sketched in lightly, as any excess of chalk clogs the pencil when colouring or gold sizing. Next, the set square should be used to test the accuracy of the perpendiculars. Nothing is so exasperating to the eye as to see lettering which is not upright ; curiously, almost every man has a tendency to allow his lettering to lean slightly, unless he uses the square to check it. The edges of the lettering should not be ruled, but an upright line put up the centre, so as to leave some freedom to the painter-in. In like manner, the use of the compasses is recommended as a check or guide, but not to be followed literally. Any superfluous chalk is then removed, and the work is ready for colouring. A slightly different method is adopted for closely written notices or continuous writing; suppose, as an instance, the writing is to be the decalogue, or Lord's prayer, in church text on a board 5 feet high ; the size of the letters is first determined, lines are then marked for one line of writing, and a portion of the wording sketched in, a fairly proportioned letter being used across one whole line. Next the number of letters which have been got into this line must be ascertained. Supposing this to be 40 letters, the whole matter must be divided into sections containing, as nearly as the spelling will permit, 40 letters to each section. This gives the number of lines necessary for the whole. Presuming the letters set out to be 1 inch high, this gives 40 inches for the lettering, and 20 inches for the spacing between the lines of letters. It is then necessary to deduct from the 20 inches sufficient top and bottom space, say 2 inches for each, leaving 16 inches for between the lines, or about f of an inch between each line. In writing a large number of letters of this kind, it is well to work on a good hard ground, and to do the setting out with a very soft black lead pencil, or coloured chalk pencil. This can be carefully washed off after the work is com- pleted. The writer has found a soft pencil to work well on light flatted grounds, if the flatting has just a little varnish in it to harden it. When washing off the marks after lettering, use a soft sponge and a leather for drying, and allow the work to be well soaked with clean water before rubbing at all. Use a little ordinary hard yellow soap, if necessary. If the setting out has been done upon the work, it is ready for the painting, but if it has been done upon paper, it will now require converting into a pounce, by pricking little holes all along the outlines of the letters ; a needle set in a wood handle, 238 PAINTING AND DECORATING. or pricker holder, is used. The fineness of the holes depends upon the class of work, but the finer they are, the better the pouncing can be worked over. The pricking is done upon a piece of board covered with baize or cloth, and the pricker must be held perpendicularly to avoid slanting holes. After pricking, the "burr" must be rubbed off the back of the paper with a piece of new No. 1J glass paper lightly used. Pounces. The pounce is applied in the following manner : Having placed it in position, the operator holds it firmly, or pins it down, and dusts through the holes by means of a pounce bag, a pounce roll, or a dry sash tool, some powdered whiting, charcoal, or rouge. To make the pounce bag, take a square piece of linen, put on it a handful of powdered whiting, charcoal, or red chalk, gather the edges together and tie round tightly in the form of a bag with a piece of string. A pounce roll is better for finer work. Take a piece of close-grained cloth, 9 by 6 inches ; strew it with powdered chalk on one half divided lengthwise, and with powdered black lead on the other ; roll tightly up, and bind round the centre portion with string. This is used with a circular rubbing motion over the pounce, the white end on dark grounds, and the black on light grounds. Care must be observed in pouncing that only sufficient powder is passed through the holes to give a good clear impression sufficient to work by. Painting Letters. The next point to be considered is the actual painting of the letters. For this the tools necessary are, a palette, a mahl stick, and sable or ox-hair pencils. Sable pencils are decidedly preferable for all classes of sign-writing, and are regarded as the cheaper in the long run. A dipper to hold turpentine, or sometimes the colour itself, must be clipped on to the palette. The palette is used upon the thumb of the left hand, the mahl stick being held in the palm of the same hand. The skilful use of the pencils must be acquired by con- tinued practice, and all that can be done here to ensure success is to give a few hints. Hints on Using Sable Pencils. Large long-handled pencils, with sticks not too thin, are the best. They must be held freely and loosely, giving free play to the hairs for the sweeps and curves, between the thumb and forefingers; usually the forefinger supplies the pressure necessary, while the thumb and second finger govern the direction. The eye must not be fixed upon the point of the brush, but must look a little ahead of it, on the same principle as that when walking we do not look at our feet. Of course, there are times when this rule needs relaxing, as in finishing up fine points, or in working over SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 239 obstacles. The pencils are kept in good order by well washing in turpentine, drying on a piece of fine rag, and greasing with soft tallow. When washing, greasing, or wiping, always do so in the direction of heel to point. Never disturb the posi- tion of the hairs by pulling them asunder, but always draw them to a point. In taking up colour from the palette observe the same rule. The colour or gold size must work freely without any tendency either to slide or to set too quickiy. If the colour is just right, it will flow evenly and freely from the brush, and yet have a slight tendency to hold the brush to the work. Different pigments require varying proportions of thinners, some will work better if extra thin, while others require to be thicker in consistency ; experience only will give the precise fluidity. It may be taken, as a rule, that if the work does not proceed easily and with comfort, some- thing is wrong with the colour. A little varnish added to the colour often corrects its tendency to slip and run. If the colour stands a few days, it will work better than newly thinned colour. For light tints, a stiflish sable is necessary, a red sable or even an ox hair, as the colour is heavy ; but for black, gold size or dark colours, a good springy, but soft pencil will get over more work. Keep the pencil well filled with colour or the body of the writing will be uneven. Do not attempt to do both edges of a letter with one stroke of the brush ; no time is saved by so doing, and letters so worked are less graceful in form than where the outline is obtained by two strokes, as the two sides of a well- formed letter are never geometrically parallel. Form the outline of the letter first, then fill in with a larger brush, if necessary, but do not let outlines partially set before doing so. Lay off the colour evenly and avoid any fat edges to the letters. These are frequently caused by a twisting motion being given to the pencil in using it. Avoid runs, practice constantly on a var- nished board with colour in which there is no drier, so that it may again and again be wiped off. When practising, do not set out, but sketch the letters in by outlining them. This will teach the two operations at one lesson and save time. To acquire facility, practice the brush strokes illustrated here, until they become easy. Consider how the letters are to be finished before starting, as it is sometimes advisable to do the outline first, especially if it be a gilded outline to a coloured letter. When gold lettering or gilding of any sort is about to be done, see that the ground is not sticky, or the gold will adhere to it as well as to the parts gold sized. Pounce the ground over with the white pounce bag, 240 PAINTING AND DECORATING. if very tacky, or size over with egg white and water, as already described for gilding. Use oil gold size whenever you are able to, as the gilding will be far superior in burnish and will last longer. Writing on Silk. Writing upon silk for banners is accom- plished by using a pounce, and by first either sizing in the parts to be worked upon with clear glue size, allowing it to cover the extreme outline of the painting, or by using a first coat of flatting colour made with varnish and turps. Banners which are sized will less readily crack, as the oil does not have so destructive an effect upon the textile material. Glass Embossing. Glass writing may well be preceded by a few hints on glass embossing. Glass embossing consists in producing sunk letters or ornament upon glass by means of fluoric acid. It is sometimes used upon flashed or coated glass, as in sheet ruby, to remove the coloured glass film and leave a white letter, or vice-versd ; at other times to produce a clear letter upon a ground glass surface, or a slightly obscure letter upon a clear surface. There are four distinct contrasting whites obtainable on glass by means of acid. First, the polished sur- face of the glass itself ; next, a slightly dulled surface produced by sunk embossing with ordinary acid ; third, a matt or dead white produced by the use of "white" acid; fourth, ground glass produced by rubbing the portions of the glass which are left raised after the use of the acid, with a fat slab of copper and fine emery powder and water. The first two surfaces are mainly used for gilding and colouring upon. Combinations of the whole are used for glass which is required to remain uncoloured, as in doors and windows, where it is desired to retain the light. The method of glass embossing is a simple one. The glass is cleaned thoroughly and placed face downwards upon a reverse tracing of the setting out, in which, of course, the letters all appear backwards. This reverse is obtained by placing a piece of carbonised or blackened paper under the paper on which the letters are set out and tracing over the outlines with a hard pencil. The parts of the glass which are not to be subjected to the action of the fluoric acid are then painted over with an acid- resisting paint. Brunswick black, of an ordinary quality, is a good resist ; some add red lead to it and others a little beeswax. The addition of beeswax certainly strengthens and toughens the resisting quality of the black, but necessitates a very warm place in which to do the painting, otherwise fine work is difficult, as the colour clogs. When the resist is quite dry, the plate is sub- jected to the action of the acid. The usual method is to erect a SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 241 putty edge round the glass, termed " walling," the putty for the purpose being made from beeswax and Russian tallow, with sometimes a little Burgundy pitch added to harden it. The ingredients are melted together and allowed to cool. The glass is then laid upon a flat bench, in a well ventilated room so as to allow the fumes of the acid to escape ; carefully levelled, by placing a few ashes or sawdust under it to make a good level bed ; and the acid carefully poured on to the glass to an even depth of f of an inch. It is necessary to dilute the acid by the addition of from one-half to two-thirds water ; add a little vitriol or nitric acid, two ounces of either to a pint of acid, and mix the whole in a box or tray of sheet lead having a lip from which to pour the acid on to the glass. There should be a lid of lead to the tray. The same acid may be used again and again, until it has been reduced by waste and evaporation, when new acid can be added. The acid should be strained or filtered occasionally through linen or filter paper, to take away particles of stopping wax, &c., and sediment of glass. Fluoric acid must be kept in gutta-percha or lead bottles, or diluted acid may be kept in the tray if the lid is stopped round with the Russian tallow to prevent leakage and escape of fumes. The time necessary for the exposure of glass will vary accord- ing to the strength of the acid and the make of the glass. It should be tested on a strip of waste glass of similar kind to that about to be used. When the aciding is deep enough, the acid is poured back into the tray through an aperture made in the wax " walling," by gently tilting the glass. The face of the glass near this point must be smeared with tallow to prevent the acid running under, which would damage the front of the glass. When the acid has been poured off, the glass is soused with water to remove the rest of the acid, the walling is removed and stored in a pot for future use, and the resist paint cleaned off by the use of paraffin, turps, benzine, or potash. The glass is then thoroughly washed with soap and water, followed by vinegar and water, and polished ready for gilding or whatever other method of finishing is intended. The six letters on Plate 22 are suitable for embossed and gilded lettering for facias. Glass Writing. To gild the glass, it is again laid upon the reverse setting out, and the portions to be gilt are laid with gold in the method already described under Gilding. The gold must be laid well over the letters and beyond their edge, but of course only a rough shape of the letters will be obtained by this method of gilding. When the gilding is com- pleted, the drawing, or setting, is pricked and the pounce 16 242 PAINTING AND DECORATING. obtained is pounced, reversed, on to the gold at the back of the glass. The portions that are to remain gold are then backed with best coach black Japan, or hard carriage varnish in which a little ochre has been ground. This gives the required shape and form to the letters and the superfluous rough edges of gold are left unprotected. When the Japan is quite hard, a little warm water and sponge will remove the odd bits of gold, leaving the letters sharp and clear. Any etching upon the gold surface, as the shading-up of heraldic devices, &c., is done with a wooden stylus, or a needle, before the gold is backed by the Japan or varnish, in which case also, the colour of the Japan must be determined by the colour required to show up on the etched lines. When the glass has again been thoroughly cleaned, the colours can be added. It is well to restrict the quantity of colour upon the glass to the least possible quantity; consequently, it is undesirable to recoat the backing of the gold letters when putting on the coloured portions, and also to carefully consider the colouring of outlining, &c., so as to obtain the finished result with as little colour and labour as possible. The colours used may be the ordinary oil tube colours with varnish added, and in some cases a little terebine or drier, especially in the case of lakes. The more glossy and full the colour used, the more rich and mellow will it appear on the face side of the glass. In the use of shading, whether for mere gradation of tone, or for light and shade work, the blending will be much simplified if the following routine is followed : Leave the shading till the last. Use short stiffish red sables for doing it. Work so that the light passes through the glass to the eye, and frequently examine the face side, because a perfectly even gradation may be obtained on the surface of the colour, while the part that is seen from the front may not be properly blended. Put in the deepest colour first, then the next lighter, working this into the last, following with the next, and, finally, with the lightest, always working light into dark and not vice versd. For some classes of shading, transparent lakes or blues with varnish added, are used, and afterwards backed up with white or metal leaf. A good even shade can be obtained by using water colour, and afterwards backing it with varnish. White aciding is a ready method of obscuring glass, and haa much the appearance of ground glass ; it does not leave the glass comparatively clear, as the ordinary fluoric acid does. Etcliing Glass. Etching on glass may be done by fluoric acid, and is useful for fine work. The glass is covered with a SIGN-WRITING AXD LETTERING. 243 wax coating, and the lines etched out with a stylus or etching tool. The wax is made less brittle in cold weather by the mixing of a little tallow or palm oil with it. General Notes on Sign-writing. The following notes may be found useful in special circumstances : American cloth, or Crockett's leather cloth, makes a good covering for rough signs or for temporary purposes. It may be either strained or tacked on the board, arid the edges covered by a moulding, or stuck down all over the board with a mixture of white lead and japanners' gold size. The writing may be done either before or after fixing the cloth to the board. Canvases of various kinds may be used for the same purpose, but should be sized before being painted. To represent frosted, ground, and embossed letters on polished plate glass, stipple the glass with a mixture of driers, a little ivory black, and turps. When dry, scratch out letters with a sharpened stick, a chisel, or pointed pieces of wood, guided either by the aid of a stencil plate, or by ordinary setting out in pencil, and the use of straight-edges. The frosting may also be coloured to taste, by adding colour instead of black to the driers stippling mixture. Letters may be written on ground glass, with pale white varnish, the ground glass being previously sized to prevent running, if the grinding is rough. These letters may be edged with colour or gold, and are very effective. Blue-grounded sign-boards, produced by strewing powdered smalts over a freshly-varnished surface, used to be common, lasted long, and were brilliant. The letters should be written first on an ordinary blue ground, and allowed to become hard; and the ground afterwards varnished and smalted. Lettering may be produced on white glazed tiles by the same process as that used for embossing glass. The embossed portions are then filled in with colour ground in varnish. Prints and trade marks may be transferred to glass signs by the following method without re-painting. Well size the back of the print, and after getting the position for the print, varnish the space it is to occupy with French oil or other good varnish. When this is partially dry, but still tacky, sponge the face of the print with water, and well blot the surface dry ; then lay it, surface down, on the varnish, and press well all over until it firmly adheres to the varnish ; allow it to harden for a couple of days, and then sponge off the paper of the print by careful soaking and gentle abrasion with the finger tips. When all the paper that will come off without injury to the surface has been removed, varnish the back with another coat of varnish, taking care that the work is quite free from dampness. 244 PAINTING AND DECORATING*. Lettering with embossed centres and bright outline on polished plate, backed with ground glass, is a very durable and effective method of treatment for doors and windows. Wire gauze window blinds should be lettered, by first using a filling-up composition of dry white lead, varnish, and turps, and giving two or three coats until a level surface is obtained. This is applied to the best advantage with a camel-hair pencil. Care must be taken to keep the edges clean and straight, and not to fill up beyond the area of the letters, as the interstices of the gauze ground must be kept open to contrast with the solid letters. Writing on glass to read effectively by day or gas-light and to appear decoratively from the outside of the shop, may be done as follows: Outline in white or gold, so that the outline appears opaque on the front of the glass ; then stipple the letter on the back in transparent colouring, and, finally, add a similar outline on the back of the glass. Coffin plates are usually lettered upon bright tin in dead black, or upon dead black in japanners' gold size and gilt, bronzed, or silvered. A quick and inexpensive glass sign is made by putting the let- tering on in Brunswick black, and water-gilding the ground, or by blacking the ground and leaving the lettering to be gilded. Aphorisms for Sign-Writers. This chapter may be fitly concluded by a few aphorisms which may be valuable to the sign-writer. Do not mix slanting and perpendicular letters on the same sign. Do not sacrifice legibility to elaboration. When in doubt as to type, choose the simpler. Beware of mixing periods and styles without judgment. Consider associations and sentiment ; " Good old Irish " in " church text " may offend some persons' susceptibilities. Avoid using too many mechanical aids in the formation of letters. The square and compasses are better as servants than masters. Regulate the contrast between the colour of letter and ground by the object of the sign. Excellence must be obtained by hard work and constant practice. When a certain point of excellence is reached, then facility and speed come readily ; all the best writers are speedy ones. The finer the colour is ground, the better it works in the pen- cil. Use artists' tube colours ; they pay their cost in time saved. SIGN-WRITING AND LETTERING. 24^ Use the best sables procurable, and by preference a long and flexible one ; the practice and mastery of it thus acquired will show the value of this advice in the rapidity with which sweep- ing curves can be effected. The greatest error a beginner can make is to use too small a brush ; use the largest with which it is possible to do the work in hand. A stiffer brush is required for heavy colours, as white, than for deep, as black. Use the pencil full of colour, and refill every time it is taken off the work, drawing it to a point upon the palette. Colour for writing works better if it has been made up for a day or two. A very little varnish added to tube colours is useful, as it causes the colour to hang slightly and prevents slipping. Do not be misled by fashion into the use of lettering which is ugly and misshapen. Glass gilding and writing must be done in such a way that as little colour as possible is put upon the glass ; the less paint used the less likelihood there is of its cracking or scaling off. Varnish and Japans are better for use on glass than quick colours or flatting. When stencilling on glass for embossing, beeswax melted and added to the Brunswick black makes a better resist than plain Brunswick black. CHAPTER XVIII. ^- r -^ W ^^ DECORATION ^General Principles [ECORA.TION, in the sense in which the terra is here used, may be under- stood to embrace all those methods and processes used in the adornment and beautifying of houses, churches, and public buildings, as opposed to that part of the painters' work which is merely sanitary and preservative. It is divisible into two great sec- tions dealing respectively with colour and ornament. Importance of Colour in Decoration. Colour may fairly claim our largest share of attention. The balance and harmony of colour in a decorative scheme being satisfactory, very little attention will be bestowed by the observer upon the detail of ornament, unless it be of a particularly interesting character, or arrests attention by its prominence. TJpon the consideration of colour, however, pattern has an important bearing, as the term colour must not be understood to refer to local hue only, but to the general effect of the portion of work referred to. The colour of a surface may be consider- ably changed by the addition of pattern, and though upon the same ground colour two different patterns may be put, in pre- DECORATION. 247 cisely the same colour, they are very likely to produce two dis- similar colour results (see Plated). The use of both colour and ornament in a decorative sense is the same ; by their aid form and proportion are emphasized, structural facts expressed or repressed, and richness, variety, and quality added to the work. The use of colour necessitates little or no additional labour, and the cheapest and most utilitarian work may be raised and refined in feeling and standard by its artistic employment, or lowered and vulgarised by its ignorant use, without affecting its cost. The iise of ornament, on the contrary, involves additional labour and expense, and the possession of the creative faculty in the designer. The ability to design cannot be altogether acquired by study or inculcated by tuition, and it rarely falls to the lot of the working painter to be required to design original patterns. Knowledge of style and power of selection are within the reach of all who study the forms used by the workers of the past, and cultivate the ability to classify and arrange them ; as is also the power of combining and adapting them to altered con- ditions and the materials of to-day. Considerations Governing the Use of Colour in Decora- tion. It is not within the scope of the present work to deal minutely with the rules and laws of the harmony of colour, but merely to lay down a few broad principles which have been found serviceable by the writer. A separate chapter will be devoted to their application to practical work. In the use of colour, it is well to bring to bear upon the selection, those ordinary faculties which one uses in considering the more mundane things of life, and which are so often ignored in relation to art matters. Nothing should be clone without a common-sense reason. The theory that colouring is a kind of inspiration may be true of one or two per million of the inhabi- tants of this planet, but the remaining population need to exhibit the same shrewdness and calculation on this subject, that they would do upon a commercial transaction. This rule is so often lost sight of that it is here given prominence. No colouring should be entered on without a definite plan or scheme. Every tint and colour should have a reason for its place; nothing should be left to chance. The eye must be the final arbiter, but it must arrive at its decisions by the operation of the reason. In the colouring of objects, the material of which they are made should be taken into consideration, and their purpose, architectural and useful, may have some weight in the decision 248 PAINTING AND DECORATING. of their colouring. Illustrations and instances are more con- vincing than theory. Some have already been noted in other connections and to these the following may be added : Supporting features, such as pillai-s, pilasters, corbels, brackets, and beams should be more strongly coloured than their surround- ings that is, they should by contrast appear stronger in colour. Strength in this connection is not intended to mean positiveness, but comparative force and insistence. Thus against a green background, red, or white, or any allied colours would be strong colours under ordinary conditions, but if the green were a strong and positive green, and the red a brownish quiet-toned red, the green would be the stronger and more insistent colour in the sense here intended. Architectural features, whether pleasing or the reverse, must not be ignored if they are in any degree prominent features. They may be modified and softened by decorative treatment, but no adventitious attempt must be made to hide them. The utility of objects should justify their presence ; and ventilators, heating apparatus, and the like necessary fittings, should not be imperfectly disguised by being painted to match surroundings. Stone mantels, &c., must be treated as such, and not painted in wood colours; and wood structures and fittings should be coloured in hues suggestive of wood. Plaster mouldings upon ceilings should be painted as plaster, unless their form and pattern is one that will equally well suggest wood. Receding members of a moulding should be treated in receding colours, and prominent members in prominent tints. These instances might be multiplied, but the line of procedure being indicated it becomes an easy matter to follow it in detail. Another important feature in colouring is the element of weight. There is a law of gravitation in colour as well as in substance. In building up a colour scheme it must be adhered to, or a topsy-turvy effect is produced. Low-toned tertiary colours are mostly what are known as heavy colours, and pure tints as light ones. In additions to these distinctions the element of suggestion, or implication, has some force in determining the weight of a colour. Thus, stone colour is a heavy colour by implication and suggestion, as also is slate, bronze, copper, and white ; while fawn, sky greys and blues, silver and gold, are by implication, light colours. The two latter never associate them- selves in the mind as the colour of metals, so much as the colour of the heavenly bodies, and of the edges of the clouds, probably because we see them in greater masses in the latter connection, trreens range themselves into two families, light and heavy, the DECORATION 249 mineral and earthy greens being reckoned as heavy colours, and the foliage greens as light colours. The term " light " as here used is not intended to refer to paleness or whiteness, but to weight. The reality of these distinctions is none the less, because it is not easy to specify rules by which the student may be guided. The colouring should always conform to the temperament of the occupants and the uses and purpose of the apartment, in as far as these can be ascertained. The influence of the sur- roundings may be further intensified by the influence of colour. It should be remembered that colour that is produced by visual intermixture, is more pleasing than a uniform tint ; thus a tree, with its many varied leaf tints, presents a more pleasing green to the eye when viewed at a distance, than would be the case if the tree were clothed with leaves of a uniform green. The subtle gradations caused by light and shade and contour, all add mystery, depth, and richness. In decoration the same result holds good, and is obtained by the use of broken and uneven surfaces, and patterns distributed over surfaces. Everything deceptive and unreal should be avoided in colour- ing. However pleasing its eifect may be on first acquaintance, as soon as the deception is discovered it fails to satisfy the seeker for beauty : "Beauty is Truth; truth, Beauty.'' The highest ideal in human colouring will always fall far short of the colour which is to be found in Nature. We have no means of portraying the elusive and living colour that we see in the clouds, the flowers, and the water ; but we have in Nature a reference book of inexhaustible value, a constantly changing kaleidoscope of harmonious combinations, which offers sugges- tions without end. Nature's colouring sets all the rules of the scientist and the pedant at defiance, but never violates her own. The study of flowers will alone furnish the student with sugges- tions in colouring enough to last a lifetime. In this connection, however, it is well to remember that the horticulturist and nature are not synonymous terms. Many of the combinations that emanate from the hot-house are properly speaking unnatural abortions, though nature, eyen under the most adverse circum- stances, endeavours to right matters. Ornament. Ornament is the second form which decoration takes. The same principles of purpose and fitness must be allowed to govern its application, as in the case of colour. It must be appropriate to its object, to its method of treatment, and to its 250 PAINTING AND DECORATING. application. It must always decorate the object to which it is applied, that is, it must make it more beautiful. The only reliable test of good ornament is that it is necessary to the per- fection of the object decorated. If it can be removed or done away with, without any sense of loss, then it is clearly faulty and unnecessary. On the other hand, if this be so, it does not imply that no ornament is required, or that ornament is unnec- cessary, because a more fitting ornament may be a considerable improvement. The term " overdone " is often used in respect to ornament, and it is sometimes true, but very seldom. The fault is usually in the type or treatment of the ornament. Historic ornament is divided into periods or styles, and these styles are the outcome of the surroundings, practices, and prin- ciples of the peoples of each period ; the expression of their aims and ideals. They are influenced by the religion and culture of their times. The ornament of each style being governed by set principles has a general similarity by which it can at once be detected and described. The principal styles in ornament are the Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Moresque, Gothic, Renaissance, Cinque Cento, and Louis XIV. Then there are also the Chinese, Japanese, Persian, Indian, Arabian and Turkish. Each of these have various subdivisions the most important being the Renaissance, divided into Italian, French, Dutch, and English ; the Gothic divided into three periods, early, decorated, and perpendicular ; and the Cinque Cento divided into Queen Anne, Flemish, and Italian. The student is recom- mended to make himself acquainted with these styles, especially with the Greek, Roman, Gothic, Moresque, and Renaissance. In designing original ornament it is not essential that prece- dent of form be followed ; it is more meritorious to originate in harmony with the principles upon which the style in question is based. It may be taken as a truism, that what looks well is well. If, then, the ornament harmoniously combines with its surroundings, it is suitable and admissible, so that, even those who are not thoroughly conversant with the peculiarities and features of the different styles, are capable of designing good and appropriate ornament if they possess the necessary taste and discrimination. The reason why a mixture of style in ornamen- tation is offensive to the trained eye is due to the fact that it is a mixture of principles, and not to the fact that it is a mixture of forms, merely. This may be instanced in the following way : A circular-headed arch and a pointed arch do not appear to be in harmony with each-other if used in the same fa9ade, but the circular form will be quite harmonious if used in any other DECORATION. 251 detail of the fa9ade, as, in a spandrel formed by the pointed arch. A realisation of this view of style will considerably lessen the difficulties of the painter in regard to the selection of pattern for his ornamentation. The knowledge of historic styles of ornament may be compared to the knowledge of the parts of speech in grammar. They are necessary to the student as a groundwork to correct expression in ornament. By their acquaintance he becomes enabled, in a measure, to place himself in the position of the artists who designed them, and this is the truest and highest posture a designer can assume when attempting ornament of his own con- ception. The mode of procedure will become habitual; he will gradually favour a particular style, or attitude, and all his work will be tinctured by his favourite principles, so that he will develop a style of his own, his work will assume an individuality, and will be as characteristic of himself as his handwriting. Conventionality in Ornament and in Colour. Orna- ment varies in character in accordance with the foregoing theory. It also varies in regard to the amount of abstraction, or conventionality given to its forms ; ranging from abstract lines to concrete imitations of natural forms. It varies in a third manner also viz., in the amount of roundness or relief given to it. The latter quality may be dismissed with the remark that the amount of relief must be determined by the material used, its strength and cohesion. When it is observed that a certain amount of relief in ornament worked in a given material is easily damaged and broken by ordinary wear, it becomes abundantly clear that the relief is too high. Conventionality requires more deliberate attention, but this too may be regulated by a very few and easy laws. First, con- ventionality must be regulated by repetition. The oftener a pattern or flower is repeated mechanically, the less pleasing is naturalism. The great secret of natural beauty is its infinite variety. Take the flowers on a plant; no two are precisely alike, nor do they present the same view to the eye from the different points. To reduce this law to practice, take the case of the lily. If we paint a natural representation of the lily, we feel bound to vary the plant in every panel that we paint ; otherwise we are sensible of a mechanical shadowing of the original painting; the repetition is not natural. If we design a stencil of the lily for a door-panel decoration we conventionalise it slightly, till it appeals to us as ornamentation which has the lily as its suggestive basis, and in this form we feel that it is right not only to repeat it in both panels, but even to repeat the two halves of the same 252 PAINTING AND DECORATING. panel equally balanced. If we put the lily as a spot pattern over a wall, this form would, in its turn, become too natural, and would weary us by its repetition ; and we prefer it conven- tionalised into a fleur de Us form, which has very little of floral suggestion left, but is ornament pure and simple (see Plate 23). Conventionalism also extends to shading. Painting in light and shade is subject to the same kind of rule. The less of mechanical repetition we have, the more of light and shade may be introduced ; but we must always avoid painting ornament to represent relief in order to attempt to deceive. In the painted ornament of the Italian Renaissance, variegated colour is used with great judgment to correct excessive naturalism in the shading. A single representation of a natural object may be represented in full light and shade ; the more conventional ornament should be treated in a flat and broad manner. Conventionalism likewise extends to colour. Take the case of the vine. In a natural spray unrepeated, colour may be natural, and form also ; in a conventional border of grape vine, colour must be equally conventional; and in a purely ornamental form, based upon the grape, the colour must be ornamental i.e., it is better not to represent, even by allusion, the natural colour, to a greater degree than the associated natural form. In the use of ornament in decoration the great necessity is to secure contrast without discord, richness without confusion, and correct scale. In taking the quality of contrast first, its importance is recog- nised as primary. There should be, first, contrast of pattern ; that is, the same description of pattern should not be used for, say, the dado and fittings, or the wall and ceiling of a room, or for both frieze and dado band. All-over patterns may be divided into vertical, horizontal, flowing or scroll, square, and diamond patterns ; and each of these may be either geometrical, conven- tional, or natural. Border patterns are stationary, running, wavy, zig-zag, scroll, and spot, &c. The peculiar charm of each class of pattern is enhanced by its contrast with another form. Thus a scroll border would be better upon a geometrical paper than a stationary one. A conventional border will be suitable for a floral filling. A set pattern dado will harmonise best with a free flowing filling. If the ceiling is papered with a pattern arranged in circles, then a vertical paper for filling, and a geometrical diamond or square pattern for dado, will all combine to enhance the effect of each other. Then we come to contrast of line in each particular pattern. PLATE 22.-LETTER8 FOR GLASS EMBOSSING. To face p. 252.] DECORATION. 253 There should be the element of combination in each. A pattern combining curves, straight lines, both vertical and horizontal, and diagonal lines, will be more perfect than a combination containing less of contrast. Then there should be contrast of interest. Some parts of the ornamentation should be more attractive than others, to arrest the eye, and to provide against dulness and uniformity, just as in Nature the flower is of more attraction than the foliage. Last, but by no means least, there must be reserved, plain surfaces to contrast with ornamented ones. Immediately the larger part of the work is enriched by ornament, the maxi- mum effect of richness is reached, and any reduction of the remaining plain surfaces by further ornamentation will reduce the value and effect of the ornament already applied. The next point, richness without confusion, may be very shortly dealt with. The secret of this quality lies in judicious repetition and uniformity. Scale in Ornament. Scale is another important factor to be studied, and a difficult one to deal with within the scope of an elementary chapter. The selection of one pattern of given scale must be taken as determining the scale for the whole work in hand. Thus, if a frieze of natural sized poppies were decided upon, it would be necessary to observe a natural scale throughout the room. It would be out of scale to have a paper representing, say, oak leaves of half their natural size below it. Or, if a frieze were selected showing miniature trees and moun- tains, it would be out of place to have the wall covered with large roses or chrysanthemums. Variation in scale might be introduced if separated from the general scheme of decoration by framing or borders. Thus a life-sized figure might be placed in a panel surrounded with a border of architectural character, upon which there might appear smaller ornamental figures. Or, panels might contain ornament of a different scale to the wall-paper. Scale must be considered in the application of abstract pattern ornament, as well as in the use of natural forms. The scale of ornament should be larger and bolder the further it is removed from the eye. Thus, detail upon the cornice may be less fine than upon the door panels ; ornament upon the fa$ade of a building should be more detailed upon the ground floor than upon the top storey. When, however, the decorator is dealing with spaces within the compass of one glance of the eye, as in the case of dado and filling, the lower pattern should not be less 254 PAINTING AND DECORATING. in scale than the one immediately above it, unless it be much more simple and severe in character. Distribution of Ornament. All ornament should possess the quality of looking finished, complete and clear at any distance (see Plate 13). When seen from a long distance, its masses and general distribution should be seen, complete in themselves. On coming closer, the subsidiary lines and divisions should appear. On a close inspection, the minuter detail should enrich the whole. This quality is well illustrated in Nature. A simple flower, such as the daisy, is, at a long distance, a mere white dot. On coming nearer, the yellow centre is observed within a ring of white ; nearer still, the petals appear separately ; and yet nearer, we see the yellow centre is composed of many parts, the petals have fine veins, and, even if we use the microscope, we find new and yet finer details. All ornament should possess distinctness, especially that which is seen at a distance. The ground colour will impinge upon the ornament when the work is at a distance from the eye, and render it less distinct than it would appear if seen closely. Breadth of effect and generalisation require to be studied in the arrangement of ornament and colour. Borders and cornices should not be weakened by being crowded with detail ; the line of a border or band should not be broken by large patches of ornament dotted at intervals. Wall surfaces should not be made spotty by too distinct powderings or by marked pattern diaperings. The greatest consideration must be bestowed on the sub- divisions and massing of the ornament, and when these points are correctly decided on, they must be preserved intact and not sacrificed to mere detail. ^ In designing the decoration for a panel, the general distribu- tion of the masses of ornament and the direction of the construc- tional main lines must be considered first ; the exact shapes and details are of quite secondary importance. When the decorator is in any doubt as to whether a certain ornament is necessary or unnecessary it is usually safest to omit it, as redundancy is a more frequent fault than restraint. The Consideration of a Decorative Scheme. In approach- ing the consideration of the decoration of a room, a wall, a door, or other object, the power of considering colour and ornamenta- tion in combination should be cultivated, and a system of pro- cedure by graduated stages, somewhat after the following manner, will be found useful. The example is a dining-room. The first DECORATION. 255 stage of consideration will take the form of a general decision that the room is to have a prevailing hue of, say, blue, relieved by gold colour. The next stage deals with the definite parts in the order of their importance in effect, as follows : Walls, deep neutral blue with foliage pattern of greener blue, lighter than ground; wood-work, a woody brown of a golden hue, with pattern in relief suggestive of a carved wood effect, but not imitative ; ceiling, moulded, with lighter wood-coloured moulds running into cornice of same colour ; panels filled with paler blue, and a pattern on same with a swirling cloud-like suggestion of lines ; frieze, gold colour, with yellow and olive set pattern. The next consideration will involve a selection of a ceiling and wall paper to fulfil these requirements, and the adjustment of the other details to them ; the determination of how to obtain the required effect upon the door, say, either by filling the panels with lincrusta or by using gesso painting; the selection of a paper, or the designing of a stencil for the frieze : and the selection of the finish for wood-work, whether flat or glossy. In some such way as this, all the various details will be gradually led up to, always keeping in mind and working to the first general propositions, and rather sacrificing matters of detail than infringing the general ideas started with. Unity in the various details of a decorative scheme should be preserved. There should be some common relationship or as- sociation between its items. Thus, if the objects of the chase form part of a scheme of decoration, it would be inappropriate to introduce tame animals ; wild flowers should not be mixed up with hothouse flowers; and the amount of variety necessary to produce interest and contrast must be drawn from the same sources. All the parts of a scheme of decoration must be in due sub- jection to the whole effect, and there should always be a centre of interest which is led up to by the accessories, but which is still subordinate to the whole composition. Bright colours and specially interesting items of detail should act the part of gems in a piece of jewellery and not absorb the attention to the neglect of the jewel itself. Symmetry in ornament, and especially in the disposition ot ornament, should be studied. Like repetition, symmetrical ar- rangement has the power of giving interest and beauty to most uninteresting lines, and of adding beauty to the lines of beauty. If the panel of a door be filled with an unsymmetrical design, the reversing of it in the opposite panel will give symmetry to the decoration as a whole. If the student will scrawl upoi 256 PAINTING AND DECORATING. a piece of paper any irregular lines in ink, and then double the paper in such a manner as to blot a reverse impression opposite them, the value of symmetry will be seen and appreciated. Fashion v. Beauty. In the practice of decoration the student will be met by many discouragements, none of which are more powerful than fashion. Fashion in colour and in style continually changes, and standards of beauty, false in themselves, and based on ignorance and misconception, are set up. But in all the varied moods of fashion, fitness and truth, sincerity of purpose, and the exercise of the reason will count for much. Men are insensibly influenced in their opinions by moral considerations ; and the mental processes involved in the forming of the judgment on matters aesthetic, are so obscure that it is difficult to trace effect to cause. For instance, we observe a fine arch, admire its curvature, but if we analyse the process of reasoning by which we conclude that it is beautiful, we shall discover that it is the utilitarian fitness of the arch to bridge the stream or space that captivates our suffrages, rather than any abstract quality. It must be remembered that beauty is not an abstraction, but a definite quality, demonstrable, not to be confounded with taste, which is a personal preference, and may be accurate or inaccurate, good, bad, or indifferent. The first quality of beauty is fitness, as has been already said. If a piece of work is good in form, useful in purpose, and good in quality of craftsmanship, it is beautiful in the true and only proper sense of that term, though from various reasons some persons may not admire it ; the usual one is that they lack the necessary training to the perception of true beauty. There is, however, a quality in decoration which often confuses the judg- ment, and the lack of which will change beauty into ugliness. The quality we refer to is harmony of combination. The binary parts of the scheme may be beautiful in themselves, and the abstracted portions may be beautiful in themselves, but these do not make a beautiful whole. This is where scope for indivi- dual preference is the widest; but even the matter of combination is largely one of law and fitness, and if the same rules of contrast with unity be applied in the same way as they are made to apply to individual portions of detail, the difficulties of determination will be largely overcome. Laws in Decoration and Ornament. There are some points in decoration which require a solution, varying with varied circumstances. The student will in his wider reading find a large number of rules laid down as general pi-inciples, DECORATION. 257 which have evidently been freely broken by the great masters of design. Many of these are codified in the Grammar of Ornament, by Owen Jones, and, in the majority of instances, they may be accepted as offering correct guidance, but this is not always so. The rules for outlines to ornament are particularly dogmatic in this masterly work, but cannot be taken as applicable to ordinary decorative work. In relation to this question, the effect must justify the amount of labour expended. An un- flinching application of the rules would often produce an ex- cessive hardness and mechanical precision, which is not to be tolerated in the artistic home. Constructive decoration is another subject on which un- alterable rules are quite inadmissible. As a general principle, decoration should not be constructed, but, as a practical rule, just so much construction must be suggested by the ornament as is lacking in the place ornamented. It is not easy to define what is and what is not constructive decoration. In a definite sense, the mere use of confining lines, such as a panel line or a dado border, is constructive. If the decorator will avoid any- thing approaching artificiality, and his constructive decoration is not deceptive, but frank and sincere, he will not go far astray in this direction. In Plate 25 the value of this constructive decoration is shown when used in a long low room with squarish windows. See upper part of Plate and contrast with lower. Decoration of detail, as the addition of patterns to mouldings, the colouring of the background of relief decoration, and the emphasis of relief by lightening the projections and deepening the shadows of enrichments, have all in their turn been hastily condemned in toto ; but there are often circumstances in which they are quite desirable, because ornament is intended to enrich and beautify. Here again the true touchstone is sincerity and absence of pretence. In the decoration of mouldings, the patterns used should serve to bring out and show up the shape of the moulding, and not to disguise it. The addition of colour to mouldings, in like manner, should be honest ; the projecting members should not be coloured so as to appear as receding ones or vice versa. The use of gold and metals in decoration calls for a word of warning. Vulgarity and parade are readily suggested, not by the too free use, but by the misuse of gilding. A room may be wholly gilt without appearing to be overdone, if the details are of a character to warrant the treatment. It should always be remembered that you are using metal, and not paint, and that DECORATION. 259 rather for a suggestive colouring laid on flatly and assisted by outlines. The rose panel in brownish crimson flowers, rich olive leaves, brown stems, and gold ground glazed low tone with bitumen, would make a charming decorative panel. The lilies would come out well in white of a creamy tone, golden leaves and centres to flowers, and pale brown outlines on an amber ground. CHAPTER XIX. HE utility of distemper as a ground for decoration has been already alluded to, The qualities peculiar to it are an absence of gloss and a clearness and luminosity of tint. A further advantage is that it dries rapidly and can be worked quickly and broadly. The desirability or otherwise of using distemper as a ground for elaborate work must be determined by the position and situation of the work. Work of a temporary character may always be done in distemper; and work of a more or less per- manent character is safe, if the situation is a dry one, removed from reach, and the surrounding atmosphere clean. Most of the processes used in decorating in distemper are also applicable to oil paint. It will be convenient to describe them fully in the present chapter and merely refer to them later. Sketch Designs. The mode of operation usually followed is to first prepare a small sketch of the ceiling, wall, or other subject, drawn to a small scale of from inch to 1J inches to the foot. The f-inch scale and l|-inch scale are the most convenient for working out from, as in these scales -^ and \ of an inch respectively represent 1 inch, and the details may readily be scaled off with the ordinary 2-foot rule. This small sketch 13 DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 261 coloured and the ornament designed upon it and also coloured. All the details are merely indicated so as to obtain a general effect of the whole when complete. The grounds are next pre- pared, the colours being copied from the sketch design, and per- haps modified to suit their individual positions. All the main subdivisions of the ornamental setting out are then put in, the lines are struck with a chalk or charcoal line ; charcoal shows up most clearly, and dusts off cleanly and easily; indeed more easily than does chalk upon a distemper ground. Setting out Ornament. A knowledge of elementary geom- etry is necessary for the plainest of setting out. Ignorance of geometrical principles is often responsible for a great waste of time and trouble. For the setting out, the operator will require a 2-foot rule, a pair of 2-foot wooden compasses, a chalk line, a loose ball of twine, and a few tacks and needle points, some soft vine charcoal and chalk, two or three straight edges of light pine or deal, and a set square or two, also of light weight, a spirit level and a plumb line. The 2-foot rule should be a four-fold one ; the compasses should have a thumb-screw head to tighten it up as a gauge. A good chalk line may be made from a disused small tape measure. The cord is wound round the drum of the measure, and the outside space filled in with powdered charcoal, a small hole is left for the cord to work in, and a small picture ring sharpened to a point, so that it may be pushed into the wall or wood-work, is fixed to the end of the cord. Two of these, one for chalk and the other for charcoal, are very handy. The straight-edges should be bevelled on one side to a thin edge. One of the set squares should show an angle of 60, and the other of 45, and the latter may be marked out as a protractor to facilitate the subdivision of circles. The plumb bob should be conical in form with a flat base so that it may not be dropping about, but can be set down on the plank or on ledges. The chalk sold for school blackboard use is good for setting out, and the charcoal should be of a soft black kind that will not scratch. The full size spaces for the ornament must now be measured and set down on paper. Wide 60-inch cartoon or web paper is generally used for the purpose, but many artists have their own special methods. A very good plan is to use a black or white board for setting out large pieces of ornament, and to trace them from the board on to thin " detail " paper, making the necessary corrections and alterations in the process of tracing off. All ornament will be either stencilled or painted by hand. If the former is the case, the fact must be taken into consideration when designing the pattern, so that it may be of suitable character 262 PAINTING AND DECORATING. for repeating in this mechanical manner, and care must be taken that the necessary provisions are made for ties to keep the stencil firm and whole. If a number of these ties have to be made good after the stencilling has been done, the cost of the work will be enhanced, and no good result obtained by the increased cost. Our illustrations show how the ties may be formed of natural breaks in the continuous lines of the pattern, and how the pattern may be held together by allowing the lines to cross each other at sufficient intervals. Drawings that are made in charcoal sometimes require pre- serving, as they very readily smear. The steam from the spout of a kettle will suffice to hold them slightly, but a spray diffuser with a little thin methylated finish is a better and more reliable method. For high-class drawings a special spray is sold by artists' colourmen. Preparing Stencil Plates. The stencil pattern may be drawn directly upon the paper that the pattern is to be cut out of. It may be drawn upon cartoon paper or a board, and then traced or transferred to the stencil paper, or it may be drawn on thin paper, and transferred through by the aid of carbonised copying paper. Stencils are cut from many kinds of paper. The Willesden paper is much used for the purpose, but ordinary stout drawing paper is preferable for general use. This may be well oiled with boiled linseed oil until it becomes transparent ; it can then be used as tracing paper and the design traced directly upon it ; or it may be coated with knotting after the drawing has been transferred to it, then cut, and finally again knotted with the patent shellac knotting. For stencils to be used upon small mouldings tin foil makes a good material. For ceiling stencils and large work, a good cardboard oiled or knotted is the best. If the pattern is a repeat of one unit (see Plate 26), the unit may be drawn and carefully cut, and the repeats stencilled from it. By this means greater exactness results, than from tracing each pattern down separately. In cutting an equally balanced reverse pattern, the individual pieces can be laid down and cut or marked round so that the two sides are perfectly balanced. In making a stencil set of two or more plates for different colours, a full stencil should first be cut as a guide, and the others stencilled from it. This guide may be cut in thin paper coated with knotting. When setting out one side of a pattern that has to be reversed it may be drawn in charcoal ; a rubbing can then be taken of the reverse by simply doubling the paper down the centre, and the DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 263 completed pattern will be seen and its effect judged, and any alteration made before putting the whole in in colour. Stencils are usually cut upon a piece of glass ; plate glass, on account of its level surface, is better than sheet glass. A knife or graver is used for the cutting. The writer prefers an ordinary pocket knife with the small blade sharpened to an angle point upon the edge (see sketch, Fig. 80). If the decorator once finds a knife handle that thoroughly suits his grip, he can have new blades fitted to it at a very slight cost as the old ones wear down. Punches are used for dots by most workmen, and in some cases shaped punches and gouges for particular shapes. The writer prefers all cutting to be done freehand with the knife, as a less mechanical result is obtained, and the character of the edge of the pattern is the same all through when the knife is used. The punch always leaves a certain amount of burr and this somewhat raises the stencil from its ground. The knife must be frequently sharpened and kept keen, and if the blade is slightly greasy it will travel more smoothly round curves, <kc. The worker should accustom himself to cut all straight and curved lines freehand, without any adventitious aids such as straight-edges or compasses, but the work must all be carefully set out by geometrical methods first. The following is the routine of stencil preparation as followed bv the writer. The pattern is set out upon any cheap lining or other paper in charcoal or pencil. Oiled cartridge paper is then laid over it. This should be oiled with raw oil and kept in stock, either in rolls or sheets. Well saturate it with oil overnight, and wipe off the superfluous oil next morning ; tl put aside for future use. If required within a week, use boiled oil instead of raw. The pattern is then traced upon the oiled cartridge, through which it should be clearly seen, with a nan black pencil. The pattern is then cut out, using plate glat to cut upon, and a pocket knife or pen knife for cutting with. Next a coat of patent knotting is applied, and the patt then ready for use. , , Preparing Pounces. If the work is to be done by hand, the Fig. 80. Pen-knife ground for stencil cutting. 264 PAINTING AND DECORATING. design or sketch must be transferred to the wall or ceiling. The best method is to rub the back of the drawing with red ochre or red chalk, and trace it down by laying the drawing in its correct position and going firmly over the lines with a hard stylus or pencil. Another method, and a preferable one when it is desired to repeat the same design more than once, is to prick the draw- ing all along its outlines with pin holes, to form what is termed a pounce, through the holes in which powdered black or red is dusted, leaving upon the work a clear dotted outline. The pounce is pricked by laying the drawing upon a table covered with a piece of baize or cloth, and puncturing the holes closely together along the lines with a needle point set in a handle. The fineness of the work must regulate the size of the needle and the closeness of the holes, but the smaller and closer they are the easier it will be to work over the lines. A re- peated reverse drawing may be pricked through both halves at once by doubling the paper, or a pattern in which the quarter is repeated four times may be folded so as to allow all four thicknesses to be pricked at once. After the pounce has been pricked, the burr left by the puncturing upon the back of the pounce should be removed by glass paper lightly rubbed over the lines. Any heavy pressure will fill up the holes. Some- times the burr may be removed by holding the drawing over a flame. The pounce is used by placing it in position, and dusting through the holes red, black, or on a dark ground, white powder. The powder is tied up in a cambric or linen bag, about 2 inches across; whiting, charcoal dust, and Venetian red, or admixtures of these are used for pouncing. A good pouncer for small work is made as follows : A piece of baize is covered with whiting or black lead, well rubbed in ; it is then rolled up tightly and tied round the middle with string, and the ends used by brushing over the pattern with a circular motion. This article may be charged at one end with white, and at the other with black. As the powder becomes exhausted, a clean slice may be cut off the end of the roll and fresh fully charged surface exposed for use. For a large coarse pounce it will be found sufficient to rub a dry sash tool in dry colour, and dust it over the lines. In some cases it will be possible to sketch in the detail directly upon the work itself. Charcoal or chalk are used for the purpose. Charcoal is liable to work into the colours used in painting, and mar their purity. The Use of Stencils. In using the stencil upon distemper, the stencil tools must be kept well charged with colour, and care be taken to avoid the colour running under the pattern. DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 265 The cleanest result is obtained by dabbing the stencil tool ; any attempt at a rubbing motion is likely to produce imperfect work. Stencilling can be done in an effective manner upon distemper by the use of a very fine sponge instead of a brush. The broken effects of colour obtained by this method are artistic and accord well with the style of ornament now much in vo^ue, in which natural forms are prominent features. Stencil pins (Fig. 81) will be required to keep the stencil plates and pounces in correct position while being used. These may be home made or can be obtained at little cost from the brush manufacturers. Fig. 81. Stencil pin. A needle set in a cotton reel and wedged in with wooden pegs is a fairly good substitute, and quickly made. In stencilling upon a distemper ground, the best colour to use is made as follows : Dry colour, ground stout in turpentine, thin with equal parts of turps and hard quick drying varnish or japanners' gold size. Lining and Picking Out. For lining upon distemper, a thin colour made from dry colour, water, a little gum, and a little glycerine, will be found to work well. Colours ground in milk, in beer, and in sugar and water all work fairly well in distemper. For painting in light and shade, preference may be given to size colour as best possessing the qualities desirable for the purpose. The work should be done with long hog-hair fitches, and the colour laid on without any rubbing or mixing, which would soften and work up the ground. Any tendency to ciss or work frothy may be corrected by the use of a very little yellow soap in the distemper. This Fig. 82. Quilled or tine tools. will further allow of painting over without working up. The use of soap, is, however, distinctly prejudicial to delicate colours, and should only be resorted to when found absolutely necessary. The tools known as veining tools (used in marbling) are very useful for distemper painting when lining or outlining in long broad lines, as they hold a large quantity of colour. Quilled tools 266 PAINTING AND DECORATING. (Fig. 82) are also particularly useful for similar work. So much depends upon the fitness of a brush for a particular kind of work, that students are recommended to experiment and dis- cover for themselves the brushes which appear to best suit particular work. The investment in a red sable swan quill (Fig. 83), costing half a guinea, once saved a decorator quite a Fig. 83. Sable writers. week of labour, in a case where at first glance such expenditure appeared to be quite uncalled for. It is only by an intimate knowledge of all classes of tools that they can thus be used at the right time and to the best advantage. An ingenious man with this knowledge can often rig up tools and brushes of his own fashioning, which make his progress in the work rapid and easy compared with what it would be with the use of the orthodox tools. A great deal of the decorative work in distemper will consist of the colouring in, or "picking out," of mouldings and enrichments. In this work it is desirable to carefully think out the best method of time and labour-saving. A general rule is to lay in the receding portions of the work with the deeper tints first. Any spotting or smearing of the prominent members can then be sponged off easily. For the background of ornament, stiff hog-hair brushes will be found the best if the ornament is open and undercut. In the case of a low relief enrichment it will generally be found more expeditious to put in the whole of the work in the light relief colour, and then lay in the deeper back- ground with a soft camel-hair brush. Camel-hair swan quills DECORATION IN DISTEMPER. 267 (Fig. 84) will be found the best for laying in beads and fillets, as they deposit a fuller coat of colour, and leave a better body than the harsher hog-hair, which generally leaves such members bare and unevenly covered. Quirks between beads or fillets are best run in with thin beer or sugar colour, or with spirit colour and a lining fitch. A special make of lining fitch for fine decoration Fig. 84. Camel-hair swan pencils. is made of the best Lyons hair by Messrs. Robertson, of Long Acre. They are in form precisely like a rather thin hog-hair fitch of good quality, but bevelled to a convenient angle for lining. For quirks, a fine square-topped flat fitch is as good as any tool that can be used for the purpose ; it must be held at right angles with the work. Lines should always be run and not stencilled. A little practice makes lining easy, and it is quite impossible to obtain a true line by stencilling. The following method will be found applicable to distemper lining on a ceiling : The lines must be struck on one edge only, if less than | of an inch in breadth ; or on both, if more than that breadth, by a fine chalk line of twine or finest whip cord. Crochet cotton makes a good line, but soon wears out. The superfluous chalk should be blown or lightly dusted off" with a badger. The colour should be fluid but not watery. Heavy colours as vermilion should be avoided when possible, but, if used, must be constantly stirred. Spirit, gum, or glycerine colour are preferable for dark colours. Size colour may be used for light ones with a little alum in it to break the gelatine; or sugar colour may be substituted. The quantity of sugar, glycerine, &c., must not be such as too greatly to arrest drying, or to interfere with the requisite absence of gloss. A good soft long-haired lining fitch, an ordinary flat fitch, a veining or quilled tool, or a French distemper tool, may be used, the par- ticular colour and work determining which of these will best 268 PAINTING AND DECORATING. fulfil the office. A light pine straight-edge of 30 inches in length to 42 inches, according to a man's height and consequent reach ; 1 inches wide, and f\ of an inch thick, bevelled f of an inch back and through half its thickness, will be found the best. It Fig. 85. Short sable pencils. Fig. 86. Sable liners or tracers. should have a coat of knotting so that it can be readily sponged off. Three half corks viz., sound bottle corks cut in half, length- wise should be glued on the bevelled side, the flat side of the half cork toward the straight-edge : one near each end and one PLATE 24.-INFLUENCE OF PATTERN UPON COLOUR EFFECT, To face p. 268.] DECORATION IK DISTEMPER. 269 in the middle, so that the straight-edge will be bridged upon the corks and not rest upon the work. For broad lines these corks may be larger than ordinary, so as to keep the straight-edge an inch away from the ceiling ; in ordinary cases ^ inch is sufficient. The lining fitch must now be well filled with colour, the straight- edge adjusted about an eighth or less over the edge of the pro- posed line, and the brush, being held by the point of the stick at right angles to the straight-edge and at an angle of 70 to the work, drawn surely and firmly, but very lightly, from left to right. In distemper lining it is necessary, in consequence of the absorbent ground, to run the lines more slowly than in paint. For convenience, the colour should be slung to the waist-band, or hooked on to the breast button-hole of the blouse. A measure similar to those used for measuring out small quantities of milk, may be used to contain the lining colour, or a tin canister, with a hook soldered to its side, will answer the purpose. For painted ornament, as scene painting, a tray palette having holes for several colours, and a water dipper, and partition for brushes, is useful. It should be slung round the neck by a strap with adjustment to keep it level, so that both hands are free, as it will be frequently desirable to use the straight-edge or mahl stick in the left hand, and a full distemper palette is too heavy to hold on the thumb. For monochrome or any painting requiring three or four colours only, a little shallow paint-can may be subdivided by tin partitions into three or four compartments, and held in the left hand, or suspended round the waist. Outlining may be accomplished upon a wall or on canvases very rapidly and effectively in distemper, by the use of designers' short sable pencils and no mahl stick, allowing the wrist to rest lightly upon the work as in water colour painting, &c.; or upon the ceiling, by the use of a light bridge-rest. Transparent colours may be used in distemper to obtain luminous effects, by mixing the colours with size only. Thus wood beams, in a piece of scenic painting, are better imitated by using Sienna and Vandyke brown in size, than by the use of body colours. In ordinary distemper decoration the use of these colours is little appreciated, and a field in that direction is open to the decorative artist. Of. course, absolute deadness of surface is not possible to, or consistent with, the use of trans- parent colouring. Formerly, transparent size colouring was much used upon linen and cambric or muslin blinds and cur- tains, as a substitute for obscured glass. Stencil plates when used in distemper are apt to buckle, swell, 270 PAINTING AND DECORATING. or stretch, and become useless. This should be prevented by well knotting them, and at evening when left for the night a coat of paint may be given to them. In cleaning them, do not allow them to soak unnecessarily, but dry quickly with common blottingpaper or a chamois leather, so that the water has no time to soak in. All stencils and pounces should be so cut and marked at the edges as to be readily placed in position without a lot of measur- ing, or marking upon the work. Centre lines should be shown in all directions on the face of the stencil, and the stencil where possible, even if it only occupies a comparatively small area, should be cut the size of the panel, or at least so that it fits exactly into one or two angles. For borders, the stencil plate should either be cut the exact width of the border or, if this be too close to the openings of the pattern, it should be notched to the exact width of the border at both ends. Attention to these points will save trouble, annoyance, confusion, and loss of time on the work itself. In working upon distemper grounds great care must be taken that the work is not rubbed, or the surface will be disturbed and a slight gloss imparted to it. Stencil plates after use should always be packed or put away with sheets of plain paper between them to prevent the points of one pattern becoming entangled in another. Gold, or gold paint, may be used upon a distemper ground. For mouldings and lines, a mixture of the best bronze powder in knotting thinned with naphtha or methylated spirit will work well and keep its colour. Ardenbrite may also be used for this purpose. For stencilling, the bronze may be mixed with milk and a little gum, or with white wax and turpentine with a little oak varnish added. Flatting varnish is used for the purpose by some artists, but gives a dulness to the metal. White wax and turpentine will, when set, take a polish, and a little additional bronze may be dusted on to its surface and rubbed in. The bronze must be of the best quality. For gilding on distemper, japanners' gold size thickened with a little resin is the best medium. If there is enough size in the distemper ground this should not run. If it does, the spaces to be gilded must be first sized over with a little clear size. Apply the gold leaf in the ordinary manner. In mixing the various tints for decoration in distemper, it is well to work from a base of cream colour or other pale tint approximating to the colour of the ground of the ceiling rather than from crude white. For all particulars as to colours the reader is referred to Colour mixing. 271 CHAPTER XX. |OST of the decorative processes used in distemper are equally applicable to paint. These will be merely referred to in the present chapter as the reader will find the details in the preceding chapter. The differences that are most im- portant in the two forms of work, at least to the worker, are that the ground for painted work is non-porous ; that the colours will keep open and free longer, and allow of more finished manipulation ; that, when once dry, they can be re-painted or re-touched, or glazed over without difficulty ; and that various degrees of gloss or dul- ness may be produced upon the surface at will. It must also be remembered that painted decoration is washable and durable in our moist and not over-clean atmosphere, and that the colours can be used in various degrees of body or solidity, and are less heavy and solid than distemper. Other slighter differences will be manifest as the use of paint in decoration is described. Stencilling in Paint. Stencilling is largely used as a means of executing painted decoration. The proper functions of the 272 PAINTING AND DECORATING. process have already been dealt with, and the preparation of stencil plates has also received some attention. In the use of stencilling upon painted work the decorator will find it much more cleanly and less laborious to stencil dark colours upon a light ground than vice versd. For this reason, it is often econo- mical to stencil-in the background of a pattern and leave the pattern in the lighter colour of the ground. By the use of this process it is possible to have a solid light colour pattern on a dark ground, in a case where, if the pattern were stencilled in light colour upon a dark ground, it would not cover and look solid, and even if it did so at the time, the deep colour would soon find its way through the one coat of white or light colour that had been stencilled over it. A more finely finished job is also obtained by the use of the deeper colour as the stencil, because there is little body and much covering power in the deeper pigments, and they may be used thinner and applied more barely than could be done when using a light colour for the stencilling. Additional care must be bestowed on a stencil intended for paint in the arrangement of the ties ; because it is almost impos- sible to touch up ties in a painted stencil with a pencil or fitch in such a manner that they will not show. Glaze colours and partially transparent colours can be used with good effect and great ease in painted work. They should be mixed with a little varnish, oil, and turpentine, equal parts of each, to work and look well. Stencils to be used in glaze colours must be designed so that there are no ties to make good afterwards ; they cannot be touched up without looking patchy. It is by far the best plan to so arrange the design that in all cases where the stencilled pattern is to be left as a finish, the ties are incorporated in the design. Stencil plates used in paint, especially when used in light colours, need frequent cleaning or they become furred up and sticky. To clean them, lay them upon a board covered with old paper, and with a sash tool or old stencil tool dipped in turps wash the paint off the paper will absorb a part of the dirty turpentine. Then, with a soft rag, sop up the turpentine, and finish by carefully wiping with a clean rag. A coat of knotting should be given overnight and at meal times if the stencil is to have much use. The capability of the stencil as a factor in painted decoration is far greater than many writers are disposed to admit. Indeed, the possibilities of the method are far from exhausted and are only limited by the patience and resource of the decorator. PAINTED DECORATION. 273 The mere repetition of an item of ornament as in a border or corner is only an infantile stage of the stencil development, though a useful one. Carefully executed elaborated stencilling in several colours and in two or three coats, are far more artistic than slap-dash hand-painted ornament, and possess a separate and individual character. Many quaint and pleasing effects of colour and manipulation may be obtained, which are not merely equal in appearance to hand-painted work, but which cannot be accomplished by hand. In the actual stencilling on a painted ground, the brushes used must be dry and firm, the motion used, a stippling one ; and the colour used sparingly. A palette should be used on which the brush can be beaten out so as to equally distribute the colour taken up. The colour should be spread out upon the palette ; the brush should never be dipped into the can of colour, but a fitch should be used to take out a little at a time on to the palette. Take a moderate amount of colour in the brush at a time and gently disperse it over the stencil equally. Then go over it again and spread and distribute the colour already laid on. The colour must not be too thin or it will work under the stencil. The following suggestions for the treatment of stencilling will serve to illustrate its capability : Glaze colours may be used on a light ground, on a medium ground, or on a deep ground, and great richness maybe obtained by their use. Two-coat stencilling may be used in the following ways : A glaze stencil over a colour, or a glaze stencil over shaded stencilling; a glaze of different colours intermixed over a plain tint first stencil; a shaded and blended glaze over a shaded first coat; shaded blendings over gold, bronze, silver, aluminium, <fcc. ; partial glazes and semi-transparent colours over the same. The two coats may be put on over the same register, or an edge of the first coat may be left visible. Portions of a stencil may be toned, glazed, or enriched by washes of coloiir applied with a brush after the stencilling is dry. Very effective work can be done by stencilling the work, once partly in gold or metal, and partly in bright colour; and then stencilling a second coat in colour only of a transparent nature. Hand-painted Ornament. Hand-painted ornament varies greatly in its character and class, from simple flat ornament in one colour upon a ground of another colour, to the most elabor- ate work in light and shade. For all alike a pounce must be made, or the ornament drawn directly in position upon the work. These methods have been already described. The superfluous chalk or charcoal should be dusted off or the colour 18 274 PAINTING AND DECORATINO. is apt to run. Sable pencils, writers, are the best for use for the finer work, while bolder work may be put in with hog-hair brushes or camel-hair swan quill pencils. The panel illustrated in Plate 1 is a suitable design for putting in one flat tint on a ground of a different tone or colour. The panel illustrated in Plate 5 is designed for flat treatment in conventional colours suggested by natural colouring, and would be carried out as follows : The ground would be prepared and flatted. The pattern pounced upon it. The tints are laid in with a swan quill, each leaf all one flat colour ; stems the same but just shaded with the leaf at its base ; fruit all one flat tone ; flowers the same. When these were dry, the whole would be outlined in colour or, perhaps, in gold. A more advanced form of decoration is shown in Plate 11. Here the colouring might be in monochrome, but the ornament is intended to be worked on light and shade. Suppose that the ground is gold and the ornament is to be in tones of turquoise blue, the ground having been clear sized, as all gold should be before being worked upon, the pattern will be pounced upon it. Three or more shades of the blue are now prepared on the palette, the lighter one being the brightest and the deeper the quietest in tone. The deep colour is used first and the shadows laid in, using the colour very sparingly indeed. Then the next lightest colour is used, and next the third; and, finally, the highest lights are put in with a fully loaded brush, using more colour each tint, and each time blending the colour in use into that last put in. Short sable brushes should be used, similar to those used for water colour sketches, if for small work. For larger work the ordinary hog-hair fitches are admirable. The sketches represented in Plates 3, 4, and 9 are for a still more advanced class of painted ornament, and will be managed in the same way as the last, but the colours instead of being mixed will be set on the palette directly from the tubes, and each colour made up with the palette knife as required the same routine of shadows first, middle tones to follow, and high lights last, will be ob- served ; as in this case it is intended to paint in the background as well as the ornament, our first attention will be given to that part of the work. In this class of painting when the work is not close to the eye, considerable roughness may be indulged in with good effect; and colours may be put upon the work only partially intermingled, producing a richness and luminosity not obtainable by highly finished and blended work. Do not thin the colours. Whenever possible, painted decoration should be executed in position ; but it is often desirable to work upon canvas in the PAINTED DECORATION. '275 shop, and afterwards fix up the canvas. When this is the case the work will require to be very carefully considered, or the effect in position will be disappointing. It should be tacked up to a wall or easel for working, so that the proper effect can be obtained as the work progresses. When gold forms any part of a decorative panel it should be used first, and the colours added afterwards. This prevents any danger of the gold sticking to the other parts of the work, and results in a clean sharp job. Painted ornament is sometimes clone in light and shade by glazes. This method is rapid, and consequently cheap and very effective. The work is laid in in a flat tint and allowed to dry. The shadows are then glazed in, and the work finally outlined with a sharp strong outline. Sepia, Vandyke brown, or Umber may be used for the shadows. Sometimes the design is first outlined, and the colours, whether flat or in light and shade, are glazed in. Painted decorations upon flatting may be done to show the same surface as its ground, by the use of turpentine and white wax as a medium, or by the use of Roberson's medium. Fresco work may be executed in a very durable manner upon plastered surfaces, by the use of a medium composed of turpen- tine, white wax, and a little white resin. The practice of flower painting is recommended as good train- ing for the decorative painter, both in the production of purity, and brilliant harmony of colour and manipulative dexterity. A close study of flower and plant forms is also the best equipment for the decorative designer. Decoration upon silk in oil paint is best done on a preparatory sizing of the surface actually to be painted upon only. Painting upon velvet or plush can be done by iising tube colours very stout, thick, and free from oil, and stiff short brushes, those known as " brights," hog-hair brushes being the best kind for this work. The running of lines in paint is done in the same manner as described for distemper, but an ordinary hog-hair fitch or a lining fitch is the best tool for the purpose. The colour must be finely ground and thin, and the pressure on the brush very light. Sable liners are used for fine lines, especially in carriage painting and upon panels. They require thin colour and a considerable amount of experience. Lines run in this way are, when well done, superior in appearance, more regular and solid than lines run with hog-hair brushes, and for wood-work they are preferable. The remarks on the use of pencils, and much that has been 276 PAINTING AND DECORATING. written in the chapter on sign-writing, apply to decorative painting. In the use of the stencil it will frequently be found necessary to fix it to the work. This is best done in the case of painted work by fine needle points or stencil pins, not drawing pins, which make too large a hole in the work. To prevent brittle needle points snapping off, they may be heated in an old iron shovel and allowed to cool slowly. It is often desirable to save for next day's use small bits of colour that, if left in the pot or on the palette, would dry up and be wasted, often necessitating the re-matching of them. They can be kept ready for use by putting in a saucer or on a piece of glass, and standing under water. Contrasts of Gloss and Platting. The facility that the worker in paint has of contrasting glossy and flat or dead colours, as in the case of a glossy pattern upon a dead ground, or a glossy outline to dead patterns, should be borne in mind and turned to effective account. In panel or wall decoration good effects are often obtained by varying the flat and even colour of the ground of the work, either regularly gradating it, or combing, dabbing, mottling, or stippling it. A still more beautiful result can be obtained by roughing the ground with a paste of plaster and size, or other medium, and combing, stippling, &c., thus producing a texture ground upon which to decorate. The ground thus prepared can be scumbled and rubbed to add to the effectiveness. Alabastine is a good material to use for the purpose of producing the relief. For stencilling that has to be gilded, oil gold size is the best to use. A good decorative ground can be produced by sanding the stencil after it has been put in, allowing it to dry, and then painting and gilding the whole so as to show a rough sanded gold pattern on a plain smooth gold ground. Sawdust has been effectually used for the same purpose, but the paint must be heavily put on and the sawdust allowed to harden on it before attempting to work upon it. A useful form of decoration is illustrated in Plate 30, showing a stencil used to cover the joints of plain or ingrain paper. This is a most effective treatment when carried out in a large room. The breadths must be centred to each flank of wall. 277 CHAPTER XXL ELIEF decoration maybe described as pattern projecting from its ground. Decorative materials in relief are now so important a feature in modern work that the subject of their treatment in colour must necessarily occupy a little attention. The use of texture grounds, as heavy stippling and combing, has already been mentioned. It remains to be shown that this use of gesso is elemen- tary, and that far more elaborate treatment is possible, and within the capacity of any painter who has a slight knowledge of draw- ing. Patterns of simple form can be readily worked in the material, directly upon the wall, having a depth of from inch to J inch. By the use of wooden combs various patterns can be incised. These may be varied by using graining combs with some of the teeth removed. Modelling tools and sticks may also be found of service. Suction action gives some good results, and various materials will give varying grades of stipple. A piece of Brussels carpet fixed on a block of wood will prove a very serviceable stippler. A coarser one may be formed of rough deal board, while a tin canister lid will give a class of surface unlike anything else and very pleasing in effect, resulting in a stalactite-like appearance. 278 PAINTING AND DECORATING. Gesso and its Treatment. Many interesting effects can be obtained by the utilisation of stencil plates of metal or stout millboard, the gesso being heavily modelled over the stencil plate, which is then removed, leaving a sharp edge to the relief. An amount of after finishing or modelling can be added. The immense advantage of a material of this kind in the hands of a capable decorator, over the mechanically repeated patterns that are made by the piece is at once apparent. Individuality of treatment, both for the position and the character of the work, can be secured with ease. For staircases, friezes, and positions where there is diversity of space the use of hand modelled work is particularly desirable. The best material that the writer has used for this high relief gesso work is a mixture of plaster and weak size, or plaster and starch, or the material known to the trade as alabastine. The plaster xised for the purpose must be the finest flour modelling plaster, and the size should be glutinous rather than gelatinous. For the general purposes of wall and panel decoration this material will be found of sufficient durability. It is of high importance that the size be not too strong or the work is liable to crack. It is of equal importance that the ground be an unyielding one of solid plaster ; on back- grounds of wood it is liable to chip off. Harder ingredients than plaster are sometimes used either as a substitute for, or an addition to, plaster. The following description of the method adopted in working out the accompanying friezes (Plate 29) may be of assistance to the experimental decorator in gesso : First, the necessary quantity of plaster was mixed with thin glue size to the con- sistency of cream, and the frieze was rapidly coated with the mixture, and the wave line background was combed in while the gesso was hot and wet and worked freely. The comb used was a coarsest graining comb with every third tooth broken out leav- ing two teeth and a space. The flowers were next added in the following manner : A rather short spreading sash tool was laden heavily with the gesso, which for this stage was thickened to a paste ; the tool was then thrust against the wall making a large, accidentally shaped splodge of paste gesso. When the tool was extended to its full limits by pressing hard against the wall, it was suddenly withdrawn like a sucker, producing inimitable undulations of an accidental form. These by further manipula- tion on the outer edges were formed into petals, and the centre was filled with little dots or balls of gesso put on with a fitch. The foliage was next put in, with gesso of a little thinner con- sistency, and manipulated chiefly with the fingers and a model- RELIEVO DECORATION. 279 ling tool of boxwood, and finally the whole was outlined and in places etched up with chisel-pointed sticks of hard wood. The lower border was executed with a wooden chisel-pointed comb, the teeth being | inch wide and f inch apart. The solidity of the work may be improved by driving a few copper tacks into the wall to hold the highest relief firmly and prevent chipping by contraction. The weight and tenacity may be respectively lightened and strengthened by using cotton wool fibre satur- ated in the gesso. So numerous are the methods by which effects in gesso work may be varied and good results obtained that it is not necessary to particularise them, the student will have an open mind on the subject, and press into service all kinds of tools and other instruments. Gesso in low relief is best done upon a non-porous ground, with soft camel-hair brushes. The ornament is carefully coated three or four times in succession with a mixture of finest sifted plaster of Paris and clear glue size not too strong. A little pipe- clay may be added to increase the smoothness and density. Only very conventional ornament is suited to the process, orna- ment akin to that used in slip painting upon pottery. The ornament is usually gilded to bring the relief into prominence. The decoration of the finished gesso work is, of course, very similar to the treatment of other raised pattern material. The best and most successful treatments are those suggestive of wood, metal, faience or majolica and enamel effects. For the latter all that is necessary is to give the work one coat of varnish glaze, as the varnish will hold out on the gesso without preparation. Decoration of Relievo Materials Generally. In decorating the Tynecastle tapestry or vellum, Anaglypta, Cordelova, &c., the first step is to obtain a hard and impervious surface. Upon such materials a coat of ordinary strength size should be first applied, next a coat of good strong varnish colour, and finally a glaze to assist the force of the pattern. For oak effects the ground should be deeper and quieter in tone than is used for graining upon. The glaze should be in water colour, and should be stippled and allowed to dry, and then the higher parts of the relief should be wiped off with a damp chamois leather rolled into a hard wad. Another method is to use a glaze of oil colour thinned with turps, and to wipe off the high lights with a rag. Yet a third method is to use the distemper glaze first, and a weak thin varnish glaze afterwards. Old ivory carving possesses a particularly pleasing colour effect which may be accurately suggested by enamelling the work in a 280 PAINTING AND DECORATING. full tone of ivory white ; white tinted with raw sienna ; and glazing in distemper with raw sienna, burnt sienna, and Van- dyke brown in water, but not too deep. Allow it to dry and then wipe off rather cleanly with a damp cloth. Another good effect, and one particularly decorative without the suggestion of imitativeness that wood colourings have, is to pick out the different parts of the pattern in rather decided contrasts of colour, and then scumble over the whole with a distemper wash of burnt Umber and wipe off. The scumble gives unity and harmony of tone to the colouring, and that subdued effect that is the charm of old work. Bronzes may be used in the decoration of relief ornament with good effect a good quality bronze is essential. It should never be used immediately over oil paint, but a coat of varnish or lacquer should intervene, as the oil attracting oxygen tends to discolour the metal quickly. Varnish or Japan gold size should be used for the purpose of attaching the bronze, which may be dusted all over or merely touched upon the projections. The face of the bronze must be protected by a coat of lacquer. To bronze the whole surface a mixture of japanners' gold size and copal varnish is coated on, and allowed to become tacky. The powder is then dusted on with a soft badger or hare's foot, and a coat of thin lacquer finally applied. The work can then be scumbled over to any desired tint, and very good metallic effects can be obtained by using bluish-green water colour scumble and wiping it off, except in the crevices. For the more brilliant metallic effects metal leaf is better than powder bronzes. Silver leaf gives the most brilliant result, and will lacquer to any desired colour. Yellow metals are also good. The better qualities stand well when lacquered, if not used upon oil. The work is sized with a combination of varnish and boiled oil with japanners' gold size, and the metal is applied either with the fingers or with gold-beaters' clippers or tweezers, thin laths of bamboo formed into a kind of sugar tongs. If the fingers are used they should be dry and clean ; and if the hands are naturally inclined to be damp, a little French chalk may be rubbed upon the finger tips to prevent sticking. When gilding on the wall it is convenient to have a little tray suspended in front of the operator, on which the gold is laid ; it can then be taken up with one hand and pressed to the work with the other. If both hands are not at liberty some little difficulty is experi- enced in getting the metal in place. After the metalling has been done the work must be dusted clean, and rubbed up to a polish by gentle use of a little ball of wool ; cotton wool is too RELIEVO DECORATION. 281 soft for this purpose on metal. It should then at once be coated with lacquer. The best lacquers are made from shellac and spirits of wine ; cheaper forms from shellac and methylated spirit ; in both cases they are coloured by the addition of various dyes. Messrs. Mander's ready-made lacquers are strongly recommended for this purpose. They can be had in almost every colour. The room in which the lacquering is done must be warm, or a chilled, milky appearance results from the coagulation of the lacquer. Two coats are requisite. They should be applied with a large brush of camel-hair. If the lacquers are prepared at home, care should be taken that the dyestuffs are permanent ; saffron, gamboge, annatto, turmeric, dragon's blood, fustic, and red wood ; indigo and Brazil wood are all sufficiently fast, and by intermixture will give most tints. In the process of imitating pottery or enamelled effects, almost any class of work may be successfully imitated or, we would rather say, suggested. The principal point is to obtain correct colour, first by the use of a ground analogous to the real ground of the material it is intended to imitate, both in colour and porosity ; and, next, in a correct match of the glazes required. Where a glazed treatment is desired it is best to use ordinary oil colours thinned with varnish, as for majolica. To give the appearance of age the work must be water scumbled with raw ximber and then wiped off partially. To imitate a crackled effect use a spirit varnish, as white or brown hard, over a coat of copal oil varnish, allowing a week to elapse between the two coats, and afterwards rub the work with a dirty leather to darken the crackle marks. These slavish imitations are not to be recommended, and are not the best form of artistic finish to apply to relievo work. Purely aesthetic colour effects can be obtained by the use of glazes over metallic surfaces and over grounds of colour, and a very good method of producing contrasting colour effects is to stencil in the ground of the pattern alter the ornament has been treated by glazing, &c. To do this, the stencil can be cut out of a repeat of the actual material. It will then be sure to fit with accuracy. In the production of wood effects, where there are large plain surfaces the graining comb and overgrainer may often be used in moderation with good effect. It is quite legitimate also to pro- duce effects for the sake of colour, that are not really possible or likely in the wood itself. Thus there is no reason why the 282 PAINTING AND DECORATING. ornament should not be in metal or in colours upon a woody- coloured ground. Many of the colour effects used upon old Cordovan leathers are quite unique and represent no suggestion other than that of enamelled leathers, and these are quite desir- able examples for imitation. All the operations required for the decoration of these materials can be best carried out before hanging, except the final scumble, which, if done in situ, will suffice to produce an equal and perfectly homogeneous whole, covering any defects in matching, and allow- ing scope for the display of a little judgment in lightening up dark corners and deepening prominent portions where desirable. Much time may be saved by a careful consideration, before commencing, of the cheapest and most expeditious method of producing the effects aimed at. Sgraffito. Sgraffito work is a form of relief decoration which may be more correctly relegated to the plasterer's domain. It is the use of a coating of coloured plaster about ^ inch thick above a ground of another colour plaster which may in its turn be above a third colour. The different coats are applied on succes- sive days and the pattern pounced upon the final one; the parts not required are then cut away with a knife and chipped out, leaving the under ground exposed to view. For external work cement is used instead of plaster, and the materials are coloured by the addition of ochres, Venetian and Indian red, black manganese or Umbers, or any colours that are unaffected by the kind of cement used. 283 CHAPTER XXII. IFFICULTIES in treatment have been experienced in earlier chap- ters of the present work by the writer, but in no case has the difficulty been felt so keenly as when trying to compress into a few pages the present subject a subject that might well extend to volumes. Colour in Historic Decora- tion. The historical side of the question must be left severely alone, except for the mere recapitu- lation of a few facts. Colour was used most tastefully in the Pompeian and Greek styles ; most gorgeously in the Moresque and Byzantine ; and perhaps with least principle in the Italian Renaissance and Mediaeval. A great wealth of colour characterises all Eastern styles of work, notably Persian, but is counter-balanced by large masses of uncoloured stone, wood, and plaster, and is confined principally to articles of dress and furniture. Theory of Colour. The scientific side of colour must also be dismissed in few words. Colour is one of the effects produced 284 PAINTING ANb DECORATING. by light falling upon objects. It owes its diversity to the diverse substances on which it falls, their molecular and structural com- position, and the amount and quality of the light absorbed or reflected by them. A beam of light is composed of parts or rays, divided for convenience into seven classes, called red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, and purple rays. In reality it is com- posed of an indefinite number of colours only limited in number by the power of the visual organs to appreciate their distinctive- ness. If the student imagines a circle divided into seven parts and coloured as above, and each colour carefully, completely and gradually blended into its neighbour, so that the gradation is perfect, he will have a better understanding of the composite quality of a beam of light. When light falls upon an object, some of the colours composing it are absorbed by the object, and some are reflected back to the eye. The sum of the colour rays reflected back to the eye produce the colour of the object, and the sum of the rays absorbed produce another colour which we call its complementary, because the two sums added together make the full complement necessary to complete the beam of light. If the object does not absorb any of the rays, the colour will be white that is, the full complement of light. If it absorbs the whole of the rays its colour we call black that is, absence of light. The colour circle (Fig. 87) is intended to bring readily to the mind the theory of colour harmony. It is divided into sixteen parts and named for the purpose of reference. If any colour in the circle is taken, its complementary colour will be found immediately opposite it, and if the two be added together they will be found to produce the complete ray of light ; that is, they have in their combined composition all the seven colours named above. The interval or space between the seven colours are not all equal, indeed the actual space occupied by a definite colour may be said to be non-existent, as the modulation and gradation of colour into colour is complete. The division into sixteen is a convenient geometrical and arithmetical arrangement that assists calculation, while, at the same time, it approximately represents sixteen equidistant points of the spectrum. Colour being so largely a matter of personal impression, and being dependent on the personal vision, can with difficulty be reduced to formulae, and no purely correct or scientific treat- ment will wholly guide the worker. The colorific circle here given is merely put forward as a definite basis from which to refer to certain phases of the subject, and is not constructed scientifically. The aspect of colour, and its intermixture, is all that concerns the painter, as he uses pigments, or coloured matter only. PLATE 25.-CONSTRUCTIVE DECORATION IN APPLICATION. To face p. 284.] COLOUR. 285 Colour being an impression due to the physical structure of a substance, the effect of intermixture of one substance with another depends upon the method and completeness of the ad- mixture. Change of colour occurs in a substance if the form of the substance is altered, as in the drying of a distemper colour. The colour result of two pigments mixed intimately upon the palette, and of the same two pigments placed so as to be seen together i.e., visually intermixed will not necessarily be the same. Chemical action between two substances often interferes COLOUR. c " Fig. 87. with the colorific result of an admixture; consequently, it by no means follows that two apparently similarly coloured pigments will, if each be mixed with a third pigment, produce equal colour results. In the practical use of colour we find that change is produced in the appearance of colours by tlieir near proximity to other 286 PAINTING AND DECORATING. colours, and by their distance from the eye. The former changes occur in three ways : 1st, in depth, i.e., a colour placed against another deeper colour appears paler by reason of the proximity, and the deep colour also receives a change, appearing deeper ; 2nd, in hue, i.e., a red placed near a green looks redder and makes the green look greener, each colour partaking of its own opposite or complementary; 3rd, in quality of hue, i.e., a cool green placed near a blue would look warmer, and a hot red placed near a yellow would look more purplish ; here again the colour takes on the complementary of its neighbour. The change that takes place in colour by reason of its distance from the eye is one of neutralisation. If we set a board divided into sixteen squares, each of which is painted a different colour, at a great distance from the spectator, the colours gradually merge into one another, and, as the distance is increased, they resolve themselves into a grey. For a full and scientific study of colour the student must con- sult the works of Hay, Chevreul, Field, and, above all, Professor Church, and (more important still) must experiment constantly with colours in a good light. The chromatic circle (Fig. 87) will form a good basis for prac- tical study. For convenience of reference it is divided into either eight or sixteen parts and named arbitrarily. The position of two primaries are shown, but normal red will come between the scarlet and crimson main divisions. The colours opposite each other are the true complementary hues of each other. This circle should be set out and coloured with pigments as nearly to the described colour as possible. The pigments should all be opaque ones, as these change least by intermixture with each other. The imperfections of pigments are so great that it is impossible to obtain a correct representation of the colours of the spectrum, but in practice the following will be found to be sufficiently near for all ordinary purposes : For scarlet = vermilion and a little carmine, blue = cobalt and a little ultramarine, yellow = pale and middle cadmium, greens = the yellow and blue mixed, purple = the blue and carmine, crimson = carmine. The intermediate colours are obtained by intermixture of the principal ones. The writer has found that by restriction to the pigments named here, the alteration of hue is reduced to a mini- mum, when the colours are intermixed for experimental purposes. COLOUR. 287 Having compounded small portions of the sixteen colours, the student may then try any number of suggestive experiments based on the following principles : Any two colours mixed together will result in a colour which will be complementary to a mixture of their two complementaries. Thus, 16 and 12 will be complementary to 8 and 4, and will be fairly correct in what- ever proportions they are mixed, if the complementaries are mixed in the same proportions. For example: One part of 16 and 3 parts of 12 must be complemented by one part of 8 and 3 parts of 4. The spaces may be numbered consecutively, it being immaterial which space is numbered one. Every addition or intermixture of course lowers the tone of a colour, and con- tinued intermingling brings them down to a neutral grey. The result of the intermixture of any two colours also harmonises with the colour opposite but between the two, which is equal to, or stands for the same as, the two actual complementaries. Thus yellow and scarlet in equal proportions will harmonise with and form the complementary to blue equally as well as orange which is its equivalent, so that in this set of combinations we may have Orange complementary to blue, Or ,, to blue green and purple, Or yellow and scarlet ,, Or ,, to blue. Black or white may be added to colours in the circle, and, if added in the same proportion to their complementaries, their harmonious combination will not be interfered with. In all experiments with pigments, the student will be sur- Erised at some apparent discrepancies. These are due to the mlty nature of our pigments, which do not always produce the same effect upon each other as we are led to suppose they will. For instance, scarlet lightened with white loses f-ome of its natural yellow, and takes on an additional shade of blue. To correct this we find it necessary to add a little yellow. In fact the eye must always be on the watch for little points of this kind that necessitate corrective measures. Again, green and orange, which should, theoretically, produce yellow, and bluish green and purple, which should produce pure blue, do not do so on account of the fact that the admixture of the two colours lowers the scale of purity. If these colours are substituted for yellow or blue in a scheme, they will require brightening up. The actual colour produced by mixing green with orange is equivalent to yellow lowered in scale, and the product of bluish green with purple to blue lowered in scale. 288 PAINTING AND DECORATING. In combining such in a colour scheme, the lowering of scale may be corrected either by the addition of the primary represented, or by the covering of additional area with the lowered hue. Thus, if areas represented by yellow be 3 and purple 8, and it is desired to substitute a mixture of green and orange for the yellow, then the lowered hue produced by mixing green and orange will have to be used in the proportion of 6, to 5 of purple, to produce the same balance and harmony, because 3 Green + 3 orange = 3 yellow + ( j } J Jjj e j = 3 purple) and 8 purple - ( { }| JJ|j e j = 3 purple) = 5 purple. In other words, 3 parts of the original 8 of purple are contained in the lowered tone of yellow. A due sense of the importance of colour is a vital necessity to the painter and decorator. This importance must not be construed to mean that strong colouring is necessary or desirable in all decoration. In domestic work particularly, the colour of the decorations must always be attendant on, and subservient to, that of the furniture, fittings, and ornaments. It should repeat them in a minor key or lead up to them. Direct contrasts, to be at all successful, must be lowered in tone towards neutrality. When the colours are pale, they may be pure in tone, but when depth and strength are desirable, there must be a counterbalancing reduction in brightness of colour. Large masses of colour may be more neutral in hue than smaller areas. Positive colours should only be used in small patches. Classes of Colour Combination. Colour combinations may be divided into three classes, mono-chromatic, analogous, and contrasting. Mono-chromatic colouring is that in which the various parts of the decorative scheme are all of the same hue, but varied in depth, as when one hue of pink is employed in varying depths. Analogous colouring is where there is, in addition to the fore- going, a contrast of tone ; as in cases where various hues of red are employed, ranging from orange to purple red. Contrasting colouring is that in which the additional contrast of colour is added to the other two, as when green and red, or red, yellow, and blue are used together. COLOUR. 289 To further identify these methods of colouring, four illustrar tions are given : Plate III. Shows mono-chromatic colouring. Plate IV. Analogous colouring. Plate II. Contrasting colouring with complimentaries. Frontispiece. Contrasting poly-chromatic colouring. Colour Values and Qualities. In the application of colour to surfaces an appreciation of "colour values" is necessary. Colours are warm and cold, advancing and receding, light and dark, and bright and dull. Colours in which blue predominates, we term cold; those in which red is conspicuous, we term warm; those in which yellow is apparent, advance : and those in which grey tones are prominent, retire. Colours having a tendency to whiteness, are light, and those having a tendency to blackness, we term dark. Colours having purity of hue are known as bright, while those neutrally inclined are dull. These peculiarities must be borne in mind and used archi- tecturally, in a sense, to express facts of contour and formation, and to repress what it is desirable to repress. If the student carefully examines ,the colours used to produce effects of light and shade by the pictorial artist, it will assist him in dealing with colour values when applying colour to architectural detail. Requirements for the Study of Colour. Many who com- mence the study of colour as applied to decoration, are dis- heartened by the confusion into which the subject has fallen by the theoretic treatment of it by scientific writers, and hastily assume that they are visually at fault in not seeing as others appear to have seen. The great requirements for the colourist are persistent study and experiment, a wide reading of works on colour, and a broad and open mind ; the faculties for the appreciation of colour harmony can be trained to high perfection, even where natural ability and intuitive knowledge are deficient, if sincerity and observation are possessed by the student. Methods of Selecting a Colour Scheme. The methods adopted by decorators in the selection of a colour scheme for work in hand, vary considerably. Every man has his own way of going to work. Plate No. III. is suggested by the leaf and flower of a plant, the poppy. The brighter tones are used for the principal parts of the work, and lowered for the larger surfaces. Plate IV. is suggested by the red, yellow and blue of our "Royal Standard," each lowered and composed and inter-combined, until they are sufficiently reduced in hue for the purpose of room decoration. This lowering may be accomplished in four ways. 290 PAINTING AND DECORATING. If the combination is of two primary colours, each may be lowered by the addition of the third primary ; thus red and yellow would become Red + blue and yellow + blue, (purplish red) (greenish yellow) If the combination is of a primary and a secondary, as red and green, the two remaining primaries may be added, one to each, as Red + yellow and green + blue, (orange red) (bluish green) Or, Red + blue and green + yellow, (purplish red) (greenish yellow) If the contrasting colours are primaries, secondaries, or other pure hues, they may be reduced by the addition of black, white, or grey. The colours may also be lowered by the addition of a little of each to each, as in red and green, thus : Green + a little red = warm green. Red -f a little green = a russety red. Useful Rules for the Colourist. There are many elemen- tary facts and rules which it may be useful to record here for the guidance of the painter, which space forbids discussing. Light and heavy tones of colour have not always the same relative effect. This depends greatly on hue. For instance, a deep grey opposed to salmon would be lighter in effect than the salmon, because the salmon would be the more insistent colour. The cornice of a room belongs to the wall and not to the ceiling ; and the skirting to the wall and not to the wood-work. The architraves may also be taken as part of the wall with justifica- tion. The mouldings belong to stiles, not panels. Colour has a strong tendency to attach to itself qualities ac- quired by association. Thus we have some greys, which (though theoretically soft retiring colours) by reason of their being known as the colour of certain slates, stones, or marbles, appeal to us as solid and heavy. One colour, either a primary or secondary, should always pre- dominate in a scheme of decorative colouring to ensure success, and all the primaries should be present in some form. Contrast in colour suggests life and all that is opposite to repose. Monochrome colouring, especially when pure in tone, suggests quiet, repose, and rest. COLOUR. 291 Black and -white when used with colours require modifying to avoid harshness and crudity. To white used in combination with blue, add a touch of orange ; when with red, add yellow ; when with yellow, add purple or grey- To black, when contrasted with blue, add brown ; when with red, add green ; when with greys, add orange, On light colours, Umber and Indian red, olive green, and Quaker green will all take the place of true black. True black or white are seldom required in decoration except as gems in jewellery. Gold takes the place of yellow in a decorative scheme, and is improved by reds and greens in juxtaposition. All colours must be decided upon in situ, the incidence and quantity of lighting will otherwise invariably interfere with their intended effect. In a rich, deep, colour scheme pale tints and white used sparingly and in minute lines or dots will add to the richness. In a similar manner, rich, bright colours and black will affect a lightly tinted scheme ; used unsparingly they will vulgarise and destroy the harmony. The effect of artificial light on colours may be tested in day time by putting a piece of the colour in a box lighted by a candle and peeping through a hole bored in the side of the box. Greens should not be used where they will spoil the effect of green lawns, trees, and gardens, but the use of them should be encouraged in town houses and for city external painting. In the country, where a large amount of yellow and yellow browns and greens prevail, and where sunshine and sunset are not unknown, pure white may be used with unstinted hand, but in towns and cities and manufacturing districts it has a cold and cheerless effect, and cream should be substituted ; pale cream with yellows, deep cream with blues, warm cream with greens, and neutral cream with reds. TJse cool tints for a room having a south aspect, and warm tints for a room having a north aspect. In outside painting it is well to remember that greater scope awaits the decorator than indoors. It is a duty that we owe to our fellows that we make the exterior of our dwellings pleasing in appearance, and colour is the readiest means of complying with the duty. There is no excuse for dull, heavy, leaden colouring on the outside of houses, especially city houses because they are not continually before our eyes at all times as is the case with internal painting. 292 PAINTING AND DECORATING. In conclusion, it should be borne in mind that though there are set rules which govern the use of colour, the eye must always be the final arbiter, subject to the broad principles here laid down. Associations and personal preferences are uncon- sciously brought into play when discussing the merits of a piece of colouring, and it may usually be assumed that what appears right, is so ; but, however assertive opinions based on personal preference may be, no colouring will appeal pleasingly to an educated eye, if it be not based upon known laws. Colour Combinations. The following combinations of colour may assist the student by suggestion. They are all more or less correct in basis, and have been found to work out well. The nomenclature adopted is as popularly descriptive as can be obtained. Considerable existing confusion in the naming of colours adds much to the difficulties of the subject. Contrasting Couplets. Normal red and blue green. Scarlet ,, turquoise blue. Violet , reddish orange. Reddish violet Purple Red purple Crimson yellowish orange, golden yellow, greenish yellow, mid green. Pattern on Ground. Pink on red. Light green , deep green. White Blue Gold Grey Yellow Yellow Deep green red. full deep yellow, white. brown ochre, red brown, deep green, red brown, gold. Coffee brown , , gold. Quiet Toned Couplets. Maroon and bluish sage green. Red , , neutral grey. Blue green ,, grey brown neutral. Blue sage , red brown. PJum 9 spring green. Slate , citrine. Olive , lavender. Cream greens and purples. White , pink. COLOUR. 293 Grey blue and full yellow. Black foxy brown. Violet ,, pale green. Black ,, warm green. Claret buff. Colour Schemes used by Writer. The following colour schemes are from the writer's experience, and are set down irrespective of purpose or order : Ceiling Decoration, Church. Grey-green blue with bands of grey-green and cream clouds, starred over the blue with red and white stars ; outlines to bands, red and black. Bedroom. Ceiling, cream ; cornice, pale green ; walls, jade green; wood-work, white; curtains, green and gold; furniture, white and gold. Dining-room. Walls, a neutral green, mid tone ; frieze, dull buff and black, with maroon and gold ornamentation upon it ; Ceiling of dark oak wood-work ; door, golden-brown panels, deep olive stile, panels decorated in gold, with black outline and detail it all and Staircase. Ceiling, in pale buff; frieze, warm buff; walls, drab stone colour with red lines upon it ; dado band, deep warm buff; dado, panelled out in maroon and neutral blue. Drawing-room. Light cream ceiling ; pale warm grey walls ; Irieze, fawn colour; wood- work, a deeper grey and a deeper fawn, with neutral green and gold ; and golden-brown decorated panels. Grand Drawing-room. Frieze, gold, strong yellow and white; ceiling, lemon yellow ; walls, a strong orange red ; wood-work, light red mahogany and gilt ormolu; plenty of gilding to cornices, &c. A Decorated Panel. Dull blue ground, with vellum and golden yellow scroll, with black letters on it; leaves and stems in brown and olive greens. Dining-room. Ceiling, pale bluish green ; cornice, terra-cotta and gold ; walls, a red and gold Jap leather ; dado, Brunswick green glazed with Prussian blue ; wood-work, a deep brown oak. A Staircase. Ceiling panels, greyish olive tint ; walls, olive green tint ; dado, red ; frames, greenish grey stone ; doors, rich Chippendale red. Outside of House. Brick red with cream white facings ; wood- work green, from black and ochre, deep. Another. Stone colour, drab. Grey blue and olive green. Half-timbered House. Wood- work, red, and plaster, grey ; or wood-work, bottle green, and plaster, brownish white. 294 PAINTING AND DECORATING Drawing-room. Soft pink panels to ceiling, ornamented in greys of a green cast and gold outlines ; cornice ; citrine, cream and gold ; walls, green, citrine, pink and gold ; wood-work ; stiles and framing, greenish citrine, cream and gold; mouldings, gold; panels, rich pink and gold, and white ornament thereon. Drawing-room Panelled by Pilasters. Panels, rose colour; pilasters, dove colour ; caps and moulds, gold ; dado, white and slatey grey ; ceiling, pale blue ; cornice, white. Decorative Panels. Gold ground, transparent colours added to whiting in oil; gives a translucent effect, especially blues and reds. Panel Decoration. Ground, dull orange ; red and white flowers, shaded up with grey tones; leaves, greyish and sap greens ; outlines in coffee brown. Another. Turquoise blue ground ; flowers, orange and wall- flower brown ; leaves, bluish to brownish olive tints ; other flowers or ribbons in crimson and brown ; outline in cool brown. Panel for Drawing Room. Ground, primrose yellow ; pattern stencilled in white, and double stencilled in glazes of raw and burnt Sienna, with some gilding. Decorative Panel. Ground, orange to brown, shaded stems, greyish brown; fruit, crimson to citron; blossoms, white and pink ; leaves in olive greens and greys. Ball Walls. Frieze, fawn colour; filling, golden green with buff and a greyer green upon it ; dado band, black and gold ; dado, subdued crimson. Triune Combinations. Suggestions for frieze, filling, and dado in order named : Old gold. Terra-cotta. Neutral blue. Brownish gold. Peacock blue. Claret colour. Green. Dull orange brown. Warm grey blue. Sage green. Rich orange gold. Purplish red. Cream. Amber-toned yellow. Quiet blue Gold. Pale neutral blue. Deep red. Olive tint. Salmon. Blue slate. Sap green tint. Rose grey. Pomegranate red. Green. Yellow bronze. Maroon. Terra-cotta. Sage green. Claret colour. Apricot. Golden brown. Brownish plum colour. Flesh tint. p a l e olive. Venetian red. Dado Decoration. Chancel of Church. Green on gold with maroon and black lines. Dado and Chancel Decoration. Olive green ground, deeper olive and gold pattern, with rich claret and deep rich blue and gold borders, lines of gold with vermilion dots on same. Decorative Panel. Vellum ground with decorative orange PLATE 26.-BORDER8 SUITABLE FOR ONE-COLOUR STENCILLING. To face p. 294.] 295 plant; gold oranges shaded with burnt Sienna and cadmium; leaves, grey greens shaded with sepia and neutral tint ; stems, Sienna and Umber. A Simple Treatment for a Bedroom. Take a deep sap green for framing of wood-work and skirting, and a yellowish cream for ceiling ; make all other intermediate tints by mixing the two in varying proportions ; add a little yellow to the tints for projecting members of cornice, and blue for receding ones. Study Door. Stiles, deep oak ; panel, black ground with green gold, brown gold and greyish olive foliage upon it. Drawing Room Door. Buff-toned yellow stiles in enamel; turquoise blue grounded, flattened panels, ornament gilded and then glazed over in Umber, terra vert, and burnt Sienna, so that all the gold is covered. An Illustration of Analogous Harmony. A combination of primrose yellow, primrose green, gold, yellowish brown, and yellow orange. In conclusion, the student is warned that the use of bright colouring and strong contrasts must not be attempted unless considerable skill in the management of colours has been attained, and that the combining together of neutral tones with rich, but not bright, complementaries will be found to be safest and most generally popular course. Before leaving the subject, a few words may be added on the effect of illuminants upon colour in decoration. Calculation of the Effect of Artificial Light on Colour. The effect of artificial, incandescent electric, gas, or candle light on colours may be roughly computed by adding to each colour about 15 per cent, of yellow. In the case of colours con- taining yellow, and of a yellow dominant hue, this addition is unnoticeable, because the result of the addition of yellow to the non-yellowish colours causes the yellow ones to appear less yellow by contrast. It follows, then, that in order to provide against this apparent loss the artist must add to all his yellowish colours, not only this 15 per cent., but something over and above it in order to maintain his relative scale of colour. The following represents to the writer the appearance of each colour singly when seen by gaslight. Yellow appears, when pure and free from either green or orange tinge, to represent almost white a colour akin ' to luminosity. Pure blue appears as almost black, or represents neutrality darkness. Pure scarlet appears normal, but in- tensified in brilliance. Pure bright bluish green appears normal, but slightly loses in brilliance. 296 PAINTING AND DECORATING. The following chart shows the appearance of the intermediate colours, the arrows representing the direction in which the change takes place ; thus orange looks redder, purple also redder, green blue appears greener blue, and yellow green bluer green. Yellow. Bluish green. Scarlet red. These effects are dependent upon the pigments or materials examined, but some curious discrepancies occur which it is needless to detail here. The broad principle appears to be that the addition of yellow rays and the loss of blue rays cause the luminous colours to lose and the non-luminous colours to gain in brilliance. Professor Church gives a list of effects which, though not apparently governed by rule, produce quite similar conclusions. PLATE 27.-NATURAL TIES IN STENCIL WORK. To face p. 296.] CHAPTER XXIII. ESTIMATING NY work on this subject would be considered incomplete, were a short chapter not devoted to this most necessary, but, to the writer, com- paratively uninteresting subject. "Science is measurement," someone has said, and we might parody it and say, success is measurement; at least in the painting trade. Accurate measurement and close observation are the bases of all good estimating. Methods of Measuring Work. Two methods of measuring are in vogue in the painting and decorating trade. The one has for its object the setting down to scale of a part of a room or building in order to design the decoration for it, and is not concerned with superficies so much as with lineal dimensions. The other is for pricing, and is principally concerned with quantities, not sizes. In measuring a room or building for the former purpose, 298 PAINTING AND DECORATING. a plan of the room and an elevation are necessary. These should be made to show all measurements in figures. The plan and elevation must be roughly sketched, and then the measurements taken and the figures set down upon it. In measuring for pricing, the details of the measuring need not be kept separate, but the totals only need to be set down. For instance, in measuring the cornice of a room, the separate lengths are mentally added together, making a grand total, which is put down in the notebook ; the items being ignored. Estimating. When estimating, the work should be gone through in the order in which it would be carried out; i.e., preparation first, decoration last. By adopting this method, any omissions are more effectually guarded against. The following rules are usually adhered to in computing the value of work : All stopping, washing, and rubbing down are charged by . time, or the time they will require is guessed at and put down at an assessed sum. This refers to every description of pre- paratory work, as taking off old paint, <fec. Painting is calculated and priced at per yard superficial, or square, excepting in the case of running pipes or skirtings, cornices, &c., which are less than 1 foot in width. Distempering is also measured by the yard superficial. Items, such as grids, ventilators, windows, chimney pieces, sashframes, doors, fec., are often enumerated at a set sum each. In pricing painted work, the number of intended coats is specified and the price per yard assessed accordingly. Thus, 2-coat paint work would not be taken as double the quantity, or twice the price of one coat work, but an additional amount per yard chai-ged for the extra coat. Paper-hanging is charged at a price per piece for hanging. Graining and marbling are charged at per yard superficial for plain work. Lettering is charged at per letter, the prices varying according to size of letters. Gilding is charged at so much per book of gold. All these methods are subject to variation under different circumstances. In decorative work the most correct way to assess the value is to compute the time it will take a man to do each of the various parts of the work, and add the time together. In ordinary plain painting it is useful to check the figures that are arrived at by the method of estimating described above, by a second calculation, based on the time taken to do the work. Of MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 299 course, the cost of material must in both instances be added to the time calculation. Comparative Prices for Painting. The following com- parative prices may be found useful, if taken in conjunction relatively with the prices for plain painting which are current at the time and place under consideration : If plain painting 1 coat per square yard be worth 5d. Painting 2 coats will be worth 8d. per yard super. 3 9d. 4 ,, ,, lid. ,, 3 coats and 1 flatting coat, Is. per yard super. Distempering in tints, 3d. per yard super. white, 2d. All preparation is an extra charge. 1 coat of varnish, good, 5d. per yard super. 1 ,, best, 7d. Hanging paper, 9d. to Is. 3d. per piece, according to quality of paper. Graining oak, Is. to 2s. 6d. per yard, according to quality and quantity. Gilding on large surfaces, 4s. 6d. per book of gold, and time. Lettering, id. per inch in height per letter, for plain 1 colour. Gold lettering, Id. per inch in height per letter, up to 3 inches high ; 2d. per inch up to 9 inches high ; over 9 inches high, 6s. per book of gold used. 300 CHAPTER XXIV. F the differences between coach- painting and house-painting the most important are that provi- sion must be made for more hard wear, washing, and rubbing in the former work than in or- dinary house work; that the work is exposed to extremes of temperature and atmosphere, and that the carriage is chiefly com- posed of hard, closely -grained woods and metal, with a conse- quent absence of porosity or key for the paint, rendering the work far more liable to scale and chip. The result of these differences is, broadly speaking, that a harder and less elastic treatment is called for ; one, in which the various coats shall be thoroughly homogeneous with the ground and with each other. The earlier coats must be hard and tenacious, partaking of the character of the ground and yet not so hard as to chip from it. It may also be advanced that the finish in all coach work is of a higher character than that of house-painting ; the space covered is less, and the labour forms PLATE 28.-STENCIL FRIEZES FOR BLENDED COLOURING. To face p. 300.] OOACH-PAINTING. 301 a greater proportion of the expense than in house-painting, with the natural consequence that for such small quantities of material as are required, a higher price is usually given. The fact that house work is not equally well finished is due to false economy, carelessness, and slovenliness in perhaps equal propor- tions. There is no technical or rational reason why the better parts of the work in a house should not be as well done as carriages are. In many old mansions, work in every respect perfect in finish is to be found, and enquiry usually proves it to have been done for twenty to thirty years, and to have been cheaper in the end than the more familiar shoddy work. In coach-painting and varnishing much that has already been said has equal force. The brushes, tools, pigments, modes of applying the colour, thinnings, and varnishes are practically the same, and there is nothing in former chapters that may not be advantageously known to the carriage painter. There are, per- haps, a few very few items which do not usually find their way into the painter's shop, and these will be particularised. Preparation for Coach-Painting. The surfaces for treat- ment in a carriage will be woods, metal, canvas, and leather. Of knots, there will be few or none ; but all grease must be washed off the iron-work and wood-work by the use of turpentine. Thin knotting is often used all over the panels to kill sap and uneven- ness. Scrape all red lead off the joints. This is used by the carriage builder in place of glue in much of the framing. Prime with ordinary priming of white lead, 3 parts of turps to one part of oil. Tone the priming a grey that will incline to the finishing colour with a little vegetable black ; extra driers will be requisite for teak, oak, elm, or ash. Allow the work to stand a couple of days before re-coating, and then second coat with the same prim- ing. Use hard stopping (white lead and japanners' varnish) for the holes and cracks. Allow the stopping to harden for a couple of days, and then glass-paper down. Take care that the stopping is pressed well home, and observe all the precautions set down in the chapter on Plain Painting, especially that the heads of brads, &c., are painted, and that there is no dust in the holes to prevent the stopping holding firmly. Filling up. The next process will be the filling up, a process which, in the house-painting trade, is more often honoured in the breach than in the observance. Coach-makers' colour manu- facturers prepare many kinds of filling powder. Harland's or Berger's supply the best. Dry white lead and whiting may be substituted, or powdered pumice may be added to the last two. The u^aal powders sold are preparations of shale or slate finely 302 PAINTING AND DECORATING. pulverised. Whatever the pigment used, it is ground finely in turpentine, and thinned with japauners' gold size to a working consistency. If the work is very rough the first coat can be applied with a spatula or palette knife, or a thin steel broad chisel or scraping knife, as described for painter's work. If so, it is used stiffly of a paste consistency. The other coats, of which three to six will be requisite, are laid with a soft brush ; a flat varnish brush or a camel-hair in tin, of about three inches in breadth, is suitable for the purpose. There must be enough japanners' gold size to prevent the successive coats working up the undercoatings. The rubbing down maybe done with glass paper, dry ; or with pumice stone and water. The specially manufactured prepared blocks of pumice are, however, the best thing for this work, and may be obtained in several varying degrees of grain, from very fine to very coarse. Steel wire wool has lately been introduced for the purpose, and also a combination of steel filings. The iron-work may be primed in the same way and at the same time as the wood-work, but will not require filling up to the same extent, probably not at all. The canvassed surfaces can also be treated in a similar manner, but with a rather greater proportion of oil in the colour. The leather covered parts will not require priming, but must be painted in varnish colour of a similar hue and shade to the proposed finish. In all carriage work plenty of time between all the coats is a sine quA non to success, and care must be taken that the original wood-work, leather, and canvas are dry, and also that all the water used in rubbing down has dried out of the crevices before proceeding with another coat. When the leather and iron-work have had about three coats, and the wood surfaces are fairly smooth and good, the finishing painting is proceeded with. Sometimes for extra good work a further series of filling up coats are added and rubbed down. It is a good plan to give a coat of quick drying Japan colour, of some bright contrasting hue, over the filling up before rubbing down, to act as a check or signal. When rubbing down, it will be easily seen when a perfectly level surface has been obtained, as so long as any of the check colour is visible, there must be a depression at that point. In rubbing down, all the precautions referred to in house painting must be observed. The coat following the filling should have a fair amount of PLATE 29.-FRIEZE8 DESIGNED FOR POLYCHROMATIC COLOURING. To face p. 302.] COACH-PAINTING. 303 varnish in it, as it will penetrate slightly into the filling up which will be porous. The list of desirable colours is the same as for house-painting. Many rich and beautiful colours are obtained only by the use of glazes, as has been already noticed in the chapter on Colour. Finishing. The number of finishing coats will be determined by the necessities and covering power of the colour chosen, as a solid well-covered ground must be obtained before varnishing. The finishing colour must be very finely ground in turpentine, if not purchased in that condition, and thinned with best carriage- body varnish. Nowadays, however, it is far cheaper to buy the colour ready ground in collapsible tubes, such as are supplied by Messrs. Mander Bros., or in air-tight tins with self-emptying apparatus, such as are sent out specially by Messrs. Berger & Co. In cheap work, oil colours (such as are used by painters) are thinned with turpentine and a drying varnish ; but good work cannot be got by this method. Japan gold size may be added to the varnish colour to expedite the drying, but plenty of time should be allowed whenever possible. Between each finishing coat a very slight rubbing with flour glass paper, or with fine ground pumice, is necessary, but it must be lightly and evenly done, and well cleaned and dusted afterwards. For particulars as to the appli- cation of the paint, reference may be made to Plain Painting. A damp leather may be used to dust the work after the ordinary dusting brush. Varnishing. The stage of varnishing is next reached. Every care must be taken to protect the surface from dust and dirt, and to keep it at a warm temperature during varnishing ; the warnings given to house painters need emphasising two-fold. Striping, lettering, or heraldic or other decoration, may be done before, or after, the first varnishing. The writer prefers to get a few coats of varnish on prior to decorating. Hard copal varnish, hard body varnish or flatting varnish (not to be confounded with the dead or encaustic flatting varnish used in house painting, which dries without gloss) is used for the preliminary coats. Two or three coats laid on evenly and not too roundly, and allowed to harden, are neces- The "flatting" or rubbing down with ground pumice powder in water is then proceeded with. Ground pumice of varying degrees of fineness are used with water, and a rubber of felt or box cloth or close tweed. The rubbing should be even and without pressure, and should be continued till the whole surface has been thoroughly dulled. Finish with the finest levigated 304 PAINTING AND DECORATING. pumice powder. Three days should elapse between flatting down and revarnishing. The number of coats of varnish will be an open question, and must be left to experience. The colour and finish are factors in determining the number. There should be no rubbing down after the first, except a mere sus- picion with the felt only to slightly dull the polish, and between the last two coats no rubbing at all is desirable. For black work, black Japan of the best quality is used in place of varnish, but a better absolute black cau be obtained by using it over deep Prussian blue. Lining and Decorating. Decoration and lining must in all cases be done before the last two coats of varnish, or the work will project above the general surface. When felting, be careful not to cut into heraldic or monogram work. For lining, long sable liners are the best, and the colour should be of turpentine and varnish. Gilding should be in Japan size, lowered with body varnish or Harland's writing size. Ordinary oil tube colours are used for heraldic painting. The method of lining or striping is different from that practised by the house decorator, in consequence of the number of curves the carriage painter has to follow, and may be de- scribed. Holding the pencil between the thumb and forefinger, and using the colour rather thin, the second finger, and some- times the others, are allowed to rest upon, and be guided by, the edge of the panel, shaft, or spoke, and act as a gauge. A little practice gives great expertness and accuracy, and lines of widths varying from % of an inch to f of an inch are readily and correctly run at one operation by the use of different sized liners, of which illustrations have already been given. The instructions for lettering may be taken from the chapter on that subject. For traps and carts finished in the natural wood, a filler to stop up the grain of the wood in the manner adopted by French polishers is necessary. Take plaster of Paris and whiting, and mix with water; and rub well into the surface with a handful of shavings or a sponge, leaving none on the surface. Allow to dry, and then dust off, and give a coat of Japan gold size, and \ turpentine ; allow it to saturate, but leave none upon the surface of the work. Or, use one of the patent wood fillers specially manufactured for the purpose. Proceed as for varnishing painted work. In re-painting old work, all the previous paint and varnish should be removed in the same way as for painters' work gener- For business carts and vans, the following method of proceed- PLATE 30.-PATTERN FOR STENCILLING OVER THE JOINTS OF INGRAIN PAPER. To face p. 304.] COACH-PAINTING. 305 ing is cheap and expeditious : Two coats of priming, two of colour, and two of varnish. Two coats of filling up may be interposed after the priming, if considered necessary. Motor Cars and Cycles. The same general rules apply to both motor cars and cycles, except that most of the metal parts are coated with a stoving enamel, which is dried in about four hours at a temperature of 120 to 160 in a close stove or heated chamber. Motor cars require a hard finish to withstand the dust. The action of the particles is nearly akin to a sand- blast and the harder the varnish the less likely they are to dull it, a hard surface causing them to fly off at a tangent. Stoving enamels and special varnishes and colours for this work are sold by the leading firms. Manders devote a special cata- logue to a fine range of coach colours, including some good clear yellows. Blume's automobile varnish is specially prepared to stand abrasion, as well as extremes of temperature, and Olsina stoving enamels made in thirty-six shades are certainly equal to anything we have tested for the purpose of cycle work. Ship-Painting. The practice of ship-painting differs only slightly from the two foregoing. Indeed, a combination of the two methods of proceeding is usually adopted. For the princi- pal work, first-class carriage-painting is used ; and for the rougher work, first-class house-painting. All the methods and materials used are similar, and the same men are frequently employed upon both house- and ship-painting. Special treatment of a rough class is used for the iron-work and for the hull externally, usually a salt water resisting enamel containing asphaltum in some form. For boats, special varnishes are made to stand water, both salt and fresh. That of Messrs. Harland is a specialty among Thames boatbuilders. There are no points of technique of sufficient distinctiveness in ship decoration to form the subject of a special chapter. 20 306 CHAPTER XXV. THE equipment and conduct of a class for painters and decorators are matters of considerable difficulty and expense, and have in some instances been so sadly mismanaged that a few words on the subject may be of value to all connected with such a class, either as organisers, teachers, or visitors. It is necessary in the conduct of a painter's class to at once realise that much that is in the common routine of daily work can only be taught theoretically, and that lads of such years as attend the classes cannot reasonably be expected to produce first-class plain painting, the facility to produce which is the result of long continued practice upon actual work. A class affords no scope for such practice, and the limited screens or panels that can be conveniently painted in the class give no opportunity for the practical teaching of plain painting. The mission of the class must therefore be directed to the teaching of the scientific principles that underlie the use and application of paint, and the theoretic manner of carrying these principles into practice. PAINTERS' TECHNICAL CLASSES. 307 The same arguments apply to paper-hanging, distempering, and many other kindred operations covered by the term painting and decorating. The acceptance of this principle at once does away with the very considerable initial difficulty of providing or attempting to provide large surfaces, doors, and other material for experi- mental operations, as was actually attempted in the early stages of technical classes for painters. It also removes the apparent necessity for insisting on thoroughly proficient plain painting prior to admitting a student to the decorative section of the work. The experience of several years has conclusively proved to me that any time of the student which is taken up by merely repeating the actual work upon which he is daily engaged is wasteful and disappointing both to the student and the class. On the other hand, time spent in lucidly explaining the why and wherefore of the operations in the student's daily work secures his interest and places in his hands a power which is put into practice out of class hours, and then his ordinary working hours are made to supplement his class teaching. Before proceeding to detail the course of study to be recom- mended, we will discuss the fitting and equipment of the class- room, and the materials that it will be requisite to stock, toge- ther with the best form they can take. The perishable nature of painters' stock, and its liability to deterioration, make it undesirable to stock in the same manner as for an ordinary business. If the class is a winter session one, and the evenings only are devoted to it, the question of preserving and cleansing brushes will require arrangement, and whenever possible it is desirable that students should bring their own brushes for the work in hand. Large brushes are costly and require consider- able care and attention. Assuming that the class is an evening one, the first question will be that of light. The inverted arc light is far and away the best for the purpose. By its steady diffused white light continuous colour work is possible. I do not, however, know of a single class-room used by painter-students in which this light is fixed, although in many cases it is in use in other departments of schools. The walls of the room and the ceiling should be of untoned white, so as to form a true neutral relation to colours. There should be several benches of a height to work at stand- ing i.e., about table height with paint slabs and mullers, knives, &c., and a drawer below the slab for rag for cleaning 308 PAINTING AND DECORATING. down. A large keg or cask for waste paint, of which there will accumulate a fairly large quantity, as each student should prepare his own colour and will have some little left over ; also paint cans and pots. In regard to pots, it is a good plan to induce students to bring their own and take them away when done with. This does away with a lot of unnecessary cleaning and waste of class time, and serves to keep the class-room more tidy than if all pots and cans were the property of the school. A large well-shelved cupboard should be reserved for paint in use i.e., for storage between the class meetings. Easels will be required for pencil work, and desks for drawing and lectures. Drawing-boards and tee-squares should also be provided by the school. Screens which can be covered with cloth, calico, paper, or canvas for working upon should be fixed at intervals round the room. On these screens decorative work of all kinds, sign- writing, &c., can be done, and afterwai'ds unpinned and removed for inspection or exhibition. Space will be saved if these screens are placed at right angles to the wall. The precise arrangement and equipment of the room or rooms must be governed by the proportion and space of the accommoda- tion ; but if it can be so arranged, the room for the lectures and for the teaching of drawing should be a separate one altogether from that used for painting in. Colours, varnishes, and oils should be exclusively of the best, and material likely to be tendered by firms advertising special goods should only be received by way of samples for contrast with the goods generally used in the class. Genuine white lead and zinc white, both in oil and dry powder; oils, boiled and raw linseed, and turpentine; whiting, size in powder form, and filling-up composition are all the goods of which large quantities will be required. Other colours ground in oil and put up in the large tubes used by decorators will be found cleanly and convenient. A very full set of these should be obtained of a good firm. Another complete set in dry powder form, stored in small drawers, will be required for distemper and for varnish or quick-drying colour mixing. The mixing of all paint upon the slab, and, if necessary, the grinding of pigments by hand, should be encouraged, as this teaches the students the effects of the various oils upon pig- ments, and the peculiar properties of pigments, and the manner PAINTERS' TECHNICAL CLASSES. 309 in which they affect the colour of each other when combined, much more thoroughly than when colours are mixed in a can, pot, or other vessel. The usual odds and ends required in a painter's shop should be kept, and a rigid observance of " a place for everything " will be most necessary, even extending to rags for wiping down benches and knives. A few varnishes of tried and known excellence must be kept in such a place and manner as to be always clean and in prime condition. The syllabus of teaching will be usually based on that of the City and Guilds of London Institute, which provides three grades or classes. These classes may be so disposed that each is in turn engaged in drawing, at practical work, or at a lecture or demonstration ; while the other two are otherwise occupied, no two classes doing the same work as any other on the same evening. If three evenings a week are taken, this will get the three subjects into each student's work in one form or other in each week. The lectures should be accompanied by sketches on the black- board, and ocular demonstration of the processes and methods explained. The writer has sometimes found it advisable to have a demonstrating assistant taken from the advanced class of students. Students should be encouraged to take full notes of the points in the lectures. Drawing should be made as far as possible to bear directly on the trade work, thus a small scale sketch may be worked out to full size, a stencil cut, and made ready for use as a drawing Drawing from memory and from description of simple objects will be found valuable. Test questions should be frequently set, and replies written to them at home and handed in by the students for criticism. In the study of colour it is a good plan to accustom students to make up tints or shades of colour from a verbal description of them. ABSORBENT? graining, 211. Acid resisting paints, 170. Adulteration of pigments, 81. Esthetic effects in relief decoration, 281. Alabaster, 214. Alizarin, 78. Alum in distemper, 117. Anaglypta, 99, 100. Paste for, 112. Analysis of light, 284. Aniline reds, 78. Antwerp blue, 78. Appliances, Plant and, 31. Application of stains, 176. Applying varnishes, 185. Area, Quantity of paint to cover given, 131. Art, Identity of work and, 6. Relation of Science to, 6. Artificial light on colours, 291, 295. Artistic limitations of staining, 174. Artists' browns, Decorative, 76. yellows, 77. Ash, Graining, 210. Aspect of colours, Scientific, 283. of rooms, 291. Association and colour, 290. B BASTARD flatting on woodwork, 157. Beauty v. fashion, 256. Relation of, to cleanliness, 5. Beauty and truth, 6. Bedrooms, Treatment of, 9. Bench, Colours to be kept on, 16. ,, in painting room, 22. ,, Paint, covered with zinc, 18. ,, trestles, 41. Benches for painting room, 21. Bennett's brushes, 61. ,, strainers, 47. ,, varnish can, 187. Berger's paint, 83. Binders and media for water colours, 87. Bins for plaster and whiting, 19. Bischof's white lead, 71. Black and gold marble, 213. and white, their modification, 291. in colour schemes, 291. Blue, 80. Drop, 80. Ivory, 80. Lamp, 80. paint, 80. Vegetable, 80. Bli tering, 164. Bli ters and knots, 164. how caused, 164. on stone, cement, and iron, 165. ,, Prevention of, 165. Block v. machine printed papers, 94. Blocks, Pulley, 40. Blooming in varnishes, 192. Blue, Antwerp, 78. black, 80. 312 Blue, Bremen, 79. Chinese, 78. Lime, 78. New, 78. Prussian, 78. Blume's varnishes, 186. Boards, Mixing, 44. Paste, 40. Boiled oil, 86. ,, v, raw, Action of, 124. Book, day-, Rough, for paint shop, 19, 47. for plant, 47. Books on lettering, 231. Borders and panelling in paperhang- ing, 111. Breadth of effect in decoration, 254. Breakfast room, Treatment of, 9. Bremen blue, 79. Brick walls, Colouring, 142. Bridling a brush, 59. Brimsdown white lead, 71. Bristles and hairs, 49. ,, Quantity of, in a brush, 51. Broken colour, 251. Bronze and Quaker greens, 79. Bronzes, 227. Bronzing and gilding, 216. upon distemper ground, 270. ,, relief materials, 280. Brown lakes, 76. Vandyke, 76. Browns, Decorative artists', 76. Brunswick greens, 79. Brushes, adhering to one make, 68. American distemper, 54. Bennett's Joyce loop, 67. Bridling, 59. Caustic, 55. Crippling in, 64. Distemper, 52, 143. Flat, 53. varnish, 62. Knot, 53. ,, Sizes of, 53. The best, 54. Economy in buying, 69. Fibre scrub, 56. Flat wall painting, 55. Foreign, 50. found by employer, 69. French, 50. Ground or paint, 58. Brushes, importance of knowledge of all kinds, 266. ,, Lime white, 56. ,, Methods of fixing the hair in, 50. ,, Paint or ground, 58. Paperhanging, 103. ,, v. rollers, 102. Purchase of, 68. ,, Quantity of bristles in, 51. Selection of paint, 51. Storage of, 69. Test of good, 51. ,, for fibre in, 51. and tools, 49. Trays for keeping soft, 17. Varnish, 61. Washer or smutch pan, 17. Buckets, 44. Burners, Charcoal, 46. Burning off old paint, 157. ,, ,, lamps, 45. Burnish gold size, 218. ,, and matt gilding, 223. Burnt Sienna, 76. , umber, 76. AMEL-HAIB flats, 68. ,, mops, 67. ,, writers, 66. Dans or kettles, 44. Canvas, Decoration in distemper on, 142. Painting, 170. Car painting, 305. Carriages, Decorating and lining, 304. Filling-up on, 301. Finishing colour for, 303. Painting, 300. ,, Varnishing, 303. Cartage, 42. Cartoon paper, 261. ,, Transferring, to work, 264. Cartoons, Wall for large, 21. Caustic brushes, 56. Ceiling, A bad wall or, 137. Painting, 161. ,, Papering, 110. papers, 98. ,, stains in, Treatment of, 137. Whitening, 136. 313 Cellar walls, Treatment of, 141. Cement, Blisters on, 165. ,, Keene's, 87. Mastic, 87. Portland, 171. Character in ornament, 250. Charcoal burners, 48. ,, drawings, fixing same, 264. Charlton white, 75. Chemical staining, 174. stains, 177. Children's room, Importance of white in, 10. Chinese blue, 78. Chromatic circles, Experimental use of, 286. Chrome greens, 79. Chromes, 77. Circle, Colour, 284. Practical use of 286. ,, ,, Theories based on, 286. ,, To construct a, 286. Cissing and pinholing, 192. Clairecolle, Laying on, 137. Mixing, 116. Clairecolleing and preparing ceilings, 137. Classes for painters' students, 306. ,, of staining, 174. of varnish, 183. Cleaning stencil plates, 272. Cleanliness in relation to beauty, 5. ,, in working, 11. Clear size, 219. Client's requirements, 12. Coach-painting, 300. ,, v. house-painting, 300. ,, Preparation for, 301. Coat, First, on new plaster, 146. ,, Second, on new plaster, 147. Coating over old distemper, 139. Coats, Finishing, on wood - work, 157. ,, Number of, on new wood- work, 152. ,, Result of too many, 151. Sequence of, in painting, 161. ,, Successive, of varnish, 185. Cobalt blue, 79. ,, green, 79. Coe's gilding wheels, 228. Colour circle, 284. Colour circle, How to construct, 286. ,, Practical use of, 286. ,, Theories based on, 286. Colour, Action of light in producing, 283. and artificial light, 291. and association, 290. ,, and conventionality, 252. and temperament, 249. ,, and the law of gravitation, 248. ,, Black and white in schemes of, 291. Broken, 251. ,, Classes of, combinations, 288. ,, combinations, 292. Considerations governing use of, 247. Constructive use of, 248. ,, contrasting couplets, 292. Decorative use of, compared to that of ornament, 249. Definition of, 283. Effect of distance on, 286. ,, ,, of intermixture, 287. ,, ,, on health of children, 10. ,, Fat, and smudge, 25. for lettering, 234. ,, for painting ornament, 269. ,, for stencilling in distemper, 264. ,, Importance of, in decora- tion, 246. in decoration, 283. ,, in external painting, 291. in nature, 249. ,, Influence of pattern upon, 246. ,, Intervals between, on the spectrum, 284. Limit in distempering, 135. lining for use in distemper, 265. Lowering of hues in, 290. Methods of selecting a, scheme, 289. ,, Mixing, 115. Movement and respose in, 291. Natural, deepening in wood, 176. 314 INDEX. Colour of pattern on grounds, 292. ,, Popular nomenclature of, and guide to, 128. quiet-toned couplets, 292. ,, relation to substance, 248. ,, Requirements for study of, 286. ,, schemes used by the writer, 293. Scientific aspect of, 283. Transparent, on distemper, 269. Triune combination, 294. values and qualities, 289. Colouring, Analogous, 288. brick walls, 142. Contrasting, 288. Deceptive, 249. Dominant factor in, 290. Monochromatic, 288. of halls, 7. ,, of paint shop, 15. ,, Ornamental, in high relief work, 279. Personal prejudice in, 292. ,, Suggestion of weight in, 248. Colourist, Useful rules for, 290. Colours, Artificial light on, 295. ,, Coach -painters', 82. ,, Complementary, 284. Consistency of, ground in oil, 80. ,, Drawers for powder, 18. Effect of juxtaposition on, , , Floating of, in distemper, 138. How to keep turpentine- ground, 27. How to keep water-ground, 27. Importance of situation on, 291. Important rules for match- ing, 127. in oil required for stock, 28. Light and heavy, 290. List of, for water-coating woods, 178. j, Matching, in paint, 126. Recipes for popular, 129. recommended for tinting and staining, 125. Colours required on paint bench, 16. Sinking of, in distemper, 138. ,, Twelve, for colour box, 82. Combination, Classes of colour, 288. Harmony of, 253. Combinations, Colour, 292. Triune colour, 294. Combine, Pigments that will, 128. Combustion, Spontaneous, 15. Commixture of pigments, 81. Comparative prices of material, 89. ,, ,, painting, 299. ,, utility of stains, 175. Comparison between wallpaper and painting, 97. Complementary colours, 287. Complete list of distemper stainers, 133. Compo, Sanding, 150. Treatment of external, 149. Composite papers, 97. tints, and how produced, 128. Composition of light, 284. Condition of new wood- work, 152. Confusion without richness, 253. Considerations governing the use of colour, 247. ,, Special, in house painting, 6. Consistency of oil colours, 80. Constructing a colour circle, 286. Construction of lettering, 232. Constructive decoration, 256. use of colour, 247. Continuous paper, Introducion of, 94. Contrast of gloss and flat, 276. ,, interest 253. line, 252. pattern, 252. ,, ,, surfaces, 253. Value of, in selecting papers, 9. Contrasting colour couplets, 292. Conventionalism in ornament, 251. Conventionality and colour, 252. ,, ,, repetition, 252. Copper, Painting, of, 170. Cordelova, 99, 100. Cords, Ladder fall, 39. Scaffold, 39. INDEX. 315 Cornices, Painting, 160. related to wall, 290. Cotton waste v. shreds, 15. Couplets of colour, Quiet-toned, 292. Covering power test, 71. Cracked, Lining ceilings that are, 111. Cracking and wrinkles in varnish, 192. Cracks in floors, 182. ,, in paint, 163. Cradles, 40. Creative faculty in design, 246. Crimson lake, 80. Crippling in brushes, 64. Cupboard in paint shop, 20. Cutting stencils, 233. Cycles, Painting, 305. DAMP walls, 104, 141. Dampness and stains, 140. Day-book for rough entries, 47. Deceptive colouring, 249. ,, Is graining, 196. Decorating carriages, 301. Decoration, aesthetic effects in relief work, 282. ,, Breadth of effect in, 254. Bronzing relief, 280. Colour in, 283. ,, Constructive, 257. ,, General principles of, 246. historic, Colour in, 283. Importance of colour in, 246. Lacquering relief, 281. Laws in ornamental, 256. Metalling relief, 280. Obliteration of old, 150. of details and mouldings, 257. of gesso, 279. of relievo materials, 277. Old ivory, effect in relief, 279. Painted, 271. ,, Pottery effects on relief, ,, Qualities in distemper, Decoration, Qualities necessary in, 252. ,, Relievo, 277. ,, Unity in, 255. Use of gold leaf in, 257. Wood and leather effects in, 281. ,, ,, effects in relief, 279. Decorative artists' browns, 76. ,, Consideration of a, scheme, 254. ,, effects on staining, 179. ,, media for painting on distemper, 133. relief material before fix- ing, 282. Definition of colour, 283. ,, plain painting, 145. Derby red, 78. Derivation of pigments, 81. Desiderata in staining, 174. Design, Choice of, for staining, 181. ,, Creative faculty in, 246. , , Measuring for a, 297. Designing stencils, 261. Designs, Sketch, 260. Destructive, Pigments, to one another, 128. Devonshire marble, 214. Dining-room, Treatment of, 7. Distance, Effect of, on colour, 285. , , Ornament and, 254. Distemper, Advantages of, 134. ,, Alum in, 117. ,, American, 140. brushes, 54. Bronzing upon, 270. ,, brushes, 52. ,, Brushes for, 143. Cleaning, 136. ,, Coating upon, 139. ,, Colours floating in, 138. ,, ,, sinking in, 138. ,, Comparison of, with painting, 271. complete list of stainers, 133. Decoration in, 260. ,, on canvas, 142. Description of, 134. Difference between paint and, 138. Durability of, 136. 316 Distemper filling for paint work, 155. ,, flat brushes, 53. Gilding upon, 270. ,, knot brushes, 53. ,, Laying on, 138. Limitations of, 135, 143. ,, Lining colours for, 265. fitches for, 264. Materials added to, 143. Mixing, 116, 135. Objections to, 135. ,, on white lining paper, 142. , , on wood-work, 142. Outlining on, 269. Painting colour for orna- ment on, 265. , , Painting plaster prior to, 140. Palette for painting, 269. Picking out enrichments in, 266. Pigments not to be used in, 128. Possibilities of, 136. Preparation of surfaces for, 135. Qualities of, for decora- tion, 260. Running lines on, 267. , , Sizes of, brushes, 55. ,, Stencilling colour for use on, 266. on, 264. Stippling, 140. Stopping prior to, 136. Straight edge for use on, Surfaces for, 135. Temperature while lay- ing on, 139. ,, The best brushes for, 54. Transparent colours on. 269. Uneven suction for, 139, Uses of, 134. Washable, 87, 143, 144. Washing off old, 139. , , Work suitable for execu tion in, 260. Distempering, 134. Distinctness in ornament, 263. )ominant factor in colouring, 290. )oor, Rotation of parts in painting a, 160. )rawers for powder colours, 18. , ,, stencil plates, 21. ., in paint bench, 16. drawing-room, Treatment of, 8. drawings, Full size, for ornament, 261. Driers, 84. , French powder, 85. , Liquid and terebine, 84. , Seccoline, 85. Drop black, 80. Drums, kegs, &c., for stock, 44. Dry colours for stock, 28. Drying action of paints, 123. , agents for paints, 84. Duresco, 87, 139, 141. Dust sheets, 41. Dusters, Painters', 56. Dusting, 163. Dutch pink, 77. E EASEL, Sign writers', 22. Economy in working, 10. ,, of proper storage, 13. Edges, Painting round, 163. Edging papers, 106. Effects in relief decoration, 281. Elaborated stencilling, 273. Elastic and hard varnishes, 184. Embossing glass, 240. Emerald green, 79. Empties, Return of, 24. Enamels, 195. ,, and Japans, 184. ,, Grounds for, 171. Polished white, 194. Use of, 193. Enrichment of lettering, 234. Entrance doors, Treatment of, 7. Estimating and measuring, 297. Etching on glass, 242. Experimental use of colour circle, 287. External, Course of, treatment for compo, 149. Rough lime white for, 131. ,, use of colour, 291. INDEX. 317 FABRIKONA, 100. Factitious ultramarine, 78. Fashion v. beauty, 256. Fat colour and smudge, 25. ,, Salvage of, 26. Fat edges, 163. Faults in varnishing, 192. Felt for rubbing down, 191. Felting down varnish, 191. Fibre scrub brushes, 56. ,, Test for, in brushes, 51. Fibrous plaster, 100. Fillers, \Vood, 182. Filling, Distemper, for painted work, 155. powders, 87, 155. Filling up, 155. ,, quick, 155. ,, ,, on coach bodies, 301. , , White lead and ochre for, 156. Finishing coats on wood-work, 157. ,, colour for carriage paint- ing, 303. Fire-proof paints, 171. Fitches, 64. ,, French, 65. ,, Lining, 65. Fitting up stores, 23. Fittings and furniture for paint shop, ,, Removal of, when papering, Flat varnish brushes, 62. ,, wall painting brushes, 55. Flatting and gloss contrasted, 276. ,, Bastard, for wood -work, 157. Hints on, 163. new plaster walls, 147. ,, on wood- work, 157. ,, walls, 147. Flats, Camel-hair, 68. Flax and jute canvas, 100. Flock papers, 95. Floors, Staining, 176, 182. , , stone, To protect, from paint, 42. Flour barrel, 20. Flower painting in decoration, 275. Formulae, Dangers of set, 115. Furniture of the paint shop, 15. GAS in painting room, 22. Gilding, 216. and bronzing, 216. Burnish and matt, 223. Definition of, 216. glass, 224. Methods of, 217. on distemper, 270. Preparing oak for open grain, 228. Tools for, 219. wheels, Coe's, 228. Gesso, 278. ,, Advantages of, 278. ,, Decoration of, 279. High relief, 278. ,, Ingredients for, 278. ,, Low relief, 279. , , method of work, 279. Glass embossing, 240. Etching on, 242. ,, paper, 88. ,, writing and gilding, 224, 241. Glaze stencilling, 273. Gloss and flatting contrasted, 276. Glue, 86. paste, 111, 112. ,, Sichel, 144. Gold and black marble, 214. ,, burnish size, 218. ,, leaf described, 217. ,, ,, ribbons, 228. ,, size, Isinglass, 219. ,, ,, Japanners', 218. Matt, 219. , Oil, 217. Water, 218. ,, Substitution of baser metals for, 217. To prevent adhesion of, to ground, 222. Use of, in decoration, 257. ,, v. yellow, 291. Graining, 202. absorbia, 211. ash, 210. brushes, 65. Hints on, 211. in stain, 175. Is it deceptive, 196. limitations, 196. mahogany, 207. 318 INDEX. Graining maple, 209. oak, 202. pitch pine, 209. pollard oak, 207. positions where desirable, 199. ,, rosewood, 209. satinwood, 210. ,, The condemnation of, 197. The intention of the grainer in, 198. ,, The limifc to imitative quality of, 200. Tools used for oak, 202. transfer, 211. ,, Various methods of work in, 201. walnut, 208. ,, What is it, 196. What to imitate in, 199. Graniting, 214. Gravitation laws and use of colour, 248. Greasy walls, 143. Green Lakes, 80. Marbles, 214. Suffield, 80. Greens, Bronze and Quaker, 79. Brunswick, 79. Chrome, 79. Cobalt, 79. Emerald, 79. Mineral, 79. Mixed, 79. The use of, 291. Grey marbles, 213. Grittiness in varnishing, 192. Ground, Colour of pattern upon, 292. ,, or paint brushes, 58. Grounds for enamelling, 171. raised pattern, 278. Roughened ground for gild- ing on, 276. Texture, 279. Guide to popular colour names, 128. H HAIKS and bristles, 50. Hall, Colouring of the, 7. Hand-painted ornament, 273. Hanging paperhangings, 101. ,, relief decorations, 1 12. Hangings, Early wall, 93. Leather wall, 93. Origin of wall, 93. Paper and wall, 93. Relievo wall, 99. Hannay white lead, 72. Hard v. Elastic Varnish, 184. Hardening of stock colours, 27. Harmony of combination, 257. Health and the trade, 11. bad, among painters, causes of, 11. ,, of children, Effects of colour on, 10. Heavy and light colours, 290. High relief gesso, 278. Historic ornament, 250. Colour in, 283. ,, True use of, 251. Hog hair, 49. Hot pipes and stove painting, 169. House-painting v. coach-painting, 300. Special considera- tions in, 6. Hues, Lowering of, in pigments, 288. ILLEGIBLE types of lettering, 230. Imitative painting, 196. ,, quality and its limits, 197. Imitation v. suggestion, 197. Importance of stencilling, 273. Impressions conveyed by the eye, 9. Improving woods, 176. Indian red, 77. Indigo, 79. Infection, 140. Insulating paints, 170. Intention of the grainer, 198. Interest, Contrast of, 253. Intermixture, Effect of, on colours, 285. Interval between colours in spectrum, 284. Iron, Blisters on, 165. Painting, 168. ,, Re-painting old, 169. Isinglass gold size, 219. Italian pink marble, 213. Ivory black, 80. ,, Old, effect on relief decora- tions, 2/9. INDEX. 319 JAPANESE leather papers, 99. Japanners' gold size, 218. Japans and enamels, 184. Jeffrey's wall papers, 97. Job, Despatch of materials for, 25. ,, Quantity of plant for, 48. Jute and flax canvas, 100. Juxtaposition of colours, Effect of, 285. K KEEN'S cement, 87. Kegs for stockkeeping, 44. Kettles and cans, 44. Klingcona, 113. Knives for paint stone, 16, 22. ,, Trimming, 114. Knots, 163, 165. Knotting, 152. , , work prior to painting, 163. Knowledge of brushes of all kinds necessary, 266. LACQUERING relief decorations, 281. Lacquers, 194. ,, for metals, 217. ,, Permanence in, 281. Ladder falls, 33. cords, 39. Ladders, 31. ,, and plank supports, 32. ,, London, 33. Painting, 33. ,, Raising long, 33. Selection of, 32. ,, Splicing, 32. ,, Warnings in theusingof, 33. Lakes, Brown, 78. ,, Crimson, 78. ,, Green, 80. Lamp black, 79. Lamps, Burning-off, 45. Lapis lazuli, 214. Laying on clairecolle, 137. ,, ,, distemper, 138. gold leaf, 220. Lazuli, Lapis, 214. Leaf, Description of gold, 217. Leaf, Laying gold, 220. metals in decorating, 217. Leather and wood effects on relief decoration, 281. papers, 96. ,, Japanese, 99. wall hangings, 96. Lettering and sign writing, 229. Books on, 231. Colour of, 234. Enrichment of, 235. Legible type in, 231. Methods of work in, 233. plant, 33. Prominence in, 230. Shaded, 230. Letters, Forms of, changed by en- vironment, 232. ,, Painting, 238. ,, Rules for construction of, 233. Library, Treatment of, 9. _ Light, Action of, in producing colour, 283. ,, Analysis of, 284. ,, and heavy colours, 290. ,, and shade painting, 275. ,, Artificial, on colour, 295. ,, Composition of, 283. Lighting, Artificial, in paint shop, 14. Natural, 14. Lights, Objection to sky, 14. Lime blue, 75. ,, nibs in walls, 152. , , white brushes, 56. Limitations, Artistic, of staining, 174. ,, of distemper, 135, 144. , , of graining, 200. Lincrusta, 99. Line, Contrast of, 266. Liners, 66. Lines on distemper, 267. Lining and decorating carriages, 304. ,, colour for use on distemper, 265. ,, cracked ceilings, 111. ,, fitches, 65. ,, and colour, 266. ,, on paint, 275. ,, papers, 110. Distempering on, 138, 139. straight edge for distemper, 320 INDEX. Linseed oil, 84. Liquid driers and terebine, 84. Litharge, 84. Lowering hues in colour, 290. Low relief gesso painting, 279. Lubrose paints, 171. Luminous paints, 171. MACHINE v. block printed papers, 94. Madders, 78. Mahogany graining, 207. Mander-Hannay white lead, 72. Mander's matsine, 181. Maple graining, 209. Marble, Black and gold, 213. Devonshire, 214. Green, 214. Grey, 213. ,, Italian pink, 213. Red, 213. ,, Sienna, 213. St. Anne's, 214. White, 212. Marbling, 212. Marking plant, 42. Mass of pattern, 254. Mastic cement, 87. Matching colours in paint, 126. ,, edges in papering, 109. , , Important rules for colour, 127. stone, 142. Material, Comparative prices of, 89. Decorative low relief, 282. Despatch of, for a job, 25. Materials, 70. Decoration of relievo, 279. Matsine, 181. Matt and burnish gilding, 223. ,, gold size, 219. Measuring and estimating, 297. for a design, 297. ,, for paper, 105. Media for decorative painting in dis temper, 133. Mediums and binders for water colour, 87. Metal and silver leaf laying, 226. painting, 167, 169. papers, 95. substituted for gold leaf, 217. Metals, Lacquer for, 227. Petals, Leaf used in decorating, 217. detailing relief decoration, 280. Method and order, 10. Mill, Paint, 20. Vlineral greens, 79. Mixed 79. pigments, 81. tints and colours, 127. dixing boards, 44. clairecolle, 116. colour, 115. distemper, 116, 135. General hints on paint, 125. paint, 118. ,, proportion table, 120. Monochromatic colouring, 288. Mops, Camel-hair, 67. tfotor car painting, 305. Movement and repose in colour, 291. Mouldings, Decoration of details of, 257. Mullers, Paint, 22. NAPHTHALINE stains, 182. Nature, Colour in, 249. New blue, 78. Nomenclature of colours, Popular, 129. Number of coats for wood- work, 153. Nurseries, Treatment of, 10. OAK graining, 202. _ tools, 202. Preparing, for gilding, 228. Gates' trimmer, 107. Objects of plain painting, 145. of priming, 153. Ochre and white lead filling up, 156. Red, 76. Yellow, 75. Odour of paint, To kill, 167. Oil, Boiled, 86. colours, Consistency of, 80. Effects of, in mixing paint, 119. gold size, 217. Linseed, 85. List of stains, 177. staining, 175. 321 Oil tanks, 19. ,, varnishes, 184. Oiling woods, 177. Old iron-work, Re-painting, 169. Olsina, 195. Opaque and transparent pigments, 126. Order and method, 10. Ornament, 249. ,, and distance, 254. ,, Character in, 251. ,, Conventionalism in, 251. ,, Decorative uses of, 247. ,, Distinctness in, 254. ,, Forms suitable for painted, 274. ,, Full sized drawings for, 261. Historic, 250. ,, Laws in decorative, 256. ,, Mixing styles of, 250. ,, Objects of, 250. ,, Qualities necessary in, 251. , , painted on a flat ground, 276. ,, painting colour for use on distemper, 265. ,, ,, in light and shade, 275. Scale in, 253. Setting out, 261. ,, Symmetry in, 255. Tools for setting out, 261. ,, True use of historic, 250. Use of knowledge of style in, 251. Variety in, 252. Ornamental colouring in relief work, 279, 281. ,, staining, 179. Orr's zinc white, 75. Outlining on distemper, 269. Outside painting, Time for, 167. ,, treatment of house, 7. Ox-hair writers, 66. Oxide of zinc, 74. PAINT, Acid resisting, 170. ,, and distemper compared, 260. ,, bench, Colours required on, 16. Paint bench, Drawers in, 16. ,, Zinc for covering, 18. Black, 80. Burning off old, 157. Cissing of, 165. Consistence of, 160. Cracking of, 163. Drying of, 166. Flashing, 165. Grinning through, 166. knives, 16. Qualifications of, 145. Quantity of, to cover given area, 131. Lining in, 275. mixing, 118. Effect of oil and turps in, 119. General hints on, 125. mills, 20. ,, proportion table, 120. matching of colours, 127. mullers, 17. odour of, To kill, 167. or ground brushes, 58. Protective agency in, 124. removing solvents, 159. Ropiness in, 166. shop, 14. artificial lighting, 14. ,, benches, 15. ,, Colouring of, 15. ,, cupboards, 20. Fittings and furniture of, 15. ,, natural lighting, 14. ,, Position of, 14. ,, Rough day-book on, 19. ,, shelves, 23. Waste in, 25. Water in, 14. Stencilling in, 269. stones and muller and knives, 15, 22. Striking, 165. Suggestions when stencilling in, 273. ,, work, Filling for, 155. Painted ground, Stencilling on, 272. ,, ornament, Hand-, 273. ,, ,, on flatting, 2~5. ,, ,, shaded in glazes, 275. walls, Re-painting old, 150. 21 Painted walls, Rubbing down, 148. ,, ,, Stopping old, 151. ,, work, Size on, 162. Painters' dusters, 57. stock, List of required, 28. ,, technical classes, 306. Painting and wall papers compared, 97. brushes, 58. ,, flat wall, 55. ,, canvas, 170. ,, carriages, 300. ceilings, 161. Coach-, 300. ,, ,, Preparation for, 301. ,, Considerations for, 6. ., copper, 170. cornices, 160. ,, door, Rotation of, 160. edges, 163. ,, External colour of, 291. ,, Flowers in decoration, 275. ,, Forms of ornament for, 274. ,, fresco, 277. General hints on, 160. Imitative, 196. iron, 169. Knotting work prior to, 162. ladders, 33. letters, 238. metal, 168. pipes (hot), 169. Plain, 145. Definition of, 145. ,, Objects of, 145. plant, 42. plaster, new, 146, 152. ,, prior to distemper- ing, 140. prices, comparative, 299. room, 21. Gas in, 22. n ,, Portable benches in, 22. Reference books for, 22. ,, sash windows, 160. ,, Sequence of coats in, 161. Ship-, 305. signs, 168. silk, 275. ,, stone, 150. ,, stucco, external, 149. Painting stucco, internal, 149. Technical terms used in, 162. Time for outside, 167. velvet, 275. wood- work, new, 152. ,, General hints, 159. zinc, 158. Paints, Drying action in, 123. , , agents for, 84. Fireproof, 171. for various purposes, 171. Insulating, 170. Luminous, 171. Quick drying, 170. Pans or pots, 44. Paper and wall hangings, 93. Cartoon, 261. Distempering on, 138. Glass, 88. Measuring for, 105. Stencil, 262. Paperhanger, Pasting paper for, 108. ,, Requisite qualities for, 101. Paperhangers' brushes, 65. rollers and brushes. 101. ,, routine, 107. ,, trestles, 41. Paperhanging, 101. ,, ceilings, 109. Matching edges in, 109. panelling and border- ing, 111. ,, Preparing walls for, 103. ,, Removal of fittings when, 111. ,, Tools required for, 101. , , Trimming machines used in, 106. Paperhangings, Hanging, 101. ,, Introduction of con- tinuous, 94. ,, Methods used in making, 94. Papers, Advantage of hand printed, 94. ,, block v. machine, 94. Ceiling, 98. Choice of, 98. 323 Papers, Classes of, 94. Dimensions of, 96. Distinction between hand and machine, 94. Edging, 106. First use of, 93. Flock, 95. Japanese leather, 99. Leather, 96. Lining, 110. Metal, 95. Qualities of, 94. Sanitaries', 95. Selection of, 97. Trimming, 106. Value of contrast in, 98. Varieties of, 94. Varnished, 96. Paste, 105. for anaglypta, 112. glue, 112. To prevent souring in, 106. Pasteboards, 40. Pattern and mass, 255. Colour of, on ground, 292. Contrast of, 252. Influence of, on colour, 246. Pattinson's white, 75. Pencils, Sizes of, 66. Use of, 238. Permanence in lacquers, 280. Personal prejudices in colouring, 292. Philosophy of house painting, 5. Picking out enrichments in dis- temper, 266. Pickle cask, 19. Pigments, Adulteration of, 81. ,, Commixture of, 81. Derivation of, 81. , , destructive to one another, 128. ,, Importance of good, 88. not to be used in dis- temper, 128. Opaque, 126. Ready-mixed, 83. Test for staining power of, 82. that combine well, 128. ,, to be used in water only, 128. ,, Transparent, 126. Pinholes and cissing, 192. Pink, Italian, marble, 213. Pinks, Dutch, 77- Pitch pine, Graining, 209. Planks, 34. ,, Clamping, 35. ,, Description of good, 35. ,, Selection of, 34. ,, supports for ladders, 34. Plant and appliances, 31. ,, book, 47. ,, Lettering, 42. Marking, 42. ,, Quantity of, to send to a job, 48. Plaster and stoppings, 87. ,, and whiting bins, 19. ,, Fibrous, 100. new, Painting on, 146, 152. ,, ,, First and second coat on, 146, 147. ,, ,, Third and fourth coat on, 147. Staining with oil stains, 181. ,, Stains in, 140. walls, Flatting, 147. Stopping, 146. Plastine, 87. Plate, stencil, Preparation of, 262, 271. Plates, Care of atencil, 268. Platinum and silver leaf laying, 226. Poles, Scaffold, 34. Selection of, 34. Polishing varnish work, 191. Pollard oak, Graining, 207. Popular colours, Guide to, 128. ,, Recipes for, 128. Portland cement, 171. Positions where graining is desirable, 199. Pots or pans, 44. Small, 44. Pottery effects in relievo decoration, 281. Pounce bag and pouncers, 238, 264. To make a, 263. Pounces, To secure correct register in, 270. Powder colour, Drawer for, 18. Practical use of colour circle, 286. Premises, Efficient, a necessity, 13. Preparation of oil and other putties, 132. of surfaces for distemper, 135. 324 Preparation of large surfaces for dis- temper, 137. Preparing ceiling and clairecolleing, 136. Preservation of size, 86. sable pencils, 66. Prevention of blistering, 165. Prices of material, Comparative, 89. painting, ,, 299. Priming, 168. ,, new wood- work, 152. ,, Rubbing down, after, 154. Principal varnishes in use, 186. Principles of decoration, General, 246 Production of composite tints, 128. Prussian blue, 78. Pulley blocks, 40. Pumice stone, 88. ,, ,, compo, 88. ,, ,, powder, 88. Putties, Preparation of, 132. ,, Eecipes for, 132. Putty, 87. QUAKER greens, 79. Qualifications of paint, 145. Qualities existing in colour, 287. ,, necessary to decorative ornament, 253. Quantity of paint for a given area, 131. Quick drying paints, 170. filling up, 156. RAISED pattern grounds, 277. Raw v. boiled oil, 124. ,, sienna, 76. ,, umber, 76. Ready mixed paints, 83. Reasons, Principal, for painting, 5. Recipes for popular colours, 128. , , for stopping and putties, 1 32. ,, for whitewash, 132. Red, Aniline, 78. Derby, 78. Red Indian, 77. lead, 78. marble, 213. ,, ochre, 76. Venetian, 77. Reference books in painting room, 22. Relief decoration, Esthetic effects in, 281. ,, ,, bronzing, 280. fixing material, 278. hanging material, 112. ,, Ivory effects in, 279. ,, ,, lacquering, 281. metalling, 280. ornamental colour- ing, 279, 281. Pottery effects in, 281. Wood and leather effects in, 281. ,, Gesso, 278, 279. ,, surfaces, Accidental effect in, 278. Relievo decoration, 278. Decorating, 279. stencil work, 278. Removal of fittings when paperhang- ing, 111. ,, of paint and solvents, 159. Removers, Paint, 159. Re-painting iron-work, 169. walls, 150. ,, Washing down prior to, 162. ,, wood- work, 156. Repetition and conventionality, 252. Repose and movement in colour, 291. Requirements for study of colour, 289. Returned residuum of paint, 25. Returns of empty packages, 24. Ribbon gold leaf, 228. Richness without confusion, 253. Ridgley trimmer, 113. Ripolin, 195. Roller for paperhanging, 102. Rosewood, Graining, 209. Roughened ground for painting on, 276. 325 Rubbing down, 163, 188. ,, ,, after burning off wood-work, 159. ,, ,, after priming, 154. felts, 191. ,, ,, in colour, 156. ,, newly painted walls, 148. ,, walls, 103. Rules, Useful, to the colourist, 290. SABLE pencils, Hints on use of, 238. Preservation of, 66. ,, writers, 66. Sablea, Extra long, 66. Short, 66. Sizes of, 66. Saint Anne's marble, 214. Sanding compo, 150. Sanitary wall papers, 95. Sappy wood, 154. Sash tools, 62. ,, window, Painting a, 160. Satin wood, Graining, 210. Satinette, 195. Scaffolding, 35. cords, 39. Iron rods in, 43. knots, 36. poles, 34. Storage of, 43. Testing of, 42. Scale in ornament, 253. Scales and weighing machine, 18. Schemes of colour used by the writer, 293. Science and truth, 6. ,, Relation of, to art, 6. Scientific aspect of colour, 283. Scotch whitewash 133. Scrub brush fibre, 58. Seccoline, 85. Selecting a colour scheme, 289. ,, papers, 97. Selection of ladders, 32. ,, poles and planks, 34. Sequence of coats in painting, 161. Setting out ornament, 261. ,, sign writing 235. stencils, 263. Setting out, Tools required for. 261. Sgraffito, 282. Shade and light in painting, 273. Shaded lettering, 230. Sheets, Dust, 41. Shelves in paint shop, 20. Ship-painting, 305. Shreds, 15. Sichel glue, 144. Sienna, Burnt and raw, 76. marble, 213. Sign writing and lettering 229. ,, ,, Aphorisms for, 244. ,, ,, General notes on, 243. ,, writers' easels, 22. Signs, Painting, 168. Silicate paint, 83. Silk, Painting, 275. ,, Writing on, 240. Silver, Laying, 226. Situation of colours in a scheme, 291. Size, 86. Burnishers' gold, 218. Clear, 219. Isinglass, 219. Japanners' gold, 218. Matt gold, 219. Oil, 217. on painted work, 162. Preservation of, 86. Water gold, 218. Sketch designs, 260. Skinning of stock colours, 27. Smalts, 79. Smudge and fat colour, 25. keg, 19. Salvage of, 26. Thinnings for, 26. Smutch pan or brush washer, 17. Softeners, 65. Solvents for removing paint, 159, 172. Souring of paste, To prevent, 106. Special considerations in painting, 6. Spliced, On using ladders that are, 33. Splicing ladders, 33. Spirit stains, List of, 178. ,, varnishes, 184. Spontaneous combustion, 15. Spray painting, 171. Stain graining, 175. 326 INDEX. Stainers, Complete list of, for dis- temper, 133. Staining, 173. Artistic limitations of, 174. Chemical, 174. Classes of, 174. ,, Colours for use in, 125. ,, Decorative effects in, 181. Designs for, 181. Emphasising grain of wood by, 177. finished plaster work, 181. floors, 176. Oil, 175. Ornamental, 179. Spirit, 175. Test for pigments' power of, 82. Varnish, 175. Water, 174. Woods for, 174. Stains and dampness, 141. Application of, 176. Chemical, 178. Comparative utility of, 175. in plaster, 140. List of oil, 177. water, 177. Treatment of ceiling, 137. Wax, 175. Stencilling colour for use in dis- temper, 267. Elaborated, 273. glaze, 273. , , in paint, 269. ,, on a distemper ground, 270. ,, on painted ground, 273. Stencils, Care of, 269. Cleaning, 270. Correct register of, 270. Cutting, 262. , , Drawers for, 21. ,, Paper, 262. ,, pins, 265. ,, Preparation of, by writer, 263. ,, relievo work, 278. tools, 66. 37. Clumsy, 38. Selection of, 38. Various forms of, 38. Stipplers, 64, 149. ,, Washing of, 64. Stippling, 149. ,, in distemper, 140. Stock articles enumerated, 28. ,, Purchase of, 30. , , varnishes required, 29. Stone, Blister on, 164. floors, To protect from paint, 42. Matching, 150. Paint, 16. ,, To clean, 16. Painting upon, 150. ,, Pumice, 88. Stopping and plasters, 87. ,, new wood- work, 154. old ,, 156. ,, plaster walls prior to paint- ing, 129, 151. ,, prior to distempering, 136, 146. ,, Recipes for, 132. Storage of brushes, 69. ,, room, Economy of, 13. Stores, 23. ,, and workshops, 13. Fitting up, 23. Stove pipes, To paint, 169. Straight edges for lining, 268. Strainers, 46. Straining varnishes, 187. Stripping walls, 104. Stucco, Painting on, 150. Study of colour, 286. Style, Use of knowledge of, 251. Styles of ornament, Danger of mixing, 250. Substance in relation to colour, 248. _ Successive coats of varnish, 185. Suffield green, 80. Suggestion of weight in colouring, 248. , , for stencilling, 273. ,, v. imitation, 199. Superfluous ornament, 250. Surfaces, accidental relief, 278. ,, for distemper, To prepare, ",, ,, ,, Large,' 137. ,, ,, varnishing, 189. Swan quills, 67. Symmetry in ornament, 255. INDEX. 327 TABLE of mixing proportions, 120. Tar spots, 163. Technical classes for painters, 306. ,, terms, 162. Technique useless without applica- tion, 7. Temperament and colour, 249. Temperature while distempering, 139. Terebine and liquid driers, 84. Terra vert, 79. Testing scaffolding, 42. ,, varnishes, 194. white lead, 70. Texture grounds, 279. Theories based on colour circle, 284. Thinnings for smudge, 26. Time for outside painting, 167. Tints, Mixed, 127. Tools and brushes, 49. for gilding, 219. ,, graining, 202. ,, paperhanging, 101. ,, sashes, 62. ,, setting out ornament, 261. Touching up new places in old wood- work, 157. Trade and health, 11. Transfer graining, 211. Transferring cartoons to work, 263. Transparent and opaque pigments, 126. ,, colours on distemper, 269. Treatment of bedrooms, 9. breakfast room, 9. dining-room, 8. drawing-room, 8. entrance doors, 7. library, 9. nurseries, 10. outside of house, 7. rooms generally, 9. vestibule, 8. Trestles, 36. Closing 37. Clumsy, 37. Continental, 37. Heights of, 37. for paint bench, 41. ,, paperhanging, 40. Single, 37. Trimming knifes, 114. , , machine for paperhanging, 106. Triune colour combinations, 294. Truth and beauty, 6. ,, science, 6. Tube colours, Conservation of, 27. Turpentine, 85. , , Effect when mixing, 1 1 9. Twelve colours for oil colour box, 82. Tynecastle tapestry, 99. Type for lettering, 229. ULTRAMARINE, Factitious, 78. Umber, Burnt, 76. Raw, 76. Unity in decoration, 252. Utility of stains, Comparative, 175. VALUES, Colour, 287. Vandyke brown, 6. Variety in ornament, 252. Varnish and varnishing, 183. brushes, 61. flat, 62. Classes of, 183. Felting down, 191. Polishing, 191. Successive coats of, 185. staining, 175. Varnished papers, 96. , , work, Wrinkles and cracks in, 193. Varnishes, Applying, 185. Elastic and Hard, 184. Oil, 184. Principal, in use, 186. required for stock, 29. Spirit, 184. Straining, 187. Testing, 194. Varn shing and varnish, 183. Blooming in, 192. carriages, 303. Faults in, 192. Grittiness in, 185, 193. 328 INDEX. Varnishing, Hints on, 187. Surfaces for, 189. ,, woods without staining, 176. Vegetable black, 80. Velvet, Painting on, 275. Venetian red, 77. Verdigris, 79. Verditer, 79. Vermilion, 77. Vestibule, Treatment of, 8. Viridian, 79. WALL, Cornice related to, 290. ,, for large cartoons, 21. ,, or ceiling in bad condition, 137. ,, -paper, shrinkage, 113. ,, -papers, 93. Walls, brick, Colouring for, 142. Cellar, 141. Damp, 104, 141. Flatting, 147. , , for new plaster, 147. Greasy, 135. Lime nibs in, 152. Preparing, 104. Re-painting, 150. Rubbing down, 104, 148. Stopping, 146, 151. ,, Stripping, 104. Washing, after stripping, 104. Walnut, Graining, 208. Walton, Lincrusta, 99. Washable distemper, 143. Washing off old distemper, 139. old work, 162. ,, stipplers, 64. Waste in paint shop, 25. Water coating in imitation of wood, 174. ,, ,, Colours for, of wood, 178. , , colour pigments, 127. gold sizes, 218. ,, in paint shop, 14. mediums for binding colour, staining, 174. Water staining new wood- work, 176. ,, stains, 177. Wax stains, 176. Weighing machine, 18. Weight in colouring, 248. Wet wood, 154. White, Charlton, 75. ,, Enamel, 195. ,, Importance of, on health of children, 10. marble, 212. Modifications of, 291. ,, Patent, 75. ,, Pattinson's, 75. use of, 291. Zinc, 74. White lead, 70. ,, and ochre filling up, 155. ,, How to keep, 27. ,, Tests for, 70. Whiting, 82. , , and plaster bins, 19. ,, ceilings, 136. Whitewash, London, 133. Scotch, 133. Window brackets, 39. Wood effects in relief decoration, 281. fillers, 182. Graining satin, 210. Woods, for staining, 173. ,, Improving, 175. Natural deepening of colour, 176. Oiling, 176. ,, Varnishing natural, 176. Wood- work, Bastard flatting on, 157. ,, Condition of, prior to painting, 152. ,, Distempering on, 142. ,, Finishing coats on, 157. Flatting, 157. General hints on paint- ing, 159. ,, Number of coats on new, 153. Painting new, 152. ,, Priming new, 1 53. ,, Rubbing down, 159. ,, Stopping, 154. ,, Touching up, 157. Work and art identical, 6. Working, Cleanliness in, 11. Workshop and stores, 13. I Wrinkles in varnished work, 192. 329 Writer, Colour schemes used by the, 292. Writers, Aphorisms for, 244. ,, Camel-hair, 66. ,, easels, 22. Ox-hair, 66. Sable, 66. Writing, General notes on, 243. ,, on glass 241. silk, 240. Setting out, 235. ,, signs and lettering, 229. YELLOW ochre, 75. v. gold, 291. Yellows, Artists', 77. ZINC, Orr's, 75. ,, oxide, 74. ,, Painting on, 170. white, 74. BELL AND BAIN, LIMITED, PRINTERS, GLASGOW. CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY, LIMITED. ii A SELECTION FROM CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL WORKS. 1820 MESSRS. 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With 222 Illustrations. 5s. net. TELEGRAPHIC SYSTEMS, AND OTHER NOTES. A Handbook of the Principles on which Telegraphic Practice is Based. BY ARTHUR CROTCH, of the Engineer-in-Chief's Department, G.P.O. CONTENTS. Batteries, Primary and Secondary. Universal Battery Working. Duplex Telegraphy. Duplex and Quadruplex Telegraphy. Automatic Telegraphy. Multiplex Telegraphy. The Hughes Type Printing Instrument. The Baudot System. The Murray Type Printing Telegraph. Test and Battery Boxes. Circuit Concentration, <fcc. Repeaters. Submarine Telegraphy. Wireless Telegraphy. INDEX. LIST OF DIAGRAMS OF CONNECTIONS. " This book is a particularly good one . . . we can thoroughly recommend it . . . a handy book of ready reference." Electrical Review. "The treatise will be of much help to the telegraph engineer, and to the student in his preparatory training and it can be thoroughly recommended. 'Eltctririan. NINETEENTH EDITION. Leather, Pocket Size, with 810 pages. 8s. 6d. A POCKET-BOOK OF ELECTRICAL RULES & TABLES FOR THE USE OP ELECTRICIANS AND ENGINEERS. BY JOHN MUNRO, C.E., & PROF. JAMIESON, M.lNST.C.B., F.R.S.B. " WONDERFULLY PERFECT. . . . Worthy of the highest commendation we can give it." Electrician. GRIFFIN'S ELECTRICAL PRICE-BOOK: For Electrical, Civil, Marine, and Borough Engineers, Local Authorities, Architects, Railway Contractors, &c. Edited by H.J. DOWSING. SECOND EDITION. 8s. 6d. ELECTRIC SMELTING AND REFINING. [See p. 52. ELECTRO-METALLURGY, A Treatise on. [See p. 52. ELECTRICAL PRACTICE IN COLLIERIES. [See p. 42. ELECTRICAL SIGNALLING IN MINES. [See p. 43. In Large Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. 15e. net. ELECTRICAL THEORY AND THE PROBLEM OP THE UNIVERSE, BY G. W. DE TUNZELMANN, B.Sc., LONDON, Member of the Institute of Electrical Engineers ; formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, H.M.S. " Britannia," Dartmouth. CONTENTS. Fundamental Electrical Phenomena. Units and Measurement. Meaning and Possibility of a Mechanical Theory of Electricity. The Ether. The Ether u a Framework of Reference for MotionThe Relations between Ether and Moving Matter. Electric Conduction in Gases. The Faraday-Maxwell Theory. The Electron Theory Magnetism and the Dissipation of Energy. Contract Electrification and Electrolysis-Metallic Conduction Optical PhenomenaThe Mechanism of Radiation. -General Phenomena of Radio Activity Transmutations of Radio-Active Substances. Z3GM& S . un * nd Earth -The Solar Carona, The Aurora, and Comets' Tails Radio-Activity in Stars and Nebulae Arrangement and Number of Atoms in a Mole- !f'rTu . nges j? the As Pect of Fundamental Mechanical Principals. Gravitation "ces Sx f Mlnd ln tbe TJniverse -- Ma t h ematical and other Appen- prod'uced 3 " riJwe m St valuable contributions to electrical literature the year has LONDON: GMABLRS RRIFRN * NI. LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRANo NA VAL ARCHITECTURE AND AERONAUTICS. 31 la Large 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Profusely Illustrated. IK Two VOLUMES, Each Complete in itself, and SOLD SEPARATELY. THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS. BY JOHN HARVARD BILES, M.lNST.N.A., Professor of Naval Architecture in Glasgow University. Volume I. CALCULATIONS AND STRENGTH. With 36 Folding Plates, and 245 other Illustrations. Pp. i-viii + 423. Complete with Index. 25s. net. CONTENTS. PART I. Areas, Volumes, and Centres of Gravity. PART II. Ship Calculations. PART III. Strength of Ships. "Ho teacher of naval architecture nor scientifically -equipped student of the same object can afford to be without it ... A work with up-to-date information which will doubtless remain the standard for many years." Times' Engineering Supplement. Volume II.-STABILITY, RESISTANCE, PROPULSION, AND OSCILLATIONS OF SHIPS. With 4 Folding Plates and 316 other Illustrations. Pp. i-x + 430. Complete with Index. 25s.net. CONTEXTS. PART IV. Stability. PART V. Resistance. PART. VI. Propulsion. PART VII. Oscillations of Ships. " This able treatise is one which no one engaged in ship-designing can afiord to be without, "shipbuilder. ftoyal Sao, Handsome Cloth. With numerous Illustrations and Tables. 26t. THE STABILITY OF SHIPS, BY SIR EDWARD J. REED, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.P., " Sir EDWARD RKKD'S ' STABILITY OF SHIPS ' is INVALUABLE. The NAVAL ARCHITECT will find brought together and ready to his hand, a mass of information which he would other- wise have to seek in an almost endless variety of publications, and some of which he would possibly not be able to obtain at all elsewhere." Steamship. AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING. SBCOND EDITION, Revised. In Large 8vo. Cloth. With many Illustrations. 10s. 6d. net. THE PROBLEM OP PLIGHT, A TEXT-BOOK OF AERIAL ENGINEERING. BY HERBERT CHATLEY, B.Sc.(ENG-), LONDON, Professor of Civil Engineering, Tong Shan Engineering College, N. China. CONTENTS The Problem of Flight. The Helix. -The Aeroplane. The Aviplane. Diri-ible Balloons.-Form and Fittings of the Airahip.- APPENDICES (The Potiibilay or Flight. Weight, A flexible Wina, theory of Balance, Bibliography). INDBX. "An epitome of the knowledge available on the subject." Scotsman. In Handsome Cloth. Illustrated. Pocket Size. A COMPENDIUM OF AVIATION AND AEROSTATION, Baloons, Dirigibles and Flying Machines. BY LIEUT. -COL. H. HOERNES. Translated and Supplemented with Facts of Interest to ^S 118 details regarding British Dirigibles, Aeroplanes Flying Grounds ^< Auction and Biographical Sketch of the Author by J. H. LEDEB Aeronautics. . LONDuN: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAHD. CHARLES QRIFFIN <fc OO.'S PUBLICATIONS. WORKS BY THOMAS WALTON, NAVAL ARCHITECT. FOURTH EDITION. Pp. i-xvi + 332. With 18 Plates and 237 other Illustrations, including 59 Folding Diagrams. 18s. net. STEEL SHI PS; THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE. A Manual for Shipbuilders, Ship Superintendents, Students, and Marine Engineers. BY THOMAS WALTON, NAVAL ARCHITECT, AUTHOR OF "KNOW YOUR OWN SHIP." CONTENTS. I. Manufacture of Cast Iron. Wrought Iron, and Steel. Com- position of Iron and Steel, Quality, Strength, Tests, &c. II. Classification of Steel Ships. III. Considerations in making choice of Type of Vessel, Framing of Ships. IV. Strains experienced by Ships. Methods of Computing and Comparing Strengths of Ships. V. Construction of Ships. Alternative Modes of Construction. Types of Vessels. Turret, Self Trimming, and Trunk Steamers, &c. Rivets and Rivetting, Workmanship. VI. Pumping Arrange- ments. VII. Maintenance. Prevention of Deterioration in the Hulls ol Ships. Cement, Paint, &c. INDEX. " So thorough and well written is every chapter in the book that it is difficult to select ny of them as being worthy of exceptional praise. Altogether, the work is excellent, and will prove of great value to those for whom it is intended." The Engineer. In ( loin. Pp. i.-xii. + 224. With 9 Plates and 163 other Illustrations, including 40 Folding Diagrams. 7s. 6d. net. PRESENT-DAY SHIPBUILDING. For Shipyard Students, Ships' Officers, and Engineers. BY THOS. WALTON. GENERAL CONTENTS. Classification. Materials used in Shipbuilding. Alternative Modes of Construction. Details of Construction. Framing, Plating, Rivetting, Stem Frames, Twin-Screw Arrangements, Water Ballast Arrangements, Loading and Discharging Gear, &c. Types of Vessels, including Atlantic Liners, Cargo Steamers, Oil carrying Steamers, Turret and other Self Trimming Steamers, &c. INDEX. "Simple language . . . clear and easily followed illustrations." Time* Engineering Supplement. " We heartily recommend it to all who have to do with ships." Steamship. TWELFTH EDITION. In Crown 8vo. Cloth. Pp. i-xvi -(- 363. With 142 Illustrations, including 2 Folding Diagrams. 7s. 6d. The Chapters on Tonnage and Freeboard have been brought thoroughly up to date, and embody the latest (1906) Board of Trade Regulations on these subjects. KNOW YOUR OWN SHIP. BY THOMAS WALTON, NAVAL ARCHITECT. Specially arranged to suit the requirements of Ships' Officers, Shipowners. Superintendents, Draughtsmen, Engineers, and Others, CONTENTS. Displacement and Deadweight. Moments. Buoyancy. Strain. Structure. -Stability.- K oiling.- Ballasting. -Loading.-Shif ting Cargoes.-Effect of Admission of Water into Ship. Trim Tonnage. Freeboard (Load-line). Calculations. - Set of Calculations from Actual Drawings. INDEX. g .iv^ e cd^ - ships shouid makc them - LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO, LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. NAUTICAL WORKS. 33 GRIFFIN'S NAUTICAL SERIES. Introductory Volume. Pp. i-xix + 248. Price 3s. Sd. THIS British Mercantile Marine. BY EDWARD BLACKMORE, MASTER MARINER; ASSOCIATE OF THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS; MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS AND SHIPBUILDERS IN SCOTLAND; EDITOR OF GRIFFIN'S "NAUTICAL SERIES." GENERAL CONTENTS. HISTORICAL : From Early Times to 1486 Progress onder Henry VIII. To Death of Mary During Elizabeth's Reign Up to the Reign of William III. The 18th and 19th Centuries Institution of Examinations Rise and Progress of Steam Propulsion Development of Free Trade -Shipping Legislation, 1862 to 1875 " Locksley Hall" Case- Shipmasters' Societies Loading of Ships Shipping Legislation, 1884 to 1894 Statistics of Shipping. THE PERSONNEL : Shipowners Officers Mariner* Duties and Present Position. EDUCATION: A Seaman's Education: what it should be Present Means of Education Hints. DISCIPLINE AND DUTY Postscript The Serious Decrease in the Number of British Seamen, a Matter demanding the Attention of the Nation. " INTERESTING and INSTRUCTIVE . . . may be read WITH PROFIT and BNJOTMBMT. ' - fflaig<nc Herald. " EVERY BRANCH of the subject is dealt with in a way which shows that the writer 'knows the ropes' familiarly." Scottman. "This ADMIRABLE book . . . TEEMS with useful information Should be in the hands of every Sailor." Western Morning Newt. FIFTH EDITION, Thoroughly Revised. Pp. i-xvi + 24o. With Frontispiece, 24 Plates (8 Coloured], and 63 Illustrations in the Text and new Chapter on Clouds. Price 6s. ELEMENTARY SEAMANSHIP, BT D. WILSON-BARKER, MASTER MARINER; F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S..&C., &o. YOUNGER BROTHER 07 THE TRINITY HOUSE. GENERAL CONTENTS. The Building of a Ship; Parts of Hull. Mast* &c. Ropes, Knots, Splicing, &c. Gear, Lead and Log, &c. Anchors SaUmaking The Sails, &c. Handling of Boats under Sad Signals and Signalling Rule of the Road Keeping and Relieving Watch- Points of Etiquette Glossary of Sea Terms and Phrases Index. t * The volume contains the NEW BOLES of THE ROAD. " This ADMIRAL MANUAL, by GAIT. WILSON-BARKER of the ' Worcester,' seems to ni PERFECTLY DESIGNED, and holds its place exceUentlv in ' GRIFFIN'S NAUTICAL SERIES. Although intended for those who are to become Officers of the Merchant Navy, it will 1 found useful by ALL YACHTSMEN." Athenseum. tCNDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. 34 CHARLES GRIFFIN <k CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. GRIFFIN'S NAUTICAL SERIES. SECOND EDITION, Revised. Pp. i-xii + 156. With 61 Illustrations. Price Ss. 6d. NAVIGATION: PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL. BY DAVID WILSON-BARKER, RN.R., F.R.S.E., Ac., &o., AND WILLIAM ALLINGHAM, H18T-OLA88 HONOURS, NAVIGATION, SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT. Tttflitb numerous Illustrations ano Bjaminatfon Questions. GBNEHAL CONTENTS. Definitions Latitude and Longitude Instrumental of Navigation Correction of Courses Plane Sailing Traverse Sailing Day's Work Parallel Sailing Middle Latitude Sailing Mercator's Chart- VI creator Sailing Current Sailing Position by Bearings Great Circle Sailing -The Tides Questions Appendix: Compass Error Numerous Useful Hints. &c Index. PMCISBLT the kind of work required for the New Certificates of competency in grade* from Second Mate to extra Master. . . . Candidates will find it INVALUABLE. "-/>n<ie Advertiser. "A CAPITAL LITTLE BOOK . . . specially adapted to the New Examinations The Authors are OAPT. WILSON-BARKER (Captain-Superintendent of the Nautical College, H.M.8. ' orcester,' who has had great experience in the highest problems of Navigation), and MH ALLINGHAM, a well-known writer on the Science of Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. " -Shipping World. Handsome Cloth, Pp. i-xvi + 182. With 10 Plates and 34 other Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d. MARINE METEOROLOGY, FOR OFFICERS OF THE MERCHANT NAVY. BY WILLIAM ALLINGHAM, Joint Author of "Navigation, Theoretical and Practical." With numerous Plates, Maps, Diagrams, and Illustrations, and a facsimile Reproduction of a Page from an actual Meteorological Log- Book. SUMMAKY OF CONTENTS. Storm Tracks. Solution of the Cyclone Problem. Ocean 'Currents. Icebergg.-^Syn- rhrouous Charts. Dew, Mists, Fogs, and Haze. Clouds. Rain, Snow, and Hail.- and Meteor -- L * htoi <*. <***. * ^~ i-OMDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.. LIMITED. EXETER STREET. STRAND NAUTICAL WORKS. 35 GRIFFIN'S NAUTICAL SERIES. THIRD EDITION, REVISED. Pp. i-xii + 175. With 54 Illustrations. Price 3a. 6d. PRACTICAL MECHANICS: Applied to the Requirements of the Sailor. BT THOS. MACKENZIE, Master Mariner, F.B.A.S. GrEWiRAL CONTENTS. Resolution and Composition of Forces Work don by Machines and Living Agents The Mechanical Powers: The Lever; Derricks as Bent Levers The Wheel and Axle : Windlass ; Ship's Capstan ; Crab Winch Tackles : the "Old Man" The Inclined Plane; the Screw The Centre of Gravity of a Ship and Cargo Relative -Strength of Rope : Steel Wire, Manilla, Hemp, Coir Derricks and ShearsCalculation of the Crosa- breaking Strain of Fir Spar Centre of Effort of Sails Hydrostatics : the Diving-bell ; Stability of Floating Bodies ; the Ship's Pump, &c. " WELL WORTH the money . . . will be found EXCEEDINGLY HELPJTJL." Shipping World. " No SHIPS' OFFICERS' BOOKCASE will henceforth be complete without CAPTAIN MACKENZIE'S ' PRACTICAL MECHANICS.' Notwithstanding my many years' experience at sea, it has told me how much more there it to acquire." (Letter to the Publishers from a Master Mariner). WORKS BY RICHARD C. BUCK, of the Thames Nautical Training College, H.M.S. 'Worcester.' FOURTH EDITION, Revised and Corrected. Pp. i-viii + 113. With 38 Illustrations. Price 3s. 6d. A MANUAL OF TRIGONOMETRY: With Diagrams, Examples, and Exercises. ** Mr. Buck's Text-Book has been SPECIALLY PREPAKED with a view the Examinations of the Board of Trade, in which Trigonometry is n obligatory subject. "Thie EHINF.NTLY PRACTICAL and RELIABLE VOLUME." Schoolmaster. SECOND EDITION, Revised. Pp. i-viii + 158. Price 3s. 6d. A MANUAL OF ALGEBRA. Designed to meet the Requirements of Sailors and others. *** These elementary works on ALGEBRA and TRIGONOMETRY are written specially for those who will have little opportunity of consulting a Teacher. They are books for " SEM- H*U. All but the simplest explanations have, therefore, been avoided, and ANSWERS to the Exercises are given. Any person may readily, by careful study, become master of their contents, and thus lay the foundation for a further mathematical course, if desired, it is hoped that to the younger Officers of our Mercantile Marine they will be found decidedlj serviceable The Examples and Exercises are taken from the Examination Papers set for the Oadets of the " Worcester. " "Clearly arranged, and well got op. ... A flrst-rate Elementary Algebra.' Xautital Magazine.. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. 36 CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. GRIFFIN'S NAUTICAL SERIES. SECOND EDITION, Revised. With Diagrams. Price 2s. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE: How to Find them. BY W. J. MILLAR, C.E., Late Secretary to the Inst. of Engineer! and Shipbuilderi in Scotland. " COKOISELY and CLEARLY WRITTEN . . . cannot but prove an acquisition to those studying Navigation." Marine Engineer. " Young Seamen will find it HANDY and USEFUL, SIMPLE and OLBAR." The THIRD EDITION, Revised. In Crown 8vo. Pp. i-xv + 268. Price os. THE LEGAL DUTIES OF SHIPMASTERS. BY BENEDICT WM. GINSBURG, M.A., LL.D. (CANTAB.), Of the Inner Temple and Northern Circuit; Barrister-at-Law. General Contents. Qualification for Position of Shipmaster COD tract with Ship- owner. Duty in respect of the Crew : Engagement ; Apprentice* ; Discipline ; Pro- visions, Accommodation, and Medical Comforts ; Payment of Wages and Discharge. Passengers. Financial Responsibilities. Cargo. Casualty. Duty to certain Public Authorities. Pilots, Signals, Flags, and Light Dues. Arrival at the Port of Discharge. Appendices on Legal Matters : B.O.T. Certificates, Dietary Scales, Stowage of Grain Cargoes, Load Line Regulations, Life-saving Appliances, Carriage of Cattle. IMDEX. "No intelligent Master should fail to add tbis to his list of necessary books, A few lines of It may SAVB A LAWYER'S FBB, BKSIUKS E.NDLKSH WORBT.'' Liverpool Journal of Commerce. FIRST AID AT SEA. THIRD EDITION, Revised. Pp. i-xviii -f 349. With 82 Illustrations and the atest Regulations on the Carriage of Medical Stores. 6s. A MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HELP For Shipmasters and Officers in the Merchant Navy. BY WM. JOHNSON SMITH, F.R.O.S., Principal Medical Officer, Seamen's Hospital, Greenwich. V The attention of all interested in our Merchant Navy is requested to this exceedingly useful and valuable work. It is needless to say that it is the outcome of maay years PRACTICAL BXPKRIBNCK amongst Seamen. " SOUND, JUDICIOUS, REALLY HELPFUL." The Lancet. TWELFTH EDITION, Revised and Enlarged. Price 7s. 6d. KNOW YOUR OWN SHIP, BY THOMAS WALTON, NAVAL ARCHITECT. Specially arranged to suit the requirements of Ships' Officers, Shipowners, Superintendents, Draughtsmen, Engineers, and Others. For Contents and further particulars of this work, and other works by the same author, see p. 32. IONDON: CHARLES GRIFF1H & CO., LIMITED. EXETER STREET, STRAM3 NAUTICAL \VORKS. 37 OTHER WORKS OF INTEREST TO SAILORS. In Crown 8vo. Cloth. Fnlly Illustrated. 2s. 6d. net, NOTES ON THE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF SHIPMASTERS. BY CAPT. W. HAERY WILKES, LIEUT. R.N.R, <fec. In Pocket Size. With 368 Pages. 3s. 6d. net. ENGLISH-SPANISH AND SPANISH-ENGLISH SEA TERMS AND PHRASES. BY FLEET-PAYMASTER GRAHAM-HEWLETT. " Most complete . . . useful . . we can heartily recommend it." Steamship. In Crown Svo. Handsome Cloth. Many Diagrams. 2s. 6d. net. DEFINITIONS IN NAVIGATION & NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. BY P GROVES-SHOWELL, Head of the Navigation Department, L.C.C. School, Poplar. CONTENTS. Definitions. General. Navigation. Nautical Astronomy. Time. Miscellaneous. Notes. Measurements. Mariner's Compass. Chronometer. Azimuth Compass. Pelorus. Sextant. Vernier. Arti- ficial Horizon. Sounding Machine. Log. Station Pointer. Barometer. Thermometer. Hygrometer. Hydrometer. Miscellaneous. -Star Nomen- clature. Greek Alphabet. Planetary Symbols. Weights aiul Measures. Areas. Volumes. Useful Notes. INDEX. "Mr. Groves-Showell writes with a full knowledge of his subject, and with admirable clearn ess. " Shipb uild er . Attention is also drawn to the following: HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING. By COMMANDER S. MESSUM, R.N. t See PW e 16- THEODOLITE SURVEYING. By Professor JAMES PARK. [See page 41. THE FORCE OF THE WIND. By HERBERT CHATLEY, B.Sc. [See page 23. THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. By Dr. T. L. PHIPSON. [See page 46. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. By GUSTAVE EICHHORN, PH.D. [Set page 29. 10NDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAH&, MINING WORKS, Pages 39-45. MINING WORKS. 39 SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE FOSTER, D.Se., F.R.S. SIXTH EDITION. With Frontispiece and 712 Illustrations. Price 28s. net. ORE & STONE MINING. BY SIR C. LE NEVE FOSTER, D.Sc., F.R.S., LATE PROFESSOR OF MINING, ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE. REVISED, AND BROUGHT UP-TO-DATE BY PROF. S. H. COX, Assoc.R.S.M., PROFESSOR l>F MINIM,, Ri >YAI. COLLEGE OF SCIENCF-. GENERAL CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Mode of Occurrence of Minerals. Prospecting. Boring. -Breaking Ground. Supporting Excavations. Exploitation. Haulage or Transport. Hoisting or Winding. Drainage. Ventilation. Lighting.- Deseent and Ascent. Dressing Principles of Employment of Mining Labour. Legislation affecting Mines and Quarries. Condition of the Miner.- Aeeidents. Index "We hare seldom had the pleasure to review a work so thorough and complete as the present one. Both in manner and in matter it is FAR SUPERIOR To ANYTHING ON ITS SPECIAL SUBJECT HITHERTO PUBLISHED IN ENGLAND." Athenaeum. " Not only is this work the acknowledged text-book on metal mining in Great Britain and the Colonies, but that it is so regarded in the United States of America is evidenced by the fact that it is the book on that subject recommended to the students in most of the mining schools of that country." The Times. SECOND EDITION, Revised. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. With nearly 300 Illustrations. Price 7s 6d. net. THE ELEMENTS OF MINING AND QUARRYING. An Introductory Text-Book for Mining Students. BY SIR C. LE NEVE FOSTER, D.Sc., F.KS., Late Professor of Mining at the Royal College of Science. Revised by Prof. S. H. Cox, A.R.S.M., &c. GENERAL CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Occurrence of Minerals. Pro- specting. Boring. Breaking Ground. Supporting Excavations. Exploita- tion. Haulage or Transport. Hoisting or Winding. Drainage. Ventilation. Lighting. Descent and Ascent. Dressing, &c. INDEX. " A remarkably clear surrey of the whole field of mining operations." Engineer. " Rarely does it fall to the lot of a reviewer to have to accord such unqualified praise aa this book deserves. . . . The profession generally have every reason to be grateful to Sir C. Le Nere Foster for having enriched educational literature with so admirable an elementary Text-book." Mining Journal. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Illustrated. 1VISTMOOS OF AIR A!* A H.Y S I S. BY J. S. HAL DANE, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Reader in Physiology and Fellow of New College, Oxford. An Account of Methods of Air Analysis suitable for work in Physiology Hygiene, Investigations of Mine Air, Flue Gases, Exhaust Gases rro Engines, &c. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Illustrated. TJHJE AIR OF MINES. BT JOHN CADMAN, D.Sc., Prof, of Mining, University of Birmingham, AND J. S. HALDANE, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND, 40 CHARLES ORIFFIN d, CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. WORKS ON COAL- MI MING. FIFTH EDITION, Revised and Greatly Enlarged. With 4 Platee and 690 Illustrations. Price 24s. net. A TEXT-BOOK OF COAL-MINING : FOR THE USE OF COLLIERY MANAGERS AND OTHERS ENGAGED IN COAL-MINING. BY HERBERT WILLIAM HUGHES, F.G.S., Assoc. Royal School of Mines, General Manager of Sand well Park Colliery. GENERAL CONTENTS. Geology. Search for Coal. Breaking Ground. Sinking. Preliminary Operations. Methods of Working. Haulage. Winding. Pumping. Ventilation. Lighting. Works at Surface. Pre- paration of Coal for Market. INDEX. " Quite THE BEST BOOK of its kind ... as PRACTICAL iu aim as n. book can be ... The illustrations are EXCELLENT." Athenceitm. "We cordially recommend the work." Colliery Guardian. " Will soon come to be regarded as the STANDARD WORK of its kind." Birmingham D<**tV Gazette. FOURTH EDITION, Thoroughly Revised and Greatly Enlarged. Re-set throughout Large Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. 12s. 6d. PRACTICAL COAL-MINING; A MANUAL FOR MANAGERS, UNDER-MANAQERS, COLLIERY ENGINEERS, AND OTHERS. With Worked-out Problems on Haulage, Pumping, Ventilation, <fec. BY GEORGE L. KERR, M.E., M.lNST.M.E. CONTENTS. The Sources and Nature of Coal. The Search for Coal. Sinking. Explosives. Mechanical Wedges. Rock Drills and Coal cutting Machines. Coal-cutting by Machinery. Transmission of Power. Modes of Working. Timbers. Roadways. -Winding Coal. Haulage. Pumping. Ventilation. Safety Lamps. Surface Arrangements, Surveying, LeTelling, Ac. THIKD EDITION, Revised. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. ELEMENTARY COAL-MINING; FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS, MINERS, AND OTHERS PREPARING FOR EXAMINATIONS. BY GEORGE L. KERR, M.E., M.lNST.M.E. CONTENTS. Sources and Nature of Coal. Exploration and Boring for H a i',~S reak ^ g Around. Explosives, Blasting, &c. Sinking and Fitting of Shafts. Modes of Working. Timbering Roadways. Winding and Drawing. Haulage. Pumping and Drainage. Ventilation. Cleaning and Sorting Coal. Surveying, &c. of'^t^" an n e S information conveyed in a popular and attractive form. . . . Will b of great use to all who are in any way interested in coal milling. "-SeoUtth Critic. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.. LIMITED. EXETER STREET. STRAW MINING WORKS. 4 i FOURTEENTH EDITION, Revised. With Numerous Diagrams. Cloth, ;s. 6d. A TREATISE ON MINE-SURVEYING: For the use of Managers of Mines and Collieries, Students at the Royal School of Mines, &c. BY BENNETT H. BROUGH, Assoc.R-S.M., F.G.S. REVISED BY L. H. COOKE, Instructor of Mine-Surveying, Royal School of Mines. CONTENTS. General Explanations. Measurement of Distances. Miners Dial. Variation of the Magnetic Needle. Surveying with the Magnetic Needle in the Presence of Iron. Surveying with the Fixed Needle. The German Dial. The Theodolite. Traversing Underground. Surface Surveys with the Theodo- lite. Plotting the Survey. Calculation of Areas. Levelling. Connection of the Underground and Surface Surveys. Measuring Distances by Telescope. Setting- out. Mine-Surveying Problems. Mine Plans. Application of the Magnetic Needle in Mining. Photographic Surveys. APPENDICES. INDEX. " Its CLEARNESS of STYLE, LUCIDITY of DESCRIPTION, and FULNESS of DETAIL hare long ago WOO for it a place unique in the literature of this branch of mining engineering, and the present edition four maintains the high standard of its predecessors. To the student, and to the mining engineer alike, ITS VALUE is inestimable. The illustrations are excellent." The Aftmn> Journal. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 7s. 6d. net. A HANDBOOK ON THEODOLITE SURVEYING AND LEVELLING. For the use of Students in Land and Mine Surveying. BY PROFESSOR JAMES PARK, F.G.S. CONTEXTS. The Scope and Object of Surveying. Land Surveying. The Theodolite. Chains and Steel Bands. Obstacles to Alignment. Meridian and Bearings. The Theodolite Traverse. Co-ordinates of a. Station. Calculation of Omitted or Connecting Line in a Traverir. Calculation of Areas. Subdivision of Land. Triangulation. Determina- tion of True Meridian, Latitude and Time. Levelling. Railway Curves. Mine Surveying. Surveying Boreholes. INDEX. "A book which should prove as useful to the professional surveyor as to the stu'lent." Nature. SECOND EDITION, Revised. Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Illustrated. 6s. net. MINING GEOLOGY. A TEXT-BOOK FOR MINING STUDENTS AND MINERS. BY PROF. JAMES PARK, F.G.S., M.Inst.M.M., Professor of Mining and Director of the Otago University School of Mines ; late Director Thames School of Mines, and Geological Surveyor and Mining Geologist to the Government or New Zealand GENBKAL CONTENTS. Introduction. - Classification of Mineral Deposits. -Ore Vein*, their Filling, Age, and Structure. The Dynamics of Lodes and Beds. -Ore Deposit* Genetically Considered Ores and Minerals Considered Economically. Mine Sampling and Ore Valuation. The Examination and Valuation of Mines. INDEX. "A work which should find a place in the library of every mining engineer. " Mining World. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN A CO,, LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. CHARLES GRIFFIN <fc CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. WORKS FOB MINERS AND STUDENTS. THIRD EDITION. In Crown Svo. Handsome Cloth. With 30 New Illustrations. 7s. Qd. net. ELECTRICAL PRACTICE IN COLLIERIES. By PROF. D. BURNS, M.E., M.lNST.M.E., Professor of Mining a nd Geology to the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. Units of Measurement, Conductors, &c. The Theory of the Dynamo. The Dynamo, Details of Construction and Working. Motors. Lighting Inatalla tions in Collieries. Pumping by Electricity. Electrical Haulage. Coal Cutting. Miscellaneous Applications of Electricity in Mines. Coal Mines Regulation Act (Electricity). INDEX. "A clear and concise introduction to electrical practice in collieries." Mining In Crown Svo, Handsome Cloth. 8s. 6d. net. MINING LAW OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. BY CHARLES J. ALFORD, F.G.S., M.Inst.M.M. CONTENTS. The Principles of Mining Law. The Mining Law of Great Britain. British India. Ceylon. Burma. The Malay Peninsula. British North Borneo . Egypt. Cyprus. The Dominion of Canada. British Guiana. -The Gold Coast Colouy and Ashanti. Cape of Good Hope. Natal. Orange River Colony. Transvaal Colony. Rhodesia. The Commonwealth of Australia. New Zealand, &c. INDEX. " Cannot fail to be useful . . . we cordially recommend the book." Mining World, SEVENTH EDITION. In Large 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. MINE ACCOUNTS AND MINING BOOK-KEEPING. FOP Students, Managers, Secretaries, and others. With Examples taken from Actual Practice of Leading Companies. BY JAMES GUNSON LAWN, A.R.S.M., A.M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8., Head of the Mining Department, Camborae School of Mines. EDITED BY SIR C. LE NEVE FOSTER, D.Sc., F.R.S. "It seems IMPOSSIBLE to suggest how Mr. LAWN'S book could be made more COMPLETE or tore VALUABLE, careful, and exhaustive." Accountants' Magatint. THIRD EDITION. In Pocket Size, Strongly Bound in Leather, 3s. 6d. Provided with Detachable Blank Pages for MS. THE MINING ENGINEERS' REPORT BOOK AND DIRECTORS' AND SHAREHOLDERS' GUIDE TO MINING REPORTS. BY EDWIN R. FIELD, M.INST.M.M. With Notes on the Valuation of Property, and Tabulating Reports, Useful Tables, and Examples of Calculations, Ac. "An ADMIRABLY compiled book which Mining Engineers and Managers will find XTIIEMELZ USEFUL." Mining Journal. In Crown Svo. Handsome Cloth. Illustrated. 10s. 6d. net. A DICTIONARY OF SPANISH-ENGLISH AND SPANISH-AMERICAN MINING, METALLURGICAL, AND ALLIED TERMS. Jo which some Portuguese and Portuguese- American {Brazilian) Terms are added. BY EDWARD HALSE, A.R.S.M., Mem. Inst. Ming, and Metall., of the En?. Inst. of Ming, and Metall. Engrs., Ac., Ac " Will be found of the greatest service to the mining profession." Mining Journal. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETEB STREET, STRAND. MINING WORKS. 43 WOESS ON SINSI1TS, EXPLOSIVES, fee. In Medium 8vo, Handsome Cloth. With 18 Figures in the Text, and 19 Folding Plates. 10s. 6d. net. SHAFT-SINKING IN DIFFICULT CASES. BY J. RIEMER, TRANSLATED BY J. W. BROUGH, A.MJNST.C.E. CONTENTS. Shaft Sinking by Hand. Shaft Sinking by Boring. The Freezing Method. The Sinking Drum Process. BIBLIOGRAPHY. INDEX. "The translator deserves the thanks of the mining community for placing this valuable work before them. . . . The work is one which every mining engineer should include in his library." Mining World. SECOND EDITION, Revised. In Large 8vo, with Numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates. 10s. 6d. BLASTING: AND THE USE OF EXPLOSIVES. BY OSOAR GUTTMANN, M.lNST.O.E., F.I.C., F.C.S. CONTENTS. Historical Sketch. Blasting Materials. Qualities and Handling of Explosives. The Choice of Blasting Materials. Preparation of Blasts. Chamber Mines. Charging of Boreholes. Determination of Charge. Blasting in Boreholes. Firing. Results of Working. Various Blasting Operations. INDEX. " Should prove a vade-mecum to Mining Engineers and all engaged in practical work." Iron and Coal Trades Review. In Medium 8vo, Cloth. With many Illustrations in the Text. Four Full Page Plates and Four Folding Tables. 6s. net. NEW METHODS OP TESTING EXPLOSIVES. BY 0. E. BICHEL. TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY ALEX. LARSEN, M.lNST.C.E. CONTENTS. Introductory. Historical. Testing Stations. Power Gauges. Products of Combustion. Rate of Detonation. Length and Duration of Flame. After-Flame Ratio. Transmission of Explosion. Conclusions. Efficiency. "Its pages bristle with suggestions and actual experimental results to an exU eldom found in a volume of five times its size." Arms and JSxploriva. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. A MANUAL ON ELECTRICAL SIGNALLING IN MINES. BY GERALD J. HOOGHWINKEL, M.lNST.E.E., M.I.MiN.E. CONTENTS. SECTION I. Electric Haulage Signals (a) Acoustic Signals. (6) Optical Signals. (c) Acoustic Optical Signals. Current Supply. Batteries. Accumulators. Main Supply. Design and Construction of Signalling Installations. Maintenance of Signalling Installations. SECTION II. Electric Shaft Signals (a) Acoustic Signals. (6) Hectro-Mechanical Signals. <c) Optical Acoustic Signals. Signals for Winding Minerals. For Winding Men. Signalling from the Cage. Emergency Signals. Bells. Mine Telegraphs. Mine Telephones. SECTION III. Special Applications in Mines. "LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & co.. LIMITED. EXETER STREET. STRAW GHARLES GRIFFIN <fe GO.'S PUBLICATIONS. SECOND EDITION, Revised Throughout. Jn Medium 8vo. With Numerous Plates, Maps, and Illustrations. 21s. net. CYANIDING GOLD & SILVER ORES. A Practical Treatise on the Cyanide Process ; its Application, Methods of Working, Design and Construction of Plant, and Costs. BY H. FORBES JULIAN, Mining and Metallurgical Engineer : Specialist in Gold ; Late Technical Adviser of the Deutsche Gold und Silber Scheide Anstalt, Frankfort-on-Maine. AND EDGAR SMART, A.M.I.O.E., Civil and Metallurgical Engineer. " A handsome volume of 400 pages which will be a valuable book of reference for ll associated with the process." Mining Journal. "The authors are to be congratulated upon the production of what should prove to be a standard work." Poke's Magazine. In Large Grown 8vo. With 13 Plates and many Illustrations in the Text. Handsome Cloth. Is. 6rf. net. THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION. A Text-Book for the Use of Metallurgists and Students at Schools of Mines, do. BY JAMES PARK, F.G.S., M.lNST.M.M., Professor of Mining and Director of the Otago University School of Mines ; late Director Thames School of Mines, and Geological Surveyor and Mining Geologist to the Government of New Zealand. FOURTH ENGLISH EDITION. Thoroughly Revised and Greatly Enlarged. With additional details concerning the Siemens-Halske and other recent processes. ' ' Deserves to be ranked as amongst the BEST OF EXISTING TREATISES. ' 'Mining Journal. THIRD EDITION, Revised. With Plates and Illustrations. Cloth, 3s. 6d. GETTI NG GOLD; A GOLD-MINING HANDBOOK FOR PRACTICAL MEN. BY J. 0. F. JOHNSON, F.G.S., A.I.M.E., Life Member Australasian Mine-Managers' Association. GKNERAL CONTENTS. Introductory : Prospecting (Alluvial and General) Lode or Reef Prospecting Genesiology of Gold Auriferous Lodes Drifts- Gold Extraction Lixiviation Calcination Motor Power and its Transmission Company Formation Mining Appliances and Methods Australasian Mining Regulations. " PRACTICAL from beginning to end . . . deals thoroughly with the Prospecting, Sinking, Crushing, and Extraction of gold."-Brit. Australasian. In Crown 8vo. Illustrated. Fancy Cloth Boards. 4s. Sd. GOLD SEEKING IN SOUTH AFRICA: A Handbook of Hints for intending Explorers, Prospectors. and Settlers. BY THEO KASSNER, Mine Manager, Author of the Geological Sketch Map of the De Kaap Gold Fields. With a Chapter on the Agricultural Prospects of South Africa. " A.B fascinating aa anything ever penned by Jules Verne." African Commerce. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, 8TRANP NEW LAND SERIES. 45 GRIFFIN'S "NEW LAND" SERIES. Practical Hand-Books for the Use of Prospectors, Explorers, Settlers, Colonists, and all Interested in the opening up and Development of New Lands. EDITED BY GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Royal College of Science for Ireland, and Examiner in the University of London. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. 5s. With Nvmo ous Maps Specially Drawn and Executed for this Work. NEW LANDS: THEIB RESOURCES AND PROSPECTIVE ADVANTAGES. BY HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.E., "A want admirably supplied. . . . Has the advantage of being written by a pro- essed Geographer." Geographical Journal. With many Engravings and Photographs. Handsome Cloth, 4s. 6d. FOOD STJDPDPLY. BY ROBERT BRUCE, Agricultural Superintendent to the Royal Dublin Society. With Appendix on Preserved Foods by C. A. MITCHELL, B.A., P.I.C. " The work is one which will appeal to those intending to become farmers at horn or in the Colonies, and who desire to obtain a general idea of the true principle* farming in ALL ITS BRANCHES." Journal of the Royal Colonial Inat. FIFTH EDITION. With Illustrations. Handsome Cloth, 5s. PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS. A Practical Handbook for Prospectors, Explorers, Settlers, and all interested in the Opening up and Development of New Lands. BT S. HERBERT COX, Assoc.R.S.M., M.Inst.M.M., F.G.S., Professor of Mining at the Boyal School of Mines. GKNKRAL CONTENTS. Introduction and Hints on Geology The Determina- tion of Minerals : Use of the Blow-pipe, &c. Rock-forming Minerals and Non- eposits: Dynamics of Lodes : Faults, &c. Alluvial Deposits Noble Metals : Gold, Platinum, Silver, &c. Lead Mercury Copper Tin Zinc Iron Nickel, &c. Sulphur, Antimony, Arsenic, Ac. Combustible Minerals Petroleum - General Hints on Prospecting Glossary Index. " This ADMIRABLE LITTLE WORK . . . written with SCIENTIFIC ACCURACY In 1 OLKAR and LUCID style. ... An IMPORTANT ADDITION to technical literature . . . Mining Journal. ' LONDON.' CHARHES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMiTED, EXETER STREET, 8TRAMO 3 46 CHARLES ORIFFIN A GO.'S PUBLICATIONS. Demy 8vo, Handsome oloth, 34s. StratigrapMcal Geology & Palaeontology, ON THE BASIS OF PHILLIPS. BY ROBERT ETHERIDGE, F. R. S., OF THB NATURAL HIST. DEPARTMENT, BRITISH MUSEUM, LATE PALEONTOLOGIST TO THH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN, PAST PRESIDENT OP THB GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, ETC. TKnttb jfl&ap, numerous tables, and Hhtrt^=stj: plates. " . . . Must take HIGH RANK AMONG WORKS OF REFERENCE." Attutmum. In Crown 8vo. Fully Illustrated. Cloth. 10s. 6d. net. GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS. BY LIEUT. -COL. SORSBIE, K.E. CONTENTS. bynamical and Structural Geology. Rocks and Minerals. Historical ology. Geological Observation. Practical Geology. Coast Erosion. INDBX. " Should be in the possession of every engineer." Mining World. In Demy 8vo. Handsome Cloth. A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MINERAL WEALTH AND GEOLOGY OF CHINA. ByC. Y. WANG, M.A.,B.Sc., M.Am.Inst.Min.Eng., M. Iron * Steel Inst. SIXTH EDITION, Thoroughly Revised. With Illustrations. Cloth. IDS. 6d. JVIDS IN PRACTICAL GEOLOGY: WITH A SECTION ON PALEONTOLOGY. BY PROFESSOR GRENVILLE COLE, M.R.I.A., F.G.S. GENERAL CONTENTS. Part I. Sampling of Earth's Crust. I Part III. -Examination of Roks Part II. Examination of Minerals. | Part IV. Examination of Fossils. "That the work deserves its title, that it is tull of ' AIDS,' and in the highest degree PRACTICAL,' will be the verdict of all who use it." Nature. OPEN-AIR STUDIES I!* GEOI-OGY. BY PROF. G. COLE. [See p. 71 In Crown &vo. Handsome Cloth. 2s. 6d. RESEARCHES on the PAST and PRESENT HISTORY of THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. Including the latest Discoveries and their Practical Applications. BY DR. THOMAS LAMB PHIPSON. "The book should prove of interest to general readers, as well as to meteorologists and other students of science." Nature. iGNDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN 4 CO., LIMITED. EXETER STREET, STRAM15 METALLURGICAL WORR8. 47 (griffin's Mrfdtemral jStries. STANDARD WORKS OF REFERENCE FOR Metallurgists, Mine-Owners, Assayers, Manufacturers, and all interested in the development of the Metallurgical Industries. EDITED BY Sir W. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. In Large Zvo, Handsome Cloth. With Illustrations. INTRODUCTION to the STUDY of METALLURGY. By the EDITOR. SIXTH EDITION. (See p. 48.) GOLD (The Metallurgy of). By THOS. KIRKE ROSE, D.Sc., Assoc. R.S.M., F.C.S., Chemist and Assayer of the Royal Mint. FIFTH EDITION. 2is. (Seep. 48.) LEAD (The Metallurgy of). By H. F. COLLINS, Assoc. R.S.M., M.Inst.M.M. SECOND EDITION. (See p. 49.) SILVER (The Metallurgy of). By H. F. COLLINS, A.R.S.M., M.Inst.M.M. SECOND EDITION. (See p. 49.) IRON (The Metallurgy of). By T. TURNER, A.R.S.M., F.I.C., F.C.S. THIRD EDITION, Revised. 16s. net. (Seep. 50.) STEEL (The Metallurgy of). By F. W. HARBORD, Assoc. R.S.M., F.I.C., with a Section on Mechanical Treatment by J. W. HALL, A.M.Inst.C.E. FOURTH EDITION. (See p. 50.) ALLOYS. By EDWARD F. LAW, Assoc.R.S.M. With Frontis- piece in Colours, and Fine Series of Micro-photographs. 12s. 6d. net. (See p. 49). ANTIMONY. By C. Y. WANG, M.A., B.Sc. Fully Illustrated. I2s. 6d. net. (See p. 50). Witt, be Published at Short Intervals. METALLURGICAL MACHINERY : the Application of Engineering to Metallurgical Problems. By HENRY CHARLES JENKINS, Wh.Sc., Assoc. R.S.M. COPPER (The Metallurgy of). By THOS. C. CLOUD, Assoc. R.S.M. %* Other Volumes in Preparation. IONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.. LIMITED, EXETER STREET. STR/!Wi 4 S CHARLES GRIFFIN <k CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. GUIIFFIN'S METALLURGICAL SERIES. SIXTH EDITION, thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged. Large 8vo, Pp. i-xv + 478. With numerous Illustrations and Micro- Photographic Plates of different varieties of Steel. 18s. net. An Introduction to the Study of ZMHET-A-Xj LTJIR, C3-1T . BY Sir W. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., A.R.S.M., Late Chemist and Assayer of the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal College of Science. Revised throughout by F. W. HARBORD, A.R.S.M., F. I. C. GENERAL CONTENTS. The Relation of Metallurgy to Chemistry- Physical Properties of Metals. Alloys. The Thermal Treatment of Metals. Fuel and Thermal Measurements. Materials and Products of Metallurgical Processes. Furnaces. Means of Supplying Air to Furnaces. Thermo- Chemistry. Typical Metallurgical Processes. The Micro-Structure of Metals and Alloys. Economic Considerations. " No English text-book at all approaches this in the COMPLETENESS with which the most modern views on the subject are dealt with. Professor Austen's volume will be INVALUABLE, not only to the student, but also to those whose knowledge of the art is far advanced." Chemical News. FirrH EDITION, Revised, Considerably Enlarged, and in part Re-written. With Frontispiece and numerous Illustrations. 21s. THE METALLURGY OF GOLD. T. KIRKE ROSE, D.Sc.Lond., Assoc.R.S.M. Chemist and Assayer of the Royal Mint. GHNHRAL CONTENTS. The Properties of Gold and its Alloys. Chemistry of the Compounds of Gold.- Mode of Occurrence and Distribution of Gold.-Shallow Placer Deposits. Deep Placer Deposits. Quartz Crushing in the Stamp Battery. Amalgam- ation in the Stamp Battery. Other Forms of Crushing and Amalgamating Machinery. -Concentration in Gold Mills. Dry Crushing. Re-grinding.-Roasting. Chlorination: Ihe Plattner Process, The Barrel Process, The Vat-Solution Process. The Cyanide Process. Chemistry of the Cyanide Process. -Refining and Parting of Gold Bullion. -Assay of Gold Ores. -Assay ol Gold Bullion. Statistics of Gold Production. Biblio- graphy. INDEX. EVE PRACTICAL TKEATISK on this important subject." The Times. .. i! 1 ??, M ?? . MP1 - ETB description of the CHLORINATION PROCESS which has yet been pnb- UBQea. Mining Journal. "Adapted for all who are interested in the Gold Mining Industry, being free from tech- nicalities as far as possible, but is more particularly of value to those engaged in the industry." Cope Times. wDOK: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND, METALLURGICAL WORKS. 49 G-RIFFIN'S METALIiURGHCAL SERIES. BDITED BY SIR W. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.C.L. In Large 8vo. Handsome Cloth. With Illustrations. SBCOND EDITION, Revised Throughout and Enlarged. Pp. i-xx + 538. With 314 Illustrations, including 12 Folding Plates. 21s. net. THE METALLURGY OF LEAD. BY H. F. COLLINS, Assoc.R.S.M., M.lNS-r.M.M. Contents. INTRODUCTORY. The Properties of Lead and its Principal Compounds. Lead Ores. LEAD SMELTING in Reverberatories. Lead Smelting in Hearths. Roasting Lead and Silver Ores. Blast-Roasting of Lead Ores. Blast-Furnace Lead Smelting: Principles, Plant, Practice, Products, Examples, Costs and Losses, Ore Purchasing. Flue-Dust: Composition, Collection, and Treatment. DESILVERISATION. Softening and Refining for Market. Pattinson Process. Parkes Process. Cupella- tion and Refining. Electrolytic Refining. SUPPLEMENTARY : Works Assaying and Analytical Methods. Zinc-Lead Sulphides. Flotation Processes. INDEX. "A THOROUGHLY SOUND and useful digest. May with EVBRY CONUDKHCE be recommended." M ining Journal. SBCOND EDITION, Revised Throughout and Enlarged. Illustrated. THE METALLURGY OF SILVER. BY H. F. COLLINS, Assoc.R.S.M., M.lNST.M.M. Comprising Details regarding the Sources and Treatment of Silver Orea, together with Descriptions of Plant, Machinery, and Processes of Manufacture, Refining of Bullion, Cost of Working, Ac. "The author has focussed A LARGE AMOUNT OP VALUABLE INFORMATION into a convenient form. . . . The author has evidently considerable practical xperience, and describes the various processes clearly and well." Mining Journal. Frontispiece in Colours, and Beautiful Series of Photo-micrographs. 12s. 6d. net. .A. L Hi O "X" S AND THEIR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. BY EDWARD F. LAW, A.R.S.M. COHMNTS. Introduction. Properties of Alloys. Methods of Investigation. Constitution. Influence of Temperature on Properties. Corrosion of Alloys. Copper Alloys, Brass, Bronzes. Special Brasses and Bronzes. -German Silver and Miscellaneous Copper Alloys. White Metal Alloys. Anti-Friction Alloys. Aluminium Alloys. Silver and Gold Alloys. Iron Alloys. Miscellaneous Alloys (Amalgams, Ac.). IHDBX. "Concise and practical ... a valuable amount of information that will be Appreciated by student and manufacturer alike." Foundry Trade*' Journal. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND, 50 GHARLES GRIFFIN 6 CO.'ti PUBLICATIONS. GffilFFIN'S METALLURGICAL SERIES. FOURTH EDITION, Thoroughly Revised Throughout. With Numeront Illustrations. Large 8vo. Two Volumes. Handsome Cloth. With Additional Chapter on The Electric Smelting of Steel. THE METALLURGY OF STEEL. BY F. W. HARBORD, Assoc.R.S.M., F.I.C., AND J. W. HALL, A.M.lNST.C.E. Vol. I.-Metallurgy. Vol. II. Mechanical Treatment. (N.B. The*v Volumes are not Sold Separately.) ABRii)OKi> CONTENTS. The Plant, Machinery, Methods and Chemistry of the Bessemer and of the Open Hearth Processes (Acid and Basic). The influence of Metalloids, Heat Treatment, Special Steels, Mierostructure, Testing, and Specifications. The Mechanical Treatment of Steel comprising Mill Practice, Plant and Machinery. The tonginter says, at the conclusion of a review of tins book: "We cannot, conclude without earnestly recommending all who may be interested as makers or users of steel, which practically means the whole of the engineering profession, to make themselves acquainted with it as speedily * possible, and this may be the more easily done as the published price, considering the siae of the book, is extremely moderate." THIRD EDITION, Revised and Enlarged. With many new Plates. 16s. net. THE METALLURGY OF IRON. BY THOMAS TURNER Assoc.R.S.M., F.I.C., Professor of Metallurgy in the University of Birmingham. Otntrat Content!. Early History of Iron. Modern History of Iron. The Age of Steel -Chief Iron Ores. Preparation of Iron Ores. The Blast Furnace. The Air used ir. the Blat Furnace. Reactions of the Blast Furnace. The Gaseous Products of the Blast Furnace The Fuel used in the Blast Furnace.- Slags and Fuses of Iron Smelting - Properties of Oast Iron. Foundry Practice. Wrought Iron. Indirect Production of Wrought Iron. The Puddling Process. Further Treatment of Wrought Iron. Corrosion of Iron and Steel. "A THOROUGHLY USEFUL BOOK, which brings the subject up TO DATE. Or REAT VALUE to those engaged in the iron industry." Mining Journal. ** For Professor Turner's Lectures on Iron- Founding, see page 5:.!. In Large 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 12a. (id. net. ANTIMONY: Its History, Chemistry. Mineralogy, Geology, Metallurgy, Uses and Preparation, Analysis, Production and Valuation. BY C. Y. WANG, M.A., B.Sc., Mem. Am. lust. Mining Eng. ; Mem. Iron and Steel Institute ; Mining Engineer to the Chung Lou General Mining Company; Geologist for the Hunan Province, China, Ac., <fec. " A book which stands alone, inasmuch as there is not, to our knowledge, any other on antimony among all the English text-books." Iron and Coot .ONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAKfc METALLURGICAL WORKS. TWELFTH EDITION. With Tables and Illustrations. Cloth, IDS. 6d. A TEXT-BOOK OF ASSAYING: For the use of Students, Mine Managers, Assayers, do. BY J. J. BERINGER, F.I.C., F.C.S., Public Analyst for, and Lecturer to the Mining Association of, Cornwall. AND C. BERINGER, F.C.S., Late Chief Assayer to the Rio Tinto Copper Company, London, GBNKRAL CONTENTS. PART I. INTRODUCTORY ; MANIPULATION : Sampling ; Drying ; Calculation of Results Laboratory-books and Reports. METHODS : Dry Gravi- metric; Wet Gravimetric Volumetric Assays: Titrometnc, Colorimetric, Gasometric Weighing and Measuring Reagents Formulae, Equations, &c. Specific Gravity. PART II. MKTALS : Detection and Assay of Silver, Gold, Platinum, Mercury, Copper, Lead, Thallium, Bismuth, Antimony, Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, Zinc, Cadmium, Tin, Tungsten, Titanium, Manganese, Chromium, &c. Earths, Alkalies. PART III. NON-MKTALS : Oxygen and Oxides; The Halogens Sulphur and Sul- phatesArsenic, Phosphorus, Nitrogen Silicon, Carbon, Boron Useful Tables. "A RKALLY MERITORIOUS WORK, that may be safely depended upon either for systematic instructiom or for reference." Nature. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 3s. net. AN INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL METALLURGY. BT PROF. THOMAS TURNER, A.R.S.M., F.I.C. "It is an excellent and handy book for its purpose, and will have a far wider rang* of usefulness than for class work alone." Practical Engineer. FOURTH EDITION, Revised. With Numerous Illustrations. 6s. A TEXT-BOOK OF ELEMENTARY METALLURGY. Including the Author's PRACTICAL LABORATORY COTJRSB, BT A. HUMBOLDT SEXTON, F.I.C., F.O.S. " Just the kind of work for Students COMMBKCIHO the study of Metallurgy, or for EsoiUBimiir Stndenu." Practical Engineer. Large 8vo. Cloth. With Illustrations. 12s. 6d. net. METALLURGICAL ANALYSIS & ASSAYING: A THREE YEARS' COURSE FOR STUDENTS OF SCHOOLS OF MINES. BY W. A. MACLEOD, B.A., B.Sc., AND CHAS. WALKER, F.C.S. 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With Plates and Figures in the Text. 21s. net. 10AD MAKING AND MAINTENANCE: A Practical Treatise for Engineers, Surveyors, and Others. WITH AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF ANCIENT AND MODERN PRACTICE. BY THOS. AITKEN, Assoc.M.lNST.O.E., Member of the Association of Municipal and County Engineers; Member of the Sanitary Inst; Surveyor to the County Council of Fife. Cupar Division. WITH NUMEROUS PLATES, DIAGRAMS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS. CONTENTS. Historical Sketch. Resistance of Traction. Laying out New Roads. Earthworks, Drainage, and Retaining Walls. Road Materials, or Metal. -Quarry ing. -btone Breaking and Haulage. Road-Rolling and Scarifying. The Construction of New, and the Maintenance of existing Roads. Carriage Ways and Foot Ways. " The Literary style is EXCELLENT. ... A COMPREHENSIVE and EXCELLENT Modern Book, an UP-TO-DATE work. . . . Should be on the reference shelf of every Municipal and County .Engineer or Surveyor in the United Kingdom, and of every Colonial Engineer." The Surveyor. In Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 10s. 6d. net. DUSTJL-ESS ROADS. TAR MACADAM. BY J. WALKER SMITH, City Engineer, Edinburgh. CONTENTS. Necessity for Improved and Standard Road Construction. Tar. Standardisation of Matrix. Aggregate for Macadam -Different Modes of Preparing and Layiug.-Mechanical Mixinu'. Effects of Wear, Density, Porosity, Distribution of Weight. Scavenging ; Watering and Maintenance. - Camber ; Gradient, Noiselessness, Hygienic Advantages. Rolling. Tractive Kffort. Statistics. Tar Sprayiiig on Ordinary Macadam Surfaces. APPENDICES. INDEX. "The book is in every respect up-to-date and very suggestive. It is practical in the best sense of the term." County and Municipal Record. In Medium Svo. With over 1000 Illustrations. Cloth. 2os. net. A MANUAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING PRACTICE, SPECIALLY ARRANGED FOR THE USE OF MUNICIPAL AND COUNTY ENGINEERS, BY F. NOEL TAYLOR, CIVIL ENGINEER. [See p. 17. In Demy Svo. Handsome Cloth. With Many Tables. 6s. net. THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ENAMELLING ON IRON AND STEEL. BY JULIUS GRUNWALD, Technical Chemist and Works' Manager. CONTENTS. Introduction. The Raw Materials. The Mixing, Dissolving, and Appli- cation of Enamel. Heating and Pickling Goods in the Rough. Correct laying on. Baking Enamelled Ware. Decoration of Enamelled Objects. Photo-Ceramics in their Application to Enamels. General and Statistical Chapter. The History of Enamels and their Uses. INDEX. " Combines the theory and practice of enamelling in a most effective manner." Iron and Sttel Trades' Journal. In Large Svo. Handsome Cloth. With Plates and Illustrations. 75. 6d. net. THE MANUFACTURE OF INK, Handbook of the Production and Properties of Printing, Writing, and Copying Inks. BY C. A. MITCHELL, B.A., F.I.C., F.C.S., & T. C. HEPWORTH. "Thoroughly well arranged . . . and of a genuinely practical order." British Printer. ^LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. GHARLKS GRIFFIN cfc CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. In Large Svo. Handsome Cloth. Profusely Illustrated. 30s. net. A TREATISE ON COLOUR MANUFACTURE. A Guide to the Preparation, Examination, and Application of all the Pigment Colours in Practical Use. BY GEORGE ZERR AND DR. R. RtfBENCAMP. AUTHORISED ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY DR. C. MAYER, OF BURGDORF. "This comprehensive guide . . . useful and interesting." Oil and Colour Trades Journal. In Medium Svo. Handsome Cloth. Pp. i-xii + 230. Price 10s. 6d. net. TESTS FOR COAL-TAR COLOURS IN ANILINE LAKES. BY GEORHK ZKRR. TRANSLATED BY DR. <'. MAYKJ: OK HLKGIH.RK. ABSTRACT OF CONTENTS. Introductory. ReactionsToff Aniline Lakes. Classification of the Coal-Tar Colour Lakes according to Solubility. INDEX. "Of the highest scientific accuracy . . . leaves nothing to be desin-.l in cl'Min. -- '- Decorator. FOURTH EDITION, Revised and Enlarged. With Illustrations. I2s. 6d. PAINTERS' COLOURS, OILS, AND VARNISHES: A PRACTICAL MANUAL. BY GEORGE H. HURST, F.C.S. GENERAL CONTENTS. Introductory THE COMPOSITION, MANUFACTURE,. ASSAY, and ANALYSIS of PIGMENTS, White, Red, Yellow and Orange, Green, Blue, Brown, and Black LAKES Colour and Paint Machinery Paint Vehicles (Oils, Turpentine, &c., &c.) Driers VARNISHES. " A THOROUGHLY PRACTICAL book. . . . Satisfactorily treats of the manufacture of- oils, colours, and pigments. " Chtmical Trades' fou^nai. In Crown Svo. Handsome Cloth. With Illustrations. 53. THE PAINTER'S LABORATORY GUIDE. A Student's Handbook of Paints, Colours, and Varnishes. BY GEORGE H. HURST, F.C.S. " This excellent handbook, . . . the model of what a handbook should be." Oils- Colours, and Drysalteries. THIRD EDITION, Revised. In Crown Svo. extra. With Numerous Illustra- tions and Plates (some in Colours), including Original Designs. 12s. 6d. Painting and Decorating: A. Complete Practical .Manual for House Painters and Decorators. BY WALTER JOHN PEARCE, LKCTCBER AT THKUANCSKSTKR TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR HOnSK-PAINTIMO AND DKCORATIHO. 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Raw Material and its Preparation. Vulcanisation. Rubber Mixings. Manufacture of Soft Rubber Goods. Manufacture of Hard Rubber Goods. Regeneration of Waste Rubber. Specific Gravity of Rubber Goods. INDEX. "Can be recommended as a very practical and useful work." Nature. In Large Crown 8vo. Fully Illustrated. 53. net. GLUE, GELATINE, AND THEIR ALLIED PRODUCTS, A Practical Handbook for the Manufacturer, Agriculturist, and Student of Technology. BY THOMAS LAMBERT, Analytical and Technical Chemist. CONTENTS. Historical. GLUE. GELATINE. Size and Isinglass. Treatment of Efflu- ents produced in Glue and Gelatine Making. Liquid and other Glues, Cements, &c. Uses of Glue and Gelatine. Residual Products. Analysis of Raw and Finished Products. APPENDIX. INDEX. "A sufficient account of modern methods of working, chiefly from a practical standpoint. -A book . . . of real value.'' Chemical News. In Large 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 155. net. LEATMEFt TRADES' CHEMISTRY. A Practical Manual on the Analysis of Materials and Finished Products. By S. R. TROTMAN, M.A., F.I.C., Public Analyst for the City of Nottingham, Member of the International Association of Leather Trades' Chemists. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS. Standard Solutions. Acids, Alkalies, &c. Water. Depilation and Deliming. Fleshings, &c. Glue. Spent Liquors. Mineral and Vegetable Tanning Agents. Oils. Soaps. Varnishes. Skin. Leather. Dyestuffs. Degreasing Agents. Effluents. GLOSSARY. INDEX. ' Mr. Trotman has admirably succeeded in his aim. . . . Practically every section of the leather trade chemistry is gone into." Leather Trades' Review. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Pp. i-vi + 1 14. 3s. 6d. net. THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COLLOIDS. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF DR. VICTOR POSCHL BY DR. H. H. HODGSON. " An excellent little summary of the subject." Chemical News. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET. STRAND. 66 OHARLES GRIFFIN dk OO.'S PUBLICATIONS. THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES. SECOND EDITION, Thoroughly Revised Throughout. In Two Large Volumes. Handsome Cloth. 45. A MANUAL OF DYEING: FOR THE USE OF PRACTICAL DYERS, MANUFACTURERS, STUDENTS, AND ALL INTERESTED IN THE ART OF DYEING. BY E. KNECHT, Ph.D., F.I.C., CHR. RAWSON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Hwd of the Chemistry and Dyeing Department of LU Head of the Chemistry and Dyeing Department the Technical School, Manchester; Editor of " The of the Technical College, Bradford ; Member 1 of the Society of Dyers and ColourUU ; " Council of the Society of Dyen and Colour!**; And RICHARD LOEWENTHAL, Ph.D. GENERAL CONTENTS. Chemical Technology of the Textile Fabrics- Water Washing and Bleaching Acids, Alkalies, Mordants Natural Colouring Matters Artificial Organic Colouring Matters Mineral Colour* Machinery used in Dyeing Tinctorial Properties of Colouring Matters Analysis and Valuation of Materials used in Dyeing, &c., &c. " This authoritative and exhaustive work . . . the MOST COUPLBTK we have yet seen. on the subject." Textile Manufacturer. In Large Svo, Handsome Cloth. Pp. i-xv + 405. 168. net. THE SYNTHETIC DYESTUFFS, AND THE INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS FROM WHICH THEY ARE DERIVED. BY JOHN CANNELL CAIN, D.Sc. (MANCHESTER AND TCBINGEN), Technical Chemist, AND JOCELYN FIELD THORPE. PH.D. (HEIDELBERG), F.R.S., Lecturer on Colouring Matters in the Victoria University of Manchester. Part I. Theoretical. Part II. Practical. Part III. Analytical. " We have no hesitation in describing this treatise u one of the most valuable book* that has appeared. . . . Will give an impetus to the studv of Organic Chemistry generally." Chemical Trade Jourtial. Oompanion Volume to Knecht <L- Rawsoris " Dyeing. " In Large 8vo. Handsome Cloth, Library Style. 16s. net. A DICTIONARY OP DYES, MORDANTS, & OTHER COMPOUNDS USED IN DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING. With Formulae, Properties, and Applications of the various substances described and concise directions for their Commercial Valuation, and for the Detection of Adulterants. BY CHRISTOPHER RAWSON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Consulting Chemist to the Behar Indigo Planters' Association ; Co- Author of "A Manual of Dyeing ; " WALTER M. GARDNER, F.C.S., Head of the Department of Chemistry and Dyeing, Bradford Municipal Technical College : Editor of the " Journ. Soc. Dyers and Colourists ; " AND W. F. LAYCOCK, Ph.D., F.C.S., Analytical and Consulting Chemist. "Turn to the book as one may on any subject, or any substance in connection with the traae, ana a reference is sure to be found. The authors have apparently left nothing out ' -~ltxt\le Mercury. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED. EXETER STREET, STRAND. THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES. In Crown 8vo. Cloth. With Numerous Illustrations. 6s. net. THE COTTON WEAVERS' HANDBOOK. A Practical Guide to the Construction and Costing of Cotton Fabrics, with Studies in Design. BY HENRY B. HEYLIN, Of the Royal Technical Institute, Salford. "Mr. Heylin's text-book is a very reliable one. It is difficult to mark out any special points among so much excellent matter."-/tyer and Calico Printer. Large 8vo. Profusely Illustrated with Plates and Figures in the Text. 16s. net. THE SPINNING AND TWISTING OF LONG VEGETABLE FIBRES (FLAX, HEIYIP, JUTE, TOW, & RAMIE). A Practical Manual of the most Modern Methods as applied to the Hackling, Carding Preparing, Spinning, and Twisting of the Long Vegetable Fibres of Commerce. BY HERBERT R. CARTER, Belfast and Lille. " Meets the requirements of the Mill Manager or Advanced Student in a manner perhaps more than satisfactory. ... We must highly commend the work as repre- senting up-to-date practice." Nature. In Medium 8vo. Handsome Cloth. With about 750 Pages. The PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE of TEXTILE PRINTING BY E. KNECHT, PH.D., AND J. B. FOTHERGILL. CONTENTS. Part I. Introduction. Part II. Methods of Printing. Part III. Pre- paration of Cloth for Printing Part IV. Preparation of Printing Colours. Part T. Treatment of Goods after Printing. Part VI. Mordants. Part VII. Styles of Printing : (a) Direct; (6) Dyed; (e) Insoluble Azo-Colour; (d) Discharge; (e) Resist or Reserve; (O Raised; (<j) Printing of Linings; (h) Metal Printing; (i) Crepon or "Crimp." Part VIII. Finishing of Printed Calicoes. Part IX. Wool and Half Wool Printing. Part X. Silk and Half Silk Printing. INDEX. In Medium Svo. Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 16s. net. THE BLEACHING AND FINISHING OF COTTON. BY S. R, TROTMAN, M.A., F.I.C., AXD E. L. THORP, M.I.MECH.E. CONTENTS. Structure of Cotton Fibre. Constituents of Cotton Fibre. Cotton Testing. Carbohydrates. Water. Bacteria in Bleaching. Cotton Piece Goods. Steeping. Transmission of Cloth. Alkali Boiling Soap. Soap Making. Organic Solvents. Keirs. Washing Machines. Bleaching and Bleaching Powder. Bleaching and Souring Apparatus. Sodium Hypochlorite and Electrolytic Bleaching Solutions. Other Bleach- ing Agents Soui-in-* Acids and Souring Apparatus. Processes. Coloured Goods.- Stains and Discolourations. Finishing and Materials Used. Mangling, Drying, an.i Conditioning. Stiffening and Mangles. Auxiliary Machines and Processes. -Ste-ters. - Beetling. Calendering. Finishing Processes. INDEX. LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. 68 CHARLES QRIFFIN fe GO. 'S PUBLICATIONS. In Large 8i>o, Handsome Cloth, with Numerous Illustrations. 9s. net. TEXTILE FIBRES OF COMMERCE. A HANDBOOK OF The Occurrence, Distribution, Preparation, and Industrial Uses of the Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Products used in Spinning and Weaving. BY WILLIAM 1. HANNAN, Lecturer on Botany at the Ash ton Municipal Technical School, Lecturer on Cottoii Spinning at the Ohorley Science and Art School. &c. " Dsirur. INFORMATION. . . . ADMIRABLE ILLUSTBATIONS. . . ." Textile Recorder, In Large 8vo, with Illustrations and Printed Patterns. Price 2ls. TEXTILE [PRINTING: A PBACTICAIi MANUAL. Including the Processes Used in the Printing ol COTTON, WOOLLEN, SILK, and HALF- SILK FABRICS. BY C. F. SEYMOUR ROTHVVELL, F.C.S., Vem. Soc. of Chem. Ind. ; late Lecturer at the Munic. Tectt. School, Mancheiter. " BY FAR THE BEST and MOST PRACTICAL BOOK on TRXTiLE PRINTING which lias yet been brought out, and will long remain the standard work on the subject." fertile Mercury. Large 8vo. Handsome Cloth. 12s. 6d. BLEACHING & CALICO-PRINTING. A Short Manual for Students and Practical Men. BY GEORGE DUERR, Director of the Bleaching, Dyeing, and Printing Department at the Accrington and Bacup Technical Schools ; Chemist and Colourist at the Irwell Print Works. ASSISTED BY WILLIAM TURNBULL (of Turnlmll &, Stockdale, Limited). With Illustrations and upwards of One Hundred Dyed and Printed Patterns designed specially to show various Stages of the Processes described. "Mr. DCBKK'S WORK will be found MOST USEPOL. . . . The information ?lven is of ouAf TALBB. . . . The Recipes are THOROUGHLY PRACTICAL," Textile Mavufattwer. SECOND EDITION. New Appendix. Cloth. 76 Illustrations. 55. net. DYEING AND CLEANING, BY FRANK J. FARRELL, M.Sc., &c. GENERAL CONTENTS. Technology of the Textile Fibres. Dry Cleaning. Wet Cleaning. Dyeing. Dry Dyeing. Special Methods, Cleaning and Dyeing Skin Rugs, Feathers, and Hats. Finishing. APPENDICES. INDEX. " Timely and valuable . . . well got up in every way." Dyer and Calico Printer. LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET. STRAND. INTRODUCTORY WORKS. THIRD EDITION, Revised, Enlarged, and Re-issued. Price 6s. net. A SHORT MANUAL OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, BY A. DUPRE, Ph.D., F.R.S., AND WILSON HAKE, Ph.D., F.I.O., F.C.S., Of the Westminster Hospital Medical School. "AN EXAMPLE OF THE ADVANTAGES OF THK SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT Of a Science over the fragmentary style so generally followed- BY A LONG WAY THE BEST of the small Manuals for Students." Analyst. In Handsome Cloth. With nearly 50 Illustrations. 3s. 6d. nee. THE ELEMENTS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING. BY J. GROSSMANN, M.A., Pn.D., F.I.C. WITH A PREFACE BY SIB WILLIAM RAMSAY, K.C.B., F.R.S. CONTENTS. The Beaker and its Technical Equivalents. Distilling Flasks, Liebig's Condensers. Fractionating Tubes and their Technical Equivalents. The Air-Bath and its Technical Equivalents. The Blowpipe and Crucible and their Technical Equivalent*. The Steam Boiler and other Sources of Power. General Remarks on the Application of Heat in Chemical Engineering. The Funnel and its Technical Equivalents. The Mortar and its Technical Equivalents. Measuring Instruments and their Technical Equivalents. Materials Used in Chemical Engineering and their Mode of Application. Technical Research and the Designing of Plant. Conclusion. Chemicals and Materials. -INDEX. " Excellent. . . . Every student of chemistry attending a technical course should obtain a copy. 'Chemical News. LABORATORY HANDBOOKS BY A. HUMBOLDT SEXTON, Professor of Metallurgy in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. OUTLINES OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. FOR THE USB OP STUDENTS. With Illustrations. FIFTH EDITION. Crown 8vo, Cloth, 3s. " A COMPACT LABORATORY ouiDB for beginners was wanted, and the want has <bei WKLL 8UPPHBD. ... A good and useful book." Lancet. OUTLINES OF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS. FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS. With Illustrations. FOURTH EDITION, Revised. Crown 8vo, Cloth, 3s. 6d. " The work of a thoroughly practical chemist." British Medical Journal, " Compiled with great care, and will supply a want." Journal of Education. ELEMENTARY METALLURGY: Including the Author's Practical Laboratory Course. [Seep. 51. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.. LIMITED. EXETER STREET. STRAND. 70 CHARLES GRIFFIN <fc CO. 'S PUBLICATIONS. THIRD EDITION, Revised and Enlarged. Large Crown 8vo, with numerous Illustrations. 35. 6d. THE FLOWERING PLANT, WITH A SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER ON FERNS AND MOSSES, As Illustrating the First Principles of Botany. BY J. R. AINSWORTH DAVIS, M.A., F.Z.S., Prof, of Bioloev. University College. Aberystwyth ; Examiner in Zoology, University of Aberdeen. ' It would be hard to find a Text-book which would better guide the student to an accurate knowledge of modern discoveries in Botany. . . The SCIENTIFIC ACCURACY of statement, and the concise exposition of FIRST PRINCIPLES make it valuable for educational purposes. ID the chapter on the Physiology of Flowers, an admirable rirumt, drawn from Darwin, Hermann Mttller, Kemer, and Lubbock, of what is known of the Fertilization of Flowers, is given."- Journal of Botanv. POPULAR WORKS ON BOTANY BY MRS. HUGHES-GIBB. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Cloth. 2s. 6<1 HOW PLANTS LIVE AND WORK: A Simple Introduction to Real Life In the Plant-world, Based on Lesson) originally given to Country Children. BY ELEANOR HUGHES-GIBB. ** The attention of all interested in the Scientific Training of the Young is requested to this DiH8HT?ULLY FRESH and CHARMING LITTLE BOOK. It ought to be in the hands of every Mother and Teacher throughout the land. "The child's attention Is first secured, and then, in language SIMPLB, TBT SCIBRTIPICALDT ACODRATB,the first lessons in plant-life are set before it." Natural Science. "In every way well calculated to make the study of Botany A.TTRACTIYI to the younfj."- With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Gilt 2s. d. THE MAKING OF A DAISY-, "WHEAT OUT OF LILIES ;" And other Studies from the Plant World. A Popular Introduction to Botany. BY ELEANOR HUGHES-GIBB, Author of How Plants Live and Work. " T-^ R K GU ? liU n e i " tr dction to the study of Flowers." Journal o> hoi any. vJ afford real assista nce to those who can derive Pleasure from the study or wtturem tUe open. . . . The literary style is eommen .aoie 'Knowledge. IONDO*: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LiMiEfl tXEIER STREET, 8TRANO GRIFFIN'S " OPEN- AIR" SERIES. 71 "Boys COULD NOT HAVK A MORE ALLURING INTRODUCTION to scientific pursnltd than these charming-looking volumes." Letter to the Publishers from the Head- master of one cf our great Public Schools. SECOND EDITION, Revised. Handsome Cloth. 6s. net. OPEJ14IR STUDIES Ifl BOTAflY: SKETCHES OF BRITISH WILD FLOWERS IN THEIR HOMES. BY R. LLOYD PRAEGER, B.A., M.R.I.A. Illustrated by Drawings from Nature by S. Rosamond Praeger, and Photographs by R. Welch. GENERAL CONTENTS. A Daisy-Starred Pasture Under the Hawthorne By the River Along the Shingle A Fragrant Hedgerow A Connemara Bog Where the Samphire grows A Flowery Meadow Among the Corn (a Study in Weeds) In the Home of the Alpines A City Rubbish-Heap Glossary. " A FRESH AND STIMULATING book . . . should take a high place . . . The Illustrations are drawn with much skill." The Times. "BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED. . . . 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HIS MAJESTY THE KING has most graciously condescended to accept a copy of each of these books. BY JOHN MASTIN, M.A., Sc.D., PH.D., F.S.A.ScoT., F.L.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.M.S., F.B.A. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Gilt Lettering. Price 6s. THROUGH THE SUN EN AN AIRSHIP. A THRILLING SCIENTIFIC ROMANCE. " Au immense display of resource and knowledge on the part of the author . . . the adventures and discoveries are well worth following." Time* Literary Supplement. " Mr. Mastin manages to make his tale absorbing at all points, the interest never slackens, his imagination never fails. The suggestions opened out are numerous and appaling. Some of the discussions are on very deep subjects, and though they do not lead us far, and are hardly as illuminating as the utterances of poets, they are put down soberly and in a convincing manner, which shows that the author takes his work seriously. 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"More daring than Poe's ' Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Kantuckef is Mr. Mastin s romance of Antarctic adventure ; for Poe, having introduced a giant ' of the perfect whiteness of the snow,' regrets the loss of his crowning chapters. Certainly, if the matter which they contained 'relative to the Pole itself, or at least to regions in its very near proximity,' was as sensational as ' The Immortal Light,' the loss is deplor- able. . The story is wildly improbable, but confronts incredulity with a considerable display of scientific detail. A strong religions feeling animates the last part of the book."~Atkenceum, These three volumes are uniform in size and binding. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. UCLA-Art Library TT 320 P43 1907 L 006 261 123 1 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 001 197 886 3